Engineering Physics (PH22101)

Crystalline and amorphous materials –unit cell, crystal systems, Bravais lattices, crystal planes
and directions Miller indices – Characteristics of crystal structures for SC, BCC, FCC, HCP
Crystal imperfections: point, line and surface defects – Crystal growth: epitaxial and lithography
techniques.

OBJECTIVES

1) To develop the knowledge of crystal structure and their properties.

2) To explain the fundamental terms of crystallography.
3) To discuss the various crystal systems according to Bravais lattices.
4) To discuss Miller Indices in various crystal planes and their applications.
5) To discuss the importance of packing factor in crystal structure.
6) To study the importance of crystal imperfections incrystal structure.
6) To study the crystal growth techniques through melt and solutions.
5.1INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTAL PHYSICS

Matter exists in three states viz. solids, liquids and gases. All these states are composed of atoms
and molecules. When we focus the solids, they are classified into many types based on several
properties like electrical, mechanical, magnetic, optical, thermal etc.,

5.1.1 WHAT IS CRYSTAL PHYSICS?

Crystal Physics’ or ‘Crystallography’ is a branch of physics that deals with the study of all
possible types of crystals and the physical properties of crystalline solids by the determination of
their actual structure by using X-rays, neutron beams and electron beams. It means writing about
the complete crystal. X-rays (λ=0.01 A  to 10 A  ) are commonly used to investigate crystal
structure.
In this chapter, we will study about the basics of different crystal lattices and crystal growth
techniques.

5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

Solids can broadly be classified into two types based on the arrangement of units of matter. The
units of matter may be atoms, molecules or ions. They are,

Crystalline solids and

Non-crystalline (or) amorphous solids

5.2.1 CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

A substance is said to be crystalline when the arrangement of units of matter is regular and
periodic in a 3D pattern. A crystalline material has directional properties and therefore called as
anisotropic substance. A crystal has a sharp melting point. It possesses a regular shape and if it is
broken, all broken pieces have the same regular shape. They possess internal symmetry. A single
crystal consists of only one crystal, whereas the polycrystalline material consists of many
crystals separated by well-defined boundaries. Examples Metallic crystals – Cu, Ag, Al, Mg etc,
Non-metallic crystals – Carbon, Silicon, Germanium

TWO FORMS OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

A crystalline material can either be a single (mono) crystal or a polycrystalline.

SINGLE CRYSTALS

Single Crystals have a periodic atomic structure across its whole volume.At long range length
scales, each atom is related to every other equivalent atom in the structure by translational or
rotational symmetry. They are produced artificially from their vapor or liquid state. They have
infinite periodicity.
POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

Polycrystalline materials are made up of an aggregate of many small single crystals (also called
crystallites or grains). They have local periodicity.Grains (domains) are separated by grain
boundaries. The atomic order can vary from one domain to the next. The grains are usually 100
nm - 100 microns in diameter. Polycrystals with grains less than 10 nm in diameter are-nano-
crystalline.

Fig 5.2 Polycrystalline solid

ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT IN CRYSTALS

Fig 5.3 (a)mono (or) single crystals (b) polycrystalline solids (c) amorphous solids
5.2.2 NON CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

In amorphous solids, the atoms and molecules are arranged in an irregular fashion in 3D. They
are randomly distributed. They do not have directional properties and so they are called as
`isotropic’ substances. They don’t possess a regular shape and if it is broken. They don’t possess
internal symmetry. They don’t have sharp melting point. Examples: Glass, Plastics, Rubber etc.,

5.3 FUNDAMENTAL TERMS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

5.3.1 CRYSTALS

It is a substance in which the constituent particles are arranged in a systematic geometrical

pattern.

Fig 5.4 Crystal appearance

5.3.2 LATTICE

A lattice is a regular and periodic arrangement of points in three dimensions.It is an imaginary

concept. It represents the position of atoms in the crystal.

5.3.3 SPACE LATTICE

Space lattice is defined as an infinite array of imaginary points in three dimensions in which
every point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the array. The Space lattice
is otherwise called the Crystal lattice.
 Fig 5.5 Two dimensional crystal lattice

Consider the points P, Q and R. Let us join the points P and Q by a straight line, and the point P
and R by another straight line.The line PQ is taken as X-axis and the line PR is taken as Y-axis.
The distance between any two successive lattice points in the X-direction is taken as `a’.
Similarly, the distance between any two successive lattice points along the Y-direction is taken
 
as ‘b’. Here a and b are said to be lattice translational vectors. Consider a square lattice in which
 
a = b . Consider two sets of points A, B, C, D, E, F and A’, B’, C’, D’, E’ and F’.

In these two sets, the surrounding environment looks symmetrical; i.e. the distances AB and
A’B’, AC and A’C’, AD and A’D’, AE and A’E’ and AF and A’F’ are equal. Therefore, in the
arrangement of points, if the surrounding environment looks the same when the arrangement is
viewed from different lattice points, then that arrangement is said to be a space lattice.

5.3.4 LATTICE POINTS

The points in the space lattice are called lattice points.it denotes the position of regular and
periodic arrangements of atoms in the crystal.

5.3.5 LATTICE POINTS

The lines joined between the lattice points are called lattice lines.

5.3.6 LATTICE PLANES

A set of parallel and equally spaced planes in a space lattice, which are formed with respect to
the lattice points are called lattice planes.
The crystal lattice may be regarded as made up of an infinite set of parallel equidistant planes
passing through the lattice points which are known as lattice planes.
In simple terms, the planes passing through lattice points are called ‘lattice planes’.

5.3.6 CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS

In crystal analysis, it is essential to indicate certain directions inside the crystal. A direction, in
general may be represented in terms of three axes with reference to the origin. In crystal system,
the line joining the origin and a lattice point represents the direction of the lattice point.

5.3.7 BASIS

Basis is a unit assembly of atoms or molecules which are identical in composition, arrangement
and orientation with respect to the position of lattice points.

5.3.8 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

The crystal structure is generated by the combination of lattice with a basis. The crystal structure
is real, while the lattice is imaginary. Lattice + Basis = Crystal structure

5.3.9 UNIT CELL

A unit cell is defined as a fundamental building block of a crystal structure, which can generate
the complete crystal by repeating its own dimensions in various directions.
 Fig 5.6 Crystal planes and unit cell

5.3.10 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES

Consider a unit cell consisting of three mutually perpendicular edges OA, OB and OC as shown
in figure. Draw parallel lines along the three edges.These lines are taken as crystallographic axes
and they are denoted as X, Y and Z axes.Consider the unit cell as shown in figure.Let OA, OB
and OC are the intercepts made by the unit cell along X, Y and Z axes respectively.These
intercepts are known as primitives. In crystallography the intercepts OA, OB and OC are
represented as a, b and c. The angle between X and Y axes is represented as γ. Similarly the
angles between Y and Z and Z and X axes are denoted by αand β respectively as shown in the
above figure. These angles α β and γ are called as interaxial angles or interfacial angles.

To represent a lattice, the three interfacial angles and their corresponding intercepts are essential.
These six parameters are said to be lattice parameters.

5.3.11 PRIMITIVE CELL

It is the simplest and smallest type of unit cell contains only one lattice point per unit cell. In
aprimitive cell,all the lattice points belonging to it lie at its corners of the unit cell.
Example for primitive cell:Simple Cubic unit cell

5.3. 12 NON-PRIMITIVE CELL

In a non-primitive cell, the lattice points lie at the corners as well as at other locations, both
inside and on the faces of the unit cell. Thus, the effective number of lattice points in a non-
primitive cell is greater than one.
Examples for non-primitive cell: BCC and FCC unit cell

5.4 CRYSTALS SYSTEMS

A three dimensional space lattice is generated by repeated translation of three translational

vectors a, b and c. Crystals are grouped under seven systems on the basis of the shape of the unit
cell. The seven crystal systems are distinguished from one another by their lattice parameters.

