DR.

BABASAHEB ABEDKAR TECHNOLOGICAL

UNIVERSITY, LONERE

Subject: ELECTRICAL MACHINE- I

Prof. ATUL R. BHAVSAR

Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
 ELECTRICAL MACHINE’s
1. TRANSFORMER
2. DC MACHINES
3. INDUCTION MACHINES
4. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
ELECTRICAL MACHINE- I
1] TRANSFORMER
2] DC MACHINES

ELECTRICAL MACHINE – II
3] INDUCTION MACHINES
4] SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
BASIC LAW’S FOR ELECTRICAL MACHINES
 Faraday’s first law
 Faraday’s second law
 Right hand thumb rule
 Fleming’s right hand rule
 Fleming’s left hand rule
 Lenz’s law
 Faraday's first law
Whenever the magnetic lines of flux linking with the coil or conductor, an emf gets
induced in the coil or conductor (or)
Whenever a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, conductor cuts the magnetic flux
line, hence an emf is induced in the conductor, and the magnitude of the induced emf is
given by,
e =Blv sinθ ,
where B is the magnetic flux density in wb/m²,
l is the active length of the conductor in meters and
v is the constant velocity in m/sec
Θ angle between B and v
 Faraday's second law
It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of
flux that linkages with the coil. The emf induced in the coil is the product of number
of turns in the coil and flux associated with the coil.

The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.
𝑑𝜑
ε = -N 𝑑𝑡
Where,
•ε is the electromotive force
•𝜑 is the magnetic flux
•N is the number of turns
The direction (polarity) of dynamically induced emf can be determined by the
following rule, known as Fleming's right hand rule or Lenz's law
According to Faradays law, Basic requirement's to generate emf are
1. Magnetic field
2. Set of conductors
3. Relative variation in space or time between magnetic field and set of
conductors

There are two possibilities to generate emf by using Faradays law:

a) Relative space variation
b) Relative time variation

The emf induced in set of conductors due to relative space variation

w.r.t steady state magnetic field is called Dynamically induced emf.
Ex: DC Generator

The emf induced in set of stationary conductors due to relative time

variation w.r.t magnetic field is called statically induced emf.
Ex: Transformer
 RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE

If we grasp the conductor in the palm of right hand so that the thumb point in the direction of
the flow of current and the direction in which the figure curl gives the direction of field lines.
 Fleming's right-hand rule

Hold the thumb, the first and the second (or middle) finger of the right hand at right angles to each other.
First finger point in the direction of lines of force, and the thumb point in the direction of conductor
motion, then the second finger gives the direction of the induced emf.
 Fleming left hand rule

Hold the thumb, the first and the second (or middle) finger of the left hand at right
angles to each other. If the first finger points to the direction of field, the second finger
to the direction of current, the thumb will point to the direction of force or motion.
 Lenz's law
An induced electromotive force generates a current that induces a counter magnetic
field that opposes the magnetic field generating the current.
*effect opposes the cause
Lorentz's force equation.
Whenever a current carrying conductor is place under a magnetic field, it experiences
a force. The magnitude of the force is given by
F = BIL Newton‘s
where B is the magnetic flux density in wb/m²
I is the current in amperes and
F is the force in Newton‘s
 What is a Transformer ?
• Transformers are electrical static devices used to convert or “Transform" AC voltage from one
level to another level. (high to low or low to high).

• It is most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step down’) voltage levels between
circuits.

• It does not change the frequency of the system, it can be treated as constant frequency device.

• Transformer transfer almost same amount of power from one circuit to another circuit, it can be
treated as constant power device.

• A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction.
 Working Principle of Transformer

Mutual induction between two or more windings (also known as coils)

allows for electrical energy to be transferred between circuits.
Transformer Theory

Say you have one winding (also known as a coil) which is supplied by an
alternating electrical source. The alternating current through the winding produces a
continually changing and alternating flux that surrounds the winding.

