CHAPTER 3 MULTIPLICATIVE FUNCTIONS

3.1 Euler Phi-Function

• Arithmetical Function
An arithmetical function is a function that is defined for all positive integers.

• Example
The Euler phi-function φ(n) is an arithmetical function.

• Example
The function f (n) = 1 for all n is an arithmetical function.

• Example
The function f (n) = log n is an arithmetical function.

1
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• Example
The function f (n) = n2 is an arithmetical function.

• Multiplicative Function
An arithmetical function f is called multiplicative if f (mn) = f (m)f (n) when-
ever m and n are relatively prime.

• Completely Multiplicative Function

An arithmetical function f is called completely multiplicative if f (mn) = f (m)f (n)
for all positive integers m and n.
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• Example
Determine whether each of the following arithmetical function is multiplicative,
and whether it is completely multiplicative.
(a) f (n) = 1
(b) f (n) = n
(c) f (n) = log n
(d) f (n) = n2
(e) f (n) = n + 1
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• Theorem
If p is a prime, φ(p) = p − 1.

事实上φ(p)=p-1←→p is a prime

因为当φ(p)=p-1，若p不为prime，则p为
composite，则小于p至少有两个数不与其互质，则
φ(p)≤p-3，矛盾，所以p为prime
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• Example
Find φ(23).

• Example
Find φ(25).

• Example
Find φ(27).
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• Theorem
If p is a prime, φ(pn ) = pn − pn−1 .

因为p^n的factor只有p，所以不与p^n互质的只有p的倍数，这样的数有p^n-1个
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• Example
Find φ(243).

• Example
Find φ(625).
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• Example
Find φ(10).

• Example
Find φ(20).

• Example
Find φ(100).
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• Theorem
The Euler phi-function is multiplicative.
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• Theorem
If f is a multiplicative function and if n = pa11 pa22 . . . pas s is the prime factorization
of the positive integer n, then f (n) = f (pa11 )f (pa22 ) . . . f (pas s ).
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• Example
Find φ(1000).

• Example
Find φ(360).
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• Theorem
If n = pa11 pa22 . . . pas s , then
    
1 1 1
φ(n) = n 1 − 1− ... 1 −
p1 p2 ps
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• Definition
Let f be an arithmetical function. Then
X
F (n) = f (d)
d|n

represents the sum of the values of f at all the positive divisors of n.

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• Example
Let f (n) = 1.
X X
τ (n) = f (d) = 1
d|n d|n
counts the number of positive divisors of n.
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• Example
Find τ (n) for 1 ≤ n ≤ 20.

n τ (n)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
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• Example
Let
X
F (n) = φ(d)
d|n

Find F (n).

n F (n)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
15
16
18
20
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• Theorem
X
φ(d) = n
d|n

注意区别φ，τ，σ
τ和σ是summatory function
φ不是

φ的summatory function等于n

• Example
X
Find φ(d).
d|100
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3.2 The Sum and Number of Divisors

• Number of Divisors
The arithmetical function that counts the number of positive integer divisors of
an integer n is
X
τ (n) = 1
d|n
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• Example
Find the following:
(a) τ (25)
(b) τ (108)


(c) τ 22 × 33 × 54 × 76
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• Theorem
If p is a prime, τ (pa ) = a + 1.
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• Theorem
τ (n) is a multiplicative function. If n = pa11 . . . pas s , then
s
Y
τ (n) = (ai + 1)
i=1
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• Example
Find the following:
(a) τ (343)
(b) τ (300000)


(c) τ 25 × 73 × 114 × 126
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• Theorem
If m and n are relatively prime positive integers, then every d|mn can be written
uniquely as d = d1 d2 , where d1 |m, d2 |n and (d1 , d2 ) = 1.

即d为两互质数m和n分别取一部分prime factors的积
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• Theorem
If f (n) is a multiplicative function, then
X
F (n) = f (d)
d|n

is also multiplicative.

Σaibj=Σai×Σbj, i∈[1,n], j∈[1,m]

proof:
Σaibj=(a1b1+a1b2+...+a1bm)+ (a2b1+a2b2+...+a2bm)+...+(anb1+anb2+...+anbm)
=a1Σbj+a2Σbj+...+anΣbj
=(a1+a2+...+an)Σbj=Σai×Σbj

课本的内容顺序更符合逻辑，即
①先证明Theorem 7.8

②在证明τ和σ是multiplicative的
(这是很显然的因为τ的f(n)=1, σ(n)的f(d)=d, 即其f都是multiplicative的, 所以由7.8可得证)

③再推导出当自变量为prime power(质数幂) p^a时τ和σ的的公式

④结合②③，得到τ和σ对任何正整数n的通用公式
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• Sum of Divisors
Given an integer n, the sum of its positive integer divisors is given by
X
σ(n) = d
d|n

• Example
Find σ(n) for 1 ≤ n ≤ 20.

n σ(n)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
15
16
18
20
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• Example Find the following:

(a) σ(49)
(b) σ(108)
(c) σ(84)
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• Theorem
If p is prime,
n pn+1 − 1
σ(p ) =
p−1

• Example
Evaluate σ(1024).
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• Theorem
σ(n) is a multiplicative function.
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• Example
Find the following:
(a) σ(486)
(b) σ(300000)


(c) σ 25 × 62
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3.3 Cryptology

• The discipline devoted to secrecy systems is called cryptology.

• Cryptography is the part of cryptology that deals with the design and imple-
mentation of secrecy systems.

• Cryptanalysis aims at breaking the secrecy systems.

• A message to be altered into a secret form is called plaintext.

• A cipher, or encryption method is a procedure method for altering plaintext

into ciphertext by changing the letters of a plaintext by using a transformation.
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• Encryption: changing plaintext into ciphertext.

• Decryption: changing ciphertext into plaintext.

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• Numerical Equivalent of Letters

Letter Numerical Equivalent Letter Numerical Equivalent

A 0 N 13
B 1 O 14
C 2 P 15
D 3 Q 16
E 4 R 17
F 5 S 18
G 6 T 19
H 7 U 20
I 8 V 21
J 9 W 22
K 10 X 23
L 11 Y 24
M 12 Z 25
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• Example
Encrypt the message

THIS MESSAGE IS TOP SECRET

using the cipher

C ≡P +5 mod 26
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• Example
Decrypt the message

NQTAJ RFYMJ RFYNH X

using the cipher

C ≡P +5 mod 26
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• Example
Encrypt the message

THIS MESSAGE IS TOP SECRET

using the cipher

C ≡ 3P + 5 mod 26
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• Example
Decrypt the message

FMMHL DRSLR KRFLA REHLE FCZ

using the cipher

C ≡ 3P + 5 mod 26
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• Frequencies of Occurrence of the Letters of the Alphabet

Letter Frequency (%) Letter Frequency (%) t

A 7 N 8
B 1 O 7
C 3 P 3
D 4 Q <1
E 13 R 8
F 3 S 6
G 2 T 9
H 3 U 3
I 8 V 1
J <1 W 1
K <1 X <1
L 4 Y 2
M 3 Z <1
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• Example
Suppose we know that a shift cipher has been employed to encrypt a message,
and the ciphertext is
YFXMP CESPZ CJTDF DPQFW QZCPY NTASP CTYRX PDDLR PD
Decrypt this message.