The seven systems are,

Table 5.1 Seven crystal systems
Crystal system primitives Interfacial angles Examples
cubic a=b=c       90  Fe, Al, Cu, NaCl2
Tetragonal a = bc       90  Sn , SnO2 ,TiO2
Orthorhombic a bc       90  KNO3 ,BaSO4
Monoclinic a bc     90   SiO2 , Zn
Triclinic a bc       90  CaSO4 , CaCO3
Trigonal a=b=c       90  FeSO4 , NaSO4
hexagonal a = bc     90  ,   120  BaSO4 , K 2Cr 2O7
5.5 BRAVAIS LATTICE

Bravais in 1948 showed that there are only 14 ways of arranging points in 3D space. These
arrangements give 14 sub lattices, which are called Bravais space lattices. They belong to seven
crystal systems.

The space lattices formed by unit cells are marked by the following symbols.

Primitive lattice: P  having lattice points only at the corners of the unit cell.
Body centered lattice: I  having lattice points at the corners as well as at the body center of the
unit cell.
Face centered lattice: F  having lattice points at the corners as well as at the face centers of the
unit cell.
Base centered lattice: C  having lattice points at the corners as well as at the top and bottom
base centers of the unit cell.

Table 5.2 The fourteen Bravais lattices

Crystal Lattice parameters Bravais lattices Number of Examples

system lattices

cubic a=b=c P Po
      90  I 3 Fe, NaCl2
F Au, Ag

Tetragonal a = bc P SnO2 ,TiO2

      90  I 2 KH 2 PO4

Orthorhombic a b c P BaSO4
      90  I 4 PbCO3
F KNO3
C  S

Monoclinic a b c P 2 SiO2 , Zn
    90   C K 2Cr 2O7
 Triclinic a b c P CaSO4 ,
      90  1 CaCO3

Trigonal a=b=c P FeSO4 , NaSO4

      90  1

Hexagonal a = bc
    90  ,   120  P 1 AgI,

The 14 possible Bravais lattices drawn from the 7 crystal systems are shown in figure.

Fig 5.7 Bravais lattices

5.6 MILLER INDICES

Miller indices are a set of integers used to designate a plane in a crystal. The reciprocals of the
intercepts made by the plane on the three crystallographic axes which are reduced to smallest
whole numbers.They are set of three possible integers represented as (h k l).

5.6.1 Procedure for finding Miller Indices

Step 1: The intercepts made by the plane along the axes X, Y and Z are noted.
Step 2: Thecoefficientsof theintercepts are noted separately.
Step 3: Inverse is to be taken
Step 4:Find the least common multiple (LCM) and multiply each by this LCM to get thesmallest
whole number.
Step 5:The result is written in parenthesis.
This is called the `Miller Indices’ of the plane in the form (h k l).

ILLUSTRATION

Plane ABC has intercepts of 1 unit along X-axis, 3 units along Y-axis and 2 units along Z-axis.

Step 1:The intercepts are 1,3 and 2 on the three axes.

Step 2:The reciprocals are 1, 1/3 and 1/2.

Step 3:The LCM is ‘6’. Multiplying each reciprocal by LCM, we get, 6, 2 and 3.

Step 4:Hence Miller indices for the plane ABC is (6 2 3).

Fig 5.8 Miller indices for the plane

5.6.2 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

For the cubic crystal especially, the important features of Miller indices are,

 A plane which is parallel to any one of the co-ordinate axes has an intercept of
infinity (  ).Therefore the Miller index for that axis is zero; i.e. for an intercept at
infinity, the corresponding index is zero.
 A plane passing through the origin is defined in terms of a parallel plane having non
zero intercepts.
 All equally spaced parallel planes have same ‘Miller indices’.
 If a normal to a plane (hkl), the direction of the normal is [hkl].
 If a plane cuts an axis on the negative side of the origin, corresponding index is
negative.
 For a cubic system, the relation between interplanar distance and interatomic distance
a
is given by d hkl 
(h 2  k 2  l 2 )
 The angle between any two crystallographic directions [hkl] and [ h ' k ' l ' ] can be
calculated as

hh '  kk '  ll '

cos   1 1
( h 2  k 2  l 2 ) 2 ( h' 2  k ' 2 l ' 2 ) 2

Note: while writing miller indices comma or dot between any two numbers may be avoided.

5.7 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

‘d’spacing or interplanar distance is the distance between two successive planes.

Consider a cubic crystal of side ‘a’, and a plane ABC as shown in figure. Let d1 be the distance
between the origin and the first plane ABC.Let (h k l) be the Miller indices for the plane ABC.
Let ON be the perpendicular distance drawn from the origin to the plane ABC. Let α, β and γ be
the interfacial anglesbetween co-ordinate axes X, Y, Z and ON respectively.

a a a
The intercepts of the plane on the three axes are OA  OB  OC 
h k l

From fig ON=d1(for the plane ABC)

 ON d dh
ONA Cos '   1  1
OA a a
h
ON d dk
ONB Cos '   1  1
OB a a
k
ON d dl
ONC Cos '   1  1
OC a a
l

From the law of direction of cosines of any line,

Cos 2 '  Cos 2  '  Cos 2 '  1

2 2 2
 d1h   d1k   d1l 
      1
 a   a   a 

a 2

d12 2
h  k2  l2 1
 a2 a
d12  d1 

h k l
2 2 2

h 2  k 2  l 2 12
Similarly for the plane A’B’C’

2a
d2 
h 2
 k2  l2  1
2

The interplanar distance of planes with miller indices (ℎ𝑘𝑙) is

d  d 2  d1
2a a a
d  
h 2
 k2  l2  1
2
h 2
 k2  l2  1
2
[h 2  k 2  l 2 ]
1
2

This gives the relation between interplanar distance and interatomic distance.

Diagram of few planes in a crystal

5.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF UNIT CELL

•Number of atoms per unit cell

•Coordination number

•Atomic radius

•Atomic Packing factor or Packing Density

Number of atoms per unit cell: The number of atoms possessed by a unit cell is called number
of atoms per unit cell.

•Coordination number: The number of equidistant nearest neighboratoms that an atom has in a
given structure. More closely packed structure has greater coordination number.

•Atomic Radius (r) : It is defined as half the distance between the nearest neighboring atoms in
a crystal.

•Atomic Packing factor or Packing Density: It is the ratio of the volume occupied by the
atoms in an unit cell (v) to the volume of the unit cell (V). It is also called packing fraction or
packing density.

5.9 SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC)

Number of atoms per unit cell:

SC is the simplest and easiest crystal structure. A SC unit cell consists of 8 corner atoms. Each
and every corners is shared by eight adjacent unit cells. Therefore Number of atoms per unit
1
cell= 8   1 atom.
8
Atomic radius: The unit cell has atoms only at the coners of the cube. Let ‘a’ be the side of the
a
unit cell. From fig, 2r  a  r 
2

Coordinaation number:

Each corner atom touches four atoms in its horizontal plane. It also in touch with two more
atoms, one above it and another below it. Therefore, the coordination number= 4+2=6

Atomic packing factor:

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙  𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

1  4 r 3 a
APF= 3 { r  }
a3 2


1 4  a
3
 
2
3



 0.52  52%
3
a 6

Therefore 52% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 48% is vacant in SC structure.
Since packing density is ver low, SC has loosely packed structure. Example: Po
5.10 BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

Number of atoms per unit cell:

BCC structure has 8 corner atoms and one body centered atom. In a BCC structure, the atoms
touch along the diagonals of the body. Each and every corners is shared by eight adjacent unit
1
cells. The number of corner atoms per unit cell= 8   1 atom. One full atom present at the body
8
centre of the unit cell. Therefore Number of atoms per unit cell= 1  1  2 atoms.

Atomic radius:

In a BCC structure, the atoms touch along the diagonals of the body. The unit cell has atoms only
at the coners of the cube. Let ‘a’ be the side of the unit cell.