If another winding is brought close to this winding, some portion of this alternating
flux will link with the second winding. As this flux is continually changing in its
amplitude and direction, there must be a changing flux linkage in the second
winding or coil.

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, there will be an EMF

induced in the second winding. If the circuit of this secondary winding is closed,
then a current will flow through it. This is the basic working principle of a
transformer.
Let , The winding which receives electrical power from the source is known as the ‘primary winding’. In
the diagram below this is the ‘First Coil’.

The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction is commonly known as the
‘secondary winding’. This is the ‘Second Coil’ in the diagram above.
A transformer that increases voltage between the primary to secondary windings is defined as a step-up
transformer (V2 > V1). A transformer that decreases voltage between the primary to secondary windings is
defined as a step-down transformer (V2<V1).

Whether the transformer increases or decreases the voltage level depends on the relative number of turns
between the primary and secondary side of the transformer.

If there are more turns on the primary coil than the secondary coil then the voltage will decrease (step down)
(N1>N2).
If there are less turns on the primary coil than the secondary coil then the voltage will increase (step up)
(N1<N2).
𝑑𝜑
{ε = -N }
𝑑𝑡

----While the diagram of the transformer above is theoretically possible in an ideal transformer – it is not very
practical. This is because in the open air only a very tiny portion of the flux produced from the first coil will
link with the second coil. So the current that flows through the closed circuit connected to the secondary
winding will be extremely small (and difficult to measure)
The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux with the second winding. So
ideally almost all of the flux of primary winding should link to the secondary winding. This is effectively
and efficiently done by using a core type transformer. This provides a low reluctance path common to both
of the windings.

The purpose of the transformer core is to provide a low reluctance path, through which the maximum
amount of flux produced by the primary winding is passed through and linked with the secondary winding.
The current that initially passes through the transformer when it is switched on is known as the transformer
inrush current.
 Transformer Parts And Construction
The three main parts of a transformer:
•Primary Winding of Transformer
•Magnetic Core of Transformer
•Secondary Winding of Transformer

Primary Winding of Transformer

Which produces magnetic flux when it is connected to an electrical
source.

Magnetic Core of Transformer

The magnetic flux produced by the primary winding, that will pass
through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding
and create a closed magnetic circuit.

Secondary Winding of Transformer

The flux, produced by primary winding, passes through the core,
will link with the secondary winding. This winding also wounds
on the same core and gives the desired output of the transformer.
The following are the various transformer parts:

1.Core
2.Winding
3.Tank
4.Terminals and bushings
5.Transformer oil
6.Oil Conservator
7.Breather
8.Radiators and fans
9.Explosion vent
10.Buchholz relay
Symbol of Transformer
 Types of Transformer
• Step Up Transformer And Step Down Transformer
• Three Phase Transformer And Single Phase Transformer
• Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer And Instrument Transformer
• Autotransformer
• As Per Core
Core Type Transformer
Shell Type Transformer
• As Per Cooling System
Self Cooled Transformer
Air Cooled Transformer
Oil Cooled Transformer
 Core type and Shell Type Transformer

