Engineering Mechanics Statics 1630433197 PDF

Engineering Mechanics: Statics
Engineering Mechanics:
Statics
LIBBY OSGOOD, GAYLA CAMERON, AND

EMMA CHRISTENSEN
Engineering Mechanics: Statics by Libby Osgood, Gayla Cameron, and Emma
Christensen is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where
otherwise noted.
Welcome! This book is an introduction to engineering mechanics:
statics, when acceleration is 0. Hopefully, this course will help you
to see statics everywhere in the world – because it truly is
everywhere! Concepts include:
• particles and rigid body equilibrium equations,

• free-body diagrams,
• distributed loads,
• shear and moment diagrams,
• trusses, method of joints and sections, &
• inertia.
This is the first of two courses to describe how objects move and
the forces that cause motion. This combines math and physics
fundamentals with real-world application. A structured problem-
solving process is included, and by the end of the book, you should
be able to recognize and describe motion all around you in your
everyday life.
Chapter 1 contains the fundamental math and physics concepts
including vectors, Pythagorean theorem, sine and cosine laws, dot
product, Newton’s laws, weight and mass, unit conversions, and the
problem solving process.
Chapter 2 explains the difference between particles and rigid
bodies and introduces free-body diagrams and equilibrium
equations for particles.
Chapter 3 contains introductory rigid body concepts, including
cross products, the right hand rule, torques/moments and couples,
distributed loads and reaction/support forces.
Chapter 4 introduces free-body diagrams and equilibrium
equations for rigid bodies, as well as external forces, frictional and
impending motion.
Chapter 5 introduces trusses and two methods to solve truss
systems: method of joints and method of sections.
Introduction | 1
Chapter 6 explains internal forces and breaks down shear/
moment diagrams.
Chapter 7 introduces center of mass, mass moment of inertia,
area moment of inertia, and the parallel axis theorem.
Appendix A has a reference list of open textbooks.
This book is a combination of many other open

educational resources (OER) under similar creative
commons licenses. This information is denoted inside a
box like this. The links to the original source are very
clearly included so you can go to those books to see
what they say on other topics and try out their sample
problems.
Key Takeaways
Most sections have a ‘key takeaway’ that includes text

from me (Libby), containing the most important part of the
section (Basically), where it occurs in the real world
(Application), and what part of this course it connects to –
the why are we learning this (Looking ahead).
The last section of each chapter includes examples that were

submitted by former ENGN 1230 statics students to help you learn.
Statics and most engineering courses are ‘team sports’. I
recommend finding a few study partners to struggle through the
homework and study for the tests together.
This book is a good start to helping you learn, but ultimately
it’s up to you. Complete every homework and go to every class.
2 | Statics
But that’s not enough. Look at the solutions that are posted and
practice. You’ll get out of it what you put in, and statics can be fun.
It’s how engineers apply physics concepts to the real world. I hope
you learn to love learning engineering as much as I enjoy teaching
it. Hopefully, you’ll get a sense of the wonder of engineering through
this book.
Book cover image by malinoh from Pixabay
Introduction | 3
CHAPTER 1:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Static vs Dynamic Motion
Before we start, what is the difference between static and
dynamic? Static problems are all problems where there is no
acceleration. As you’re driving down the road and you’re cruising
along at a constant velocity, that is a static problem. As soon as you
start to slow down for a stop light or speed up, you are in dynamic
motion, and that’s much more complicated. For this course, we
will only consider problems where there is no motion (such as the
‘static’ is used in the English language), or constant velocity. Be
prepared to give many examples of static versus dynamic, because
before you can solve a problem, you have to know what type of
problem it is!
Introduction to Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts
This chapter has a lot of concepts from math and physics that
are necessary for you to understand before we can apply them in
engineering contexts. It’s kind of like: before you can write an essay
to express your opinion, you need to know how to write the a,
b, c’s and what each word means. Here, you need to know how
to compute a cross product before you can calculate how much
Torque is created from a force.
Some of this might be new. Some of this might be familiar, but we
might be applying it in a different way. (Such as calculating torque –
this is not what you learned in high school physics!) Some of it might
feel new, so practice practice practice!
Here are the sections in this Chapter:
• 1.1 Math & Physics Important Concepts (Mass, Weight, Slugs,

Trig, Units, Conversions, Scalar, Vector, Newton’s Laws)
• 1.2 XYZ Coordinate Frame
• 1.3 Vectors
Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts | 5

• 1.4 Dot Product
• 1.5 Cross Products
• 1.6 Torque/Moment
• 1.7 Problem Solving Process
• 1.8 Student examples
Here are the key equations and concepts you will learn in this
chapter
6 | Statics
1.1 Preparatory Concepts
1.1.1 Scalar vs. Vector
Many familiar physical quantities can be specified

completely by giving a single number and the
appropriate unit. For example, “a class period lasts 50
min” or “the gas tank in my car holds 65 L” or “the
distance between two posts is 100 m.” A physical
quantity that can be specified completely in this manner
is called a scalar quantity. Scalar is a synonym of
“number.” Time, mass, distance, length, volume,
temperature, and energy are examples
of scalar quantities.
Scalar quantities that have the same physical units can

be added or subtracted according to the usual rules of
algebra for numbers. For example, a class ending 10 min
earlier than 50 min lasts (50 min – 10 min) = 40 min.
Similarly, a 60-cal serving of corn followed by a 200-cal
serving of donuts gives (60 cal + 200 cal) = 260 cal of
energy. When we multiply a scalar quantity by a
number, we obtain the same scalar quantity but with a
larger (or smaller) value. For example, if yesterday’s
breakfast had 200 cal of energy and today’s breakfast
has four times as much energy as it had yesterday, then
today’s breakfast has 4(200 cal) = 800 cal of energy. Two
scalar quantities can also be multiplied or divided by
1.1 Preparatory Concepts | 7

each other to form a derived scalar quantity. For
example, if a train covers a distance of 100 km in 1.0 h,
its speed is 100.0 km/1.0 h = 27.8 m/s, where the speed
is a derived scalar quantity obtained by dividing distance
by time.
Many physical quantities, however, cannot be

described completely by just a single number of physical
units. For example, when the U.S. Coast Guard
dispatches a ship or a helicopter for a rescue mission,
the rescue team must know not only the distance to the
distress signal, but also the direction from which the
signal is coming so they can get to its origin as quickly
as possible. Physical quantities specified completely by
giving a number of units (magnitude) and a direction are
called vector quantities. Examples of vector quantities
include displacement, velocity, position, force, and
torque. In the language of mathematics, physical vector
quantities are represented by mathematical objects
called vectors. We can add or subtract two vectors, and
we can multiply a vector by a scalar or by another
vector, but we cannot divide by a vector. The operation
of division by a vector is not defined.
8 | Statics
Source: University Physics Volume 1, OpenStax CNX
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
osuniversityphysics/chapter/2-1-scalars-and-vectors
Key Takeaways
Basically: a scalar has only magnitude, whereas a vector

has magnitude and direction.
Application: I might have gone for a 4 km walk (scalar) but

whether I walked in a straight line, took turns, or went 2 km
out and turned around to walk 2 km back would tell me a
lot more information (vector).
Looking ahead: We will talk about this again in sections 1.3

on vectors and in section 1.4 and 1.5 on dot products and
cross products.
1.1.2 Newton’s Laws
1st Law:

Newton’s first law states that: “A body at rest will
remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force.
A body in motion continues in motion with the same
speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by
an unbalanced force.”
This law, also sometimes called the “law of inertia”,

means that bodies maintain their current velocity unless
a force is applied to change that velocity. If an object is
at rest with zero velocity it will remain at rest until some
force begins to change that velocity, and if an object is
moving at a set speed and in a set direction it will
remain at that same velocity until some force begins to
change that velocity.
Net Forces: It is important to note that the net

force is what will cause a change in velocity. The net
force is the sum of all forces acting on the body. For
example, we can imagine gently pushing on the rock in
the figure above and observing that the rock does not
move. This is because we will have a friction force equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction opposing our
gentle pushing force. The sum of these two forces will
be equal to zero, therefore the net force is zero and the
change in velocity is zero.
Rotational Motion: Newton’s first law also applies to

moments and rotational velocities. A body will maintain
it’s current rotational velocity until a net moment is
exerted to change that rotational velocity. This can be
seen in things like toy tops, flywheels, stationary bikes,
and other objects that will continue spinning once
started until brakes or friction stop them.
10 | Statics
Source: Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore et al.,
http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/
1_mechanics_basics/newtons_first_law/firstlaw.html
2nd Law:
Newton’s second law states that: “When a net force

acts on any body with mass, it produces an
acceleration of that body. The net force will be equal to
the mass of the body times the acceleration of the
body”
You will notice that the force and the acceleration in

the equation above have an arrow above them. This
means that they are vector quantities, having both a
magnitude and a direction. Mass on the other hand is a
scalar quantity having only a magnitude. Based on the
above equation, you can infer that the magnitude of the
net force acting on the body will be equal to the mass of
the body times the magnitude of the acceleration, and
that the direction of the net force on the body will be
equal to the direction of the acceleration of the body.

Rotational Motion: Newton’s second law also applies
to moments and rotational velocities. The revised
version of the second law equation states that the net
moment acting on the object will be equal to the mass
moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation
(I) times the angular acceleration of the body.
You should again notice that the moment and the

angular acceleration of the body have arrows above
them, indicating that they are vector quantities with
both a magnitude and direction. The mass moment of
inertia on the other hand is a scalar quantity having only
a magnitude. The magnitude of the net moment will be
equal to the mass moment of inertia times the
magnitude of the angular acceleration, and the direction
of the net moment will be equal to the direction of the
angular acceleration.
Source: Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore et

al., http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/
1_mechanics_basics/newtons_second_law/
secondlaw.html
3rd Law:
Newton’s Third Law states “For any action, there is

an equal and opposite reaction.” By “action” Newton
meant a force, so for every force one body exerts on
another body, that second body exerts a force of equal
magnitude but opposite direction back on the first body.
12 | Statics
Since all forces are exerted by bodies (either directly or
indirectly), all forces come in pairs, one acting on each
of the bodies interacting.
Though there may be two equal and opposite forces

acting on a single body, it is important to remember that
for each of the forces a Third Law pair acts on a
separate body. This can sometimes be confusing when
there are multiple Third Law pairs at work. Below are
some examples of situations where multiple Third Law
pairs occur.

1_mechanics_basics/newtons_third_law/
thirdlaw.html

Key Takeaways
Basically: These 3 laws form the foundation of statics and

dynamics. It makes our problems interesting! In statics, we
don’t do a lot with rotation.
• 1st law: the motion of an object won’t change unless

there is a force to cause the change.
• 2nd law: Combination of all forces = mass *
acceleration
• 3rd law: A system of interacting objects can be split
up into parts, where forces are used to model the
other part. Forces are equal (same size) and opposite
(their directions cancel out – one up, one down
Application: 1st law: a rock rolling down the hill will keep
going unless it hits a tree. 2nd law: the amount of forces on
the rock and how massive (heavy) it is will determine how
much it is accelerating (or decelerating). 3rd law: the rock is
pushing on the ground with the same amount of force as
the ground is pushing on the rock, but in the opposite
direction.
Looking ahead: You’ll see these concepts again in Ch 7 on

Inertia (1st law), Section 2.3 and 4.3 on equillibrium
equations (2nd law), Section 4.2 on system free-body
diagrams (3rd law).
14 | Statics
1.1.3 Units
Giving numerical values for physical quantities and

equations for physical principles allows us to
understand nature much more deeply than qualitative
descriptions alone. To comprehend these vast ranges,
we must also have accepted units in which to express
them. We shall find that even in the potentially
mundane discussion of meters, kilograms, and seconds,
a profound simplicity of nature appears: all physical
quantities can be expressed as combinations of only
seven base physical quantities.
We define a physical quantity either by specifying

how it is measured or by stating how it is calculated
from other measurements. For example, we might
define distance and time by specifying methods for
measuring them, such as using a meter stick and a
stopwatch. Then, we could define average speed by
stating that it is calculated as the total distance traveled
divided by time of travel.
Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in

terms of units, which are standardized values. For
example, the length of a race, which is a physical
quantity, can be expressed in units of meters (for
sprinters) or kilometers (for distance runners). Without
standardized units, it would be extremely difficult for
scientists to express and compare measured values in a
meaningful way.
Two major systems of units are used in the world: SI

units (for the French Système International d’Unités),
also known as the metric system, and English units (also
known as the customary or imperial system). English
units were historically used in nations once ruled by the
British Empire and are still widely used in the United
States. English units may also be referred to as
the foot–pound–second (fps) system, as opposed to
the centimeter–gram–second (cgs) system.
SI Units: Base and Derived Units
In any system of units, the units for some physical

quantities must be defined through a measurement
process. These are called the base quantities for that
system and their units are the system’s base units. All
other physical quantities can then be expressed as
algebraic combinations of the base quantities. Each of
these physical quantities is then known as a derived
quantity and each unit is called a derived unit. The
choice of base quantities is somewhat arbitrary, as long
as they are independent of each other and all other
quantities can be derived from them. Typically, the goal
is to choose physical quantities that can be measured
accurately to a high precision as the base quantities.
The reason for this is simple. Since the derived
units can be expressed as algebraic combinations of the
base units, they can only be as accurate and precise as
the base units from which they are derived.
Based on such considerations, the International

