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Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres

Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales

http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011

Online Commentary to
Creating Contexts: Writing
Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak, John Swales, and Vera Irwin

Before we get to the actual commentaries on the tasks, a few preliminary

remarks would seem to be in order.

General Comments and

Teaching Suggestions
1. Regular users of the textbook (whether teachers, tutors, or independent
scholars) may find it more convenient to print out this commentary.
2. As always, we urge selective use of the material in the book because
many will find that not all tasks and activities are directly relevant to
their working situations; instructors, in particular, may wish to opt for
a different order of the material and may well find it helpful on occa-
sion to bring in supplementary texts.
3. This commentary provides answers to the tasks where possible as well as
some general remarks on using the material based on our experiences.
As you look over our proposed answers as well as those of our assistant,
Vera, you may at times disagree with or question our responses. If your
research is situated outside the field of applied linguistics, such as on the
border between medicine and engineering, your own perspective will
often be different from ours or that of our students. This is to be
expected when we consider that our views reflect our academic culture
as well as the cultures represented in our classrooms—culture here not
necessarily country of origin but mainly academic disciplines. As
described by Becher and Trowler (2001), these different disciplines can
be viewed in terms of “academic tribes and territories,” each with its

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011
2 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

own traditions and idiosyncratic practices. Different disciplinary per-

spectives sometimes lead to more questions than answers in relation to
the tasks; they may also predictably lead to disagreement and debate,
but also to an increased understanding of language, discourse, and
rhetoric. We hope that different traditions will be acknowledged and
the lack of clear-cut answers seen as an opportunity for discussion and
learning. In the end, this commentary should, therefore, be viewed
more as a guide than a set of absolute answers or source of hard and
fast rules.
4. This Online Commentary on the University of Michigan Press web-
site is obviously a more flexible document than a printed volume can
be. We welcome your comments and suggestions, which we may be
able to incorporate in occasional updates. We can be most easily
reached at [email protected] or [email protected].

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011

Some Preliminary Considerations

Task One 

Consider these statements about approaches to writing an introduction. With
which do you agree (A) or disagree (D)? Mark those about which you are unsure
with a question mark (?). Work with a partner if you have one.

In Task One we want to encourage authors to really think about the best
time to write an introduction. Many students and new authors mistakenly
believe that since the introduction comes first, it should be written first.
These same writers are quite surprised to learn that Chris rarely starts her
papers by writing the introduction first and rarely writes sections in order.
She begins with whatever section is easy and has been known to write as
many as a dozen different introductions for one paper; John, however, more
typically begins by writing the introduction (having spent a good amount of
time thinking about his paper before writing) and does only minimal rewrit-
ing once he has finished. Clearly, neither approach is inherently better than
the other, although the latter would appear to be more efficient provided
that an author can find the right starting point in his or her first attempt.
We would suggest that authors begin writing any part of the paper first in
order to at least have some sense of accomplishment. Instructors will find
that some of their students will already be doing this; for those that are not,
they will be relieved that many of us find introductions to be very challeng-
ing and that it is perfectly fine to delay writing them until students and new
authors have a sense of what their paper has accomplished.
Answers to Task One are completely dependent on authors’ own ideas
and experience; we are, therefore, hesitant to provide any answers here.
Instead, we offer a bit of commentary on a few of the points. For instructors
using this material in a class or workshop, we suggest small group work for
this task and allowing a lot of time for a larger class discussion. We also sug-
gest that instructors share their own preferences in order to give students a
look into their thinking that underlies the writing process.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011 3

_____ 1. I don’t yet know what my findings and conclusions will be, so
there’s no point in writing the introduction first.
Many advisors, in fact, recommend that dissertation writers wait
until some results are available. For journal articles, we think it
also makes sense to look at the data first to get a sense of how to
shape the paper. Writing up the results first can really help
authors see what they have to work with.
_____ 2. Drafting the introduction gets me thinking about the shape of the
paper as a whole, so that’s why I write it first.
Whether a writer can do this may depend on the type of paper.
This can work well for course papers that are based on the work
of others—as long as the writer does not get stuck trying to find
that perfect starting point. If, however, the paper requires some
data collection, consider our comment on the first point.
_____ 3. The introduction is so challenging, so it’s best to leave it till later.
Chris would wholeheartedly agree. Writing is hard enough, so
why not start with the easier sections?
_____ 4. The introduction is the hardest part. If I can do that, I can do the
rest. So, it’s best to begin with it.
Authors can feel quite a sense of accomplishment once the
introduction is written. So, we applaud those who can do this.
It is, however, important to not be too attached to an introduc-
tion written before all of the other parts, as discussed in Com-
ment 8 (Commentary page 5).
_____ 5. Writing the introduction first forces me to carefully consider the
previous literature on the topic, and that’s valuable.
Yes, to a great extent this is true, but this may also depend on
the type of paper being written. It’s important to know the liter-
ature related to a topic so that new work can be appropriately
situated or in a literature review to display familiarity. Introduc-
tions to case studies may require few, if any, references to prior
literature.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

_____ 6. The important parts are my own procedures and findings; I can
always work on the introduction and previous literature later.
Yes. The methods and results are often more straightforward
since authors know what they did and what they found.
_____ 7. I need to have an introduction before I write any other part. Even a
bad introduction is better than none at all.
It is sometimes helpful to have just a few lines so it looks like
there is a beginning. Even something as simple as This paper
discusses. . . .
_____ 8. It’s best for me to wait and write the introduction last. If I write it
first, it’s really hard for me to critically evaluate and/or delete what
I have done. So, I might just be wasting time if I try to write the
intro first.
It is often difficult to objectively look at one’s own writing, par-
ticularly if the writing of the text involved a lot of time and
effort. Authors are sometimes reluctant to delete or do major
revision. However, often they cannot see what should be
changed. Many of our students say that they may know some-
thing is not quite right, but they are not sure what it is.

The Captive Audience

A comment on our “captive audience” comment on page 2 in the main vol-
ume seems in order here. We are not suggesting that students should not be
concerned about introductions written for course papers. But unlike papers
written for a less highly specified audience who may pick and choose what to
read (e.g., journal article readers), the person responsible for evaluating a
course paper will read it. It will not be cast aside. Still, the stronger the intro-
duction, the better the first impression and overall positive reaction to the
work.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

The Overall Shape of an Introduction

Writers sometimes have difficulty moving from more general statements to
specific ones. In many of the student papers we look at, the ideas move from
specific to general and then back to specific (or they move from general to spe-
cific and then back to general). Such a progression of points or facts some-
times results because the writer simply does not know what to say. To get a
good sense of the overall general to specific pattern, it is worth looking at
many examples of well-written texts and note the progression of ideas.
As briefly mentioned in the main text, in some fields a specific to general
pattern may be more typical. The specific information is often a type of
scene setting that focuses on such things as a work of art, a building, or an
event. For more detail, jump ahead to the discussion on this type of intro-
duction on pages 96–98 in the main volume.

Task Two 

We think the text in Task Two is a pretty good example of how the facts or
points in a text can move from general to specific.

Consider this introduction to a Communications course paper entitled “Shaping

Public Opinion in the Web 2.0 Era” and written by a first-year graduate stu-
dent, Ping Yu. Answer the questions at the end. Sentence numbers have been
added for ease of analysis.

1. Which sentence(s) would fit in the general to specific progression given in

Figure 2?
Most students categorize the sentences in the text as shown here, but
sometimes there is disagreement as to where Sentence 4 belongs. In
the end, it really does not matter since the point here is to recognize
the overall progression of ideas.
Sentence numbers
General statement(s): 1 and 2
Detail or commentary related to the general statement(s): 3
More specific detail or commentary: 4 and 5
Broader statement(s), purpose or aims: 6 and 7

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

2. What is your reaction to the quote before the start of the introduction?
Do you think it serves a useful purpose?
Answers to this question vary a lot and seem to divide along discipli-
nary lines. Writers in the sciences typically say the quote is interesting,
but is not something that would be used in their fields. Others in the
social sciences and humanities think the quote is highly effective since
it captures the reader’s interest and encourages him or her to think
about new media, such as the Internet, and the impact on old media,
such as newspapers. They applaud the student for taking a risk and
starting this way. Many of our students say that they would like to use
epigraphs but, unfortunately, lack the confidence to do so.
Epigraphs have not received a lot of attention in the research on
writing and so not much is known about why and how authors choose
them. Possible reasons to use them include
• generating interest
• invoking an authority (well-known individuals are generally the
sources of epigraphs—as in the case of Marshall McLuhan and
Plato)
• indicating the direction of a text
• creating a lens through which the text should be understood
• showing that the author has read widely.
Indeed, an epigraph can transform what might otherwise be a
somewhat bland paper into one that is thought-provoking and interest-
ing to read. The use of an epigraph is not risk free, however. Some prob-
lems with epigraphs that we have seen in papers include the following:
• The epigraph may be more interesting than the paper it precedes.
• The epigraph might be too long and lessen, rather than
heighten, a reader’s interest.
• The epigraph may not be clearly connected to the paper.
• An epigraph from an unknown person may not carry any weight.
• The epigraph may actually contradict a central point in the
paper, causing some confusion.
Despite the potential dangers, we encourage our students to
experiment with epigraphs in their papers where possible.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

3. How good is the fit between the first and second paragraphs? In Sen-
tence 6, what would be the effect of eliminating the phrase To explore
this issue?
It seems like a good fit since the expression establishes a content bridge
between the two paragraphs—this issue here is whether traditional
news media still have the power to strongly shape public opinion.
Summary phrases such as this can be quite effective. If the expression
were omitted, the start of the second paragraph might seem somewhat
abrupt, despite, perhaps, being somewhat expected.

4. What is the purpose of the second paragraph? What term is used to

describe such paragraphs? Do you think such paragraphs are helpful?
The second paragraph outlines the aims of the paper and can be
described as an overview. Note the metadiscourse (guiding language)
in the paragraph: this paper examines and this paper begins. Take a look
at the Language Focus on guiding readers on pages 86–87 in the main
volume for more on this important topic.

5. What would be the effect of simply starting with the second paragraph?
Some of our students think that the paper would be perfectly fine
without the first paragraph. Again, there seem to be some disciplinary
preferences here. Many, but not all, in the hard sciences tend to argue
the first paragraph is unnecessary. The social scientists for the most
part tend to think the first paragraph is essential. They argue that the
paper would lack a context and would not reveal the importance of
looking at the topic. Thus, a critical reader might wonder what has
motivated the discussion. A “captive reader” may have a less positive
initial reaction to the paper since without the first paragraph the rele-
vance of the topic is not clear. Coming from a social science perspec-
tive ourselves, we would agree.

6. Does the introduction suggest that the student is engaged in the topic
and will possibly have something relevant to say about it? Why or why
not?
As outsiders to the field of communications, this is hard to judge. How-
ever, the student, Ping Yu, took time to find a quote that she thought
would prompt the reader to think about the broader issue of old and
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011
O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS 9

new media. She highlights the fact that there is ongoing debate, indicat-
ing that the issue is not uncontroversial and therefore is worthy of inter-
est. At the same time, we do not get a sense of where she stands, so it
remains open whether she will have something interesting to say or
whether her investigation will merely confirm what is perhaps already
known. That said, the topic itself seems really promising to us and per-
haps we may reasonably anticipate something significant will emerge.
If this task is being used in a workshop or a class, participants could
be asked to try to include some stance markers (discussed later in the
volume; see page 73) to give the impression of greater engagement
with the topic. Alternatively, participants could be given partial sen-
tences that could potentially be added to the text; they could then be
asked to evaluate whether these improve the text, and then where a
sentence might be advantageously added.
This paper argues that . . .
In this paper I argue that . . .
These media outlets were chosen because . . .
Thus, this paper offers a direct comparison of old and new media that
...

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Language Focus: Old to New Flow of Ideas

Of all the topics we deal with in our writing classes, this one by
far opens the most eyes and produces what Chris describes as
an Aha-Erlebnis, a concept from German that refers to a kind of
revelation or insight that suddenly appears and offers a solution
to a problem that one is facing. The notion of old to new informa-
tion flow is both simple and challenging. Despite possibly being
able to see what is going on in terms of the old to new link
between sentences, writers often find this strategy very difficult to
put into practice. At the same time, being aware of this para-
digm, writers can at the very least attempt to apply it when they
sense something is wrong with a nearly finished text and are not
sure what to do. For practice, we suggest that writers take a text
that has been criticized as being unclear or poorly written and
mark the beginnings and ends of the sentences to see whether
they are following old to new information flow. For some writers
it is quite a revelation that each of their sentences introduces a
new topic at the beginning or that they consistently place the old
information at the ends of the sentences. A concerted effort to
establish an old to new flow of ideas can often lead to a dramatic
improvement in a text. We have worked with students who have
been told that their writing was incomprehensible, often by their
advisors (one actually saying the student’s writing was like a
mess of stir-fried food). After several months of work on old to
new connections, the students were then able to produce texts
that flowed well and clearly conveyed their ideas. Advisors
notice the difference.
A focus on old to new also gives insights into the use of pas-
sive voice (which many advisors tell students should never be
used) and how passive constructions can help maintain a good
flow of ideas. The choice of using active or passive voice should
not be based on the mistaken notion that passive must be
avoided. Rather, the choice should rest on whether active or pas-
sive voice would preserve a good flow of ideas. Take this excerpt
from a paper, for example.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Old-New Connection Established Using Passive Voice

Malicious programs that send out information over the Inter-
net are a major threat on the Internet today. These programs,
which include spyware and Trojans, have been identified by
most businesses as their number one security issue [21],
especially when remote access is given to an attacker via a
botnet.

Note how the use of active voice would weaken the old-new con-
nection since most businesses seems to come from nowhere.

Malicious programs that send out information over the Inter-

net are a major threat on the Internet today. Most businesses
have identified these programs, which include spyware and
Trojans, as their number one security issue [21], especially
when remote access is given to an attacker via a botnet.

While one might argue that the connection between the two sen-
tences is still there because of these programs, the tighter con-
nection offered by the passive construction is apparent to us.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Three 

Work though this exercise, which focuses on using old to new information flow to
establish a clear connection of ideas. Compare your answers with those of a part-
ner if you can.
Students and workshop participants really like this task and consistently
comment on how valuable it was for them to see how writing is not just a
matter of producing grammatically correct sentences, but rather involves
careful thinking about how to present information so that the reader can
easily grasp the message that an author wants to convey. In doing this task
they see how the flow of ideas can be unclear even when the grammar is fine.

1. Let’s imagine that you are going to write about why people often mis-
judge how much time it takes to complete a task. You begin with this first
sentence.

What information should the next sentence begin with to meet the
reader’s expectation? Think about the old to new pattern of organizing
information. List the possibilities here.

When we need to complete a task, we often have a rather unrealistic

idea of how long it will take to finish it. One might expect the next
sentence to
• talk about why we have unrealistic ideas
• give an example of a task that required far more time to complete
than one expected, such as writing a paper
• talk about the consequences of poorly judging one’s time.

2. Which of these possibilities for Sentence 2 seems best? Why?

2aThe planning fallacy (Bueler et al., 2002) is something we all have had
to face.
2bWe all have had to deal with the planning fallacy (Bueler et al., 2002).
2cThis phenomenon is known as the planning fallacy (Bueler et al., 2002).
2dAccording to Bueler et al. (2002), the planning fallacy is faced by everyone.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Most students choose 2c because this phenomenon refers to misjudging

the amount of time needed—information that is familiar. Sentences
2a and 2d abruptly introduce new information (the planning fallacy)
that seems to come from nowhere. Although Sentence 2b starts with
We, which is old information, it is not a strong enough connection to
comfortably lead the reader to the planning fallacy. In 2b readers still
have to figure out what the planning fallacy is, so in the end there is no
clear information link to the previous sentence.