From fig, Diagonal length AH  r  2r  r  4r and DH  a

In DFG , AH 2  AD 2  DH 2 ............................(1)

In DBD , AD 2  AB 2  BD 2  a 2  a 2  2a 2

(1)  (4r ) 2  2a 2  a 2
16r 2  3a 2
3a 2 3a
r2  r
16 4
Coordinaation number:

BCC structure has 8 corner atoms and one body centered atom. A body centered atom is
surrounded by eight corner atoms. Therefore, the coordination number= 8

Atomic packing factor:

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙  𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
2  4 r 3
3a
APF= 3 { r  }
3
a 4

3
2  4   3a 
3  4 3
 3
  0.68  68%
a 8
This shows that 68% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 32% is vacant in BCC
structure. Example: Na

5.11 FACE CENTERD CUBIC (FCC) STRUCTURE

Number of atoms per unit cell:

The atoms in a FCC unit cell touches along the face diagonal. Each and every corner atom is
shared by eight adjacent unit cells. Therefore each and every corner atom contributes 1/8 of its
1
part to one unit cell. So the total number of atoms contributed by the corner atoms is 8   1
8
atom.
Two unit cells share each and every face centered atom. Therefore, the contribution of a face
centered atom to unit cell is 1/2. So, the total number of atoms contributed by the face centred
1
atoms =  6  3 atoms.
2
Hence the total number of atoms present in a FCC unit cell = 1+3 = 4.

COORDINATION NUMBER

In its own plane it touches four face centered atoms. The face centered atoms are its nearest
neighbors. In a plane, which lies just above this corner atom, it has four more face centered
atoms as nearest neighbors. Similarly, in a plane, which lies just below this corner atom it has yet
four more face centered atoms as its nearest neighbors. Therefore the number of nearest
neighbours i.e., co-ordination number for FCC unit cell = 4+4+4 = 12
ATOMIC RADIUS (R)

The atoms in a FCC unit cell touches along the face diagonal. Let ‘a’ be the side of the unit cell.

From fig, Diagonal length DB  r  2r  r  4r and DC  a

In DBC , DB 2  DC 2  CB 2 ............................(1)
(1)  (4r ) 2  a 2  a 2
16r 2  2a 2
2a 2 a
r2  r
16 2 2

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR:

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙  𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

4  4 r 3 a
APF = 3 { r  }
a3 2 2
3
4  4   a 
3  2 2 

a3


  0.74  74%
3 2

Thus 74 percent of the volume of the FCC unit cell is occupied by atoms and the remaining 26
percent volume of the unit cell is vacant or void space.
5.12 HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED STRUCTURE

Number of atoms per unit cell:

It consists of three layers of atoms. The bottom layer has six corner atoms and one face centred
atom.The middle layer has three full atoms.The upper layer has six corner atoms and one face
centred atom.
1 1 3
The contribution of top layer atoms= (6   2  )  atoms
6 2 2
1 1 3
The contribution of top layer atoms= (6   2  )  atoms
6 2 2

The number of atoms present in the middle layer =3

3 3
Hence total number of atoms present in an HCP unit cell    3  6 atoms
2 2

CO-ORDINATION NUMBER (CN)

The face centered atom touches 6 corner atoms in its plane. The three middle layer atoms in the
plane just below it and 3 middle layer atoms in the plane just above it.
Hence the coordination number is 6+3+3=12.

ATOMIC RADIUS (R)

Consider any two corner atoms.Each and every corner atom touches each other. Therefore a = 2r.
i.e., The atomic radius, r = a/2

CALCULATION OF AXIAL (C/A) RATIO

Let c be the height of the unit cell and ‘a’ be the lattice constant of the unit cell. The body atoms
lie in a horizontal plane at height c from the bottom layer. The atomic radius r  a
2 2
AA'
From ABA' , Cos30  
AB
3
AA'  AB  Cos30   a
2
From fig, X is orthocenter

2 2 3 a
AX   AA'   a  From fig, CX=c/2 and AC=a
3 3 2 3

AXC, AC 2  AX 2  CX 2 ,

2
 a  c 2 a2 c2 2 a2 c2
2

a  
2
    a   a  
 3  2 3 4 3 4
 2
3a 2  a
2
c 2a 2 c 2 c 2 8
  
3 4 3 4 a2 3

c 8
  1.633
a 3
C

a
O

30 
A
30  A
X

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR

Number of atoms per unit cell = 6

4r 3 4  a  4 a 3 a 3
3
a
Volume of one atom      [ r  ]
3 3 2 3 8 6 2

1 1 3 3 2
Area of the AOB   BO  AY  a  a a
2 2 2 4

3 2 3 3 2
Area of the base =6  area of AOB  6  a  a
4 2
Volume of the unit cell =Area of the base  height of the unit cell
 3 3 2
 a c
2
a 3
6
6 2  a  
 APF      74%
3 3 2 3 3c 3 2
a c
2

Since the APF is 74%, it is a closely packed structure. Mg, Zn and Cd crystallize HCP structure.

CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS

An ideal crystal is one which contains no lattice defects. The defects are basically lattice
irregularities in the arrangement of constituent particles. These irregularities are called crystal
imperfections.

Classification of crystal imperfections

Any deviation in the regular geometrical arrangement of atoms in a crystalline solid is known as
crystal imperfections.

Point defects (0D)-vacancy, interstitial, Frenkel and Schottky defects

line defects(1D)-edge and screw dislocations

planner defects(2D)-grain boundary, twin boundary, stacking fault

surface defects(3D)-voids, porosity, inclusions and cracks

Why study imperfections in solids?

The optical, mechanical and electrical properties of the materials are greatly influenced by the
presence of impurities.

Example 1: mechanical property

Materials are stronger when they have defects.

Pure iron: soft and ductile

Fe-C alloy: strong and tough

Example 2 electrical conductivity

electrical conductivity decreases when they have defects

electrical conductivity of pure copper is higher than that of impure copper.

Point defects

 The defects which take place due to imperfect packing of atoms during crystallization are
named as point defects.
 They are imperfect point-like regions in the crystal and hence they are called as zero-
dimensional defects.
 They produce distortion inside the crystal structures.
(i)Vacancies

 A vacancy is the simplest point defect in a crystal. This refers to a missing of atom or a
vacant atomic site.
 This defect may arise due to imperfect packing during original crystallization and thermal
vibrations of atoms at high temperature.
 The vacancies may be single vacancy or di-vacancies or trivacancies and so on.

Schottky defects

 When a pair of anions and cations is missing from an ionic crystal is called Schottky
defects.
 It decreases the density of the crystal.
 This is equivalent to divacancies i.e., anion vacancy and cation vacancy.
 In this type of defect, the crystal is electrically neutral.
 Schottky defect Frenkel defect

Frenkel defects

 This is due to shift of cation from the regular site to the interstitial site.
 It does not change the density of solid.
 It always occurs ionic crystals.
 It is temperature dependent and electrical conductivity is increased.
Interstitial defect

• A small sized foreign atom occupies the space in between the atoms of a crystal
without dislodging any of the parent atom.
Substitutional Defect

• Atom replaces parent atom and occupies its lattice site; this defect often increases
strength of a material.

Lline defects
 The defects which take place due to dislocations or distortion of atoms along a line in
some direction is called line defect.
 This is also called as one-dimensional defects.
 The two basic types of dislocations are:
1. Edge dislocation 2. Screw dislocation
Edge dislocation

 An edge dislocation is formed if an extra half plane of atoms is introduced between the
planes of the atoms in a perfect crystal.
 The position of edge dislocation is marked by the symbols  or ┬
 If the extra plane of atoms is above the slip plane of the crystal are called positive edge
dislocation.
 If the extra plane of atoms is below the slip plane of the crystal are called negative edge
dislocation.
 Burger vector is always perpendicular to the dislocation line.

Burger vector

The vector which indicates the direction and magnitude of the shift of the lattice on the
slip plane is called Burger vector.
Screw dislocation

 Screw dislocation results from a displacement of the atoms in one part of a crystal
relative to the rest of crystal forming a spiral ramp around the dislocation line.
 When the atoms are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular to each other, the
imperfection produced is called screw dislocation.
 Burger vector is always parallel to the dislocation line.
 If the spiral motion of the dislocation line is in clockwise direction then it is called right
handed screw dislocation.
 If the spiral motion of the dislocation line is in anti-clockwise direction then it is called
left handed screw dislocation.
Surface defects

 The defects which take place on the surface of the materials are called surface defects.
 They are also called as two dimensional defects.
 The different types of surface defects are Grain boundary Twin boundaries Stacking
fault

Grain boundary

A grain boundary is a general planar defect that separates the regions of different crystalline
orientation with in a polycrystalline material.

