Lecture 7: The WKB approximation

Vladimir Mangazeev: [email protected]

Department of Theoretical Physics, RSPE

 The WKB approximation
The WKB (Wentzel, Kramers, Brillouin) or quasi-classical approximation is a
technique for obtaining approximate solutions to the time-independent
Schrödinger equation in one dimension. It is useful in calculating bound state
energies and tunneling rates through potential barriers.

Imagine a particle of energy E moving through a region where V(x) =const. If

E>V, the wave function is of the form

+ - traveling right,
-- traveling left

Now assume that V(x) changes slowly in comparison with wavelength

WKB approximation identifies two levels of x-dependence: rapid oscillations,

modulated by gradual variation in amplitude and length.
 The WKB approximation

Similarly, if E<V and V=const, the wave function is of the form

If V(x) is not a constant, but varies slowly in comparison with 1/k, the
solution remains practically exponential, except that A and k are now
slowly-varying functions of x.

There is one place where this whole program is bound to fail, and thet is the
immediate vicinity of a classical turning point , where

For here l =2p/k goes to infinity and V(x) can hardly be said to vary slow
in comparison. A proper handling of the turning points is the most difficult
aspect of WKB, since we need to have exact solution of the Schrödinger
equation near such points. Nevertheless, the final results are simple and
easy to implement.
 The WKB approximation

The Schrödinger equation can be rewritten in the following way

The particle is confined to the

``classical’’ region, p(x) is real.
We write
 The WKB approximation

Substituting into the Schrödinger equation we obtain

Since A, f, p are all real, we get two equations for real and imaginary parts

We assume that the amplitude A varies slowly, so the term A’’ is negligible:
 The WKB approximation

We obtain solution for the phase of the wave function in this approximation

The general approximate solution will be a linear combination of two

such terms, one with each sign.

The particle doesn’t spend much time in the places where it is moving
rapidly, so the probability of getting caught there is small.
 Example: Potential well with two vertical walls

Suppose we have an infinite square well

with a bumpy bottom and inside the well

Quantization condition for energies

exact result
 Alternative derivation

We discarded A’’(x) and this corresponds to the 1st order approximation.

Can we proceed further ? Introduce a complex function S(x) by

The Schrödinger equation gives

This is nonlinear ODE and can not be solved for general p(x).
However, we can write a series expansion for S(x)

In the leading order

 Alternative derivation

In the 0th order in

In general,

One can slightly compactify the result by introducing notations

Then a simple algebra shows that and

 Tunneling

In the non-classical region E<V p(x) is imaginary and we easily obtain

Example Scattering on a rectangular barrier with a bumpy top

F is the transmitted amplitude, is the transmission probability

 Tunneling

In the tunneling region the WKB approximation gives

If the barrier is very high or wide, the coefficient of the exponentially

increasing term must be small and the wave function looks like this
 The connection formulas

Previously we assumed that the ``walls’’ of the potential are vertical, so we

do not approach the region , the boundary conditions are trivial
and the ``exterior’’ solution is simple.

However, when we approach a turning point , the ``classical’’

region joins the ``nonclassical’’ region where the particle slows down.

WKB approximation:

It breaks down near x=0 where the potential is almost linear

It precisely the boundary conditions at the turning points that determine the
energy spectrum.
 Connection formulas

The idea is to “patch’’ the WKB wave function with a “real” wave function
that straddles the turning point. For that we need to solve the Schrödinger
equation for this linearized potential

Changing the independent variable we obtain

This is the Airy’s equation and can be solved by a Fourier transform.

The solutions are called Airy functions. It is ironic that a linear potential
in quantum mechanics plays only a peripheral role in the theory.
 Connection formulas

A general solution is a linear combinations of two Airy functions

 Connection formulas

From this plots we can expect

that Airy functions “glue”
together oscillating and
exponential behavior. And this
is, indeed, the case

The patching wave function is their linear combination

 Matching process

Now we connect with the WKB approximation in the Overlap 2 region.

Then the WKB solution in the Overlap 2 region becomes

 Matching process

Comparing with the patching solution at we get

Can we really use

asymptotics ??

Then we know the patching solution in the Overlap region 1

Now we need to match this solution to the WKB approximation by

expanding it near the linear region.
 Connection formulas

Shifting the turning point from 0 to x2 and “gluing” the patching function to
the left WKB function we get the connection formulas

Kramers
relations

These formulas join the WKB solutions at either side of the turning point.
We can now forget about the patching solution – its only purpose was to
bridge the gap.
 Potential well with one vertical wall

Consider a potential with a left vertical wall

The only difference from a quantization condition for two vertical walls is a
presence of the extra -1/4
 Potential well with one vertical wall

Example The “half-harmonic oscillator

Here x2 is the turning point. Quantization condition gives

In this case the WKB approximation gives the odd energies of the full
harmonic oscillator which is the exact result
 Potential well with no vertical walls
Using the “patching” wave function we could derive similar results for a
downward-sloping turning point

Now consider a potential well and write the wave function in the interior region
 Potential well with no vertical walls

This should be the same function, so

Bohr-Sommerfeld Quantization Rule

Summary: the WKB approximation for potential wells

• Potential well with two vertical walls

• Potential well with one vertical wall

• Potential well with no vertical walls