3. Which of these two would you prefer for Sentence 3? Why?

3aWe often underestimate the time needed for a number of reasons.
3bThe planning fallacy exists for a number of reasons.
The continuation with we does not help focus on the topic. While Sen-
tence 3a is grammatically correct, it does not provide the best connec-
tion of ideas. And notice that the connection to we is in the first
sentence, assuming that 2c is the prereading sentence. Old to new con-
nections should be established in sequential sentences; in other words,
there should not be a sentence between the old connections. We suggest
3b as the better alternative. Some students argue that it is bad style to
repeat the planning fallacy, but in our experience such deliberate back-to-
back repetition is common enough and very likely readers will not even
notice it, if done for a good reason.

4. What would be a logical content focus for Sentence 4?

This sentence should offer some reasons for why the planning fallacy
exists.

5. Read Versions A and B of the beginning of the introduction. Which do

you prefer? Why?
Students and workshop participants overwhelmingly prefer B because
their expectations of what the sentences will discuss are met. The old
to new connections are clear.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

6. For both Versions A and B, try to guess where the paper might be
headed? What would you envision as a Sentence 5 for each version?
For Version A, if we assume the writer will follow old to new informa-
tion flow, then Sentence 5 should focus on why people need to over-
come this problem, but we have no reason to anticipate this, given
what we have read in Sentences 1–4. Thus, in A it is difficult to antic-
ipate what Sentence 5 will discuss. While A is grammatically correct, it
does not seem to have a sense of direction; each sentence seems to be
introducing new information and so there does not appear to be
movement from a general point to more specific detail related to that
point. Sentence 5 is likely to begin with we but then could introduce
any point connected with the planning fallacy.
Readers can reasonably anticipate that Sentence 5 of Version B will
focus on how a lack of experience causes people to misjudge how
much time they need to complete a task.

Task Four 

If Task Four is being used in a class or a workshop, time may be an issue. In
our classes, students often are not able to finish in less than 45 minutes. One
way to successfully use this task is to have students begin working on it in
class and then finish it as a homework assignment. In actually writing up a
revision, students see that it is sometimes relatively easy to identify problems
with the flow of information, but that actually revising the text is quite dif-
ficult. We like to share in class several examples of how the text was revised.
We do this by having a few students present their revisions of the text to the
class and discuss their rationale for the changes made. This can, of course,
take up a lot of class time, but it is often well worth the effort. This can also
be done in small groups to allow more students to share their work.
This task presents the first two paragraphs of a draft of an introduction from a
course paper focusing on the protection of biodiversity. You may notice that the
second paragraph reads a bit more smoothly than the first. This underscores the
fact that opening paragraphs are particularly challenging to write because there
are so many possible starting points. Using what you have learned so far about
old to new information flow, revise the first paragraph so that the information
connection from one sentence to the next is clear. Make any small changes you
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011
O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS 15

like to the second paragraph as well.

Here is how one student revised the text. The new information is in italics,
and the old or bridging information is in bold.

1 National parks and reserves are protected areas (PAs) that play a
vital role in conserving biodiversity worldwide. 2 Today PAs are defined
as “areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and
maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cul-
tural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means”
(Dudley and Philips, 2006). 3 Over 100,000 PAs (11.5% of the
Earth’s land surface) are listed in the World Database on Protected
Areas (World Resource Institute, 2004) compiled by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 4 Founded in 1948, the
IUCN was not initially concerned with conserving biodiversity.
5 However, given the growing threat of habitat loss, in the 1990s the
IUCN began focusing heavily on conserving and protecting biodiversity.
6 Early approaches to protection consisted mainly of discouraging
human encroachment. 7 This strategy mainly followed a “fences and
fines” approach in which people are excluded from protected areas by
drawing boundaries and penalized if a boundary is crossed.
8 Unfortunately, traditional approaches such as “fences and
fines” fail to balance the conservation objective with the livelihoods of
local communities denied access to the natural resources in the protected
areas. 9 To address this issue, beginning in the 1970s and 1980s, the
conservation community increasingly realized that protected area man-
agement needs to include support for impoverished people who live in or
adjacent to PAs and are dependent on the local natural resources within
these areas. Ba This focus on local needs led to the concept of Integrated
Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) (Brandon and Wells,
1992; Mogelgaard, 2003).

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Points of Departure: Starting the

Introduction
Regardless of whether authors begin writing a paper by writing an introduc-
tion or not, at some point, consideration will have to be given to that all-
important first sentence. The Hartley (2009) research provides interesting
food for thought since most of us tend to adhere to one or only a few kinds
of opening strategies.

Task Five 

Here are some possible types of first sentences or openings to an introduction.
Mark with a check () those that you think would be appropriate in your field
for a course paper and/or for a research article for publication or a proposal (con-
sider either a dissertation proposal or a small grant proposal to fund travel to a
conference, or another research proposal).

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Course
Paper or
Project
Report Proposal Publication

1. surprising idea or statistics, particu-

larly those highlighting a problem or
unusual finding _____ _____ _____

2. a comment on the scope or focus of

past or current research _____ _____ _____

3. a story about real people and their

experience (or even one focusing on
yourself ) _____ _____ _____

4. common knowledge in your field ___ _ ___

5. a definition ___ _ ___

6. a question that engages the reader ___ _ ___

7. an opinion regarding research findings ___ _ ___

8. a reference to a single study, a quote,

or a leading scholar _____ _____ _____

9. a comment on research directions or

orientations _____ _____ _____

10. a statement indicating the purpose of

the paper _____ _____ _____

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

We have in fact seen all of these openers for course papers, course projects,
published papers, and proposals. However, some openers are a little less
likely than others. For instance, for a major grant proposal, word and char-
acter limitations are so strict that stories are rather unlikely. For course
papers, stories may be somewhat more common. We encourage writers to
look at 10–20 first sentences in journals in their fields to get a sense of how
articles “introduce the introduction.” An analysis of first sentences of stu-
dent papers can also be carried out using MICUSP. And if proposals are
available, a similar kind of analysis would be fruitful.

Can you think of any other ways to open?

Here are a few other possibilities: a fictional/hypothetical scenario; a quote
from the media or a person not in academia; a reference to popular culture.

Now look at these openings from published papers. Working from this list, label
the opening according to the ten types given. Do any of these make you curious
about the paper content? Which, if any, suggest that the student author is
engaged in the topic?

1. The video game industry has grown at a tremendous rate. Common

knowledge in the field
2. In recent years, human-computer interaction researchers have given
considerable attention to digital photographic practice as a central fea-
ture of contemporary home life in Anglo-American societies. Focus on
current research
3. This study has two purposes: (a) to describe the mental health status
of frail elders living at home in Michigan and (b) to identify sub-
groups of individuals, by sociodemographic and clinical characteris-
tics, who are more likely to experience mental health problems.
Purpose of the paper
4. When modeling the dynamics of a complex structure, it is often
impractical to perform a finite element analysis of the entire structure.
Common knowledge in the field
5. Perspectives on the extent of bacterial diversity have expanded sub-

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

stantially in the past decade. Common knowledge in the field

6. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis proposed by Keeley and Bond
(1999) argues that lightning-ignited wildfire has synchronized flower-
ing and recruitment of bamboos throughout Asia. Reference to a sin-
gle study
7. The problem of autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) control con-
tinues to pose considerable challenges to system designers, especially
when the vehicles are underactuated and exhibit large parameter
uncertainty. Common knowledge in the field or possibly a comment
on research orientation
8. Plastic shrinkage is the dimensional change that occurs in all fresh
cement-based materials within the first few hours after placement
when the mixture is still plastic and has not yet achieved any signifi-
cant strength. Definition
9. At first sight the hypothesis that television viewing could be related to
the cycles of the moon might appear to be far-fetched, not to say pre-
posterous. Surprising idea
10. It is probably not news to anyone in academia that the experience of
submitting one’s work for publication—a high stakes game upon
which hiring, promotion, and continued employment can depend—
is often fraught with frustration and disappointment. Common
knowledge
As far as displaying engagement this is really hard to tell on the basis
of one sentence. However, one of the openings stands out as revealing
a confident writer who seems to have something to say: Number 10.
In this opening, the writer is clearly talking to the readers and
expresses an awareness of what the audience knows. This opening
also suggests the potential for an interesting paper that both of us
would like to read. Chris is also quite curious about Number 9. The
possibility that the paper will actually argue and maybe even demon-
strate that the moon can influence TV viewing behavior makes her
want to read that paper.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

The task does not provide an example of questions used as openers. So, here
we provide one such example from “Sweet future: Fluctuating blood glucose
levels affect future discounting,” which was published in Psychological Sci-
ence in 2010. Note the interesting use of an epigraph at the beginning. We
think it is safe to say that this is not a typical opening, but it does generate
interest in the paper.
Sweet Future: Fluctuating Blood Glucose Levels Affect Future Discounting
These high wild hills and rough uneven ways,
Draw out our miles and make them wearisome;
But yet your fair discourse hath been as sugar,
Making the hard way sweet and delectable.
—William Shakespeare (from Richard II, Act II, Scene III)
Would a grain of sugar itself, instead of a Shakespearean metaphor, make
one’s expected future sweeter? Would the mind read fluctuating blood
glucose levels? Would a person’s daily body-energy budget affect his or
her evaluation of future rewards?
Surprisingly little is known about how fluctuating blood glucose levels
affect cognitive functions. From a perspective of body-energy regulation,
we examined how the daily fluctuation of blood glucose levels regulates
evaluation and choice of present versus future rewards, as measured by
future, or delay, discount rate.
Wang, X.T., & Dvorak, R.B. (2010). Sweet future: Fluctuating blood
glucose levels affect future discounting. Psychological Science, 21,
183–188.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011

Introductions to Course Papers

Quite a lot has been written on this topic, most of which has centered on
undergraduate writing. Writers who have had a U.S.-style first-year com-
position course will probably recall the emphasis on hooking the reader in
the introduction or other similar advice. However, what might have been
successful in an undergraduate context may not be equally successful in a
graduate/professional writing context.
Table 1 gives an idea of how course papers tend to begin at the graduate
and upper-level undergraduate level, but should not be interpreted to mean
that papers should begin this way. Many factors contribute to the content and
type of introduction, such as whether a topic was assigned or not, the writer’s
familiarity and comfort with the material, past experience with the current
instructor and other instructors, and the amount of time available to complete
the paper. We offer the table simply to give an idea of what has been done in
successful papers.
Note that in the third column some introductions are also designated as
having an I perspective. This means that the writer used I. Whether to use I
or not is a common question among writers. Some of our students have
learned that they should never use I, but we is okay. We think the decision
whether or not to use I should depend on a number or factors: the genre,
journal and discipline preferences, advisor’s wishes in the case of graduate
students, and the writer’s comfort with inserting him- or herself into the
text. There are no absolute rules, just preferences and tendencies.
Table 1 can also be sorted according to field to give a sense of the ten-
dencies in the fields represented. The re-sorted table is given here.
Table 1a. Openings in Student Papers (N = 51) Sorted According to Field

Paper Type Field Introduction Opening

Argument Biology Hypothetical scenario

Argument Biology Definition
Argument Biology Question
Argument Biology Reference to single studies
Proposal Biology Evaluation of research finding
Proposal Biology Scope of past research
Argument Civil and Environmental Engineering Definition
Critique Civil and Environmental Engineering Common knowledge

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011 21

Critique Civil and Environmental Engineering Statement of purpose

Other Civil and Environmental Engineering Story about a real situation
Report Civil and Environmental Engineering Statement of purpose
Report Civil and Environmental Engineering Statement of what was done in student’s
research
Critique Economics Reference to single study
Critique Economics Reference to single study
Essay Economics Scope of past research
Report Economics Common knowledge
Report Economics Common knowledge
Report Economics Reference to single study
Research Economics Common knowledge
Research Economics Reference to single study
Research Economics Scope of past research
Research Economics Statement of fact
Research Economics Statement of purpose
Report Mechanical Engineering Common knowledge
Research Mechanical Engineering Comment on research direction
Research Mechanical Engineering Common knowledge
Research Mechanical Engineering Definition
Research Mechanical Engineering Definition
Research Mechanical Engineering Hypothetical scenario
Research Mechanical Engineering Hypothetical scenario (I perspective)
Research Mechanical Engineering Reference to popular culture
Research Mechanical Engineering Statement of purpose
Critique Physics Definition
Prop Physics Definition
Report Physics Comment on research direction
Report Physics Comment on research direction
Report Physics Common knowledge
Report Physics Common knowledge
Report Physics Definition
Report Physics Definition
Report Physics Statement of purpose (I perspective)
Research Physics Definition
Research Physics Scope of past research
Research Physics Statement of what was done in student’s
research (I perspective)
Report Psychology Common knowledge/surprising statistics
Report Psychology Definition
Report Psychology Definition
Report Psychology Reference to single study
Research Psychology Common knowledge
Research Psychology Question

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Six 

Look at Table 1, and consider whether there are any trends or tendencies in terms
of the field or type of paper and the type of introduction. To help you do this,
complete the chart, which reorganizes the information in the table. The first row
has been done for you. After completing the chart, choose four or five papers that
you have recently written and look at how you started. Do you think your open-
ings were effective? Why did you choose the openings of those papers?

Papers with at Fields with at

Type of Number of Least Two of the Least Two of the
Opening Examples Opening Types Opening Types
Comment on 3 Report Physics
research
direction
Common 10 Report Economics
knowledge Research Mechanical
Engineering
Psychology
Definition 11 Argument Physics
Critique Psychology
Report Mechanical
Research Engineering
Hypothetical 3 Research Mechanical
scenario Engineering
Question 2
Reference to 6 Critique Economics
single study Report
Scope of past 4 Research Economics
research
Statement of 5 Research Civil Engineering
purpose Report
Story about a 1
real situation

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

The strong trend here is that our sample of papers displays a noticeable pref-
erence for starting with some kind of factual information, common knowl-
edge, or a definition. This is understandable since such openings are low-risk
and allow the reader to begin with something that may be familiar—again
the old/familiar to new information paradigm is at work here. We can also
see that papers in economics, engineering, and psychology have in common
certain opening types, namely definitions and common knowledge, but
some economics papers also begin with a more narrow focus on research in
the field. It is interesting that the one paper that began with a story is from
civil engineering. This introduction was very effective at drawing the reader
into the paper by connecting the topic to a real-world experience Here is the
introduction from that paper.
I live in a loosely arranged cooperative house of seven people. We have
formal arrangements for sharing chores, costs, and cooking, but the indi-
vidual act of dishwashing is harder to police and thus is not formally
shared. There is no dishwashing machine, and the dish policy is that no
one is to leave dirty dishes in the sink. If one accepts that the welfare of
house residents is affected by the state of the sink—a dirty sink may be
smelly, unhealthy, and in the extreme, unusable—then the dishes at this
house met the criteria for a collective action problem (CAP): each of the
residents has a binary choice about washing the dishes in the sink, is
inclined not to do so, and these choices affect other residents of the
house.
MICUSP CEE.G3.04.3, Dish-Washing as a Multi-Actor Prisoner’s
Dilemma
Such personal, real-world focused openings, while not extremely common in
academic writing, can be found in a variety of fields, as demonstrated later
in the volume (see page 45).