(a) Core type transformer (b) shell type transformer

 Differences Between Core Type and Shell Type Transformer
1.In core type transformer the core surrounds the windings whereas in shell type transformer
the winding surrounds the core of the transformer.
2.In core type transformer the lamination is cut in the form of L-shape whereas, in shell type
transformer, the laminations are cut in the E and L shapes.
3.The cross-section area of the core type transformer is rectangular, whereas the cross-section
area of the shell type transformer is square, cruciform two slipped, or three stepped in shapes.
4.The core type transformer requires more copper conductor as compared to shell type
transformer because in core type transformer the winding is placed on the separate limbs or
legs.
5.The core type transformer is also called cylindrical or core winding transformer because their
windings are arranged as the concentric coil. In shell type transformer, the low voltage winding
and the high voltage winding are put in the form of the sandwich, and hence it is called the
sandwich or disc winding transformer.
6.The core type transformer has two limbs, whereas the shell type transformer has three limbs.
7.The mechanical strength of the core type transformer is low as compared to shell type
transformer because the shell type transformer has bracings.
8. The core type transformer required less insulation as compared to shell type transformer
because shell type transformer has three limbs.
9. In core type transformer the flux is equally distributed to the side limb of the transformer
whereas, in shell type transformer, the central limb carries the whole of the flux and the
side limbs carry the half of the flux.
10.In core type transformer both the primary and the secondary windings are placed on the
side limbs whereas, in shell type transformer, the windings are placed on the central limbs
of the transformer.
11.The core type transformer has two magnetic circuits whereas the shell type transformer
has one magnetic circuit.
12.The losses in a core type transformer are more as compared to shell type transformer
because the core type transformer consists two magnetic circuits.
13.In core type transformer few windings are removed for maintenance. In shell type
transformer numbers of the winding are required to remove for the maintenance.
14.The output of the core type transformer is less because it has more losses as compared to
the shell-type transformer.
15.The winding of the shell type transformer is distributed type, and hence heat is dissipated
naturally, whereas, in core type transformer, the natural cooling is not possible
•Where:
• VP – is the Primary Voltage
• VS – is the Secondary Voltage
• NP – is the Number of Primary Windings
• NS – is the Number of Secondary Windings
• Φ (phi) – is the Flux Linkage
 EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic relationship between induced emf, ( E )
in a coil winding of N turns is given by:
emf = turns x rate of change of flux linkage
𝑑𝜑
E= -N
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
E1 = -N1 Φm sinωt
𝑑𝑡
= -N1 Φmax COS ωt ω …(-cos ωt = sin(ωt-90))
E1 = N1 ω Φm sin(ωt-90)
at ωt=π
E1 max= N1 ω Φm
rms value of E1
E1= N1 ω Φm / 2
= 0.707 N1 ω Φm …………...(ω =2πf)
= 4.44 N1 Φm f ……… (Φm = Bm An )
E1= 4.44 N1 f Bm An
Similarlly,
E2= 4.44 N2 f Bm An
Where:
• ƒ – is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π
• Ν – is the number of coil windings.
• Φ – is the amount of flux in webers
EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER
E1= 4.44fN1Φmax
E2= 4.44fN2Φmax
Φmax= Bmax An
Φmax= maximum flux
Bmax = maximum flux density
An = net cross section area of the core
Emf/turn= E1/N1 = E2/N2= 4.44fΦmax

K = TRASFORMATION RATIO
TURNS RATIO= N1/N2 = E1/E2
transformation ratio(K) = 1/(turns ratio)
 Concept of Ideal Transformer and Practical Transformer
Idea transformer is nothing but a transformer which has 100% efficiency. In this transformer there are two purely
inductive coils. So this is no iron loss, no copper loss, as well as there is no I 2R losses. Also this is no ohmic resistance
drop and no leakage drop. Hence this is concept of ideal transformer.

An ideal transformer is one that has

1.no winding resistance
2.no leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the windings
3.no iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in
the core

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer

in many respects. The practical transformer has,
1.iron losses,
2.winding resistances and,
3.magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactance.
 Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer

It has 100% efficiency. It has below 100% efficiency.

It has no losses. It has no losses.

Purely inductive material is used. It is two purely inductive material used.

It has no I2R losses. It has I2R losses.

It has no iron loss. It has iron loss.

There is no ohmic resistance drop. There is ohmic resistance drop.

It has no leakage drop. It has leakage drop.

In it ideal condition. In it practical condition.

It is not used in practical condition. It is used in practical condition.

LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
1. CORE / IRON LOSS
HYSTERESIS LOSS
EDDY CURRENT LOSS
2. COPPER LOSS
3. STRAY LOSS- LEAKAGE OF FLUX
4. DIELECTRIC LOSSES- DUE TO INSULATION
5. MAGNETOSTRICTION LOSS- SOUND
Iron Losses
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss occurs in the core it is also known as Core loss.
Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis and eddy current loss.

Hysteresis Loss
The core of the transformer is subjected to an alternating magnetizing force, and for each cycle of emf, a hysteresis loop is traced out.
Power is dissipated in the form of heat known as hysteresis loss and given by the equation shown below:
1.6 fV watt
𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where
𝐾ℎ is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the material of the core used in the transformer,
•f is the supply frequency,
•Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density.
The iron or core losses can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction of the core of the transformer.

Eddy Current Loss

When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit and the current flows, the value of the current depends upon
the amount of emf around the circuit and the resistance of the circuit.
Since the core is made of conducting material, these EMFs circulate currents within the body of the material. These circulating
currents are called Eddy Currents. They will occur when the conductor experiences a changing magnetic field. As these currents are
not responsible for doing any useful work, and it produces a loss (I2R loss) in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations.
The equation of the eddy current loss is given as:
2 𝑓 2 𝑡 2 watt
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
 2 𝑓 2 𝑡 2 watt
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where,
•K – coefficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material like volume and resistivity
e

of core material, the thickness of laminations

•B – maximum value of flux density in wb/m
m
2

•t – thickness of lamination in meters

•f – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz
•V – the volume of magnetic material in m 3

Copper Loss Or Ohmic Loss

These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. If I and I are the primary and the secondary current.
1 2

R and R are the resistance of primary and secondary winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary
1 2

winding will be I 2R and I 2R respectively.

1 1 2 2

Therefore, the total copper losses will be

These losses varied according to the load and hence it is also known as variable losses. Copper losses vary as the square of the
load current.
Stray Loss
The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of leakage field. The percentage of these losses are very small as
compared to the iron and copper losses so they can be neglected.
Dielectric Loss
Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer that is in the oil of the transformer, or in the solid insulations.
When the oil gets deteriorated or the solid insulation gets damaged, or its quality decreases, and because of this, the efficiency
of the transformer gets affected.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER
Both the primary and secondary winding has resistance, denoted as R1 and R2 respectively.
Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to
leakage reactances at both sides, which are denoted as X1 and X2 respectively.
The applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary winding is E1. Total
current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by
I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding.
The voltage appeared across winding is countered by primary induced emf E1.
So voltage equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as,
V1 – (I1R1 + j.I1X1)= E1
The equivalent circuit of primary side can be drawn as below,
The induced emf at secondary winding is E2 and the voltage applied across
the load is V2. So voltage equation of this portion of the transformer can be
written as,
V2 = E2 - (I2R2 + j.I2X2)
The equivalent circuit of secondary side can be drawn as below,
The core-loss resistance (Ro) and the magnetizing reactance (Xo) of a transformer can be
represented as the parallel combination of Ro and Xo is also known as the exciting circuit.
It is also known as no load component of the transformer.
The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be represented as
𝐸1 𝐸1
𝑅0 = 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑋0 =
𝐼𝑊 𝐼𝜇
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER
The resistance R1 and reactance X1 correspond to the winding resistance and leakage reactance of the primary
winding.
The resistance R2 and reactance X2 correspond to the winding resistance and leakage reactance of the secondary
winding.
The core-loss resistance (Ro) and the magnetizing reactance (Xo) of a transformer and is represented as the parallel
combination of Ro and Xo.
The total current I1 on the primary side is equal to the phasor sum of Io and I2’.
Load impedance ZL can be resistive, inductive or capacitive.
No load Components
The no-load primary current Io has two components, namely Im and Iw.
Where Im = magnetizing component = Io sin φo
and Iw = core-loss component = Io cos φo.
•Iw supplies for the no-load losses and is assumed to flow through the no-load resistance
which is also known as core-loss resistance (Ro).
•The magnetizing component, Im is assumed to be flowing through a reactance which is
known as magnetizing reactance, Xo.