Standards Organization recommends using seven base
quantities, which form the International System of
Quantities (ISQ). These are the base quantities used to
16 | Statics
define the SI base units. The following table lists these
seven ISQ base quantities and the corresponding SI base
units.
SI
ISQ Base
Base
Quantity
Unit
Meter
Length
(m)
Kilogr
Mass
am (kg)
Secon
Time
d (s)
Electrical Ampe
current re (A)
Thermodyna Kelvin
mic temp. (K)
Amount of Mole
substance (mol)
Luminous Cande
intensity la (cd)
You are probably already familiar with some derived

quantities that can be formed from the base quantities.
For example, the geometric concept of area is always
calculated as the product of two lengths. Thus, area is a
derived quantity that can be expressed in terms of SI
base units using square meters (m x m = m2(m×m=m2)."
role="presentation" style="font-family: proxima-nova,
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weight: 400;letter-spacing: normal;float: none;direction:
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Similarly, volume is a derived quantity that can be

expressed in cubic meters (m3). Speed is length per
time; so in terms of SI base units, we could measure it in
meters per second (m/s). Volume mass density (or just
density) is mass per volume, which is expressed in terms
of SI base units such as kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m3). Angles can also be thought of as derived
quantities because they can be defined as the ratio of
the arc length subtended by two radii of a circle to the
radius of the circle. This is how the radian is defined.
Depending on your background and interests, you may
be able to come up with other derived quantities, such
as the mass flow rate (kg/s) or volume flow rate (m3/s)
of a fluid, electric charge (A·s), mass flux density
[kg/(m2·s),[kg/(m2·s)]," role="presentation" style="font-
family: proxima-nova, sans-serif;padding: 1px
0px;margin: 0px;font-size: 17.44px;vertical-align:
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0;text-indent: 0px;text-align: left;text-transform:
none;font-style: normal;font-weight: 400;letter-spacing:
normal;float: none;direction: ltr;max-width: none;max-
height: none;min-width: 0px;min-height: 0px;color:
#373d3f"> and so on. We will see many more examples
throughout this text. For now, the point is that every
physical quantity can be derived from the seven base
quantities, and the units of every physical quantity can
be derived from the seven SI base units.
Source: University Physics Volume 1, OpenStax CNX,
18 | Statics
osuniversityphysics/chapter/1-2-units-and-standards/
While most Canadian companies use SI, much manufacturing still

uses English units, so it’s important for you to be familiar with them.
What is a big number in feet? What is small? It’s important to know.
The most important advice is to stay in one unit system. So if you
are doing a homework problem that has a mixture, convert to one
system to be consistent. Challenge your self to try the one you aren’t
comfortable with. Here is a table of the most common quantities
that we’ll use in this class:
Quantity SI Unit English
m (meter), km
ft (foot), mi (mile), in
Length (kilometer), mm
(inch)
(milimeter)
Mass kg (kilogram) slug
Force N (Newton) lb (pound)
psi (pound per

Pressure Pa (Pascal) = N/m2 square inch) = lb/
in2
Very helpful additional information about units is at this webpage:

https://www.physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/index.html
Key Takeaways

Basically: Units give us a standard so we canuse the same
language to describe a concept.
Application: In 1999, after taking 286 days for NASA Mars

Orbiter satellite to get to Mars, a conversion error between
N and lb caused the $125 million satellite to be lost, forever.
Click here for more fun conversion error stories. If you
want to design ANYTHING, you need to be sure everyone
involved is using the same unit system.
Looking Ahead: The next section (1.1.4) will look at

converting the units back and forth between the two
systems.
1.1.4 Measurement Conversions
It is often necessary to convert from one unit to

another. For example, if you are reading a European
cookbook, some quantities may be expressed in units of
liters and you need to convert them to cups. Or perhaps
you are reading walking directions from one location to
another and you are interested in how many miles you
will be walking. In this case, you may need to convert
units of feet or meters to miles.
Let’s consider a simple example of how to convert

units. Suppose we want to convert 80 m to kilometers.
20 | Statics
The first thing to do is to list the units you have and the
units to which you want to convert. In this case, we have
units in meters and we want to convert to kilometers.
Next, we need to determine a conversion factor relating
meters to kilometers. A conversion factor is a ratio that
expresses how many of one unit are equal to another
unit. For example, there are 12 in. in 1 ft, 1609 m in 1 mi,
100 cm in 1 m, 60 s in 1 min, and so on. In this case, we
know that there are 1000 m in 1 km. Now we can set up
our unit conversion. We write the units we have and
then multiply them by the conversion factor so the units
cancel out, as shown:
[latex]80 m\times\frac{1 km}{1000 m}=0.080

km[/latex]
Note that the unwanted meter unit cancels, leaving

only the desired kilometer unit. You can use this method
to convert between any type of unit. Now, the
conversion of 80 m to kilometers is simply the use of a
metric prefix, as we saw in the preceding section, so we
can get the same answer just as easily by noting that
[latex]80m=8.0\times10^1m=8.0\
times10^{-2}km=0.080km [/latex]
[latex]80m=8.0\times10^1m=8.0\
times10^{-2}km=0.080km [/latex]
since “kilo-” means 103 and 1=−2+3."


0px;min-height: 0px;color: #373d3f">1=−2+3. However,
using conversion factors is handy when converting
between units that are not metric or when converting
between derived units, as the following examples
illustrate.

osuniversityphysics/chapter/1-3-unit-conversion/
Going back and forth between SI and English will become very
useful skill. If you can memorize km to mi, ft to m, and inches to
ft, you’ll be able to communicate better with coworkers. Here are
common conversions you’ll need for this course:
Quantity SI English Convert
1 km = 1000 m 1 mi = 5,280 ft 1 m = 3.28 ft

Length
1 m = 1000 mm 1 ft = 12 in 2.2 km = 1 mi
Mass kg slug 1 slug = 14.6 kg
Force N lb 1 lb = 4.448 N
Pressure Pa psi
1psi = 6895 Pa
All of the other units that we will encounter will be a mix of these
units (intensity w = N/m or lb/ft). One additional conversion that is
common is 1 lb = 2.2 kg, though this only works on Earth because it
is mixing kg and lb (see next section). For a full table, MechanicsMap
has a pdf available: http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/
UnitConversion.pdf
22 | Statics
Units outside the SI that
are accepted for use with
the SI
Symb
Name Value in SI units
ol
minute (time) min 1 min = 60 s

hour h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
day d 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s
degree (angle) ° 1° = ( /180) rad
minute (angle) 1 = (1/60)° = ( /10

800) rad
second (angle) 1 = (1/60) = ( /648

000) rad
liter L 1 L = 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3
metric ton (a) t 1 t = 103 kg

neper Np 1 Np = 1
(b)
bel B 1 B = (1/2) ln 10 Np (c)
1 eV = 1.602 18 x 10-19 J,
electronvolt (d) eV
approximately
unified atomic 1 u = 1.660 54 x 10-27 kg,

u
mass unit (e) approximately
astronomical 1 au = 149 597 870 700

au
unit (f) m, exactly

(a) In many countries, this unit is called
“tonne.”
(b)
The bel is most commonly used with the SI
prefix deci: 1 dB = 0.1 B.
(c)
Although the neper is coherent with SI units
and is accepted by the CIPM, it has not been
adopted by the General Conference on Weights
and Measures (CGPM, Conférence Générale des
Poids et Mesures) and is thus not an SI unit.
(d)
The electronvolt is the kinetic energy
acquired by an electron passing through a
potential difference of 1 V in vacuum. The value
must be obtained by experiment, and is
therefore not known exactly.
(e)
The unified atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12
of the mass of an unbound atom of the nuclide
12
C, at rest and in its ground state. The value
must be obtained by experiment, and is
therefore not known exactly.
(f)
The astronomical unit of length was
redefined by the XXVIII General Assembly
of the International Astronomical Union
(Resolution B2, 2012).
Source: https://www.physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/
outside.html
24 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: Different industries use different standards.