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Seven 

Consider this prompt for a course paper in information science. If you were to
respond to this prompt for a course, how would the prompt factor in your
introduction?
Option 1 (restating) and Option 4 (beginning with one’s purpose) are cer-
tainly safe and would serve as adequate openers. However, they could sug-
gest that the writer is not particularly engaged or making any effort to take
ownership of the topic. Option 3, challenging the prompt, is a risky strategy,
depending on whether the writer is agreeing with the instructor of the
course or essentially dismissing what the instructor might view as a highly
important matter. Characterizing the relationship between blogging and
intellectual property rights as a non-issue may be bold, but in a well-written
paper, this boldness may be rewarded. The second option, redefining the
prompt, does not mention blogs, which are central to the given topic. This
might cause a reader to be curious and interested in how the student will
proceed, making a good first impression, and risk-taking here may also be
rewarded. Alternatively, if an instructor merely wants to see what the student
will argue, Option 2 might give a fast (or less careful) reader the impression
that the paper is off topic. In the end, we cannot say that one approach is
inherently better than another; it is more a matter of considering the advan-
tages and disadvantages of each and being aware of how these might affect
the reader’s opinion of the paper. MICUSP has a lot of papers that fall into
the Option 1 and 4 categories, as well as many that fall into the Option 2
and 3 categories. Even so, students should think about how the different
options contribute to impression management as well as positioning them-
selves as knowledgeable and capable.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Eight 

This task is based on a paper from MICUSP. First, read the writing prompt,
which was given as an assignment in a graduate psychology class. Then read the
introduction to the student’s response, and answer the question at the end.

1. How well has the student positioned herself as a knowledgeable member

of the discipline?
It seems to us that the student is largely giving a reaction to the topic
and not really giving the appearance of being an expert or having
expertise. A student more concerned about positioning him- or herself
as having knowledge or expertise might try to do something more
than restate portions of the prompt and talk about how he or she feels.
It may be more advantageous to problematize, perhaps by indicating
how in some countries those with mental illness may not receive the
care that they need and that there is a need to address this issue. The
here is why phrase at the end seems rather odd. However, keep in mind
that this example comes from MICUSP, and the paper did receive an
A, the highest score.
2. What assumptions has the student made about her audience?
If you took away the prompt, one main assumption becomes appar-
ent. The writer assumes the reader is familiar with the topic as well as
with issues related to the study and treatment of psychopathology.
3. This introduction seems rather conversational in tone. Would you agree?
And if so, do you think this is a good strategy for a graduate student?
This introduction does strike us as rather informal in style, especially
here is why at the end. The use of contractions, the repeated sentence
structure (two sentences begin with While I think . . . I . . . ), and the
rather undemanding vocabulary may contribute to this impression, as
well, although in the case of contractions these are increasingly more
common in academic writing. Whether or not adopting a conversa-
tional style is a good strategy is hard to answer. On the one hand, such
a style may allow the writer to get across his or her ideas quite clearly.
On the other hand, there may be an expectation that the level of
sophistication of the writing should be on par with that of the ideas.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

4. What is your reaction to the use of I here?

I does allow the student to take ownership of the ideas, but notice that
I could be removed with only a negligible effect, as demonstrated here.
While international research can be useful for psychological
researchers in the United States and other countries, researchers in the
United States or any other country cannot or should not “require” the
study of psychology in adults all over the world. Similarly, there may
be a greater demand for the treatment of psychopathology worldwide,
but we cannot or should not implement a universal “requirement” to
treat psychopathology in adults all over the world. Here is why.

Task Nine 

An international student has asked several friends for some feedback on this intro-
duction to an information science course paper that focuses on email overload.
We think each of the reactions to the paper has some merit. As Student 1
points out, some information seems irrelevant. Student 2’s suggestion that
the first paragraph be eliminated seems a bit harsh, but not completely
unwarranted; perhaps a better strategy would be to shorten the first para-
graph so that the reader could see the focus more quickly. Taking Student 1’s
recommendation might do the trick. Student 3 is looking for the good,
which can give the writer confidence but does not offer a lot of constructive
suggestions for improving the introduction. We like the observation that the
connection to the real world may be effective. Finally, Student 4 does direct
the student to consider eliminating unnecessary information and more effec-
tively building off the quotes. Perhaps having information prominent (non-
integral) rather than author prominent citations would help here?
We would also suggest that Tze-Hsiang try to indicate at the end of the
introduction what he will do in the paper. As it stands, it is not clear what he
will discuss. Here is how Tze-Hsiang revised his introduction to his paper,
which received an A.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

1.Introduction
1 As a product of information technology, electronic mail (e-mail) is
a widely used communication medium for task cooperation and personal
interaction. 2 Nowadays, it’s safe to say that e-mail has become extremely
important in both our personal and professional lives. 3 Moreover, e-
mail has improved the lives of those who use it. 4 According to Mano
and Mesch (2009), “e-mail, as a technological means to improve the lives
of individuals and employees, has proved beneficial in many areas, pro-
viding better use of time, and fluidity in correspondence”(p. 68). 5 How-
ever, while people experience many advantages in communicating via
e-mail, many disadvantages exist in this technology. 6 For instance,
Pliskin (1989) found that “when E-mail works well it is a user’s dream,
i.e. a tool that help cope with geographical and temporal boundaries. 7
Unfortunately, E-mail can also be a user’s nightmare.” (p. 271) 8 This
suggests that e-mail has it own limitations and drawbacks.
9 The broader study of the impacts of contemporary information
technologies reveals that e-mail is now more than just a communication
tool for users. Ba According to Whittaker and Sidner (1996), “empirical
data show however, that although email was originally designed as a com-
munications applications, it is now being used for additional functions
that is was not designed for, such as task management and personal
archiving. Bb These additional functions lead to what we call e-mail over-
load” (p. 276). Bc E-mail overload is prevalent among current e-mail users
who use it for task management, personal archiving and asynchronous
communication. Bd E-mail overload is a serious issue because it can lead
to problems with personal information management. Be Too many kinds
of e-mail, such as conversational threads, outstanding tasks and unread
documents, create clutter in a user’s inbox (Whittaker and Sidner, 1996,
p. 276). Bf This clutter causes users a great deal of stress and sometimes
even leads to the loss of information or missed information. Bg In this

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

paper, I will document the causes of e-mail overload at the University of

Michigan School of Information Science and introduce a case study of
three students who are dealing with this phenomenon. Bh This case study
will categorize user strategies for dealing with e-mail overload and argue
that approaches can be taken to address the volume of e-mail that stu-
dents receive each week.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011

Introductions to Book Reviews

Book reviews are written both as course papers and as texts for publication,
and so they serve as a nice bridge between pedagogical (classroom) genres
and research genres. Book reviews are more common in some fields as course
assignments than in others and more likely to be a first publication for indi-
viduals in certain fields, such as the social sciences, than for others in the
harder sciences. Thus, this section of the volume may not initially appear to
be relevant for writers in all disciplines. We believe, however, that this sec-
tion can help authors see how evaluative texts begin and can suggest openers
that may be useful for, say, manuscript or other reviews in a variety of fields.
We think it is noteworthy that student writers of book reviews display a
much narrower range of openings than the published authors, a point that is
well-worth discussing in a class or workshop.

Task Ten 

As identified by Motta-Roth (1998) and others, different kinds of information

can provide the backdrop for published book reviews, some examples of which
are given here. The different kinds of information can be used alone or in com-
bination with each other. Which of these would you likely choose for a book
review for publication in a journal in your field? Which do you think could also
be used in a book review for a course in your field? Why?

Answers here will vary depending on one’s discipline and experience. For
instance, we have learned over the years that in engineering, book reviews
are not lengthy texts and are not highly evaluative. They are more like sum-
maries that may also provide information on price. We have also found that
most graduate students in our classes (regardless of the discipline) never or
rarely read book reviews, and so do not know how to respond. A small num-
ber of our students do read book reviews and these same students have often
written at least one book review for a class.
Before working with this task in class, Chris asks students to bring one or
two book reviews to class (or download them while in class) and then asks
them to discuss issues of content, evaluation, style, length, and any other fea-
tures that seem relevant. She also shares reviews of her and John’s textbooks

30 © The University of Michigan Press, 2011

and discusses her reactions to the comments. This is particularly interesting

for students who can see how a review is received by a book author and then
think about the need to consider the book author when writing the review.
Students are also surprised that Chris in particular is quite interested in neg-
ative, but fair, criticisms of her work, her reasoning being that often there is
much more to learn from the negative than the positive—as long as the neg-
ative is reasonable and well-supported.

Here are our responses to the task.

1. Summarizing the focus

This is very common among all book reviews.

2. Describing potential readership or talking about “the reader”

This is often hard for junior scholars since it requires a fairly good
awareness of one’s field and a bit of confidence to even suggest that the
reviewer knows what typical readers are like or would expect.

3. Providing information about the author(s)

This would work if the writer’s goal is to display familiarity with other
scholars in the field. By giving information about the book author,
which is predictably positive, the writer may be setting the stage for
praise.

4. Making generalizations about the topic

This can be effective for all book reviews since generalizations can cre-
ate a context for the review.

5. Establishing the place of the book in the field

This requires that the writer be very familiar with the field and have a
good grasp of its history. Such an opening may be quite challenging
for a junior scholar.

6. Evaluating the book

As the example indicates, providing an evaluation in the opening sen-
tence clearly sets the tone for the remainder of the review. Readers
have little doubt about the writer’s overall impression of the book.
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011
32 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

Offering an evaluation before anything is known about the book or

the area of research may not be the best strategy, however. Notice that
the example first focuses on the author of the book, which likely con-
veys relevant content information to others in the field.

Language Focus: As
This first language focus delves into a small word that initially
may seem hardly worthy of attention. Looking closer, however,
we have found this focus to be quite useful for students and other
writers. It is clear that as has many functions, not all of which
may be familiar to writers. Although some of our students are
familiar with many of the uses of as, most tend to use it primarily
as a synonym for because or perhaps in linking clauses, for
example, as shown in Figure 1. While we were selecting book
review excerpts for the volume, we were struck by how as was
used and decided some intensive treatment at this point in the
text might be worthwhile. Students find the third example of as
usage very helpful since this offers them a way to position them-
selves as having (or perhaps strategically lacking) some author-
ity in relation to a topic; for example, as a graduate student, I
find this book very challenging to understand. Our experience
working on as was a good reminder that even something so
small can be of interest to students. We encourage teachers to
find other vocabulary that is vexing students and create some
materials to help them deal with it. In this regard, Chris has had
a lot of success developing tasks on vocabulary that students say
they would like to use, but are really unsure of how to use them.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Eleven 

Write two short introductions to a review of Creating Contexts: Writing Intro-
ductions across Genres for two different audiences: (1) readers of a journal in
your field and (2) your instructor or students at your institution.
We would have a hard time writing a review of our own work and so we
asked our assistant, Vera, to try her hand at writing two reviews. Needless to
say, as our assistant, she is not unbiased, but we thought it would be interest-
ing to see how she would approach the task.

An introduction to a book review written for students

Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres by Christine B.
Feak and John M. Swales will be particularly valued by authors just
starting their academic journey. The volume, just one in a series of pub-
lications on academic writing, is intended to guide the reader through
the ins and outs of writing introductions across academic genres and
disciplines. This small but insightful volume is full of practical writing
advice, real-life examples, and hands-on tasks that are designed to raise
the reader’s awareness of various aspects of writing introductions in their
own disciplines. As such, the volume can be used both for self-study and
as a text in a course on academic writing, suitable both for native and
non-native speaker audiences.

An introduction to a book review written for publication

Christine B. Feak and John M. Swales have long established them-
selves as leading authors of textbooks and materials on English in acade-
mia. Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres is the third in
a series of publications on academic writing, following earlier volumes
on writing of academic abstracts and literature reviews. The present vol-
ume takes the readers through ins and outs of writing introductions
across academic genres and disciplines and can be used as a resource
both for individual scholars searching for advice on writing and for
instructors teaching courses on academic English to graduate students
and junior researchers.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011

Introductions to Critiques and

Reviews of Journal Articles and
Book Chapters
Apart from book reviews, students and scholars may also be involved in
reviewing shorter works such as book chapters, journal articles, or manu-
scripts submitted for publication. There are some similarities between
reviews of the latter group and book reviews in terms of the evaluation that
is done. However, published book reviews are reviews of both a product and
someone’s intellectual work that are easily accessed via journal websites and
other electronic journal databases. The other kinds of reviews can be a bit
more difficult to find and hence we refer to them as occluded. We encourage
writers to ask colleagues, advisors, and friends to share their reviews of their
work, both good and bad, along with reviews they have written.
Chris usually brings to classes and workshops manuscript reviews that
she has written in order to discuss her rationale for what she said and how.
As with book reviews, she also shares those that she has received. She also
strongly suggests that students and workshop participants gain other per-
spectives on the writing of reviews by asking others to share and discuss their
reviews with them.

Task Twelve 

Read this introduction to a manuscript review for a business journal. Answer the
questions at the end.

1. Does the reviewer seem to be addressing the manuscript author in a

respectful manner? Why or why not?
We think the review is respectful. In the introductory paragraphs we
first see a summary and then some positive commentary. The writer is
careful not to be strongly negative, while indicating that the paper has
some shortcomings. Notice that the writer did not say that the manu-
script author failed, but keeps the focus on the study.

34 © The University of Michigan Press, 2011

2. Has the reviewer adequately prepared the manuscript author for the neg-
ative comments? What is your reaction to the phrase having said this?
It is always nice to hear something good about one’s work before read-
ing the negative, and this strategy is often used to ease the “pain” of the
criticism and to try to save the face of the recipient. So, we think the
writer has reasonably prepared the author of the manuscript. Having
said this does mark the start of the negative commentary and a reader
should know that this is coming. The use of that expression seems a
bit more gentle than beginning with however or unfortunately.

3. Underline the instances of evaluative statements (positive or negative).

Positive
• several strengths in this study
• the research questions that the study raises are quite interesting
• this study tackles a fresh issue that has not been fully studied in
our field, and the author(s) seem to have made a conscious effort
to obtain quality data to confirm the hypotheses
• the empirical investigations have been fairly well conducted
• this study has the potential to make a meaningful contribution to
the literature
Negative
• this study is not sufficiently developed
• there are several issues, which are not necessarily serious, but
which must be addressed

4. What verb tense is primarily used in the introduction?

Present tense

5. What verbs does the reviewer use to introduce the content of the manu-
script? What verbs does the reviewer use to introduce his opinion?
Verbs Introducing Verbs Introducing
Manuscript Content Author’s Opinion
poses pleased to find
asks believe
provides suggest
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36 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

6. In Sentence 9, the reviewer states that there are several issues, which are
not necessarily serious, but which must be addressed. How strong is the
statement? Do you view it as very negative, somewhat negative, or neu-
tral? Why did the reviewer include which are not necessarily serious?
The reviewer is trying to not be overly negative in stating that the
manuscript still needs work and wants to mitigate the comment by
using not necessarily serious. We think this expression could serve to
prevent the manuscript author from having an initial strong negative
reaction, which could cloud the reading of the remaining commentary.
For more on how writers react to criticism, look at the interview on
pages 106–108 of the main volume.

7. Would your opinion of Sentence 9 be different, if it used the phrase there

are several problems?
Somehow problems seem more serious than issues. Even more serious
would be flaws.
John thinks that weaknesses would be rather negative.

8. Note the use of I in the second and third paragraphs. Does this seem
appropriate? What is the effect of using I?
We regularly use I in our reviews since the whole point of a review is
to give one’s personal assessment. Chris, in particular, uses I because
she thinks this makes her review a bit more friendly and helps the
manuscript author to see that her comments are intended to be help-
ful. So, she prefers I think the manuscript needs to be shortened as
opposed to The manuscript needs to be shortened. The use of I also
makes clear that the reviewer takes ownership and responsibility for
the commentary.

9. What do you think Paragraph 4 will focus on?

Paragraph 4 discusses the major concern the reviewer had with the
study. Here is how it begins. Note how he first indicates the perspec-
tive is one of someone who is not an IPR expert and how this explains
his criticism. He states his concern, the reason it is important, and
then goes on to suggest how the perceived problem could be
addressed.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

First, I have a serious doubt as to whether trademark is a good sur-

rogate for downstream capabilities. I am no expert in IPR, and thus I
was not convinced that acquiring a trademark signals a vendor’s down-
stream capabilities. I believe most readers, who have little background
knowledge in IPR like me, will have similar doubts. Therefore, I
would like to suggest that the author(s) do two things. First, . . .