•The parallel combination of Ro and Xo is also known as the exciting circuit.

From the equivalent circuit of transformer
Ro = V1/Iw and Xo = V1/Im.

•The core-loss resistance (Ro) and the magnetizing reactance (Xo) of a transformer are
determined by the open circuit test of transformer
 𝑁1 𝐸1
• Turns ratio= =
𝑁2 𝐸2
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝑉2 𝐼1
• Transformation ratio= = = = K=
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑉1 𝐼2
Basically, we consider transformer having a 100% efficiency
So, primary side power = secondary side power
𝐸1 𝐼1 = 𝐸2 𝐼2
𝐸2 𝐼1
= =K
𝐸1 𝐼2
 Equivalent Circuit parameters of Transformer Referred to Primary
• Transfer resistance from secondary side to primary side
𝐼22 𝑅2 = 𝐼12 𝑅2′
𝐼
𝑅2′ = 𝑅2 2 2
𝐼1
′
𝑅2
𝑅2 = 2
𝐾
• Similarly, Transfer reactance from secondary side to primary side
′
𝑋2
𝑋2 = 2
𝐾
• total resistance of transformer w.r.t primary side
𝑅01 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2′
• total reactance of transformer w.r.t primary side
𝑋01 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2′
 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary

So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure
below
 Equivalent Circuit parameters of Transformer Referred to secondary

• Transfer resistance from primary side to secondary side

𝐼12 𝑅1 = 𝐼22 𝑅1′
𝐼1
𝑅1′ =
𝑅1
𝐼2
2
𝑅1′ 𝑅1 𝐾 2
=
• Similarly, Transfer reactance from primary side to secondary side
𝑋1′ = 𝑋1 𝐾 2
• total resistance of transformer w.r.t secondary side
𝑅02 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅1′
• total reactance of transformer w.r.t secondary side
𝑋02 = 𝑋2 + 𝑋1′
 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary
In a similar way, the approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary can be drawn.
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
 Transformer Efficiency
Where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.

Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called “volt-amps”, VA to
differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then the efficiency equation above can be modified
to:
Voltage Regulation of Transformer
electrical power transformer is open circuited, meaning that the load is not connected to the
secondary terminals. In this situation, the secondary terminal voltage of the transformer will be
its secondary induced emf E .2

Whenever a full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated current
I flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drop comes into picture. At this situation,
2

primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from source. The voltage drop in
the secondary is I Z where Z is the secondary impedance of transformer.
2 2 2

Now if at this loading condition, any one measures the voltage between secondary terminals,
he or she will get voltage V across load terminals which is obviously less than no load
2

secondary voltage E and this is because of I Z voltage drop in the transformer.