 This occurs usually the result of uneven growth during the solidification of the liquid
metal. Grain sizes vary from1𝜇𝑚 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑚𝑚.
 It decreases the electrical and thermal conductivity of the material.
 Two types of grain boundaries are 1. High angle boundaries 2. Low angle boundaries

High angle boundaries

  If the orientation difference between two crystals is greater than 10  15 then the grain
boundary is called high angle boundaries.
Low angle boundaries

 If the orientation difference between two crystals is lesser than 10  then the grain
boundary is called low angle boundaries.
Tilt boundaries

 Tilt boundaries are low angle grain boundaries. It is an array of parallel edge two
dislocations of same sign arranged one above other in an array.
Twist boundaries

 Twist boundaries are low angle grain boundaries. It consists of atleast two sets of parallel
screw dislocations lying in the array.
Twin boundaries

 If the boundaries in which the atomic arrangement in one side of the boundary is the
mirror image of the atoms on the other side. The defect caused is called twin boundaries.

Stacking fault

 It is a type of surface imperfections.

 Whenever the stacking of atoms is not in proper sequence throughout the crystal, the
defect caused is known as stacking fault.
 Figure shows the proper sequence of atomic planes ABC ABC ABC ……. in a FCC
structure. But figure shows the sequence of atomic planes ABC ABA BCA…..the
region in which stacking fault occurs AB AB forms a thin region of HCP in a FCC
crystal.
Volume defects

 Volume defects are mainly due to porosity, inclusions and cracks.

 These defects form during manufacturing processes for various reasons and are harmful o
the material.
 Presence of a large vacancy or void such as cluster of atoms missing is also considered as
a volume imperfection.
Burgers Vector

The magnitude and the direction of the displacement are defined by a vector called the
Burgers vector (BV), which characterizes a dislocation line.

The Burgers vector of a dislocation is determined as follows: Consider the perfect crystal.
Starting from the point P, 8 atomic steps to the right, 7 down, 8 left and 7 up and end up at the
starting point. It is returned to the starting point because the region enclosed by the Burgers
circuit is perfect, with no line imperfection cutting across it. Do the same operation in the
dislocated crystal to reach the starting point P, and here it is found that an extra step is needed to
close the Burgers circuit.

• Burger vector is always parallel to the screw dislocation line.

• The Burgers vector is perpendicular to the edge dislocation line.
Crystal Growth Technology
Epitaxial growth

Epi means “above” and taxis means “deposition in ordered manner”.

Epitaxy refers to the method of depositing a mono-crystalline film on a mono-crystalline

substrate. The deposited film is denoted as epitaxial film or epitaxial layer.

Types of epitaxial film or epitaxial layer

1. Homoepitaxy: The film and substrate are of same material [Si/Si, GaAs/GaAs]

2. Heteroepitaxy:The film and substrate are of different materials [AlAs on GaAs growth]

Epitaxial techniques

1. Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)

2. Metal organic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE)

3. Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE)

Molecular beam epitaxy

Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is an experimental technique utilized for layer-by-layer

growth of thin films of various quantum materials. Out of the variety of thin film growth
techniques available, MBE is considered to be one of the cleanest, but also one of the most
technically challenging and demanding, as MBE growth takes place in ultra-high vacuum (UHV)
environment.

Principle
 Due to the interaction of molecular or atomic beams on a surface of a heated crystalline
substrate in UHV.

Basic elements of MBE system

1. Heated substrate
2. Effusion cells and shutter
3. Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED system-RHEED gun &Screen)
4. Ultra High Vaccum (UHV)
5. Liquid Nitrogen cryopanelling

Schematic diagram

Working
 Typical MBE experimental setup consists of two or more Knudsen effusion cells (K-
cells), located at the bottom of a UHV chamber and aligned towards the center of the chamber
where a sample holder with a substrate is located. Each individual K-cell contains a different
element in ultra pure solid form (i.e. elemental 99.999% Selinum, Bismuth, etc.) which can be
used in the thin film synthesis. The process of MBE growth starts by heating the K-cells to
appropriate temperatures until the elements in each cell reach a sublimation point. Then, the
shutters are opened and physical vapor from each K-cell diffuses though the chamber until it
reaches the substrate where it gets deposited, and the thin film gets formed. The final
composition and stoichiometry of the film will depend on the temperature and surface atomic
structure of the substrate, as well as the flux ratios of individual components reaching the
substrate. For more uniform growth, substrate can be continuously rotated at low rotation speeds
(~1-2 rotations per minute) by utilizing a stepper motor attached to the magnetic manipulator.

The epitaxial growth can be monitored by a number of methods

 Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED)

 Low energy electron diffraction (LEED)
 Augar electron spectroscopy (AES)
 Molecular beam mass spectroscopy (MBES)

Electrons emitted from the RHEED gun incident at a very low angle with respect to the
sample surface are diffracted, and the resulting diffraction pattern is observed on the screen. This
pattern can reveal: (1) quality of the film surface, and (2) film thickness down to a single
monolayer.

Advantages of MBE

1. The epitaxial growth rates are in the order of a few A per second.

2. Used to prepare high quality semiconductors and quantum dots.

Disadvantages of MBE

1. Slow deposition rate

2. Low yield

3. Requires extreme vacuum

Applications

 Nanotechnology
 Semiconductor fabrication
 LEDs, photodiodes and solarcells
 High temperature superconductors
  Novel structures as quantum devices Microelectronic devices
 III-V compound semiconductor Lasers

Lithography

Lithography uses light or other forms of radiant energy to change the chemical properties of
thin layers of films that have been coated on a substrate.

Types of lithography
 Photo lithography
 Electron beam lithography
 Ion beam lithography
 x-ray lithography
 Extreme ultraviolet lithography
Steps used in photolithography
 Surface cleaning
 spin coating with photo resist
 soft baking
 Mask alignment
 Exposure
 Development
 Post baking
 Plasma etch-Or add layer
 Post process cleaning
 Final inspection
Photolithography
 A thin film of metal like chromium is coated on a glass or Si substrate.
 A positive or negative photo resistive material like polymer is coated above the metal
surface. When the positive photo resistive material is exposed to radiation, it degrades the
materials or some chemical bonds are broken. On the other hand, when the negative
photo resistive material is exposed, it hardens the materials.
 A mask is placed over above the resist coated surface.
 Then the UV radiation is exposed to the mask, resulting in weaker or stronger regions on
the resist depending on the opaque and transparent regions of the mask.
 The image is developed using a developer. Then gold electrodes of 100 nm thick were
formed through thermal evaporation technique and structured by lift-off using acetone. A
metal contact was made to the substrate as the back gate contact.
  Then lift off process is carried out using acetone to get the final pattern for device
characterization.

Technical applications

Integration circuit

VLSI

Flat panel displays

Optoelectronic components

Photonic integrated circuits

Quantum devices
 Epitaxial growth

Epi means “above” and taxis means “deposition in ordered manner”.

Epitaxy refers to the method of depositing a mono-crystalline film on a mono-crystalline

substrate. The deposited film is denoted as epitaxial film or epitaxial layer.

Types of epitaxial film or epitaxial layer

1. Homoepitaxy: The film and substrate are of same material [Si/Si, GaAs/GaAs]

2. Heteroepitaxy:The film and substrate are of different materials [AlAs on GaAs growth]

Epitaxial techniques

1. Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)

2. Metal organic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE)

3. Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE)

Molecular beam epitaxy

Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is an experimental technique utilized for layer-by-layer

growth of thin films of various quantum materials. Out of the variety of thin film growth
techniques available, MBE is considered to be one of the cleanest, but also one of the most
technically challenging and demanding, as MBE growth takes place in ultra-high vacuum (UHV)
environment.

Principle

Due to the interaction of molecular or atomic beams on a surface of a heated crystalline

substrate in UHV.