10. How do reviewers in your field start their manuscript reviews? Ask an
experienced reviewer for some input, if you do not know.
Answers here are completely dependent on the field and the individ-
ual. Chris always starts by summarizing the aims of the paper and the
major conclusions. She does this to indicate to the manuscript authors
and the editor what she has understood and that this understanding
has shaped her evaluation. Many reviewers do the same.

Task Thirteen 

Some statements from the introductions of manuscript reviews indicate the over-
all direction of the review follow. Evaluate the statements as very negative (—),
negative (–), neutral (+/–), positive (+), or very positive (++).

++ 1. Despite its minor shortcomings this is a superb study.

____
–
____ 2. I believe this paper is flawed, perhaps fatally flawed, because. . . .
+/– 3. Overall, this is a useful paper as there is a paucity of informa-
____
tion in the literature on this topic.
–
____ 4. As with most surveys, this article has its weaknesses.
–
____ 5. The research described in this paper is limited in that it has sac-
rificed breadth for depth of analysis.
–
____ 6. This article suffers from a number of limitations that need to be
addressed.
+
____ 7. This is a great paper that is well worth publishing as soon as
possible provided the authors can submit further supporting
data.
+/– 8. This is a nicely designed study with interesting implications.
____
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
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38 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

+/– 9. This is a carefully done study; the data are clean and the con-
____
clusions are supported.
+
____ 10. This is a very well-written paper, and recommended for publi-
cation with a few edits and additions.
–
____ 11. Although this is a carefully conducted study, the results and
conclusions need to be interpreted with extreme caution.
++ 12. This paper is a welcome contribution to a growing awareness
____
of the need for more research in this area.

Mark with a check () the adjectives that would strongly suggest the paper be
published.

The point of this task is to help writers think about using evaluative adjec-
tives to reveal their stance (more on this can be found later on pages 73–75
in the main volume). Many of our students are really reluctant to indicate
their stance, and so this task can help initiate some discussion on this aspect
of academic writing.
Here are our choices for modifiers that would strongly suggest the paper
be published. The adjectives we did not select do not clearly indicate to us
that a reviewer will recommend publication, but neither do they suggest that
a paper should not be published. When using this task in a workshop or class,
Chris asks students to expand the list and then asks them to come up with
adjectives that may hint at rejection.

 impressive
____ ____ informative ____ nice
____ useful  worthwhile
____  outstanding
____
____ interesting ____ respectable ____ unusual
____ painstaking  laudable
____ ____ practical

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

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Michigan ELT, 2011

Introductions to Journal Articles

Those of us who have been involved in English for Academic Purposes are
quite familiar with the research on article introductions, much of which can
be traced back to John’s Create a Research Space (CaRS) model, first elabo-
rated in Aspects of Article Introductions and published (or perhaps one should
say issued) by the Language Studies Unit at the University of Aston in Birm-
ingham, England. The material in this section is offered as a starting point
for considering how a research article (RA) introduction can be prepared.
We have tried to stress in the volume that the CaRS model is not the “way”
nor should it be considered a template for how to write an introduction;
instead, if used at all, it should be adjusted in light of disciplinary traditions,
the potential readership—e.g., mono- or interdisciplinary), the nature of the
study presented, and the aims of author(s). These and other elements con-
tribute to all of the variations of the CaRS model that have been reported in
the literature. In regard to the many versions of the CaRS model proposed,
John and Chris have been known to poke a bit of fun at the acronyms that
have been or could be proposed—the MaRS, BaRS, or SCaRS model any-
one? Or how about the STaRS model? More seriously, however, the CaRS
model has proven to be invaluable to new graduate students, junior scholars,
and even advisors attempting to guide their students’ writing. We always ask
students to have available three or four introductions from RAs in their
fields during class discussion since it is important that they evaluate our con-
clusions and claims with what they see in their respective disciplines. (Again,
given that many classrooms have wireless internet connections, having a
sample to look at often requires very little effort.) Some students bring to
class their own published RAs or RAs in progress as well as RAs written by
their research group. When it comes to choosing sample RAs, it should be
stressed that the RAs do not need to be written by native speakers. A good
sample of RA introductions should include those written by experienced
members of the field, regardless of whether English is their first or an addi-
tional language.
On the point of how readers actually read, we know from published
research and comments in our workshops and classes that readers will often
look at the title, jump to the references, and then go to the discussion. As one

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011 39

professor in a writing for publication workshop indicated, “The references

help me see whether the author has read the right stuff, which then allows
me to judge whether the paper is credible or not.” A couple of others in this
same workshop said that they look for their names. Another indicated that
he looks only at the figures and the tables. Thus, as we write, we need to take
into account that in general readers do not read linearly and so we cannot
rely on information given in one section being available to the reader in
another.
Figure 3 reflects a perspective that Chris repeatedly heard at a Council of
Science Editors meeting a few years ago. We think the figure really high-
lights the need to think about which sections are most important in an RA
(and hence often difficult to write). The figure also shows that one may use-
fully begin writing a paper by focusing on the connected results and discus-
sion sections. Finally, some authors actually do write as if their discussion
does emerge from the introduction, as shown in this example from con-
sumer economics.

End of the Introduction

Within this paper, we attempt to take a fresh look at the demand side of
counterfeiting. Specifically, we aim to consolidate existing findings and to
develop a comprehensive, yet parsimonious model of the antecedents and
drivers of volitional purchase of fake products. Using the theory of planned
behavior as theoretical framework, we develop a conceptual model that
explains the purchase intention for counterfeits and uses a sample of 1040
Austrian consumers to test its explanatory power.

Beginning of the Discussion

The model, which was based on past research and our theoretical considera-
tions, was confirmed. Moreover, the Theory of Planned Behavior makes a
strong contribution towards explaining the demand for fake products. The
strongest influence on the intention to buy fake products comes from per-
ceived behavioral control. The fewer the obstacles to purchase counterfeits in
terms of time needed to find them, geographic barriers, etc., the more likely
consumers will intend to buy them. Another strong effect was observed,
when looking at the perception of being a smart shopper. Given these two

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

results, it appears more useful to address the consumer using affective meas-
ures rather than cognitive.
Penz, E., Stöttinger, B. (2005), “Forget the real thing—take the copy! An
explanatory model for the volitional purchase of counterfeit products,”
Advances in Consumer Research, 32, 568–575.

We cannot stress enough how important it is to anticipate how readers will

actually read a text and incorporate this understanding into the writing
process.

Task Fourteen 

What are some advantages of envisioning a connection between the introduction
and the discussion section of your RA? Can you think of any disadvantages? Have
you noticed this connection in published RA introductions? If you are not sure,
look at a few published RAs in your field.
One advantage of considering the connection is that if you write the intro-
duction before the discussion, you have a possible starting point when you
begin writing the latter. Some of our students have also said that if they are
having trouble with both parts, to start they initially write a thin introduc-
tion consisting only of something like, “This paper describes. . . . ” They
then would begin their discussion with “In this paper we presented. . . . ”
Essentially, they are saying that they repeat the same basic sentence. And
with the results and discussion in the middle, no one would notice the repe-
tition. This makes sense to some extent.
The disadvantage is that we know readers do not necessarily go through
a text linearly and may read nothing but the abstract and the discussion, so
a direct line from the introduction to the discussion may not contribute to
the reading of the paper. In fact, by beginning the discussion with a descrip-
tion of what the paper investigated, a writer would then have to assume that
the motivation for doing the work would be clear to the reader.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Fifteen 

Put together a small reference collection (i.e., a corpus) of 5–15 examples of
introductions from one or more journals in your area.

We cannot give answers to this task, but we can say this is a good homework
assignment. Students who have time will often examine more than the max-
imum 15 suggested.
The criticisms of introductions presented after Task Fifteen seem to cut
across fields and are directed at junior scholars and seasoned experts alike.
The fact that very few authors are spared these criticisms may seem some-
what surprising. It would be easy to assume that it is only inexperienced
authors or English as an international language authors who struggle, since
the final published papers often look very good. No doubt, the more experi-
ence an author has, the more likely he or she will meet the reviewers’ expec-
tations, but even veterans sometimes fail to suitably contextualize their
work.

Task Sixteen 

Read these five short introductions from the fields of assessment, electrical engi-
neering, education, medicine, and visual culture.

Task Sixteen takes a long time to complete, at least an hour, but it is well
worth the effort. We have used this task in all levels of our writing courses at
the University of Michigan and have used it in workshops for graduate stu-
dents and professionals outside our university. Students and workshop par-
ticipants like reading all of the introductions; some instructors who have
trialed the material and reviewers have, unfortunately, been less enthusiastic
about our choices here. At issue here are Examples 3 and 5, which we will
discuss in more detail later. These two examples are challenging for students,
but they really appreciate the insights that each offers. Of course, if time is
an issue, it is possible to work with only two or three of the introductions.

1. Kleitman, S. and Stankov, L. (2007). Self-confidence and metacogni-

tive processes. Learning and Individual Differences, 17(2), 161–173.
Organization: 1. Statements of purpose
2. How the aims/purpose will be met and some
expected outcomes (Sentence 7)
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
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Michigan ELT, 2011
O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS 43

Notes: The introduction is completely lacking a context that explains

the motivation for the study or the importance of the topic.
Readers need to assume or should already know why this topic
is worthy of investigation. No references to prior work are
given to demonstrate how the study extends the knowledge of
the field or addresses a need. There are a lot of instances of
shall, which do not seem necessary. It is not hard to find papers
that begin as this paper does, but we question whether this
strategy results in a successful introduction. Keep in mind,
however, that the paper was published. Some of our students
think the introduction is fine, but most agree with us.

2. Nayak. J. and Sahu, S.N. (2006). Electrical characteristics of GaAs

nanocrystalline thin film. Solid-State Electronics, 50(2), 164–169.
Organization: 1. Establishing the topic together with some reference
to prior literature
2. A gap in the research (Sentence 6)
3. Filling the gap and highlighting that this is the first
published report
Notes: The introduction looks a lot like the CaRS model, which is
discussed in more detail later. Experienced writers will likely
recognize the organization, even if the content is unfamiliar.
Surprisingly, less experienced writers do not immediately rec-
ognize the pattern, even though they may have been reading
published RAs. Some of these less experienced writers have
revealed that the content gets in the way, while others simply
do not see an organizing scheme.

3. Meyer, K.A. (2006) When topics are controversial: is it better to dis-

cuss them face-to-face or online? Innovative Higher Education, 31(3),
175–186.
Organization: 1. Scene setting story about the author’s experience
that led to the paper
2. The aims/purpose of the study
Notes: The introduction is couched in the author’s personal experi-
ence. There is only one reference to a publication, The Tipping
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44 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

Point, which, in fact, does not focus on higher education. The

author, Malcolm Gladwell, is a highly respected journalist
whose readers include academics and non-academics alike.
Thus, The Tipping Point is not a typical kind of reference to a
published RA or a scholarly book directed only at scholars.
The introduction also seems rather conversational—as if the
author were writing as she was thinking or chatting with some-
one about how she got the idea for her study.
Our students are very mixed in their reactions to this intro-
duction. For some, especially those in the hard sciences and
engineering, it is so different from what is done in their fields
that they think it does not represent very serious scholarship.
Students in the social sciences and the humanities indicate that
they have seen this kind of introduction before, but these stu-
dents disagree as to whether they can have such personal intro-
ductions or only very established scholars can do this. Chris
usually asks her students which of the five introductions in the
task likely represents the real story behind the research. Do the
other four tell the real story or are they a work of fiction that
suggests the authors read papers in the field, identified a gap or
problem, and then conducted research to address the gap? In
the end, the students conclude that this text probably tells
readers how the research actually did come about. Some wish
that they could write an introduction like this rather than
spend time creating an introduction that gives no sense of the
true origins of their work (e.g., an accident, a directive from an
advisor, or just a wild idea).

4. Newman, A.W., Wright, S.W., Wrenn, K.D., Bernard, A. (2005).

Should physicians have facial piercings? Journal of General Internal
Medicine, 20(3), 213–218.
Organization: 1. Paragraph 1: background detail including related
research on physician appearance
2. Paragraph 2: background detail including research
on body piercing trends

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

3. Paragraph 3: the link between topic 1 and topic 2

together with the aims and method of the study
Notes: The introduction seems somewhat forced in the sense that
physician appearance is addressed in one paragraph and the
broader trend of body piercing is discussed in the second.
Thus, there appears to be a move from commentary on a spe-
cific group to commentary on a trend in the general popula-
tion. The two are brought together in the third paragraph.
We are not sure if this is the most elegant way to handle the
topic. Our students have suggested that the authors could have
tried to integrate the topics. Discussion in one of Chris’ classes
produced this integration of Paragraphs 1 and 2—not bad for
a class of relatively new graduate students in engineering and
education. If you are using this material in a class, share this
version with your students and see what they think.
Given the importance of physician appearance, the recent
trend toward body piercing and the potential impact of this
current fashion is worthy of investigation. This issue is espe-
cially relevant when we consider the prevalence of body pierc-
ing among the younger generation, which one estimate has
suggested to be as much as 51 percent of the undergraduate
student population, and the attitudes toward body piercing in
the larger patient and visitor population.

5. Kissel, L. (2008). The terrain of the long take. Journal of Visual Cul-
ture 7(3), 349–361.
Organization: 1. Sentences 1–6: comments on creating a picture
2. Sentences 7–8: comments on the long take in docu-
mentaries
3. Sentences 9–10: a definition of the concept (the
long take)
4. Sentences 11–12: the author situating herself in the
text and establishing herself as an artist
5. Sentences 13–24: the author explicating her experi-
ence with the long take

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

This introduction is really different from the oth-

ers. It is difficult to label the paragraphs or organiza-
tion, but it does seem to move from the broader
issue of creating a picture to the more specific long
take in film and then even more specifically to the
author’s own experience.
Notes: How can a paper start with but? Opening a paper with but is
really unusual since for but to make sense, something must have
been stated before. Chris really likes this part of the introduction
because the students themselves see how the text is hard to
understand without a context, which is directly related to writ-
ing an introduction; a paper often does not make sense in the
absence of a context. John, however, remains surprised it got
published with the opening. This single sentence nicely reveals
why building a context or backdrop for a paper is so important.
Our students are so focused on the use of but and the discussion
surrounding it that it does not matter that the rest of the intro-
duction is hard to follow. It is worth pointing out, however, that
this text is similar to Number 3 in the sense that the author is
clearly present in the text and once the author inserts herself in
Sentence 11, there are no references to other literature.

Unless readers are members of the target discipline of these papers, reader
reactions here may reflect personal preference or interest more than anything
else. That said, the first example did evoke a so what reaction since we can-
not see the relevance of the study and the potential contribution to the body
of existing literature. Neither of us was particularly keen on reading the
paper, although the topic, self-confidence, is an interesting one. Overall, for
both of us the introduction was off-putting. Example 4, focusing on body
piercing, was just simply interesting to us because of the topic. So, we did
not react with a so what. The introduction itself, however, was not particu-
larly captivating. We really were curious about the paper presented in Exam-
ple 3; the introduction suggested that there was a real person behind the
paper who seems to have an interesting story to tell about difficult discus-
sions. Example 2 simply struck us as a typical introduction focusing on a gap
in the research in the field. Finally, in her first reading of Example 5, Chris

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

was completely confused, but after subsequent readings, she began to appre-
ciate the author’s scene setting strategy. To her, the introduction itself
seemed like a long take (also known as a cover shot in film studies) that facil-
itated the more detailed discussion. John, on the other hand, did not care for
the introduction at all and did in fact say so what.