2 2 2

Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer

The equation for the voltage regulation of transformer, represented in percentage, is
𝑁𝑂 𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸−𝐹𝑈𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸 𝐸2 −𝑉2
VOLTAGE REGULATION(%) = 𝐹𝑈𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸
X 100% = 𝑉 X 100%
2
 Transformer “No-load” Condition
When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open-circuited, which means there is no load
on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will be zero. While primary winding
carries a small current I0 called no-load current which is 2 to 10% of the rated current.
This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very
small amount of copper losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the losses in the transformer.
The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.
The no-load current consists of two components:
• Reactive or magnetizing component Im
(It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It produces flux in the core and does not consume any power).
• Active or power component Iw, also know as a working component
(It is in phase with the applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron losses and a small amount of primary copper loss).
The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram:
• The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it will be in phase
with the flux.
• Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.
• The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses are zero as I2 = 0.
Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called the no-load power factor angle
and is shown in the phasor diagram.
• The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E1 because the difference between the
two, at no load, is negligible.
• Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.
• The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no-load current I0.
 Transformer “On-load”
When the transformer is on the loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is connected to load. The
load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. The current I2 flows through the secondary winding of the
transformer. The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the terminal voltage V2 and the load
impedance. The phase angle between the secondary current and voltage depends on the nature of the load
When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, I2 current flows through their secondary
winding. The secondary current induces the mmf N2I2 on the secondary winding of the transformer. This
force set up the flux φ2 in the transformer core. The flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, according to Lenz’s Law.
As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer decreases and this flux reduces the
induced EMF E1. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an additional primary current I’1 drawn
from the main supply. The additional current is used for restoring the original value of the flux in the core of
the transformer so that V1 = E1. The primary current I’1 is in phase opposition with the secondary current I2.
Thus, it is called the primary counter-balancing current.
The additional current I’1 induces the mmf N1I’1. And this force set up the flux φ’1. The direction of the flux
is the same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which induces because of the MMF N2I2
Now, N1I1’ = N2I2
𝑁
Therefore, 𝐼1′ = ( 2) 𝐼2 = 𝐾𝐼2
𝑁1
The phase difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
If the load is inductive, the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be
leading. The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of the currents I0 and I1’.
𝐼1 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼1′

difference between mmf and emf

When there is a current flow through the conductor coil, a force is produced to drive the magnetic flux or magnetic field
lines. This force is called MMF or magnetomotive force. The EMF or electromotive force is the force responsible for
the flow of electrons or current in a closed circuit.
 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load
Steps to draw the phasor diagram
•Take flux ϕ, a reference
•Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
•The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is
represented by V1’.
•Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by SOME degrees.
•The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I 2 is drawn lagging E2 by an angle ϕ2.
•The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal
voltage V2 is the phase difference of E2 and voltage drop.
V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.
•The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I 1’ and I0.
•Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding.
•Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
•The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
•The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
•If the load is inductive as shown in the phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive,
the power factor will be leading. Where I1R1 is the resistive drop in the primary windings
I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding
The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded inductively is shown below:
 Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load

•Take flux ϕ a reference
•Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
•The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary
winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
•Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by SOME degrees.
•The power factor of the load is leading. Therefore current I 2 is drawn leading E2
•The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal
voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.
V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.
•Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
•The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
•Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding.
V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
•The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
•The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
The Transformer on the Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is shown below in the
phasor diagram.
 Parallel Operation of a Transformer
The Transformer is said to be in Parallel Operation when its primary winding is connected to a common voltage supply, and
the secondary winding is connected to a common load.
The connection diagram of the parallel operation of a transformer is shown in the figure below.

The parallel operation of a transformer has some advantages likes it increases the efficiency of the system, makes the system
more flexible and reliable. But it increases the short-circuit current of the transformers.
Why Parallel Operation of Transformers is required?
It is economical to install numbers of smaller rated transformers in parallel than installing a bigger rated
electrical power transformers.
This has mainly the following advantages,
1. To maximize electrical power system efficiency:
Generally electrical power transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers
of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which will give the total demand by
running nearer to its full load rating for that time. When load increases, we can switch none by one
other transformer connected in parallel to fulfil the total demand. In this way we can run the system with
maximum efficiency.
2. To maximize electrical power system availability:
If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can shutdown any one of them for maintenance purpose.
Other parallel transformers in system will serve the load without total interruption of power.
3. To maximize power system reliability:
If any one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to fault of other parallel transformers is the system
will share the load, hence power supply may not be interrupted if the shared loads do not make other
transformers over loaded.
4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility:
There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If
it is predicted that power demand will be increased in future, there must be a provision of
connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra demand because, it is not
economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer by
forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money. Again
if future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from
system to balance the capital investment and its return