Basic elements of MBE system

1. Heated substrate
2. Effusion cells and shutter
3. Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED system-RHEED gun &Screen)
4. Ultra High Vaccum (UHV)
5. Liquid Nitrogen cryopanelling

Schematic diagram
Working

Typical MBE experimental setup consists of two or more Knudsen effusion cells (K-
cells), located at the bottom of a UHV chamber and aligned towards the center of the chamber
where a sample holder with a substrate is located. Each individual K-cell contains a different
element in ultra pure solid form (i.e. elemental 99.999% Selinum, Bismuth, etc.) which can be
used in the thin film synthesis. The process of MBE growth starts by heating the K-cells to
appropriate temperatures until the elements in each cell reach a sublimation point. Then, the
shutters are opened and physical vapor from each K-cell diffuses though the chamber until it
reaches the substrate where it gets deposited, and the thin film gets formed. The final
composition and stoichiometry of the film will depend on the temperature and surface atomic
structure of the substrate, as well as the flux ratios of individual components reaching the
substrate. For more uniform growth, substrate can be continuously rotated at low rotation speeds
(~1-2 rotations per minute) by utilizing a stepper motor attached to the magnetic manipulator.

The epitaxial growth can be monitored by a number of methods

 Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED)

 Low energy electron diffraction (LEED)
 Augar electron spectroscopy (AES)
 Molecular beam mass spectroscopy (MBES)

Electrons emitted from the RHEED gun incident at a very low angle with respect to the
sample surface are diffracted, and the resulting diffraction pattern is observed on the screen. This
pattern can reveal: (1) quality of the film surface, and (2) film thickness down to a single
monolayer.

Advantages of MBE

1. The epitaxial growth rates are in the order of a few A per second.

2. Used to prepare high quality semiconductors and quantum dots.

Disadvantages of MBE

1. Slow deposition rate

2. Low yield

3. Requires extreme vacuum

Applications

 Nanotechnology
 Semiconductor fabrication
 LEDs, photodiodes and solarcells
 High temperature superconductors
 Novel structures as quantum devices Microelectronic devices
 III-V compound semiconductor Lasers
 Lithography

Lithography uses light or other forms of radiant energy to change the chemical properties of
thin layers of films that have been coated on a substrate.

Types of lithography
 Photo lithography
 Electron beam lithography
 Ion beam lithography
 x-ray lithography
 Extreme ultraviolet lithography
Steps used in photolithography
 Surface cleaning
 spin coating with photo resist
 soft baking
 Mask alignment
 Exposure
 Development
 Post baking
 Plasma etch-Or add layer
 Post process cleaning
 Final inspection
Photolithography
 A thin film of metal like chromium is coated on a glass or Si substrate.
 A positive or negative photo resistive material like polymer is coated above the metal
surface. When the positive photo resistive material is exposed to radiation, it degrades the
materials or some chemical bonds are broken. On the other hand, when the negative
photo resistive material is exposed, it hardens the materials.
 A mask is placed over above the resist coated surface.
 Then the UV radiation is exposed to the mask, resulting in weaker or stronger regions on
the resist depending on the opaque and transparent regions of the mask.
 The image is developed using a developer. Then gold electrodes of 100 nm thick were
formed through thermal evaporation technique and structured by lift-off using acetone. A
metal contact was made to the substrate as the back gate contact.
 Then lift off process is carried out using acetone to get the final pattern for device
characterization.
Technical applications

Integration circuit

VLSI

Flat panel displays

Optoelectronic components

Photonic integrated circuits

Quantum devices
 St. Xavier’s Catholic College of Engineering

Chunkankadai, Nagercoil – 629 003

Subject: PH22101 - Engineering Physics

Part A: Unit-1

Q.
Question
No.
Define elasticity.
When we apply a force on a solid body, it may deform (change in size and/or shape). The
1
property by which the body regains its original shape and size on the removal of the
deforming force is called elasticity.
Define stress and strain and write down their units.
The restoring forces per unit area set up inside the body are called stress.
F
Stress = S.I unit of stress is Nm-2 (Pa)
A
2
Strain is the fractional deformation resulting from a stress on a body. It is
measured by the ratio of the change in some dimension of a body to the original
dimension in which change took place. Since it is the ratio of two similar quantities, it has
no unit or dimension.
What are the different types of stress and strain?
Types of stress
3 Longitudinal stress, Volume stress & Shearing stress
Types of strain
Longitudinal strain, Volume strain & Shearing strain
State Hooke’s law. Write the unit of modulus of elasticity.
Robert Hooke stated that stress is directly proportional to strain produced, within the
elastic limit. Stress Strain
4
Stress
E where E is called elastic modulus. It depends on nature of
Strain
the materials. Its unit is Nm-2 or Pa.
What are three types of elastic moduli?
There are three kinds of elastic moduli are possible based on three types of stress and
5
Longitudin al stress
strain. Young's modulus Y 
Longitudin al strain
 Tangential stress
Rigidity modulus of elasticity n 
Tangential strain
Volume stress
Bulk modulus (K) 
Volume strain

Define elastic modulus.

Elastic modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain produced, within the elastic limit.
Stress
6 E
Strain
where E is called elastic modulus. It depends on nature of the materials.
Its unit is Nm-2 or Pa.
What is meant by torsional pendulum? What are the applications of the torsional
pendulum? Draw the stress strain diagram of a ductile material.
Torsional pendulum consists of a suspension wire with one end is fixed and the other end
is fixed to the centre of the circular disc.
Applications: 1. Rigidity modulus of the wire 2.Determination of the moment of
inertia of the wire 3. The time period and frequency of torsional oscillation.

What is Poisson’s ratio? Give the limiting values of Poisson’s ratio.

Poisson’s ratio of a given material can be defined as the ratio between the
lateral strain to longitudinal strain with in the elastic limits.
8
lateral strain
Poisson’s ratio  =
longitudin al strain
 has no units and dimensions.
Theortically  lies between -1 and  1 & practically  lies between 0 and  1
2 2
 What are the factors affecting elasticity of a material?
9 Effect of temperature Effect of annealing Effect of hammering and rolling Presence of
impurities Due to the nature of crystals Effect of stress
A spherical ball contracts in volume by 0.01% when subjected to a normal pressure
of 108Nm-2. Find the bulk modulus.
10
10 8 10 8
Bulk modulus= =

0.01
100

 4  1  1012 Nm 2
10

What are the assumptions for bending of beams?

1. The weight of the beam is low
2. The cross section of the beam remains same so that geometrical moment of inertia
remains same.
11
3. Since the length of the beam is much greater than its other dimensions the shearing
stresses are very small.
4. The beam has small curvature
5. The load applied should be large
What are the uses of stress-strain diagram?
 It is used to measure the elastic strength, yield strength and tensile strength of the
materials.
12
 It is used to estimate the working stress and safety factor of an engineering
material.
 It is used to identify the ductile and brittle materials.
Distinguish between uniform bending and non-uniform bending.

Non-uniform bending Uniform bending

If the beam is located at its midpoint, The beam is loaded uniformly on its
the both ends, the bend beam forms an arc
depression is produced will not form an of a circle. The elevation is produced in
13
arc of a circle. The radius of curvature the beam. The radius of curvature of the
of the beam is not constant. This type beam is constant. This type of bending
of bending is called non-uniform is known as uniform bending.
bending.
Mgl 3 3Mgl 2 x
Y . Y .
4bd 3 y 2bd 3 y
 What are the applications of I-shape girders?
I-shape girders are used as/ in
Support beam for commercial and residential construction
14 Support frames and columns for columns for trolley ways, lifts
Construction of platforms and bridges
Iron rails employed in railway tracks
Machine bases
A load of 2 kg produces an extension of 1mm in a wire of 3m in length and 1mm in
diameter. Calculate the Young’s modulus of the wire.
Load applied W=mg= 2  9.8  19.6 N
15
l=1mm= 1 10 3 m L=3m D=1mm r= 0.5  10 3 m
FL FL 19.6  3
Y    7.48  1010 Nm 2
lA lr 2
1  10    (0.5  10 )
3 3