Task Seventeen 

Consider each of these perspectives on citations. With which do you agree (A) or
disagree (D)? Mark those about which you are unsure with a question mark (?).
We are aware that this task may seem out of place since there is a much
longer treatment of citations on pages 59–66 in the main volume. But it
makes sense to us to have a brief preview and discussion of citation in gen-
eral before going into some of the detail regarding types of citations and
other related matters. This task also leads nicely into Task Eighteen, which
features an introduction from a paper on self-citation.

A 1. Citations help authors to acknowledge the intellectual property of

_____
others and avoid the problem of plagiarism.
Yes, the issue of intellectual property is more important than
ever. For a very thought-provoking discussion on this, we sug-
gest reading an editorial by Richard Gallagher (2009) that dis-
cusses “bibliographic negligence,” a problem noted by Gene
Garfield in 1991. In this piece Gallagher reintroduces Garfield’s
contention that “authors sign a pledge or oath that they have
done a minimal search of the literature and that to the best of
their knowledge there is no other relevant work.” Here are the
references for the Gallagher and Garfield texts.
Gallagher, R. (2009). Citation Violations. The Scientist, 23(5), 13.
Garfield, E. (1991). Bibliographic Negligence: A Serious Trans-
gression. The Scientist, 5(23), 14.

A 2. Authors show respect to other scholars by including a citation to

_____
the previous work.
This is definitely true in our field of applied linguistics. Our stu-
dents in the social sciences and the humanities report this as
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48 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

well. However, strict space limitations allocated to articles can

prevent the inclusion of a citation intended as a sign of respect.

A 3. There is homogeneity in the papers that are cited in published work

_____
on a particular topic. Authors tend to cite the same small percent-
age of papers in their field.
If you need proof of this, look at four or five recent published
articles on article introductions in applied linguistics journals
well as papers from philosophy or literary criticism.

A 4. Citations add strength to an author’s ideas and claims.

_____
Yes. Not only do they provide strength, they also indicate how
the new work fits with and extends the old. This is related to
Point 9 in this task.

A 5. Citations reflect social networks: Authors often refer to papers by

_____
authors with whom they are personally acquainted.
At this point in the task, it should be quite clear that the choice
of citation is not neutral in all cases. We do often cite our
friends, who generally agree with our work, and less likely our
rivals. This may also account for Point 3.

A 6. The choice of citations may be motivated by various kinds of pres-

_____
sure. For instance, graduate students may feel compelled to cite
advisors, while other authors may avoid citations to the work of
competing research groups.
Yes, citations can promote the work of one’s research group,
department, or institution. It makes sense that graduate stu-
dents would cite the work of their advisors since the interests of
each would likely overlap. Sometimes our students tell us that
their advisors instruct them not to promote the work of rival
groups, unless necessary.

A 7. Citations help an author demonstrate that he or she is a well-

_____
informed member of a discipline or interdisciplinary field.
Yes, if an author appears to have read the right papers and
included them in his or her paper, the author gains credibility.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

? 8. Self-citation can be beneficial for an author.

_____
This is really hard to say. Too much self-citation seems overly
self-promotional or boastful and may weaken an author’s credi-
bility. However, in some fields self-citation may be completely
acceptable; and if few or no other papers have been published in
an area, there may be little choice but to self-cite.

A 9. Authors use citations to demonstrate how their work advances the

_____
knowledge base of a field.
Absolutely. This is extremely important. If the research does
not advance the existing work, then it may not be worthy of
publication.

Task Eighteen 

Read the introduction, and work through the accompanying questions and mini-
tasks. The paragraphs and sentences have been numbered for ease of analysis.
Our students are often very interested in the topic of self-citation and enjoy
working through this task, despite its length. They are especially surprised
by the use of self-citation in a paper on self-citation, which offers an oppor-
tunity to refer back to the discussion of Point 8 in Task Seventeen. If the
number of questions seems overwhelming, choose a subset to work with.

1. What is the purpose of each of the paragraphs?

Paragraph 1 Background explanation of citation analysis and its uses;
some references to other work in support of the claims
Paragraph 2 A more specific focus on citations and the impact of the
frequency of citation on the perception of quality; refer-
ences to other work in support of the claims
Paragraph 3 An even more specific focus on self-citations and the
notion that they should be ignored when determining
the number of times a paper is cited (and hence deter-
mining its quality); references to other work in support
of the claims
Paragraph 4 A focus on the specific absence of research on self-cita-
tion and an indication of the need for research on the
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50 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

efficacy of self-citation (the gap in the research on cita-

tion analysis); an announcement of the purpose of the
paper

2. The author asks a number of questions at the end. What do you think of
this strategy? Could you do this in an RA in your field?
This may be a matter of personal preference and the traditions of the
journal or field. However, we generally suggest that writers avoid a
series of questions since they do not provide relevant information and
may cause the reader to make a conclusion before reading any of the
paper. It also strikes us as a strategy more common among undergrad-
uate writers than of graduate students or junior scholars. Of course, we
do acknowledge that a well-placed question can be very effective and
that questions may be more common in the social sciences and the
humanities than in the hard sciences and engineering.

3. The introduction contains two definitions. What are these? Do you think
the definitions are necessary? Why or why not? Why do you suppose the
author used two different approaches to defining the concepts?
In the first paragraph there is a definition of citation analysis. In Para-
graph 3, Sentence 8, self-citation is defined in the parentheses.

4. Where do the citations occur? Are they concentrated in one part of the
introduction or in various locations?
The citations are clustered in the first three paragraphs. There are no
citations in the fourth one where the author is introducing the aim of
the paper.

5. The paper follows the APA author-date style of citation. Where are the
cited authors’ names placed? Why? How prominent are author names in
citations in your field?
Most of the authors’ names are in parentheses and thus appear in non-
integral (or content prominent) citations. Writers need to be aware of
the style sheet appropriate for their fields and the journals in which
they want to publish.
Chris encourages her students to find out what styles they need to
know and to select one of these styles for use in their course papers.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Although this means that she needs to be familiar with APA, IEEE,
MLA, Chicago, and other styles, it makes sense for students to work
with the ones appropriate for their disciplines. Surprisingly, many of
our graduate students are completely unaware of the style guides.

6. The introduction contains quotes in the second and third paragraphs.

Why do you suppose the author used quotes instead of putting the ideas
in his own words?
Hyland (1999) found that quotations are more common in the social
sciences than in the hard sciences and engineering. Thus, the quota-
tions here are not unusual. That said, quotations are generally used
when using one’s own words would fail to preserve the precise mean-
ing of an idea from another text or the elegance of the original word-
ing. The first quote in Sentence 7 seems like a good choice because it
is important to accurately relay the rationale for how economists were
chosen for the Who’s Who in Economics book. The second quote in
Sentence 11 is embedded within a point that the author wants to
make about self-citation and thus is a hybrid citation. The point
expressed in the quote might not seem so engaging if it had been refor-
mulated.

7. What verbs did the author use to report information from other studies?
Do you think these same verbs are commonly used in your field?
Numerous articles have used . . .
Blaug and Sturges (1982) used . . .
Most academic economists believe . . .
Laband (1990) argues that . . .
Davis and Papanek (1984) maintain that . . .
Similarly, Bodenhorn (2003) contends that . . .
Johnson (1997) argues that . . .
With the possible exception of believe, these verbs are used in many fields.

8. What verb tense (e.g., present or past) and aspect (e.g., perfect) were
used in sentences referring to other literature? Why?
Present, present perfect, and past tense are used. Note the progression
from present perfect in Paragraph 1 to mostly present in the subse-
quent paragraphs as the author narrows his focus.
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52 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

9. What is the function of given in Sentence 16? What is anecdotal evidence

(Sentence 5)?
Given in Sentence 16 is a causal connector like because or due to. Anec-
dotal evidence is evidence based on informal observation.
10. Are there any expressions that indicate what the author thinks about the
state of knowledge regarding citation in the field? In other words, do we
get a sense of the author’s stance?
In Sentence 16 the author states that it is “somewhat surprising that
that there is no study on the efficacy of self-citation.”
11. What is your reaction to the notion that “the number of times an article
has been cited is an indicator of its quality and significance”?
This makes sense to some extent, but, as the author points out, the
number of references may be skewed because of self-citation. We also
wonder about the references to papers or work that a writer has never
even seen and are in fact a citation from another cited work. Should
citations based on a citation be counted?
12. How is self-citation viewed in your field?
This really depends on the field. In some fields that use a number cita-
tion style, self-citation may be less obvious. In applied linguistics self-
citation is fairly common and some of us do notice that sometimes it
appears to be excessive. The introduction on self-citation does offer
some good reasons for citing one’s own work, but for some of us it
does feel a bit uncomfortable to do so. Moreover, self-citation could
seem gratuitous, so good judgment in this matter is important. Our
students generally say they would be reluctant to cite their own papers.
As they gain experience in their fields, however, they realize that it
sometimes cannot be avoided and that they would do themselves a dis-
service to omit a reference to their own relevant work.

Table 2 presents the 1990 CaRS model. Although variations have

been proposed, including one offered by John in 2004 in Research
Genres, we decided to give this less elaborate version to allow for dis-
cussion of the model suggested by Lewin, Fine, and Young (2001) and
the other possible inclusions presented in Task Nineteen. As indicated
in the volume, although the CaRS model does seem to suggest that
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
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creating an introduction involves applying a fixed set of rules, this is

not the case. True, it may be somewhat easy to parody the CaRS
model for the sake of writing practice, but when writers are faced with
choosing the right points and references together with the appropriate
gapping statement(s), the difficult strategic choices become clear.
When we discuss the model in class and assign related writing
homework, we realize that some of our students have read very few
RAs and thus may not know whether the model is useful or not and
may have difficulty with Task Nineteen. It may, therefore, be worth-
while to assign Task Twenty first.
On a final note here, we debated whether we should place proposal
and dissertation introductions before RA introductions, but then we
realized that the CaRS model really did need to be introduced first
since many proposal and dissertation introductions follow it. Also,
many of our students publish papers before they write their disserta-
tions (and sometimes before a proposal) because of the move toward
article compilation dissertations. If this material is used in a class on
dissertation writing, we think a look at the CaRS model for RAs is still
a good starting point since these texts are considerably shorter than
dissertation introductions and thus are more manageable.

Task Nineteen 

Here are some potential areas for inclusion in the introduction that have been
proposed by several researchers. Consider whether or not these are typical or likely
in your field. Mark those that are likely with a +, those that are unlikely with
a – , those that may optionally be used with a , and those about which you
are unsure with a question mark (?).
There are no absolute answers here due to disciplinary differences. All of the
items here have been found in RAs in different disciplines and languages.
We have indicated the discipline or journal where these aspects of article
introductions were found.
_____ 1. A discussion of examples to illustrate the topic (Anthony 1999;
Árvay and Tankó 2004)
This is possible in software engineering RAs and purely theoret-
ical RAs in linguistics.
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
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54 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

_____ 2. Definitions of important terms (Anthony 1999; Duszak 1997)

These are typical of RAs in software engineering and in linguistics
(specifically, semiotics, general and applied linguistics, text lin-
guistics, Slavic studies, culture, language variation and change).

_____ 3. An evaluation of the research presented (Anthony, 1999)

This is possible in software engineering RAs.

_____ 4. A description of data analysis procedures (Li and Ge, 2009)

This may be found in medical RAs.

_____ 5. A description of the methodology (Ayers, 2008)

This is a development in RAs published in the scientific journal
Nature.

_____ 6. Asserting your right to fill the gap as in “As the recipient of an
Arts and Humanities Grant, for a project entitled ‘Translators as
Cultural Agents in the Global Information Age,’ I have addressed
this question . . . ” (Corbett, 2007)
This is rare, but just possible in the arts and humanities.

_____ 7. A discussion of a theoretical framework (Árvay and Tankó, 2004)

This is possible in purely theoretical RAs in linguistics and
probably in other fields.

_____ 8. Signaling the newsworthiness or the new contribution of the

research as in “Our main claim here is that . . . “(Dahl, 2009)
This is possible for RAs in economics.

If any of these were to be included in an RA introduction in your field, in which

part of the introduction should they go?

Element 1 is more likely in Move 1. Elements 2 and 7 may fit in either

Move 1 or 3. The remaining elements are more likely in Move 3.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Twenty 

Using the reference collection you put together in Task Fifteen, work through
these questions to get an idea of the characteristics of RA introductions in your
field.
We are not able to give answers here, but the analyses of the RA introduc-
tions should be enlightening. For classroom purposes, data can be pooled so
that a clearer picture of the RA introduction characteristics can emerge.
Chris sometimes asks a few students to compile selected data and then asks
the class to write a short research paper that includes an introduction, meth-
ods, results, and discussion. She sometimes groups students according to dis-
cipline and then they orally present their results.

Citation Practices
One important point that should emerge from this section is that citation
practices vary according to discipline and genre. To demonstrate, we rely on
research from Dorothy Winsor, Davida Charney, Danette Paul, Ken
Hyland, and Paul Thompson, and we add dissertations to the discussion of
introductions. Less is known about citation practices in dissertation intro-
ductions than in RA introductions, so the data given in Tables 3 and 4 needs
to be treated with caution. We do not want to give the impression that data
for dissertations in other fields would be the same. We think it is important
for students to continue doing analyses of writing in their own field, as in
Task Twenty. Chris generally asks students to look at several dissertation
introductions—ideally those written under the guidance of their
advisor(s)—to gain a sense of overall organization, citation choices, the use
of integral and non-integral citations, and reporting verbs. The actual task
for this activity is Task Thirty-Seven. It never ceases to amazes how budding
scholars, who generally are aware of the importance of good sample sizes,
will look at only one dissertation or maybe even none at all prior to writing.
When asked whether a sample size of one would be sufficient to draw any
conclusions, they quickly realize how inadequate their choice was. We can-
not stress enough the importance of students becoming amateur discourse
analysts.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Twenty-One 

Look at your answer to Question 5 in Task Twenty. Can you discern any reasons
for the choice of integral or non-integral citation, if both are used? Do you agree
(A) or disagree (D) with the perspectives given here? If you are not sure, place a
question mark (?) in the blank.
Answers here again vary according to discipline and writing experience.
When we use this task in a class or workshop there is usually a lot of debate.
Clearly, there is no single correct answer here, but what is nice about this
task is that it reminds writers that how one includes a citation (i.e., whether
it is an integral or a non-integral one) should be a deliberate choice. Here are
our responses based on our experience.

A 1. I should choose to use integral and non-integral citations by con-

_____
sidering old to new flow of information.
This makes good sense to us.
D
_____ 2. When I refer to a well-known author, it is best to use an integral
citation.
This really depends. It is best here seems too strong. If the text
frequently refers to the well-known author, then integral cita-
tions may not be the best choice. Here the question may arise as
to whether it is possible to use the first name as well as last name
of an author. And you can certainly find examples of this with
certain historical figures such as Charles Darwin, Isaac Newton,
David Hume, Maynard Keynes, and Noam Chomsky. Typically,
however, the use of both first and last name is fairly rare.
D
_____ 3. There is a heavy focus on author names in my field, so I should
mostly choose integral citations.
Writers in fields that use a numbering system do not need to
worry so much about this, but the rest of us need to think about
how this might affect the flow of ideas. If authors are prominent
throughout the introduction, it may be hard for readers to grasp
the larger meaning. Even if integral citations are preferred, it is
important to be aware of their effect.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

? 4. I should try to have some variety and switch between both types of
_____
citation.
We generally welcome variety, but it is not a matter of having
variety for the sake of variety. We are aware of the importance to
sometimes highlight an author and do so via an integral citation.