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers

When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the following
conditions for satisfactory performance. These are the conditions for parallel operation
of transformers.
1.Same voltage ratio of transformer
2.Same percentage impedance.
3.Same polarity.
4.Same phase sequence.
 POWER FACTOR
inductor and capacitor offer a certain amount of impedance given by:
1
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy and capacitor stores electrical energy in the
form of electrostatic energy. Neither of them dissipates it. Further, there is a phase shift between voltage and current.
Hence when we consider the entire circuit consisting of a resistor, inductor, and capacitor, there exists some phase
difference between the source voltage and current.
The cosine of this phase difference is called electrical power factor. This factor (0 < cosφ < 1 ) represents the
fraction of the total power that is used to do the useful work. The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the
form of magnetic energy or electrostatic energy in the inductor and capacitor respectively.
The total power in this case is:
Total electrical power = voltage across the element X current through the element
This is called apparent power and its unit is VA (Volt Amp) and denoted by ‘S’. S= VI
A fraction of this total electrical power which does our useful work is called active power. We denote it as ‘P’.
P = Active power = Total electrical power.cosφ and its unit is watt = VIcosφ
The other fraction of power is called reactive power. Reactive power does no useful work, but it is required for the
active work to be done. We denote it with ‘Q’ and mathematically is given by:
Q = Reactive power = Total electrical power.sinφ and its unit is VAR (Volt Amp Reactive). Q= VI sinφ This reactive
power oscillates between source and load.
To help understand this better all these power are represented in the form of a triangle.

Power Factor Triangle

Mathematically, S2 = P2 + Q2 and electrical power factor is active power / apparent

power.
S= VI
P=VIcosφ
Q= VI sinφ
Excitation in transformer
a transformer gets over-excitation due to over voltage or under frequency.
In this scenario, excitation current increases sharply an the transformer will
tend to become overheated due to increased excitation current, hysteresis
losses, and eddy currents.

Switching Transients In Transformer

Current chop before current zero causes voltage spikes (known as switching
transients) can damage loads like electric motors or dry type transformers.
Over-voltages from switching transients may result in insulation
degradation. Over time, this can lead to flashovers or insulation breakdown
AUTO TRANSFORMER
 What is an Autotransformer?

An autotransformer (or auto transformer) is a type of electrical

transformer with only one winding. The “auto” prefix refers to the single
coil acting alone not to any automatic mechanism. An auto transformer is
similar to a two winding transformer but varies in the way the primary
and secondary winding of the transformer are interrelated
In an auto transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well
as secondary winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings
are used for primary and secondary purpose. A circuit diagram of auto
transformer is shown below.
The winding AB of total turns N is considered as primary winding. This winding is tapped
1

from point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered as secondary. Let’s assume the number of
turns in between points ′B′ and ′C′ is N . 2

If V voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′C′.
1

𝑉1
So voltage per turn in this winding is
𝑁1
Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,
𝑉1
𝑁1
X N2 and from the fig, this voltage is V2
𝑉1
Hence 𝑁1
X N2 =V2
𝑉2
𝑉1
= 𝑁2
𝑁1
= Constant = K

When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e. between ′B′ and ′C′, load current I
2

starts flowing. The current in the secondary winding or common winding is the difference of
I and I
2 1
Advantages of Auto Transformers

1. An auto transformer has higher efficiency than two winding transformer.

This is because of less ohmic loss and core loss due to reduction of
transformer material.
2. Auto transformer has better voltage regulation as voltage
drop in resistance and reactance of the single winding is less.
Disadvantages of Using Auto Transformer

1. There is no electrical isolation between primary and secondary ,

if any fault occurs on load side it will be directly reflected to
source side.
2. As low leakage reactance and low percentage impedance, then
fault current level is more in autotransformer.
3. Whenever accidental open circuit occurred in common winding
of auto transformer it will cause appearance of high voltage
across LV terminals which may damage the load
APPLICATIONS of an auto transformer :
1. Auto transformers with a number of tapping are used for starting induction and
synchronous motors.
2. Used in electrical apparatus testing labs since the voltage can be smoothly and
continuously varied.