A copper cube of each side 4 cm is subjected to a tangential force of 9.98 10 4 N. The

top face of the cube is sheared to 0.012 cm width respect to the bottom face. Find
modulus of elasticity.
F= 9.98  10 4 N
16
L= 4cm  4  10 2 m 3m A  4  10 2  4  10 2 m 2
Shear strain l  0.012cm  0.012  10 2 m
F/A F 9.98  10 4
Y   2 4
 2.0791  1010 Nm 2
l lA 0.012  10  16  10
A cantilever of length 50 cm fixed at one end and it is depressed by 20mm at the
loaded end. Calculate the depression at a distance of 40 cm from the fixed end.
17 Depression yl 3

y1 l13 l3 (40  10 2 ) 3
 3  y 2  23  y1   20  10 3 m
y2 l2 l1 (50  10 2 ) 3

What are I-shape girders? What are the advantages of I-shape girders?
A girder is a support beam used in construction. Girder is the term used to
denote the main horizontal support of a structure, which supports smaller beams. A
18 girder is commonly used more in the building of bridges and planes. The girders with
upper and lower section broadened and the middle section tapered, so that it can withstand
heavy loads over it is called as I-shape girders.
 Define internal bending moment.
When a beam bent, the restoring couple arises. This couple balances the
19 external couple due to external load is called internal bending moment of the beam.
At equilibrium,
Restoring couple = Bending couple
In an experiment to determine Young's modulus of a rod of diameter 1.26 × 10 -2 m it
was supported on knife edges placed 0.7 m apart. On applying a load of 0.9 kg
exactly mid-way between the knife edges, the depression of midpoint was observed to
be 0.25 cm.
r 4
20 d=1.26 × 10–2 m r=0.63 × 10–2 m l=0.7m W=Mg=0.9 × 9.8 N I g  AK 2 
4

–2 Wl 3 Mgl 3
y=0.25 cm = 0.25× 10 m y Y 
48YI g 12 yr 4

Mgl 3 0.9  9.8  0.7 3

Y   8.09  10 6 Nm 2
12 yr 4
12  0.25  10    (0.63  10 )
2 2 4
 St. Xavier’s Catholic College of Engineering

Chunkankadai, Nagercoil – 629 003

Subject: PH22101 - Engineering Physics

Part A : Unit-2
Q.
Question
No.
What are the three modes of heat transfer?
There are three modes of heat transfer
1 * Conduction
* Convection
* Radiation
Differentiate heat conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction is the process in which heat is transmitted from the hot end to the cold end of a
body without the motion of particles of the body.
Convection is the process in which heat is transmitted from the region of higher temperature
2
to the region of lower temperature by the actual movement of the heated particles.
Radiation is the process in which heat is transmitted from one place to the other without the
necessity of the intervening medium but by electromagnetic waves.

Is it possible for two objects to be in thermal equilibrium if they are not in contact with
each other?
Yes, it is possible for two bodies to be in thermal equilibrium if they are not in contact.
Suppose there are two bodies A and B that are not in contact with each other. These two
3
bodies are in contact with another body say, C. Then according to the Zeroth law of
thermodynamics the bodies A and B will be in thermal equilibrium with each other as A is in
thermal equilibrium with C and B is in thermal equilibrium with C. Therefore, it is evident
that two bodies can be in thermal equilibrium even if they are not in contact.
Define coefficient of thermal conductivity. Give its unit.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat
4 conducted per sec, normally across the unit area of cross section, maintained at unit
Q
K Its unit Wm–1 K–1
temperature gradient.

A d
dx

 Explain the term thermal gradient.
5
Temperature gradient means rate of fall of temperature with respect to distance.
The total area of a glass window pane is 0.6 m2. Calculate how much heat is conducted
per hour through the glass window pane if thickness of glass is 2 mm. The temperature
of the inside surface is 25°C and that of the outside surface is 4°C.
Given K = 0.97 Wm-1K-1.

6 Solution:
K = 0.97 Wm 1 K 1

1   2  25 – 4 = 21 C , x = 2 × 10–3 m, A = 0.6m2, t = 3600S

KA(1   2 )t 0.97  0.6  21  3600
Q   2.199  10 7 J
x 2  10 3
State Newton’s law of cooling.
It states that the rate of fall of temperature of the body is proportional to the difference
between the temperature of the body and that of the surrounding medium.
7
The rate of cooling
– dθ / dt α k (θ-θt)
where k is proportionality constant, which depends on the area and nature of the surface.
Give the disadvantages of Forbe’s method of finding the thermal conductivity of good
conductors.
8 It takes a long time to complete the experiment.
It is tedious to draw three graphs.
The distribution of the heat in the static and dynamic part is not the same.
Outline the principle involved in Lee’s disc method to determine the thermal
conductivity of bad conductors.
Lee's Disc method is used to determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor.
9
The principle involved in Lee’s disc method is at the steady state, the rate of heat conducted
by a poor conductor to a metal disc is equated to the rate of heat radiated by that metal disc.

What is meant by solar energy? Infer the ray responsible for the heat produced by sun
light.
10 The thermal radiation obtained from the sun, is called solar energy. Sun is the source of all
energy. Sun light contains infrared radiations in large proportion, and these infrared rays heat
all objects on which they fall.
 Give the principle of solar water heater.
Solar water heater is a solar thermal device captures and transfers the heat energy
11
available in solar radiation which can be used for meeting the requirements of heat in
different temperature ranges.
Interpret the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
12 The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two systems are each in thermal equilibrium
with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Define the first law of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics states: The amount of heat supplied to a system is equal to
13 the algebraic sum of the change in internal energy of the system and the amount of external
work done by the system.
dQ = dU + dW
State the second law of thermodynamics. Illustrate its significance.
A traditional version of the second law of thermodynamics states: Heat does not
spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.
Clausius Statement
It is impossible for a self-acting machine unaided by any external agency to transfer
heat from a body at low temperature to a body at high temperature.
Kelvin Statement
14
It is impossible to get continuous supply of work by cooling a body to a temperature
lower than that of its surrounding temperature.
Significance:
As per the second law of thermodynamics, the entropy change in an isolated system can only
be positive or zero. Therefore, a process can be feasible only when the change in the entropy
of the universe is positive. The change in enthalpy conveniently quantifies the heat flow of
reactions.
State the third law of thermodynamics.
The third law of thermodynamics states that as the temperature of a system approaches
15
absolute zero, the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value and the molecules of a
system is arranged in a perfect order.
What is meant by adiabatic process?
16 It is a thermodynamic process in which change in pressure and volume takes place with no
heat is exchanged between the system and the surrounding.
 Mathematically this process is represented as
PVγ = K (constant)
Explain isothermal process.
It is a thermodynamic process in which change in pressure and volume occurs but
17 temperature remains constant.
PV = constant = RT
Work done W = n RT ln (P1 / P2)
Distinguish between reversible and irreversible processes.
A reversible process is a process in which the system can be brought back to its original state
by the exact backward operation as done in forward process. The necessary condition for a
18 reversible process is the quasi-static requirement.
An irreversible process is in which the system cannot be restored back to their original state
of operation at the same time. Because this is what happens in nature, it is also called a
natural process.
What is entropy? Explain the significance of entropy.
The degree of disorderness is known as entropy.
19 Entropy has been regarded as a measure of disorder or randomness of a system. Thus when a
system goes from a more orderly to less orderly state, there is an increase in its randomness
and hence entropy of the system increases.
Compare the nature of Otto and Diesel engines.
Sl Otto engine Diesel engine
No
Compact in size Larger in size
Air mixed with petrol is used as Air is used as working substance and diesel is
20
working substance used for ignition
Volume remains constant in Pressure remains constant in Ignition hence
Ignition and Exhaust stages constant pressure cycle
hence a constant volume cycle
Less efficiency More efficiency compared to otto engine
St. Xavier’s Catholic College of Engineering
Chunkankadai, Nagercoil – 629 003

Question Bank

Subject:PH22101 - Engineering Physics

Unit-3
Course Coutcomes (COs)
CO Recall the basics of properties of matter, thermal physics and ultrasonics, to improve their
1 engineering knowledge.
CO Define the advanced physics concepts of quantum theory and the characteristics of crystalline
2 materials.
CO Illustrate Bending of beams, thermal behavior and ultrasonic devices to assess societal and
3 safety issues.
CO
Summarize the dual aspects of matter, crystal structures and imperfections of crystals.
4
CO Apply the moduli of elasticity of different materials, thermal energy, ultrasonics, scanning
5 tunneling microscope and crystal growth techniques in engineering fields.
CL-Cognitive Level; Kn-Knowledge;Un-Understand;Ap-Apply;An-Analyze;Ev-Evaluate;Cr-
Create;
Q. Mark C
Question CO
No. s L
Part-A
List any four properties of ultrasonic waves.