A 5. If I want to keep my focus on the work that has been done in my

_____
field, I should mostly choose non-integral citations.
In the end, we probably use more non-integral than integral
citations, and this is perhaps why.

D 6. I should mostly use integral (or non-integral) citations if that is

_____
what most writers in my field do.
We hope the commentary on 1–5 has made it clear that there is
a choice. It is not necessary to do what everyone else does with-
out considering the impact.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Task Twenty-Two 

Here are the most common reporting verbs in published papers from the hard and
social sciences. Place a check next to those you think you can use in a published
paper in your field. How many of these did you find in your reference collection?
The table here is reproduced from Academic Writing for Graduate Students.
As the table indicates, there are disciplinary differences. Experienced writers
may have a good sense of what is typical; less experienced writers may be
unsure. However, the answer to Question 6 in Task Twenty can contribute
to answers here.
High-Frequency Reporting Verbs (harder sciences first and softer sciences next)

Discipline Verbs and Frequency

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6
Harder Sciences

Biology describe find report show suggest observe

Physics develop report study find expand
Electrical
engineering propose use describe show publish develop
Mechanical
engineering describe show report discuss give develop
Epidemiology find describe suggest report examine show
Nursing find suggest report identify indicate show
Medicine show report demonstrate observe find suggest
Softer Sciences
Marketing suggest argue find demonstrate propose show
Applied linguistics suggest argue show explain find point out
Psychology find show suggest report demonstrate focus
Sociology argue suggest describe note analyze discuss
Education find suggest note report demonstrate provide
Philosophy say suggest argue claim point out think
From Swales, J.M. and Feak, C.B. 2004. Academic Writing for Graduate Students. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Now look at the non-integral citations presented here. Convert each into two
integral citations using an appropriate reporting verb, one of which could suggest
that you question the claim and one in which your personal perspective is not
obvious.
The main point here is to consider that reporting verbs are not necessarily
neutral and that writers can choose certain reporting verbs to indicate
whether they are negative, neutral, or positive toward a claim. Writers need
to be aware of possible additional meanings and the possibility that readers
may not always understand certain reporting verbs as the authors intends.
Does a verb like contend simply reflect what the source says (or does) or is it
a stance marker? Apart from using a single verb, stance can also be indicated
by using verb phrases such as wrongly conclude. The task can also be used to
practice indicating positive stance as in correctly argue.

1. A person’s attitude toward public cell phone use changes (becomes more
accepting) as they use a cell phone more (Isaac et al., 2008).
Questioning the Claim
Isaac et al. (2008) claim that a person’s attitude toward public cell
phone use changes (becomes more accepting) as they use a cell phone
more.
Concealing One’s Perspective
Isaac et al. (2008) maintain that a person’s attitude toward public cell
phone use changes (becomes more accepting) as they use a cell phone
more.

2. The antecedents and aftermath of banking crises in rich countries and

emerging markets have a surprising amount in common (Reinhart &
Rogoff, 2008).
Questioning the Claim
Reinhart and Rogoff (2008) contend that the antecedents and after-
math of banking crises in rich countries and emerging markets have a
surprising amount in common.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Concealing One’s Perspective

Reinhart and Rogoff (2008) state that the antecedents and aftermath
of banking crises in rich countries and emerging markets have a sur-
prising amount in common.

3. Employees will be apt to break rules whenever it is in their interest to do

so and whenever there are insufficient organizational controls to ensure
rule compliance (Eisenhardt, 1989).
Questioning the Claim
Eisenhardt (1989) presumes that employees break rules whenever it is
in their interest to do so and whenever there are insufficient organiza-
tional controls to ensure rule compliance.
Concealing One’s Perspective
Eisenhardt (1989) reports that employees break rules whenever it is in
their interest to do so and whenever there are insufficient organiza-
tional controls to ensure rule compliance.

4. In one study (Subramaniam et al., 2009) it was found that people are
more likely to solve problems with insight if they are in a positive mood
than if they are in a neutral or negative one.
Questioning the Claim
Interestingly, Subramaniam et al. (2009) speculate that one’s mood
influences one’s ability to solve problems.
Concealing One’s Perspective
Subramaniam et al. (2009) found that one’s mood influences one’s
ability to solve problems.

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Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
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Language Focus: Highlighting

Agreement and Disagreement
We realize that this language focus is quite long, but each time we have
worked through it in a class or workshop, the feedback is positive. We think
this reflects the fact that junior scholars are in a vocabulary-building mode
and concerned with having the right expressions to convey their ideas. Many
of our students and workshop participants report that they want to be able
to write without hesitation; they want certain expressions such as it is widely
believed that to come automatically. What they do not realize is that it takes
time to develop the academic phraseology that can hold ideas together. They
are relieved to learn that the italicized expressions in this language focus may
be borrowed without any fear of plagiarism.
This task emerged as a result of a simple question in class about what
expressions other than researchers agree that could be used to indicate agree-
ment. A follow-up homework assignment asked students to identify in their
reference collections of article introductions expressions of disagreement as
well as those indicating both agreement and disagreement. Here, we offer a
summary of the collective efforts of the class. If this task is used in a class,
students can compile their own lists and share them. Alternatively, they can
use Google Scholar or a journal database to check for instances of the given
expressions in the journals of their field.
This language focus also encourages writers to think about stance and
the difference between such expressions as there is agreement and there is
widespread agreement. After going through the examples and subsequently
examining RAs in their fields, writers really see how opinions can be con-
veyed without ever saying in my opinion—and how frequently this may be
done.

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011 61

Questions on Expressing Agreement

1. Can you think of any other expressions that you could use to express
agreement? Could you, for instance, use the expression the literature as
in there is agreement in the literature that . . . ? Check your reference
collection.
The literature seems fine to us, as does there is agreement in the litera-
ture that. . . . In a class or workshop it is worth taking a moment to
explain what is meant by the literature. Although this may seem hard
to believe, we have had students that did not realize that the literature
refers to previous work. They were thinking that this was a reference to
novels, short stories, and the like. One other expression that could be
used is researchers generally concur that. . . .

2. In Examples 6–7 accepted is modified by widely and broadly. What other

adverbs can be used to modify accept?
generally, commonly, universally, well, increasingly

Questions on Expressing Disagreement

1. Which, if any, of the expressions might be appropriate for your field?
Answers here will depend on the discipline. A search on a journal data-
base can provide some good answers.

2. Can you think of any other expressions that you could use to express dis-
agreement? Check your reference collection.
disagreement as to . . . has been growing
scholars have expressed widespread opposition to . . .

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Questions on Active and Passive Voice

1. When do you think active or passive might be preferred in an introduction?
We suggest choosing the voice that results in the best flow of ideas and
maintains the desired focus.

Active Voice
1 Räïsänen (1999, pp. 121–126) traces the origin of the peer
review system back to the first editor of the Philosophical Transaction of
the Royal Society, and describes the review process as “a negotiation
process between reviewers and author(s) with the editor of the journal,
as mediator and arbitrator” (p. 124). 2 Other researchers have also dealt
with the genres of the peer review process (Hamp-Lyons, 1997; Oka-
mura & Shaw, 2000; Swales, 2004).

Passive Voice
1 Räïsänen (1999, pp. 121–126) traces the origin of the peer
review system back to the first editor of the Philosophical Transaction of
the Royal Society, and describes the review process as “a negotiation
process between reviewers and author(s) with the editor of the journal,
as mediator and arbitrator” (p. 124). 2 The genres of the peer review
process have also been dealt with by other researchers (Hamp-Lyons,
1997; Okamura & Shaw, 2000; Swales, 2004).
To demonstrate, look at these two versions of a text: In the Active
Voice text, researchers are the focus and the old to new connection
exists because in the first sentence a single researcher, Räïsänen, is in
the old information position, and researchers is in the old position in
the second. In the Passive Voice text, however, a shift occurs between
Sentences 1 and 2. Sentence 2 captures peer review, adding genres to
this focus. However, note that Sentence 2 ends with old information,
which we think results in a weak ending since no new information is
offered to move the discussion forward. Thus, in this particular
sequence of sentences, active voice may be the better choice.

Note, however, if the end of the second sentence were strengthened

by adding some information on why researchers have investigated peer
review genres, then passive may be the better choice, as demonstrated
here.

2. Do you think active or passive would be more common in introductions in

your field?
We are not able to give an answer here. We think in the introduction
active voice is more common than passive, but both are used.

Questions on Expressing Both Agreement

and Disagreement
1. Which logical connectors seem important for expressing agreement and
disagreement within the same paragraph or sentence? How would you
choose your connector if you wanted to use one?
Adversatives: however, nevertheless, though, even though, although, while,
despite, to name a few. Note that unfortunately (however with an atti-
tude) also falls into the same category. Adversatives indicate that two
opposing points are true at the same time. If the goal is to highlight
one aspect over another, a subordinator such as although would be a
good choice. As shown in Example 5, the acceptance is indicated in
the although-clause, but the disagreement is highlighted in the main
clause and thus seems more important. Since the disagreement is at

the end of the sentence, it also is more likely to be developed. The

placement may also reveal that the writer shares the opinion of those
who disagree.

2. How would you decide the order of the agreement or disagreement in a

sentence?
If we consider old to new information flow, it would make sense to
discuss second the position (whether agreement or disagreement) that
will be elaborated, or is close to the writer’s opinion, or is the more
important of the two for the purposes of the argument or claims of the
paper.

3. Would you include researchers in your statements, as in Examples 6 and

7, or should you omit them, as in Examples 1 and 4?
There is no right or wrong answer here. The choice could perhaps best
be made in terms of old to new information flow.

4. Verbs like agree and accept and nouns like agreement are generally fol-
lowed by a that-clause in which that is included. Look at all of the exam-
ples in the language focus. What other verbs and nouns also follow this
pattern?
Verb: believe
Noun: consensus

5. Look at your reference collection. Can you find any instances where the
authors point to both agreement and disagreement?
An answer is not possible here, but we hope that some examples are
found. If there are none, perhaps further investigation is necessary to
see if this is common in the field.

Task Twenty-Three 

How might you reformulate this sentence using some of the other ways of
expressing agreement and disagreement? Try to come up with two versions.

In short, despite different assumptions about the purposes of schooling, the

nature of teaching as an enterprise, and appropriate ways to measure teaching
effectiveness, there is enormous consensus that teaching quality makes a signif-
icant difference in learning and school effectiveness.
Version 1
Thus, although researchers differ in regard to the aims of education, the task
of teaching, and methods for assessing teacher efficacy, it is nearly universally
accepted that learning and successful schooling are dependent on the quality
of teaching.
Version 2
Thus, while there has been ongoing debate as to the aims of education, the
task of teaching, and methods for assessing teacher efficacy, researchers gen-
erally agree that learning and successful schooling are dependent on the
quality of teaching.

Establishing Your Stance

Given that several of the previous sections have mentioned stance in relation
to the writing of an introduction, it may be clear by now that we think this is
quite important. Our students, however, are often divided as to its impor-
tance, and this division, like others, often falls along disciplinary lines. Those
in the social sciences and the humanities often agree that a writer’s stance must
be clear, while many in the harder sciences and engineering argue that authors
should avoid stance markers and emphasize the facts. After all, they say
research should give the appearance of objectivity in which the facts speak for
themselves. In talking with students, it seems this misconception arises
because what we mean by stance is not necessarily transparent. Some students
think stance and opinion involve such expressions as in my opinion, I think,
and it seems to me. Of course, this misconception can be adressed through a
few carefully chosen examples. After working through the examples with her
students, Chris often asks them to search for stance markers in their reference
collection, which they often miss when doing Question 8 in Task Twenty.
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
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Task Twenty-Four 

Underline the language in these excerpts that seems to indicate a perspective. The
text revisits the counterfeiting topic on page 75 in the main volume.
The markers have been bolded.

1 The global market for counterfeits today is estimated to exceed

$600 billion, accounting for approximately 7% of world trade (World
Customs Organization 2004). 2 The ethical case against counterfeiting
aside, its adverse effects on business are well documented and many.
3 For example, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce (2006) holds counter-
feiting responsible for the loss of more than 750,000 U.S. jobs per year.
4 Perhaps more dire, counterfeiting has also been linked to the grow-
ing global threats of narcotics, weapons, human trafficking, and terror-
ism (Thomas, 2007). 5 Not surprisingly, companies are allying with
governments and enforcement agencies to devote unprecedented
resources to tackle this global problem (International AntiCounterfeit-
ing Coalition, 2008).
6 The academic literature displays a strong focus on the supply
side, while the demand side—why consumers buy fake products—has
been neglected badly. 7 Even if companies and governments manage
to restrict the supply of fake products, counterfeiters have consistently
demonstrated their abilities to find new ways to serve customers, as long
as the demand is still thriving (Albers-Miller, 1999; Ang, Cheng, Lim,
& Tambyah, 2001). 8 It appears necessary, therefore, to focus more
attention on the demand side in order to gain a better understanding
of what drives customers to voluntarily buy counterfeits.
9 Existing research on luxury goods has strongly suggested that
consumers’ attitudes toward luxury brands may in fact have a social-
adjustive function.

To help you explore this matter, read through this text and identify the expres-
sions that indicate the writer’s stance.
1. Introduction
1 Semiconductor lasers are typical devices for information trans-
mission in optical communications using direct modulation. 2 At the
present time, stable single-mode diode lasers with a very short pulse
width, low chirp and high speed modulation capability are highly
desirable to prevent pulse variance in the Haul telecommunication
system. 3 Unfortunately, a communication system using a high
speed direct modulation is limited by relaxation oscillations which
result from the interplay between the optical field and the free-carrier
density [1].
4 Nowadays, there is considerable interest in compact laser
sources that operate in the blue region at picosecond pulse duration for
different applications in science and technology. 5 The frequency
doubling of near-infrared diode lasers with a waveguided antireflection
coating nonlinear crystal (second harmonic generation element)
represents a competitive methodology for obtaining a compact blue
light source. 6 In spite of the wide applications of the IFD of a Q-
switched diode laser, they still up to now are under consideration [2].
7 The KTP crystal can be periodically poled to satisfy quasi-phase-
matching conditions that increase the second harmonic (SH) conver-
sion efficiency at room temperature for a pulsed lasers [3, 4].
8 Different methods are widely used to generate stable single-mode
very short optical pulses including mode-locking, Q-switching and gain
switching. 9 Excellent thermal quality, chemical stability and high
optical nonlinearity make GaAs an ideal semiconductor saturable
absorber for the passive Q-switching process. Ba The bandgap of the
GaAs saturable absorber is about 1.42 eV (figure 1).

Again the reference collection may be a good source of other examples of

ways to indicate author stance.

Task Twenty-Five 

Look back at the examples of agreement and disagreement on pages 67–72 of the
main volume and find the expressions that strengthen or weaken (hedge) the
verbs and nouns and thus may help indicate a stance. Using your reference arti-
cles, expand the table with some of your own examples of other verbs and nouns
along with other possible language that strengthens or softens a claim. The first
verb, accept, has been done for you.
Note that softeners are infrequent in the sample texts and that there is no
modifier for believe. Chris usually asks students to offer suggestions for the
softener columns and to consider how believe can be strengthened (for the
latter students usually suggest widely, generally, broadly, and commonly). She
also asks them to consider whether it would be possible to use belief in stat-
ing agreement and disagreement in the field. Students also appreciate seeing
what their classmates have found in their reference collections.