English is common in the US. SI is standard many other
places, however not generally in aerospace.
Application: In 1999, after taking 286 days for NASA Mars

Orbiter satellite to get to Mars, a conversion error between
N and lb caused the $125 million satellite to be lost, forever.
Click here for more fun conversion error stories. If you
want to design ANYTHING, you need to be sure everyone
involved is using the same unit system.
Looking Ahead: Always always always check what unit

you’re using. So many students lose points on homework
and the test because they aren’t paying attention to units.
1.1.5 Weight vs. Mass
Weight is the force exerted by gravity. While all

objects with mass exert an attractive force of gravity on

all other objects with mass, that force is usually
negligible unless the mass of one of the objects is very
large. For an object near the surface of the Earth, we
can, to a very good degree of approximation, assume
that the only force of gravity on the object is from the
Earth. We usually label the force of gravity on an object
as Fg. All objects near the surface of the Earth will
experience a weight, as long as they have a mass. If an
object has a mass, m, and is located near the surface of
the Earth, it will experience a force (its weight) that is
given by:
[latex]\vec F_g=m\vec g[/latex]
where g is the Earth’s “gravitational field” vector and

points towards the centre of the Earth. Near the surface
of the Earth, the magnitude of the gravitational field is
approximately g = 9.81 m/s2. The gravitational field is a
measure of the strength of the force of gravity from the
Earth (it is the gravitational force per unit mass). The
magnitude of the gravitational field is weaker as you
move further from the centre of the Earth (e.g. at the
top of a mountain, or in Earth’s orbit). The gravitational
field is also different on different planets; for example,
at the surface of the moon, it is approximately gm =
1.62 m/s2 (six times less) – thus the weight of an object
is six times less at the surface of the moon (but its mass
is still the same). As we will see, the magnitude of the
gravitational field from any spherical body of mass M
(e.g a planet) is given by:
[latex]g(r)=G\frac{M}{r^2}[/latex]
26 | Statics
where G = 6.67 × 10−11 is Newton’s constant of gravity,
and r is the distance from the centre of the object.
Although we have not yet introduced the concept of

mass, it is worth emphasizing that mass and weight are
different (they have different dimensions). Mass is an
intrinsic property of an object, whereas weight is a force
of gravity that is exerted on that object because it has
mass and is located next to another object with mass
(e.g. the Earth). On Earth, when we measure our weight,
we usually do so by standing on a spring scale, which is
designed to measure a force by compressing a spring.
We are thus measuring mg, which can easily be related
to our mass since, on Earth, weight and mass are related
by a factor of g = 9.81 m/s2; this is usually what leads to
the confusion between mass and weight.
Source: Introductory Physics, Ryan Martin et al.,

https://openlibrary.ecampusontario.ca/catalogue/
item/?id=4c3c2c75-0029-4c9e-967f-41f178bebbbb page
106
In the English language, the words ‘mass’ and ‘weight’ are used
interchangeably. A person might say, “I weigh 50 kg”, but in statics
language, that’s wrong! Or more accurately, that language isn’t
precise enough for statics.

An object’s mass is the same whether they are on the moon,
Mars, or Earth. However, their weight changes because the constant
of gravity with which that planet is pulling changes (see above
description comparing the moon and Earth).
g = 9.81 m/s2 (SI) and g = 32.2 ft/s2 (English)
[latex]\vec F_g=m\vec g[/latex]
Weight = mass * gravitational constant
Units of mass are kg (SI) or slugs (English) whereas units of
weight/force are N (SI) or lb (English). Because ‘slugs’ is such an odd,
unfamiliar unit, the graphic on the left uses real slugs to help you
remember to say “my mass is 50 kg (or 3.43 slug)” or “I weigh 490 N
(or 110 lb)”.
28 | Statics
While most Canadian companies use SI units, it’s important to be
familiar with English, so you should learn slugs. You don’t want to be
excluded from a conversation at your future job.
Note lbm (pound-mass) is not used in this book, though some
textbooks use it as a mass value. When lb is used, it is assumed to be
lbf (pound-force).
Key Takeaways
Basically: Mass and force are two different quantities.

Mass is in kg (SI) or slug (English) and weight is in N (SI) and
lb (English).
Application: Mass stays the same, but weight changes

from the Earth to the moon.
Looking ahead: This will become very important when we

look at forces in Section 4.1.
1.1.6 Pythagorean Theorem
Right triangle: a triangle containing a 90° angle.

Pythagorean theorem: a relation among the three sides
of a right triangle which states that the square of the

hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides (legs).
Using the Pythagorean theorem can find the length of

the missing side in a right triangle.
▪ c is the longest side of the triangle (hypotenuses).

▪ Other two sides (legs) of the triangle a and b can be
exchanged.
Source: Key Concepts of Intermediate Level Math,

Meizhong Wang and the College of New Caledonia,
item/?id=d8bdc88b-5439-4652-b4bb-2948f0d5c625,
page 136.
A special cases of the right triangle is called a 3-4-5 triangle,

or a Pythagorean triple. The two short sides are 3 and 4, and the
hypotenuse is 5! Many of your homework problems will use this
coincidence so you can save on the math by remembering 3-4-5
triangles: 32 + 42 = 52, 9 + 16 = 25. Wow!
30 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: The pythagorean theorum will help you find a

lot of information throughout this course. The longest side
c2 = a 2 + b 2
Application: If I have a 6 ft ladder leaned up against a wall

whose base is 2 ft from the wall, the pythagorean theorum
helps you to calculate the vertical height of the ladder (b2 =
62 – 22 ).
Looking Ahead: You’ll use this to help find geometrical

aspects of the problems, expecially when we get into
trusses in Ch 5.
1.1.7 Sine/Cosine Law’s
The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions allow us to use angle

measures, in radians or degrees, to find the coordinates
of a point on any circle—not only on a unit circle—or to
find an angle given a point on a circle. They also define
the relationship among the sides and angles of a
triangle.