 Sound waves having frequencies is greater than 20 kHz.

CO
1  They are highly energetic 2 Kn
1
 They have very high penetrating power.
 When it travels from one medium to another medium, it gets reflected
and refracted.
Define magnetostriction principle.

When an alternating magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic rod such as CO

2 2 Kn
Nickel, Iron or Cobalt, then the rod is thrown to longitudinal vibrations. 1
When the frequency of the oscillator is equal to the natural frequency of the
vibration rod, Resonance occurs. This produces Ultrasonic waves.
What are ultrasonic waves? Why are these not audible to human?
CO
3 2 Kn
1
Sound waves having frequencies is greater than 20 kHz.
Can we use a copper rod in a magnetostriction generator. Why?
CO
4 2 Un
No. copper rod cannot be used to produce ultrasonics in a magnetostriction 3
generator, because it is not a ferromagnetic material.
Define direct piezo-electric effect. CO
5 2 Kn
1
 When a mechanical stress is applied to the mechanical axis with respect to
optical axis of a quartz crystal, then a potential difference is developed across
the electrical axis with respect to optic axis. This effect is called direct piezo-
electric effect.
Define inverse piezo-electric effect.

When an alternating electric field is applied to electrical axis with respect to CO

6 2 Kn
optical axis of a quartz crystal, then expansion or contraction takes place in 1
the mechanical axis with respect to optical axis and ultrasonic wave are
generated. This effect is called inverse piezo-electric effect.
Why ultrasonic frequencies greater than 3 MHz cannot be produced by
magnetostriction method?

In magnetostriction method, the frequency is inversely proportional to the

CO
7 length of the rod.the frequency can be increased only by decreasing the 2 Un
3
length of the rod to a greater extent,which is practically impossible. At high
temperature alters the magnetization of the rod and inturn will affect the
elastic properties. Hence ultrasonic frequencies greater than 3 MHz cannot
be produced by magnetostriction method.
Outline the advantages and disadvantages of magnetostriction generator.

Advantages:

Magnetostriction Oscillators are mechanically rugged.

The construction cost is low. CO
8 2 Un
They are capable of producing large acoustical power with fairly good 3
efficiency.
Limitations
It can produce frequencies up to 3 MHz only.
They frequency o oscillation depends upon the temperature.
one can get a stable and constant frequency of ultrasonic waves.
Identify whether ultrasonic waves are electromagnetic waves. Give proper
reasons to your answer.
CO
9 2 Un
Ultrasonic waves are not electromagnetic waves because they are sound 3
waves, which does not consist electric and magnetic vectors as in
electromagnetic waves.
A quartz crystal with a thickness of 0.5 mm and a density of 2650
kg/m3 vibrates longitudinally producing ultrasonic waves. Find the
fundamental frequency of vibration, if the Young’s modulus of quartz is 7.9
x 1010 Nm-2.
CO
10 2 Ap
5
𝑃 𝑌 1 7.9×1010
𝑓 = 2𝑙 √𝜌 = 2×𝑜.5×10−3 √ 2650
=1. 06 × 1010 Hz
 What is cavitation? Mention its use.

Cavitation is the process of creation and collapse of bubbles, due to the

principle of negative local pressure created inside the bubble. CO
11 2 Kn
1
It is used to produce shock waves.

It is used to increase the temperature in liquids.

Illustrate how an acoustic grating is formed.

When ultrasonic waves travel through a transparent liquid, due to alternate

compression and rarefaction, longitudinal stationery waves are produced. If CO
12 2 Un
monochromatic light is passed through the liquid perpendicular to these 3
waves, the liquid behaves as diffraction grating. Such a grating is known as
Acoustic Grating. It is used to find wavelength and velocity (v) of ultrasonic
waves in the liquid.
Explain how ultrasonic waves are used to measure the depth of sea.

SONAR is a device, which stands for Sound Navigation and

Ranging. The principle of Sonar is based on the echo sounding technique of
CO
13 Ultrasonics. It is the acoustical technique for locating the objects like 2 Un
submarine or icebergs etc by transmitting a high frequency sound pulse and 3
receiving it after reflection from that object. By knowing the velocity of
sound in sea water and measured time, the depth of the sea can be calculated
𝑣𝑡
using the relation ℎ = 2 .
What is sonogram? Mention its application.
CO
14 Sonagram is a technique which is used to record the sound produced due to 2 Kn
1
pumping action of the heart using ultrasonics. It also provides the
information on heart ratio, rhythmicity, blood pumping, valve action etc.
Identify any two medical applications of ultrasonics.
CO
15 It is used to clean the teeth. Dental surgery and neuro surgery without 2 Un
3
shedding in any blood. To remove kidney stones and tumours. It is used to
remove the cataract by photoemulsification.
List any four techniques of testing a material by NDT.
CO
16 2 Kn
Dye penetration method, Radiography, Magnetic particle testing , Ultrasonic 1
inspection method
Interpret the importance of NDT method.
CO
17 NDT means non –destructive testing. Without disturbing or damaging the 2 Un
3
specimen just passing ultrasnics to inspect the internal cracks, flaws and
discontinuities.
 Compare destructive testing and non-destructive testing methods.

CO
18 2 Un
3

Summarize the engineering/ industrial applications of ultrasonics.

CO
19 2 Un
Sound signaling, Measurement of depth of sea, Detection of flaws in 3
materials, Ultrasonis drilling, welding, soldering and cleaning
An ultrasound pulse sent by a source in sea is reflected by a submerged
target at a distance 597.50 cm and reaches the source after 0.83 seconds.
Find the velocity of sound in sea water. CO
20 2 Ap
5
𝑑 × 𝑡 597.50 × 10−2 × 0.83
𝑣= = = 247.96 × 10−2 𝑚𝑠 −1
2 2
Part-B
Applying magnetostriction effect construct a magnetostriction oscillator for CO
1 16 Ap
the production of ultrasonic waves. 5
Explain how ultrasonic waves are produced using magnetostriction oscillator CO
2 16 Un
and write any four applications of ultrasonics. 3
Describe the principle, construction and working of the piezoelectric
CO
3 oscillator for producing ultrasonic waves. Mention its advantages and 16 Un
3
disadvantages.
Make use of inverse piezo-electric effect to construct a piezoelectric CO
4 16 Ap
oscillator for producing ultrasonic waves. 5
With a neat diagram, explain the theory behind acoustic grating and make CO
5 16 Ap
use of it to determine the ultrasonic velocity in a liquid. 5
Draw a block diagram of ultrasonic flaw detector. Describe the working of CO
6 16 Un
ultrasonic flaw detector for non destructive testing by reflection mode. 3
Elaborate on the three different ultrasonic NDT scans and their displays CO
7 16 Ap
which are in common practice. 5
8 Identify the applications of ultrasonics in industries, engineering field and in 16 Ap CO
 medicine. 5
Explain how ultrasonic waves are used in ultrasound imaging system in CO
9 16 Un
medical field. 3
(i) Apply the theory of ultrasonics to explain how SONAR is used to find the
depth of the sea. (12)
CO
10 (ii) An ultrasonic source of 0.09 MHz sends down a pulse towards the seabed 16 Ap
5
which returns after 0.55 second. The velocity of sound in water is 1800 m/s.
Calculate the depth of the sea and wavelength of the pulse. (4)

St. Xavier’s Catholic College of Engineering

Chunkankadai, Nagercoil – 629 003

Question Bank

Subject:PH22101 - Engineering Physics

Unit-4
Course Coutcomes (COs)
CO Recall the basics of properties of matter, thermal physics and ultrasonics, to improve their
1 engineering knowledge.
CO Define the advanced physics concepts of quantum theory and the characteristics of crystalline
2 materials.
CO Illustrate Bending of beams, thermal behavior and ultrasonic devices to assess societal and
3 safety issues.
CO
Summarize the dual aspects of matter, crystal structures and imperfections of crystals.
4
CO Apply the moduli of elasticity of different materials, thermal energy, ultrasonics, scanning
5 tunneling microscope and crystal growth techniques in engineering fields.
CL-Cognitive Level; Kn-Knowledge;Un-Understand;Ap-Apply;An-Analyze;Ev-Evaluate;Cr-
Create;
Q.
Mar C
No Question CO
ks L
.
Part-A
What is meant by energy spectrum of a black body? What do you infer from it?