Modifiers Modifiers Modifiers

Modifiers that that that that
Strengthen Soften Verbs Strengthen Soften Nouns
widely, broadly accept widespread some acceptance
generally agree general agreement
controversially debate ongoing debate
still disagree longstanding, disagreement
widespread
enormous
ongoing discussion
believe controversy
well establish
wide, growing consensus

Highlighting the Need for Research:

The Gap
The classic gapping statement highlights what has not been done and thus
contains negative language such as there has yet to be a study. Junior scholars
are often reluctant to go so far as to say no study, even if they are fairly sure
that there is no other work. Thus, the third example on page 79 in the
main volume (However, no study has adequately explored the possibility that)
is a good one to consider in terms of how to cautiously convey the idea that
no research has been done. One way that writers accomplish this is to use
expressions such as to the best of our knowledge or a search of the available
research revealed no studies. Some writers even qualify their statements, indi-
cating that they looked only for work published in English. For instance,
we found a few papers that said, “A search of the English language literature
on this topic produced no studies.” This statement raises the interesting
question of whether one should look for publications written in a language
other than English. The examples on page 79 in the main volume also
demonstrate that adversative connectors (for instance, however and while )
are common in gapping statements. However is extremely common and, as
we mentioned earlier to convey however with an attitude, unfortunately can
be used.
As Shehzad’s (2008) research has demonstrated, gaps do not necessarily
have to be negative or be preceded by an adversative connector. We also
know that in many fields there is a preference to indicate the need to extend
research. To determine what might be best for any particular field, writers
should refer to their reference collections and gather more examples if pref-
erences are not clear.

Task Twenty-Six 

Here we provide a nearly complete introduction. All of the sentences are given
except for the one indicating that the research is an extension of previous work.
After reading Sentences 1–7, consider which of the given options is the best
Sentence 8.
This is a challenging task. Each of the choices is grammatically correct, so
the choice here depends on what establishes the best connection between the
first seven sentences and the final one.
8a Do informational cascades, in fact, cause part of the herding phenomenon?
We do not particularly care for this option. The question seems to be
abruptly introduced; it is not well connected to Sentence 7. But we like the
use of the hedge part.
8b It would therefore be of interest to know whether informational cascades
do, in fact, cause part of the herding phenomenon.
We rather like the use of therefore and the perspective that there is something
of interest here. Note that the statement is also cautious in saying part of the
herding phenomenon.
8c It is therefore crucial to examine this issue.
It is not completely clear to us what the issue is. If we assume the issue has
something to do with the herding phenomenon and informational cascades,
crucial seems a bit of an overstatement here. What is at stake? We have
noticed many of our students using crucial (and vital) to indicate the impor-
tance of their work and wrongly assuming that by declaring something to be
crucial, it automatically is. To establish that an issue is crucial, a lot of work
needs to be done to demonstrate the importance of the matter. Declaring
that an issue is of interest would be an easier task.
8d This then raises the question as to whether and to what extent informa-
tional cascades are in fact responsible for herding.
We like this choice as well because of the use of this to show the connection
to a relevant question. We think whether and to what extent nicely previews
Sentences 9 and 10. The indirect question here also provides a much better
indication of what will be examined than does the direct question in 8a.
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
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72 O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS

8e No additional sentence needed—just move to Sentence 9.

Students in our classes often choose this option. The most common reason
given for this choice is that Sentence 1 has already indicated the purpose of
the paper and that there really is no need to sharpen the readers’ focus on
what the paper will explore. They believe Sentences 9 and 10 take care of
any questions about the topic to be addressed.
We have tended to disagree because we have a strong preference for mak-
ing good connections and establishing one’s authorial stance. We think the
move from Sentence 7 to 9 shifts the focus too quickly.

The text in Task Twenty-Seven is what we call an “it just makes sense to do
it” kind of introduction. Originally, we thought this kind of introduction
should have its own section, but then we thought it really does just represent
a different kind of gap rather than an entirely different type of introduction.
At the time of this writing, graphene has emerged as a really hot research
area, and there is a sense of urgency surrounding the publication of papers
on this material. When one of Chris’s students asked her for help on his
graphene paper, he asked her not to talk about it with anyone and to make
sure no one could see it! If the graphene text seems too difficult to work
with, we offer here an alternative text on reality TV to demonstrate how
some authors do not indicate a gap or stress the need for their research. With
a few modifications, the questions in Task Twenty-Seven can be used with
this text.
Papacharissi, Z. and Mendelson, A.L. (2007). An exploratory study of real-
ity appeal: Uses and gratifications of reality TV shows. Journal of Broadcast-
ing & Electronic Media, 5(2), 355–370.

Introduction
1 For the past several years, reality television has dominated main-
stream television programming, providing relatively inexpensive enter-
tainment (Gardyn, 2001). 2 The premise of reality TV requires that
individuals place themselves on public display, thus forfeiting all claims
to personal privacy for the sake of transient fame and the possibility of
monetary compensation. 3 Some critics argue that reality TV poses a
new low denominator for television content, promotes models of ques-
tionable social validity, and proliferates a culture of exhibitionism and
voyeurism (Dauncey, 1996; Kaminer, 2000; Reiss & Wiltz, 2004),
while others find that reality TV produces more realistic prime-time
content that allows producers to move away from big budget
sitcom/drama formulas (Gardyn, 2001; Kilborn, 1994). 4 Moreover,
the reality model could potentially empower audiences, by allowing
them to participate, directly or from home, and influence the creation
of media content (Dauncey, 1996; Wong, 2001). 5 On the other hand,
this potential empowerment could reinforce the commodification of
audiences, who not only “buy” the reality show product, but become
the surveilled reality show product themselves (Andrejevic, 2002; Kil-
born, 1994; Wong, 2001). 6 Finally, the growing appeal of reality pro-
gramming raises the question of distinction between real and fictional
programming, especially in terms of how audiences perceive reality ver-
sus fiction (Fetveit, 1999; Mendelson & Papacharissi, 2005).
7 Reality TV places the audience member on the opposite side of the
entertainment arena, providing all viewers with the possibility of
becoming potential entertainers. 8 The growing popularity of the real-
ity genre invites questions regarding its utility and consequences for
audiences. 9 This study examines the reasons why individuals watch
reality, and considers how social and psychological antecedents influence
reality TV viewing from a uses and gratifications perspective.

Task Twenty-Seven 

By this time we hope you are able to identify and label the different moves of an
introduction. Read the introduction from materials science, and answer the
questions at the end. Note that in the journal Applied Physics Letters, papers
are referred to as letters.

1. What is the purpose of the first paragraph?

Here the authors establish the topic and background information
including the discussion of previous work.
2. What is the aim of the second paragraph? What kind of detail is offered?
The aim is to generally describe the research. In Sentence 7 the
authors introduce the work that will be presented. They then give a
brief description of their method for growing the material in Sentence
8. Sentences 9–10 offer some of the results.
3. Can you find any instances where the authors reveal their perspective?
Sentence 1: one of the key challenges in modern nanotechnology
Sentence 2: have become of special scientific interest and technological
importance
unique
distinctly different from
Sentence 3: One of the promising ways to
Sentence 5: a good candidate
Sentence 6: can be realized effectively
4. In Sentence 7, can you think of any other verbs besides report on that
could be used?
Describe and maybe discuss seem like reasonable alternatives.
5. What verb tenses are used in Sentences 3–6? Why do you suppose these
verb forms were used?
Sentence 3 is in the present tense since it indicates the authors’ belief
as well as that of many in the field. Sentence 4 then moves to past
tense to indicate what was done, suggesting by the use of past that it is
no longer done or current. In Sentence 5 the chosen tense is present

perfect to reveal that this is a recent notion that was introduced in the
past and continues to be acted on, but has not reached the status of
accepted knowledge of the field. The shift to present tense in Sentence
6 suggests that the recent work is strongly connected to the work pre-
sented in the paper and work that is in keeping with the authors’ line
of thinking.
This sequence of verb tense choices is very nice. Many of our stu-
dents question whether different tenses can be used in a paragraph. We
are not sure how they have developed this misconception, but it is
important for writers to be aware that verb tenses can vary and can
convey some additional meaning in terms of whether something is
accepted knowledge of the field (generally present tense) or at least
close to the author’s own ideas (present perfect).
6. In the second paragraph does active or passive voice predominate? What
seems to have motivated the choice of voice?
There is a lot of passive voice in the second paragraph. Sentence 7 is in
active voice and the authors have chosen to insert themselves into the
paper. (It is worth considering why the authors chose to use we as the
subject. They could have easily written this letter reports on. There is no
right or wrong here, of course, but the use of we could mean the
authors wanted to clearly express ownership of or accountability for
the work.) The remaining sentences are in the passive, and the authors
have removed themselves to focus on the research. Passive helps to
achieve old to new information flow in Sentences 7–9. It is hard for us
to see an old to new connection in Sentence 10.

Filling the Gap

Task Twenty-Eight 

Here are two examples of Move 3 overviews. Read them, and consider the ques-
tions that come after the excerpts.

A. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the main features

of the FRACTAL model. Section 3 describes JULIA, a Java framework
that supports the FRACTAL model. Section 4 evaluates the model and
its supporting framework. Section 5 discusses related work. Section 6
concludes the paper with some indications for future work.
B. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we
review the data and present some summary statistics. Section 3 pres-
ents the results of analyses that relate probability of sale of individuals’
mutual fund investments with a range of fund characteristics, includ-
ing past performance, determinants of future potential tax liabilities,
and investment costs. In Section 4 we aggregate investors’ buys and
sells of mutual funds into monthly measures of inflows and outflows,
and analyze the determinants of those flows. Section 5 concludes.
1. Text A begins with the paper, while B begins with this paper. Do you have
a preference for one over the other? Does the paper seem to have a dif-
ferent effect on you as a reader compared to this paper? Why?
Each is grammatically correct, of course, but there may be a difference in
terms of how readers perceive the two. This seems to strongly point to or
make a tighter connection to the paper at hand. It focuses the readers’
attention. Our sense is that this is more common, as well. Somehow, the
creates distance, almost as if the paper was written by someone else. In
the end, either the or this can be used, but writers need to be aware of the
effect their choice may have on readers.
2. In Text B the authors include themselves using we. Text A, on the other
hand, anthropomorphizes (i.e., attributes human activities to) the sec-
tions. Which do you prefer? Why?
This is completely a matter of personal preference. When authors use
we they are deliberately inserting themselves into the text, perhaps sug-
gesting a greater degree of ownership.
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
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3. What words or expressions do the texts have in common? Could you use
these in your own writing?
organized as follows
present
section . . . concludes
We think these expressions can be used in any overview. As follows is a
fixed expression, so writers should be careful not to change follows to
following. Following is a noun that is generally preceded by the, as in,
The following section examines the effect of glucose on decision-making.
4. How much variety in the sentence structure of the two overviews do
you notice? How important is it to vary the sentence structure to create
interest?
The structure of the sentences in Text A is the same. In Text B there is
some variety; the authors switch between writing In section X we +
VERB and Section X + VERB. Varying the structure has both advan-
tages and disadvantages. The answer to Question 5 offers more detail
on this.
5. Do you think that this version represents an improvement of Text A?
This is a very interesting question since the original and the revised
texts convey the same information, differing only in sentence struc-
ture. Usually, this question leads to a lot of discussion. Many of our
students dislike the revision—a lot. Although they recognize the nice
variety in the sentence structure, they argue that this comes at the
expense of clarity. They believe that if the purpose of the overview is to
help readers see what is discussed in the paper and where, then it is
best to follow a predictable order of information, placing the section
number near the beginning of each sentence. Other students like the
variation in the sentences offered by the revision. They believe that
variation suggests an interesting paper. We see both sides, but John has
always favored overviews with variety.

Task Twenty-Nine 

Examine your reference collection of RA introductions again, and identify the
language that guides or directs the reader.

We cannot provide answers here, of course, but the analysis of the reference
collection should reveal some interesting trends or patterns in the writing of
introductions in a specific discipline. Chris generally asks students to report
their results to the class, which often results in some lively discussions on
disciplinary differences in academic writing.

Problem-Focused Introductions
We debated whether to discuss problem-focused introductions separately or
alongside CaRS introductions since one could reasonably argue that the dif-
ferences between them are not that great. There is a difference in Move 2
(whether the introduction highlights a problem or a research gap or a need
to extend previous research) and an additional Move 4 in the problem-
focused introductions. We think the differences are important, however.
Gaps and problems are not the same. In the former, there is an absence of
research, while in the latter there may be research, but difficulties of some
kind still exist. For instance, in surgery, research may show that a treatment
protocol produces good outcomes, but not for all patients. Research may be
able to identify why outcomes differ and then offer a solution that addresses
the problem. To offer another example, RAs with a legal focus often focus
on problems that arise because of a lack of adequate legislation or because
the implications of a new law or legal decision have not been thoroughly
considered. Legal RAs can highlight the real or potential problems and offer
a solution. Thus, because of our classroom and workshop experiences with
RA writers in fields that focus more on real problems than gaps, we decided
the separate section on problem introductions was in order. When working
with writers in such areas, we are much more likely to begin with problem-
focused introductions and then cover Moves 1 and 3, following our
approach in the CaRS section.
We did not provide a set of questions for analysis of the right to publicity
text since students did not find that the questions we had were as interesting
© The University of Michigan Press, 2011
Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
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Michigan ELT, 2011
O NLINE C OMMENTARY TO C REATING C ONTEXTS 79

as looking at the flow of ideas, as indicated later. Some ideas for more closely
examining the text include examining
• the opening sentence
• the definition in Sentence 5
• the logical connectors
• the verb tense and aspect
• the roadmap verbs in Move 4
• the split infinitive in Sentence 16 (to consistently adjudicate )

Task Thirty 

Read this introduction, and answer the questions.

1. Which sentences contribute to the moves?

Move 1: Sentences 1 and 2
Move 2: Sentences 3–6
Move 3: Sentences 7–9

2. Why do you suppose the authors used however to begin Sentence 3?

However indicates a shift away from the previous focus and helps make
the transition to the problem.

3. The authors clearly identify the problem by saying the problem is that.
Can you think of any alternatives to this phrase?
The reason for this is that . . .
Specifically, one issue that needs to be addressed is . . .
The difficulty is . . .
The obstacle to using conventional methods is . . .

4. Sentence 8 begins with it. What do you think of the use of it here? Could
the authors have been more clear?
Something like our approach or our method would be an improvement.

5. This introduction ends with a roadmap or outline of the paper, as does

the right of publicity introduction. Would you make any changes to it?
The overview seems fine to us, but some writers may prefer an
overview in which the section number is the subject of the sentence, as
we discussed earlier.

The student discussion about the right of publicity text on pages 89–90 of
the main volume emerged quite spontaneously. The text originally was the
basis for a task in which students analyzed the moves and language, but
inevitably students kept coming back to the flow of ideas. The student dis-
cussion took place in a writing class with students from several disciplines.
The students in the discussion here are from engineering, biostatistics, edu-
cation, and natural resources.

Task Thirty-One 

What is your reaction to the revision process? Do you think Text D reflects good
improvements to Text A?

We think the students did a good job revising the text. Their thinking about
the audience and the need to make a clear connection is nicely reflected in
Text D. Not bad work for a diverse group of students—each of whom came
from a different discipline, spoke different first languages (Spanish, Korean,
Chinese, and English), and were at different stages in their degree programs
(Master’s and PhD).

Task Thirty-Two 

Some comments on the Girl with a Tray text: In Danish Peter would be pro-
nounced similar to later. The final “d” in Ilsted is not pronounced.
Read the introductions, and answer the questions at the end.

1. Art history article introductions may be organized in this manner.

description of a single work of art

placement of that work in its historical context

broader interpretation/explanations

To what extent does the Girl with a Tray introduction follow this pattern?
We think it follows the order pretty well. The text begins with a focus
on the artwork but ends with a much broader focus on the Copen-
hagen school and possible influences on it.