To define the trigonometric functions, first consider
the unit circle centered at the origin and a
point P=(x,y)P=(x,y)" role="presentation" style="overflow:
initial;font-style: normal;font-weight: normal;line-
height: normal;font-size: 14px;text-indent: 0px;text-
align: left;text-transform: none;letter-spacing:
height: none;min-width: 0px;min-height: 0px;border:
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">P=(x,y) on the unit
circle. Let θθθ" role="presentation" style="overflow:
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px"> be an angle with an
initial side that lies along the positive xxx"
role="presentation" style="overflow: initial;font-style:
normal;font-weight: normal;line-height: normal;font-
size: 14px;text-indent: 0px;text-align: left;text-
transform: none;letter-spacing: normal;float:
none;direction: ltr;max-width: none;max-height:
none;min-width: 0px;min-height: 0px;border:
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">-axis and with a terminal
side that is the line segment OP. We can then define the
values of the six trigonometric functions for θ θθ"
32 | Statics
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">in terms of the
coordinates x xx" role="presentation" style="overflow:
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">and y.y.y."
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">
Let P=(x,y) be a point on the unit circle centered at the

origin O. Let θθ" role="presentation" style="overflow:

0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">θ be an angle with an
initial side along the positive x-axis and a terminal side
given by the line segment OP. The trigonometric
functions are then defined as
$$\sin\theta=y\;\;\;\csc\theta=\frac{1}{y}\\\cos\
theta=x\;\;\;\sec\theta=\frac{1}{x}\\\tan\
theta=\frac{y}{x}\;\;\;\cot\theta=\frac{x}{y}$$
If x=0x=0,secθx=0,secθ" role="presentation"
style="overflow: initial;font-style: normal;font-weight:
normal;line-height: normal;font-size: 14px;text-indent:
0px;text-align: left;text-transform: none;letter-spacing:
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">, secθ and tanθ are
undefined. If y=0, then cotθ and cscθ are undefined.
We can see that for a point P=(x,y) on a circle of radius

r with a corresponding angle θ,θ," role="presentation"
style="overflow: initial;font-style: normal;font-weight:
normal;line-height: normal;font-size: 14px;text-indent:
34 | Statics
0px;text-align: left;text-transform: none;letter-spacing:
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">θ, the coordinates x and
y satisfy:
[latex]\cos \theta =\frac {x}{r}[/latex]
[latex]x=r\cos\theta[/latex]
[latex]\sin \theta =\frac {y}{r}[/latex]
[latex]x=r\sin\theta[/latex]
The values of the other trigonometric functions can

be expressed in terms of x, y, and r:
The table below shows the values of sine and cosine at

the major angles in the first quadrant. From this table,
we can determine the values of sine and cosine at the
corresponding angles in the other quadrants. The values

of the other trigonometric functions are calculated
easily from the values of sinθ and cosθ:
Trigonometric Identities
A trigonometric identity is an equation involving

trigonometric functions that is true for all angles θθ"
0px;padding: 0px;margin: 0px">θ for which the
functions are defined. We can use the identities to help
us solve or simplify equations. The main trigonometric
identities are listed next.
36 | Statics
Source: Calculus Volume 1, Gilbert Strang & Edwin
“Jed” Herman, https://openstax.org/books/calculus-
volume-1/pages/1-3-trigonometric-functions
We often refer to this as SOH-CAH-TOA:
• Sine = Opposite / Hypotenuse >> S = O/H >> SOH

• Cosine = Adjacent / Hypotenuse >> C = A / H >> CAH
• Tangent = Opposite / Adjacent >> T = O / A >> TOA

I remember that cos is close – the side that’s close to the angle is
cosine. (It kind of rhymes and ‘close’ is a more familiar word than
‘adjacent’).
Key Takeaways
Basically: Trigonometric functions will help you to solve

problems. You’ll use SOH-CAH-TOA in many statics
problems, whether to componentize a vector or resolve a
force.
Application: A 6ft ladder leaning up against a house is at a

60 degree angle. We can find the vertical height where the
ladder reaches the house by using height = 6 ft * sin 60
degrees. (sin = opp / hyp)
Looking Ahead: Chapter 4 (forces) and Chapter 5 (trusses)

will use calculation of angles a lot.
38 | Statics
1.2 XYZ Coordinate Frame
We need a standard to be able to share a common language. The
Cartesian coordinate frame lets us express the location of a point so
that others can understand what we’re talking about.In this section,
we’ll look at 2d and 3d coordinate frames.
1.2.1 Cartesian Coordinate Frame in

2D
Vectors are usually described in terms of their

components in a coordinate system. Even in everyday
life we naturally invoke the concept of orthogonal
projections in a rectangular coordinate system. For
example, if you ask someone for directions to a
particular location, you will more likely be told to go 40
km east and 30 km north than 50 km in the direction
37° north of east.
In a rectangular (Cartesian) x-y coordinate system in a

plane, a point in a plane is described by a pair of
coordinates (x, y). In a similar fashion, a
vector [latex]\vec A[/latex] in a plane is described by a
pair of its vector coordinates. The x-coordinate of
vector A→" role="presentation">[latex]\vec A[/latex] is
called its x-component and the y-coordinate of
vector A→" role="presentation">[latex]\vec A[/latex] is
1.2 XYZ Coordinate Frame | 39

called its y-component. The vector x-component is a
vector denoted by [latex]\vec A_x[/latex]. The
vector y-component is a vector denoted by [latex]\vec
A_y[/latex]. In the Cartesian system, the x and y vector
components of a vector are the orthogonal projections
of this vector onto the x– and y-axes, respectively. In
this way, following the parallelogram rule for vector
addition, each vector on a Cartesian plane can be
expressed as the vector sum of its vector components:
[latex]\vec A =\vec A_x+\vec A_y[/latex]
As illustrated in the figure below, vector [latex]\vec

A[/latex] is the diagonal of the rectangle where
the x-component [latex]\vec A_x[/latex] is the side
parallel to the x-axis and the y-component [latex]\vec
A_y[/latex] is the side parallel to the y-axis. Vector
component [latex]\vec A_x[/latex] is orthogonal to
vector component [latex]\vec A_y[/latex].
40 | Statics
It is customary to denote the positive direction on
the x-axis by the unit vector i and the positive direction
on the y-axis by the unit vector j. Unit vectors of the
axes, i and j, define two orthogonal directions in the
plane. As shown in the figure above, the x– and y–
components of a vector can now be written in terms of
the unit vectors of the axes:
[latex]\vec A_x = A_x\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex]
[latex]\vec A_y = A_y\underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex]
The vectors [latex]\vec A_x and \vec A_y[/latex]

defined by the figure above are the vector components of
vector [latex]\vec A[/latex] A→" role="presentation"
style="font-family: proxima-nova, sans-serif; padding:

1px 0px; margin: 0px; font-size: 17.44px; vertical-align:
baseline; background: transparent; border: 0px; line-
height: 0; text-indent: 0px; text-align: left; text-
transform: none; font-style: normal; font-weight:
normal; letter-spacing: normal; float: none; direction:
ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width:
0px; min-height: 0px;"> . The numbers Ax and Ay that

define the vector components above are the scalar
components of vector [latex]\vec A[/latex] A→"
sans-serif; padding: 1px 0px; margin: 0px; font-size:
17.44px; vertical-align: baseline; background:
transparent; border: 0px; line-height: 0; text-indent:
0px; text-align: left; text-transform: none; font-style:
normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal;
float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height:
none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px;">A→"
sans-serif; padding: 1px 0px; margin: 0px; font-size:
17.44px; vertical-align: baseline; background:
none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px;"> . Combining

the diagram above with the equations above, we
obtain the component form of a vector:
[latex]\vec A=A_x\underline{\hat {i}} + A_y\

underline{\hat { j}}[/latex]
If we know the coordinates b(xb, yb) of the origin point
42 | Statics
of a vector (where b stands for “beginning”) and the
coordinates e(xe, ye) of the end point of a vector
(where e stands for “end”), we can obtain the scalar
components of a vector simply by subtracting the origin
point coordinates from the end point coordinates:
[latex]A_x = x_e - x_b[/latex]
[latex]A_y = y_e - y_b[/latex]
1.2.2. Cartesian Coordinate Frame

in 3D
To specify the location of a point in space, we need

three coordinates (x, y, z), where
coordinates x and y specify locations in a plane, and
coordinate z gives a vertical position above or below the
plane. Three-dimensional space has three orthogonal
directions, so we need not two but three unit vectors to
define a three-dimensional coordinate system. In the
Cartesian coordinate system, the first two unit vectors
are the unit vector of the x-axis i and the unit vector of
the y-axis j. The third unit vector k is the direction of
the z-axis, as can be seen below. The order in which the
axes are labeled, which is the order in which the three
unit vectors appear, is important because it defines the
orientation of the coordinate system. The order x–y–z,
which is equivalent to the order i^" role="presentation"

0px; min-height: 0px;">i-j-k, defines the standard right-
handed coordinate system (positive orientation).
In three-dimensional space, vector [latex]\vec

A[/latex] A→" role="presentation" style="font-family:
proxima-nova, sans-serif; padding: 1px 0px; margin: 0px;
font-size: 17.44px; vertical-align: baseline; background:
44 | Statics
none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px;"> has three

vector components: the x-component [latex]\vec A_x =
A_x\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex] , which is the part of
vector[latex]\vec A[/latex] A→" role="presentation"
0px; min-height: 0px;"> along the x-axis;

the y-component [latex]\vec A_y = A_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex] , which is the part of
[latex]\vec A[/latex] A→" role="presentation"
0px; min-height: 0px;"> along the y-axis; and

the z-component [latex]\vec A_z = A_z
\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex], which is the part of the
vector along the z-axis. A vector in three-dimensional
space is the vector sum of its three vector components:

[latex]\vec A= A_x\underline{\hat{i}}+A_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}+A_z\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]
If we know the coordinates of its origin b(xb, yb,

zb) and of its end e(xe, ye, ze) its scalar components are
obtained by taking their differences, and
the z-component is given by:
[latex]A_z=z_e-z_b[/latex]
Magnitude A is obtained by the following equation:
[latex]A=\sqrt
{A_{x}^{2}+A_{y}^{2}+A_{z}^{2}}[/latex]
This expression for the vector magnitude comes from

applying the Pythagorean theorem twice. As seen in the
figure below, the diagonal in the x-y plane has length
[latex]\sqrt{A_{x}^{2}+A_{y}^{2}}[/latex] and its
square adds to the square Az2 to give A2 . Note that
when the z-component is zero, the vector lies entirely in
the x-y plane and its description is reduced to two
dimensions.
46 | Statics
osuniversityphysics/chapter/2-2-coordinate-systems-
and-components-of-a-vector/
The Cartesian coordinate frame is a right-orthogonal system. This

will matter when we start looking at the right-hand rule in section
3.1. What is means is that when you draw two of the directions (say
x and y), then z must go either up or down. We’ll get into that more,
later.
Key Takeaways

Basically: The Cartesian coordinate frame gives us a way
to communicate the location of a point in space. In 2-d we
use [x, y] and in 3-d we also include z: [x, y, z].
Application: If I am trying to walk across the room, I can

walk in a straight line for 5 steps, or I can take 3 steps to
the right and 4 steps ahead. If I wanted to describe the
position of where I went in the Cartesian coordinate frame,
it would be [3, 4] assuming x is to the right and y is straight
ahead.
Looking ahead: This will connect with everything we do in

this class, especially with cross-products (1.5), torque (1.6),
and equilibrium equations (everywhere).
48 | Statics
1.3 Vectors
1.3.1 Vector Components
Some fun facts about vectors:
• The vector is denoted with a line on top or bottom: [latex]\vec

A[/latex] or A.
• There are two parts of a vector ([latex]\vec A[/latex]):
magnitude (A or |A|) and direction
([latex]\underline{\hat{a}}[/latex]): [latex]\vec A =
|\underline{A}|*\underline{\hat{a}}[/latex]
• In 2-dimensions, there are two components: x and y. In 3-d,
there are three components: x, y, and z.
• Vectors can be denoted using Cartesian form or brackets:
[latex]\vec A=A_x\underline{\hat{i}}+A_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}+A_z\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex] or using the
bracket form horizontally: [latex]\vec A=[ A_x, A_y,
A_z[/latex] ] or vertically: [latex]\vec
A=\begin{bmatrix}A_x\\A_y,\\A_z \end{bmatrix}[/latex]
• The magnitude (A or |A|) is calculated using the Pythagorean
theorem for each component in 2d: [latex]A =
\sqrt{{A}_{x}^{2}+{A}_{y}^{2}}[/latex] and 3d: [latex]A =
\sqrt{{A}_{x}^{2}+{A}_{y}^{2}+{A}_{z}^{2}}[/latex]
• The unit vector ([latex]\underline{\hat{u}}[/latex]) represents
the direction in cartesian form
[latex]\underline{\hat{u}}=\underline{\hat{i}}+\underline{\ha
t{ j}}+\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex] or using bracket form: [
[latex]\underline{\hat{i}}, \underline{\hat{ j}},
\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex] ].
• The magnitude of the unit vector is 1 (denoted by the ‘hat’ on
top) and it is unit-less: [latex]|\underline{\hat{u}} |=
1.3 Vectors | 49
\sqrt{{\underline{\hat{i}}}^{2}+{\underline{\hat{ j}}}^{2}+{\un
derline{\hat{k}}}^{2}} = 1[/latex]
• The unit vector can be calculated from the magnitude and
vector: [latex]\underline{\hat{a}} =\vec A/|A|[/latex]
In 2d & 3d:
50 | Statics
osuniversityphysics/chapter/2-2-coordinate-systems-
and-components-of-a-vector/
1.3 Vectors | 51
1.3.2 Componentizing a Vector
In 2d:
To find the components of a
vector (A) in 2 dimensions (the x
and y portions Ax and Ay), use
SOH CAH TOA:
[latex]\vec A=A_x\
underline{\hat{i}}+A_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex]
Ax = |A| cos(Θ)
Source: Introductory Physics, Ryan
Ay = |A| sin(Θ) Martin et al.,
|A|2 = Ax2 + Ay2 (magnitude) https://openlibrary.ecampusontario.ca
/catalogue/
tan(Θ) = Ax / Ay (direction) item/?id=4c3c2c75-0029-4c9e-967f-41
f178bebbbb p814
In 3d:
[latex]\vec A=A_x\underline{\hat{i}}+A_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}+A_z\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]
|A|2 = Ax2 + Ay2+ Az2 (magnitude)
[latex]\begin{aligned} &\hat{a}=\frac{\vec A}{|\vec A|}
\end{aligned}=\frac{{A}_{x} \underline{\hat{\imath}}+A_{y}
\underline{\hat{\jmath}}+{A}_{z}
\underline{\hat{k}}}{\sqrt{\left({A}_{x}\right)^{2}+\left({A}_{y}\ri
ght)^{2}+\left({A}_{z}\right)^{2}}}[/latex]
1.3.3 Position Vector
The position vector describes the position of an object or person