The intensity of radiation corresponding to different wavelengths is measured at

different temperatures and is plotted as energy spectrum of black body.
CO
1 The energy distribution is not uniform for any given temperature. The intensity 2 Kn
2
of radiation (E) increases with increase in wavelength and at a particular
wavelength its value is maximum. Beyond this if the wavelength increases the
intensity of heat radiation decreases.

Explain Planck's law of radiation. CO

2 2 Un
4
 Define Wien’s displacement law. Give its limitation.

It states that the wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy is inversely

3 proportional to the absolute temperature. 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
CO
2 Kn
2
Limitation: This law holds good only for shorter wavelength and not for longer
wavelengths.

Define Rayleigh - Jeans law. Give its limitation.

It states that the energy distribution is directly proportional to the absolute

temperature (T) and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
CO
4 wavelength (λ). 𝐸𝜆 = 8𝜋𝑘𝑇 2 Kn
𝜆4 2

Limitation: This law holds good only for longer wavelengths and not for shorter
wavelengths.

Interpret the expression for Compton shift. Why it is not observable in the
visible region of electromagnetic spectrum?

Compton shift

 The Compton Effect is observed with ultraviolet light in the x-ray region. CO
5 The frequency of light tells us how much energy the light is carrying. 2 Un 4
Higher frequency, higher energy.
 Visible light is lower energy than ultraviolet. To remove an electron from
an atom, there is a minimum ionization energy needed for each different
element. With visible light, the full quantum can be absorbed and used by
the electron in the photoelectric effect.
 With x-rays, the electron is unable to absorb and use all of that energy.
Therefore, a portion of the x-ray energy is absorbed and kicks back the
electron while the rest of the x-ray is simply deflected and that x-ray
 continues to the detector with just a small change to a slightly lower
frequency.

Calculate the change in wavelength of an X-ray photon when it is scattered

through an angle of 90° by a free electron.
CO
6 6.64×10−34
2 Ap
=9.1×10−31 ×3×10−8 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠90°) = 0.024A° 5

What are the properties of matter waves?

If the mass of the particle is smaller, then the wavelength associated with that
CO
7 particle is longer. If the velocity of the particle is small, then the wavelength 2 Kn
2
associated with that particle is longer. If The velocity of de-Broglie waves is
not constant since it depends on the velocity of the material particle. But the
velocity of electromagnetic waves is constant.
How are matter-waves different from electromagnetic waves?

matter-waves electromagnetic waves

Matter waves have no electric and These waves have electric and
magnetic fields associated with them. magnetic fields associated with
CO
8 them. 2 Kn
2
These waves cannot pass through These wavescan easily pass
vacuum. through vacuum.
Matter waves have velocities less than These waves have fixed
velocities of light and depend on velocities.
situation.
Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of a proton and an electron, accelerated by
a potential of 150V. CO
9 2 Un
4
ℎ 6.64×10−34
𝛌= = =1× 10−15 𝑚
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √2×9.1×10−31 ×1.6×10−19 ×150
Define photoelectric effect.
CO
10 2 Kn
The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light radiation 2
of suitable wavelength (or frequency) is called photoelectric effect.
List the applications of Schrodinger wave equation.

The Schrodinger equation is used to find the allowed energy levels of CO

11 quantum mechanical systems (such as atoms, or transistors). 2 Kn
2
The associated wave function gives the probability of finding the particle at
a certain position.
 Summarize the physical significance of wave function.

CO
12 2 Un
4

Calculate the minimum energy of an electron can possess in an infinitely deep

potential well of width 4 nm.
2 2 2 −34 2 CO
13 𝐸 = 𝑛 ℎ = 1 (6.64×10 )
=0.0377× 10−18 𝐽 2 Ap
8𝑚𝑎2 8×9.1×10−31 ×(4×10−9 )2 5

0.0377×10−18
1 eV=1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 𝐸 = 1.6×10−19 = 0.235 𝑒𝑉
What is meant by degenerate and Non- degenerate states?

For several combinations of quantum numbers have same energy Eigen value
but different Eigen functions. Such states and energy levels are said to be
degenerate state. CO
14 2 Kn
2
For various combinations of quantum number if we have same energy Eigen
value and same Eigen function then such states and energy levels are called
Non-degenerate State.

What are Eigen values and Eigen function?

CO
15 2 Kn
Eigen value is defines as the energy of the particle and is denoted by the letter E 2
n. Eigen function is defined as the wave function of the particle and is denoted
 by the letter ψn.
Show that for a free particle moving within a one dimensional potential box, the
ground state energy cannot be zero.
CO
16 For a free particle moving within a 1D potential box, when n=0 the wave 2 Un
4
𝑛 2 ℎ2
function is zero for all values. 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝐿2 , since 𝐸 ∝ 𝑛2 the state with n=0 is
not allowed and hence the ground state energy cannot be zero.
Calculate the energy required for an electron to jump from ground state to
second excited state in a potential well of width “L”.

𝑛 2 ℎ2 12 ℎ2
For ground state n=1 𝐸1 = 8𝑚𝐿2=8𝑚𝐿2

22 ℎ2
CO
17 For excited state n=2 𝐸2 = 2 Ap
8𝑚𝐿2 5

ℎ2 3ℎ2
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = [4 − 1] =
8𝑚𝐿2 8𝑚𝐿2

Calculate the lowest energy of the system containing two electrons confined to
a box of length 1 nm.

𝑛 2 ℎ2 12 (6.64×10−34 )2
𝐸= = =0.604× 10−18 𝐽
8𝑚𝑎2 8×9.1×10−31 ×(1×10−9 )2 CO
18 2 Ap
5
1 eV=1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

0.604 × 10−18
𝐸= = 3.775 𝑒𝑉
1.6 × 10−19
What is the principle of scanning tunnelling microscope?
CO
19 A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is an instrument for imaging surfaces 2 Kn
2
at the atomic level.The basic principle used in STM is the quantum mechanical
tunnelling of electron between the conducting tip and the surface of the sample.
List out the limitations of scanning tunnelling microscope.

 Even a very small vibrations will disturb the experimental setup.

 Mainly used to analyze conducting materials.
CO
20  Cost is high. 2 Kn
2
 The best results from STM can be obtained only in vacuum
conditions,hence it may not be the best tool to inspect and analyse
biological samples.

Part-B
1 Make use of quantum theory, derive an expression for the average energy 16 A CO
 emitted by a blackbody and arrive at Planck’s radiation law in terms of p 5
frequency. State the assumptions before starting the derivations.
Build the theory of Compton effect and show that the Compton shift is 0.024 A CO
2 0 16
A . Also briefly explain its experimental verification. p 5
Build the de-Broglie concept of matter waves and derive de-Broglie wavelength A CO
3 16
in terms of energy, voltage and temperature. p 5
A CO
4 Develop time dependent Schrodinger’s wave equation. 16
p 5
Solve time dependent Schrodinger’s wave equations and hence deduce the time A CO
5 16
independent Schrodinger’s wave equation. p 5
Derive the energy level of particle enclosed in one –dimensional potential box A CO
6 16
of width “a” and infinite height. p 5
Explain the photoelectric effect. Write photoelectric effect equation and explain U CO
7 it with the help of a diagram. 16
n 4
(i). Construct normalization condition based on the concept of wave
function.(8)
(ii). An electron is confined to a one dimensional box of side 10-10m. Obtain
A CO
8 the first four Eigen values of electron in eV. (4) 16
p 5
(iii). In Compton scattering, the energy of an electron of an incident X-ray
photon is 150 keV and that of scattered photon is 130 keV, Determine the angle
of scatterer.(4)
Apply the theory of quantum physics, show that the energy levels of an electron A CO
9 16
are discrete. p 5
Experiment with the principle and working of scanning tunneling electron A CO
10 16
microscope and list out its limitations. p 5