2. Where in the introduction does the author hedge or cautiously state his
claims? Does this seem necessary? Why?
There are hedges in several sentences.
4 As Ilsted often used his own children as models, the Girl with a
Tray is probably one of his daughters.
6 Both he and Ilsted were leading representatives of what is some-
times called the Copenhagen School, which focused on depicting quiet
interiors of middle-class city homes.
8 By 1915, however, Hammershøi’s productive career was essen-
tially over as he was terminally ill with throat cancer, so it is possible
that the mezzotint shows one of Hammershøi’s nieces bringing water
for his diseased throat.
9 Although this last observation must remain a speculation, in more
general terms much is known about the personal relations between
Ilsted and Hammershøi and their families.

Ba What is less clear are the historical influences that shaped the dis-
tinctive art of the Copenhagen School.
Bb It is, therefore, the purpose of this paper to try and throw some
further light on this important episode in the history of northern Euro-
pean art.
Bc In particular, I will examine the likely influence on both Danish
artists of 17th century Dutch painters, such as Vermeer.
As with many paintings much is open to discussion such as the sub-
jects, the activity, and the underlying driving forces. Since works of art
can be complicated, many interpretations are possible; thus, it makes
sense that there would be many instances of hedges and cautious
claims. As the German artist Daniel Richter once said, “The more you
know about the historical or ecological background of images, the
more you can interpret, but it’s not necessarily the truth about it.”

3. In the third paragraph the author inserts himself into the introduction. Do
you think it makes sense to do so in this type of introduction? Why?
We think it makes sense. There is only one author of the text, and he
is taking ownership of his interpretation of the painting and analysis of
the Copenhagen school.

4. The author briefly clarifies a central characteristic of the Copenhagen

School in Sentence 6, and offers very little explanation for mezzotint in Sen-
tence 1, saying only that it is a difficult reproductive technique. What do
these choices indicate about the author’s assumptions of the audience?
The author assumes that the reader has some knowledge of art and
probably has an idea of what mezzotint and the Copenhagen School
refer to. The lack of explanation of mezzotint may also reflect the
assumption that readers would know that Ilsted was a printmaker and
an artist who greatly contributed to advances in mezzotint technology.
But, playing it safe, the author offers enough explanation to make sure
readers can follow.

Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres
Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=3367288
Michigan ELT, 2011

5. Would the specific to general organization used in this introduction be

appropriate for any published RAs or other kinds of published papers in
your field?
Answers here, of course, will vary according to discipline. We have
seen specific to general introductions in published RAs outside the
humanities in such fields as archaeology and geology. As far as finding
this type of introduction in other published academic genres, we
would say book reviews are one possibility.

Task Thirty-Three 

Write an introduction to a research paper that would be suitable for a published
RA on a topic of interest to you.
We cannot offer an answer here but hope that responses have a good overall
organization and old to new connection of ideas.

Short Research Reports

Task Thirty-Four 

Read the introduction of the sandhill crane report, and answer the questions at
the end.

1. This is a short introduction (fewer than 200 words), but it seems to come
across as quite scholarly. In your view, which of these features contribute
the most to this impression?

a. the use of the Latin name in the opening sentence

b. the many references in the first two paragraphs

c. the avoidance of first-person pronouns

d. the heavy use of dates to show changes and developments

e. the use of the passive in the middle paragraph

f. the avoidance of evaluative or subjective depictions of the cranes

We think all of these contribute to the “scholarly” nature of the text.
The content and style suggest that the introduction was very carefully
written to appeal to both experts in the field and birdwatchers in gen-
eral in Michigan.
2. In the last paragraph the author describes his publication as a report.
What does this tell us? And what do you think about the choice of
documents as a reporting verb?
Designating the text as a report suggests that there will be a lot of data
given, but that this is not necessarily a thorough research endeavor.
Document seems fine since the report will provide the number of sand-
hill cranes counted in various locations. We can essentially expect to
find a more or less factual record and perhaps some recommendations.

3. What do you think of the final sentence in the introduction? Do you think
something more specific or something stronger might have been written?
What about, “Without this survey data, it becomes almost impossible to
plan for . . .”?
The suggested revision would seem to indicate that there is something
more urgent that needs to be done with the data collected other than
facilitating viewing and photography, which are the final two points
made in the original. Management of areas seems to be less important
in the original version, so if management of nesting or feeding areas is
of concern, perhaps the revision could indicate this more clearly.

Introductions to Proposals

Task Thirty-Five 

After the abstract, the “specific aims” is the first narrative part of the proposal,
which serves as an introduction. Read through this introductory section, and
then answer the subsequent questions.

1. Identify the purpose of each paragraph. Does the order of information

follow a pattern of organization that seems familiar?
It looks like a problem-to-solution organization.
Paragraph 1: background to the general problem associated with the
new policy
Paragraph 2: explication of the impact of the policy change by intro-
ducing Clostridium difficile infection as an example
Paragraph 3: further clarification of financial impact of Clostridium
difficile infection and highlighting a potential solution (a
prediction rule to identify at-risk patients) that can
reduce the cost to hospitals
Paragraph 4: the study aims
Paragraph 5: evaluation of the proposed solution and contribution of
the study

2. Earlier we stated that research proposals should answer three questions.

• What do you plan to do?

• Why is this work important for the field?
• How will you do the work?

To what extent does this introduction do this? If these questions are not
answered, what effect would this have on the proposal reviewer?
It seems that each of the questions has been answered. While we do
not know the specifics of how the work will be done, the methodology
is developed in more detail later in the proposal. Not answering the
questions will likely result in a failed proposal.

3. What language did the author use to convince the proposal reviewers
that the work is important? Does the work seem important to you? Why?
We think Greta made a great deal of effort to convince her readers.
The first paragraph is quite convincing with regard to the concern that
the policy shift will result in a major shift in how hospital complica-
tions are viewed and how hospitals will be left to deal with the finan-
cial burden. Note, for instance, the use of landmark decision, the
widespread impact, will shift the traditional view of hospital complica-
tions, and entirely preventable event.
In Paragraph 2, note these expressions chosen to reveal the need for
research.
6 The rate of C. difficile infection (CDI) tripled. . . .
7 Compounding the rising incidence of CDI, is an increase in
both severity and mortality of the disease. . . .
8 . . . the mortality associated with CDI surpasses that of all other
intestinal diseases combined (Redelings MD et al., 2007)
9 Despite scrupulous attention to hygiene measures, the incidence
of CDI has continued to escalate due in part to the rise of a hypervir-
ulent strain of C. difficile . . .
Ba The NAP1/B1/027 toxinotype III pathogen is more virulent
than other strains and has demonstrated resistance. . . .
In Paragraph 3 we find these expressions used to highlight the
importance.
Bb The financial burden . . . due to longer lengths of hospitalization and
treatment, is estimated to be as high as $3.2 billon dollars annually . . .
Bc Adding to this are the indirect costs of CDI, such as the pain and
suffering patients will endure, which is less often acknowledged, but
results in an even greater human cost. . . .
Bd The prevalence of CDI has particular repercussions in the elderly
population where the risk of CDI can be as much as 20-fold higher
than . . .

Be Because nurses are at the bedside 24/7, they are positioned to

impact the rate of CDI directly at the point of care.
Bf Although not currently available, a clinical prediction rule to
identify those at the greatest risk for CDI is a cost-effective, nontechno-
logical, and nonpharmaceutical approach. . .
Bg Operationalizing a patient’s risk will enable nurses to anticipate,
rather than simply react to, the increasing threat of CDI in hospitalized
patients.
In Paragraph 4 we find these expressions used to highlight the
importance.
Bi A clinical prediction rule, or risk score, specific for initial onset of
CDI in surgical patients, to our knowledge, is without precedence in the
published literature and has received only limited attention in other
patient populations. (Hu et al., 2008; Kyne, Sougioultzis, McFarland, &
Kelly, 2002).
Bj We propose to investigate the risk factors for CDI in a high-vol-
ume, high-risk cohort. . . .
Cc Integrate the most robust variables associated with CDI in the
postoperative colectomy patient into a clinical prediction rule model.
In Paragraph 5 we find these expressions used to highlight the
importance.
Ce This proposal provides the necessary foundation. . . .
Cf The broader long-term objectives of this research are. . . .
Cg We propose that the early identification of the patients most vul-
nerable for CDI early in, or prior to, hospitalization is the ultimate
strategy to protect high-risk patients, target preventative interventions,
and help curb the escalation of CDI in hospitals.
We are concerned and we are not even in the field!

4. Does the author appear to be knowledgeable? Why or why not?

We think so. She has highlighted the potential serious impact of the
new policy and has identified one hospital acquired infection
(Clostridium difficile ) that is costly. She offers a good solution to the
problem of Clostridium difficile infection, namely a prediction rule to
identify patients at risk for this infection. She evaluates the potential
benefits of her proposed rule in terms of reducing the rates of Clostrid-
ium difficile infection.

5. How much background information do you think is necessary to under-

stand the proposal? What information did the author assume the pro-
posal reviewers would have? Was this a reasonable assumption? Why or
why not?
She assumes at least a general knowledge of Medicare and Medicaid
and how important these institutions are in the United States. The
first paragraph eases the reader into the discussion and does not
require expert knowledge; a non-expert can easily follow the broad
point. This was a deliberate choice since Greta knew that the reviewers
would not necessarily be familiar with Clostridium difficile infection.
She wanted the opening paragraph to be accessible.
As the introduction progresses, it becomes more specific, however,
and here Greta tried to find a balance between being specific to reflect
her expertise and addressing an audience who may not be completely
familiar with Clostridium difficile infection. She assumes readers will
know what a colectomy is, but does not assume they will know what a
prediction rule is and clarifies this in Sentence 18. The second para-
graph requires the most expert knowledge to understand, while the
remaining paragraphs require less. Overall, she errs on the side of cau-
tion, assuming readers had some knowledge, but were not necessarily
experts in her specific research area.

6. Note the use of we in Sentences 19 and 26. Do you think the use of we is
appropriate? Can you think of a way to rewrite the sentences without we?
Although Greta wrote the proposal, she will not be alone in doing the
research. Her advisor will be very involved, as will other members of
her committee. Therefore, it would not quite be accurate for her to use

I. Greta could have rewritten Sentence 19 to omit we by writing This

study proposes to investigate ….
In Sentence 26 she could have simply omitted we propose that.
Alternatively, she could have said The study outcomes will show that. . . .

Task Thirty-Six 

Take a look at this excerpt from an interview that we had with Greta, the stu-
dent who wrote the proposal. Do any of her comments surprise you? Which, if
any, seem relevant for the writing of a proposal in your field?
Greta’s experience as a first-time grant proposal writer seems fairly typical in
that it took a lot of effort to get it done—it was one year in the making. But
unlike many of our students, she seems to have taken advantage of every
possible available resource and was fortunate enough to be able to afford a
proofreader to catch small, but important, grammar and punctuation errors.
She also was able to pay a statistician. Given the competitive nature of the
grant, these were good choices. While we do not recommend paying for pro-
posal support, at least in this case her investment was worthwhile consider-
ing that she now has two years of financial support. Greta’s point about
asking people for letters of recommendation early cannot be stressed
enough. We do think her strategy of asking for more letters than she needed
is an interesting one, but not necessarily feasible in all contexts.
Greta’s reaction to the reviewer feedback is one most of us have had. Ini-
tially, we may see only the negative and perhaps feel somewhat wounded as
a result. However, by taking a step back, we often will notice that the intent
of the feedback is to make the work better. Indeed, Greta noted that she is
considering incorporating some of the suggestions into her study.
Greta also mentioned the importance of word choice and overall skill in
writing. This, too, is significant in that a poorly written document, even one
that describes a good idea, is less likely to be successful. The quality of the
writing does influence the reader’s impression of the author and his or her
ability to do the proposed work.

Task Thirty-Seven 

Based on the feedback on the background of the proposal, which of the following
should be apparent in a strong proposal introduction? Place a checkmark ()
next to the ones you are most sure about and a question mark (?) next to those
you are not.

_____ 1. The rationale and background of the study are clear.

_____ 2. The author knows the relevant literature and is up-to-date.

_____ 3. The proposed research builds on earlier work and interest in the
field.

_____ 4. The proposed work refines earlier work.

_____ 5. The study is well-conceptualized.

_____ 6. The research may have immediate implications.

_____ 7. The work addresses a very important issue.

_____ 8. The research offers a good solution to a problem.

We think that Numbers 1–5 should be apparent in an introduction. How-

ever, 6–8 will largely depend on the nature of the proposed research. Some
research will not have immediate implications and will not necessarily
address or solve a very important issue. Issues and problems that are not so
far-reaching as hospital acquired infection are also worthy of attention and
funding. The issue, however, does need to be presented as relevant or highly
interesting.

Introductions to Dissertations

Task Thirty-Eight 

Find 3–5 dissertation introductions from your area of interest and ideally writ-
ten by students of your advisor. Work through these questions to get an idea of the
characteristics of dissertation introductions in your field.
We are not able to provide answers here, but the analysis based on the task
questions should provide some interesting insights. At the very least, it
should be clear how important it is to look at more than one sample to get
an idea of how to write a dissertation introduction. When we use this task in
a class, we ask students to share their findings, so that everyone can gain a
good sense of the different possibilities for writing the introduction. Ques-
tion 10 is particularly important since it helps many students come up with
ideas for writing their introductions that they can then discuss with their
advisors. Having some of their own ideas, they feel less dependent on their
advisors for guidance and thus more in control of their writing.

Final Comments
This is the end of the commentary but not the end of our work. We are sure
that readers of this commentary will have questions and insights, which we
would very much like to hear about. Feel free to email us. We, ourselves, will
also have much to add to the commentary as we use the material in classes
and workshops. As matters arise, we will make updates to the extent that this
is possible.

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Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions Across Genres: Online Commentary To

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Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions Across Genres: Online Commentary To

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Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres

Christine B. Feak & John M. Swales

Before we get to the actual commentaries on the tasks, a few preliminary

General Comments and

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

own traditions and idiosyncratic practices. Different disciplinary per-

© The University of Michigan Press, 2011

Some Preliminary Considerations

Task One 

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The Captive Audience

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The Overall Shape of an Introduction

Task Two 

Consider this introduction to a Communications course paper entitled “Shaping

1. Which sentence(s) would fit in the general to specific progression given in

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4. What is the purpose of the second paragraph? What term is used to

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Language Focus: Old to New Flow of Ideas

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Old-New Connection Established Using Passive Voice

Malicious programs that send out information over the Inter-

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Task Three 

When we need to complete a task, we often have a rather unrealistic

2. Which of these possibilities for Sentence 2 seems best? Why?

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Most students choose 2c because this phenomenon refers to misjudging

3. Which of these two would you prefer for Sentence 3? Why?

4. What would be a logical content focus for Sentence 4?

5. Read Versions A and B of the beginning of the introduction. Which do

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Task Four 

like to the second paragraph as well.

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Points of Departure: Starting the

Task Five 

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1. surprising idea or statistics, particu-

2. a comment on the scope or focus of

3. a story about real people and their

4. common knowledge in your field _____ _____ _____

5. a definition _____ _____ _____

6. a question that engages the reader _____ _____ _____

7. an opinion regarding research findings _____ _____ _____

8. a reference to a single study, a quote,

9. a comment on research directions or

10. a statement indicating the purpose of

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Can you think of any other ways to open?

1. The video game industry has grown at a tremendous rate. Common

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stantially in the past decade. Common knowledge in the field

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Introductions to Course Papers

Paper Type Field Introduction Opening

Argument Biology Hypothetical scenario

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Critique Civil and Environmental Engineering Statement of purpose

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Task Six 

Papers with at Fields with at

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Task Seven 

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Task Eight 

1. How well has the student positioned herself as a knowledgeable member

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4. What is your reaction to the use of I here?

Task Nine 

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4. common knowledge in your field ___ _ ___

5. a definition ___ _ ___

6. a question that engages the reader ___ _ ___

7. an opinion regarding research findings ___ _ ___