from a predefined origin (a starting point, absolute 0, or some other
point), for example the point where A in the above image is point at.
52 | Statics
A is the position vector. You can add individual position vectors to
find the total position traveled (c = a + b), for example if someone
walks from one point on campus to another, they would rarely walk
in one straight line like c. In the image below, imagine that there
is a building in the square near where a and b meet, so the person
couldn’t take c but had to walk around. The total distance traveled
is |a| + |b|, not |c| (because |c| ≠ |a| + |b|).
Source: Introductory Physics, Ryan Martin et al.,

item/?id=4c3c2c75-0029-4c9e-967f-41f178bebbbb page 821
Subtraction works the same way, but instead of going from tail to
head of the arrow, the reverse direction is taken, from head to tail.
For example, a = c – b, follow c from tail to head, then go in the
reverse direction of b from head to tail, and you end up at a.
1.3.4 Vector Math
Here’s more official language to describe vectors:
1.3 Vectors | 53
Vectors can be added together and multiplied by
scalars. Vector addition is associative and commutative,
and vector multiplication by a sum of scalars is
distributive. Also, scalar multiplication by a sum of
vectors is distributive:
[latex]\alpha(\vec A+\vec B)=\alpha\vec A +\alpha\

vec B[/latex]
In this equation, α is any number (a scalar). For

example, a vector antiparallel to vector [latex]\vec
A=A_x\hat{i}+A_y\hat{ j}+A_z\hat{k}[/latex] can be
expressed simply by multiplying [latex]\vec A[/latex] by
the scalar α=1:
[latex]-\vec A=-A_x\hat{i}-A_y\hat{ j}-A_z\

hat{k}[/latex]
The generalization of the number zero to vector

algebra is called the null vector, denoted by [latex]\vec
0[/latex]. All components of the null vector are zero
[latex]\vec 0 = 0 \hat{i} + 0 \hat{ j} + 0 \hat{k}[/latex] ,
so the null vector has no length and no direction.
Two vectors [latex]\vec A[/latex] and [latex]\vec

B[/latex] are equal vectors if and only if their difference
is the null vector:
[latex]\vec 0=\vec A - \vec B=(A_x\

underline{\hat{i}}) + A_y\underline{\hat{ j}} + A_z\
underline{\hat{k}}) - (B_x\underline{\hat{i}} + B_y\
underline{\hat{ j}} + B_z\underline{\hat{k}})[/latex]
[latex]\space=(A_x - B_x)\underline{\hat{i}} + (A_y -

B_y)\underline{\hat{ j}} + (A_z -
B_z)\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]
54 | Statics
This vector equation means we must have
simultaneously [latex]A_x-B_x=0[/latex], [latex]A_y-
B_y=0[/latex], and [latex]A_z-B_z=0[/latex]. Hence,
we can write [latex]\vec A=\vec B[/latex] if and only if
the corresponding components of vectors [latex]\vec
A[/latex] and [latex]\vec B[/latex] are equal:
[latex]\vec A =\vec B[/latex] if

[latex]\begin{bmatrix}A_x=B_x\\A_y=B_y\\A_z=B_z
\end{bmatrix}[/latex]
Two vectors are equal when their corresponding

scalar components are equal.
Resolving vectors into their scalar components (i.e.,

finding their scalar components) and expressing them
analytically in vector component form allows us to use
vector algebra to find sums or differences of many
vectors analytically (i.e., using graphical methods). For
example, to find the resultant of two vectors [latex]\vec
A[/latex] and [latex]\vec B[/latex], we simply add them
component by component, as follows:
[latex]\vec R=\vec A + \vec B=(A_x\

underline{\hat{i}}+A_y\underline{\hat{ j}}+A_z\
underline{\hat{k}})+(B_x\underline{\hat{i}}+B_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}+B_z\
underline{\hat{k}})=(A_x+B_x)\underline{\hat{i}}+(A_y
+B_y)\underline{\hat{ j}}+(A_z+B_z)\underline{\hat{k}}
[/latex]
In this way, scalar components of the resultant vector:

[latex]\vec R=(R_x\underline{\hat{i}}+R_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}+R_z\underline{\hat{k}})[/latex].
1.3 Vectors | 55
[latex]\begin{matrix}R_x = A_x+B_x\\R_y =
A_y+B_y\\R_z = A_z+B_z\end{matrix}[/latex]

osuniversityphysics/chapter/2-3-algebra-of-vectors/
Key Takeaways
Basically: Vectors help describe position, forces, and

quantities. Vectors use components, magnitude, and
direction (unit vector) to do so.
Application: A hammock hangs at an angle from the wall.

When a person is in the hammock, they are pulling on the
wall with a force at an angle. This force vector could be
56 | Statics
componentized into x and y, using the angle and the weight
of the person to calculate it.
Looking ahead: The next place vectors will appear is in

Moments in 1.6.
1.3 Vectors | 57
1.4 Dot Product
A dot product produces a single number to describe the product
of two vectors. If you haven’t taken linear algebra yet, this may
be a new concept. This is a form of multiplication that is used to
calculate work, unit vectors, and to find the angle between two
vectors.
[latex]\vec A\cdot \vec B=|\vec A||\vec B|\cos\theta[/latex]
A vector can be multiplied by another vector but may

not be divided by another vector. There are two kinds of
products of vectors used broadly in physics and
engineering. One kind of multiplication is a scalar
multiplication of two vectors. Taking a scalar product of
two vectors results in a number (a scalar), as its name
indicates. Scalar products are used to define work and
energy relations. For example, the work that a force (a
vector) performs on an object while causing its
displacement (a vector) is defined as a scalar product of
the force vector with the displacement vector. A quite
different kind of multiplication is a vector multiplication
of vectors. Taking a vector product of two vectors
returns as a result a vector, as its name suggests. Vector
products are used to define other derived vector
quantities. For example, in describing rotations, a vector
quantity called torque is defined as a vector product of
an applied force (a vector) and its distance from pivot to
force (a vector). It is important to distinguish between
these two kinds of vector multiplications because the
58 | 1.4 Dot Product

scalar product is a scalar quantity and a vector product
is a vector quantity.
Scalar multiplication of two vectors yields a scalar

product.
Dot Product
The scalar product [latex]\vec A\cdot

\vec B[/latex] of two vectors [latex]\vec A
\text{ and } \vec B[/latex] is a number
defined by the equation:
[latex]\vec A\cdot \vec B=|\vec A||\vec B|

\cos \phi[/latex]
where ϕ is the angle between the vectors.
The scalar product is also called the dot
product because of the dot notation that
indicates it.
When the vectors are given in their vector component

forms:
$$\vec A=A_x\underline{\hat{i}}+A_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}+A_z\underline{\hat{k}}\text{ and
}\vec B=B_x\underline{\hat{i}}+B_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}+B_z\underline{\hat{k}}$$
we can compute their scalar product as follows:
$$\vec A\cdot\vec B=(A_x\underline{\hat{i}}+A_y\
1.4 Dot Product | 59

underline{\hat{ j}}+A_z\underline{\hat{k}})\cdot(B_x\
underline{\hat{i}}+B_y\underline{\hat{ j}}+B_z\
underline{\hat{k}})\\=A_xB_x\
underline{\hat{i}}\cdot\underline{\hat{i}}+A_xB_y\
underline{\hat{i}}\cdot\underline{\hat{ j}}+A_xB_z\
underline{\hat{i}}\cdot\
underline{\hat{k}}\\+A_yB_x\
underline{\hat{ j}}\cdot\underline{\hat{i}}+A_yB_y\
underline{\hat{ j}}\cdot\underline{\hat{ j}}+A_yB_z\
underline{\hat{ j}}\cdot\
underline{\hat{k}}\\+A_zB_x\
underline{\hat{k}}\cdot\underline{\hat{i}}+A_zB_y\
underline{\hat{k}}\cdot\underline{\hat{ j}}+A_zB_z\
underline{\hat{k}}\cdot\underline{\hat{k}}$$
Since scalar products of two different unit vectors of

axes give zero, and scalar products of unit vectors with
themselves give one, there are only three nonzero terms
in this expression. Thus, the scalar product simplifies to:
[latex]\vec A\cdot\vec
B=A_xB_x+A_yB_y+A_zB_z[/latex]
We can use the equation below to find the angle

between two vectors. When we divide [latex]\vec A\
cdot\vec B=|\vec A||\vec B| \cos\phi[/latex] by
[latex]|\vec A || \vec B|[/latex] , we obtain the equation
for cos(ϕ), into which we substitute the equation from
above:
$$\cos\phi=\frac{\vec A\cdot\vec B}{|\vec A||\vec

B| }=\frac{A_xB_x+A_yB_y+A_zB_z}{|\vec A||\vec B|
}$$
Angle cosϕ" role="presentation">ϕ between vectors
60 | Statics
[latex]\vec A \text{ and }\vec B[/latex] is obtained by
taking the inverse cosine of the expression above.

osuniversityphysics/chapter/2-4-products-of-vectors
(many examples at this page).
But what IS it?
The dot product is the

component of vector A along B ( |A| cos Θ ) times the magnitude (size
of B). OR, it’s the component of B on A times the magnitude of A.
1
Visually this can be seen in the figure.
There is a nice mathematical proof on page 169 of Calculus-Based
Physics.
One neat thing about the dot product is that A • B = B • A
An example of a dot product is in a solar panel. To maximize
1. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Dot_product#/media/File:Dot_Product.svg

efficiency, the rays coming from the sun should be perpendicular
to the panels, that is, straight on. You could use the dot product
between a vector of the sun’s rays (yellow in the image below) and
the unit vector perpendicular to the surface (green in the image) to
calculate what portion of a ray that comes in at an angle produces
energy.
Arrows added to photo from Source: https://www.pxfuel.com/en/

free-photo-ouswv
Key Takeaways
Basically: Dot product is a method to find a number that

is a product of two vectors.
62 | Statics
Application: Two ropes attached to a sign are being pulled
in different directions. To find the angle between them, use
the dot product of the two vectors.
Looking ahead: We will use the dot product in Section 2.3

on particle equilibrium equations (and more in dynamics
next semester).

1.5 Cross Products
This is a second way to calculate the product of two vectors. It
creates a third vector that is perpendicular to the plane made from
1
the two vectors as shown in the figure .
a×b
b
||a|| ||b||
sin ϴ
n ϴ
a
b×a
The black
arrow is perpendicular to the grey plane made from blue and red
vectors). This is how you will find the amount of torque created from
a force, which we will do many times. Also, unlike the dot product, a
x b is a different direction than b x a.
$$ \vec A\times\vec B=\begin{bmatrix}
\underline{\hat{i}} & \underline{\hat{ j}} & \underline{\hat{k}} \\
A_x & A_y & A_z \\
B_x & B_y & B_z
\end{bmatrix} $$
1. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cross-
product-with-area.svg
64 | 1.5 Cross Products

[latex]\vec {\textbf{A}}\times\vec{\textbf{B}}=(A_yB_z-
A_zB_y)\underline{\hat{\textbf{i}}}+(A_zB_x-
A_xB_z)\underline{\hat{\textbf{ j}}}+(A_xB_y-A_yB_x)\underline
{\hat{\textbf{k}}}[/latex]
[latex]|\vec {\textbf{A}}\times\vec {\textbf{B}}|=|\vec A||\vec
B|\sin\theta[/latex]
The vector product of two vectors [latex]\vec A

\text{ and }\vec B[/latex] is denoted by [latex]\vec A
\text{ x }\vec B[/latex] and is often referred to as
a cross product. The vector product is a vector that has
its direction perpendicular to both vectors [latex]\vec A
\text{ and }\vec B[/latex]. In other words, vector
[latex]\vec A \text{ x }\vec B[/latex] is perpendicular to
the plane that contains vectors [latex]\vec A \text{ and
}\vec B[/latex].

osuniversityphysics/chapter/2-4-products-of-vectors/
Unit vectors allow for a straightforward calculation of

the cross product of two vectors under even the most
general circumstances, e.g. circumstances in which each
of the vectors is pointing in an arbitrary direction in a
three-dimensional space. To take advantage of the
method, we need to know the cross product of the
Cartesian coordinate axis unit vectors i, j, and k with
1.5 Cross Products | 65

each other. First off, we should note that any vector
crossed into itself gives zero. This is evident from the
equation:
[latex]|\vec A\times\vec B|=|\vec A||\vec B|\sin\

theta[/latex].
because if A and B are in the same direction, then θ =

0°, and since sin 0° = 0, we have [latex]|\vec A\times\
vec B|=0[/latex]. Regarding the unit vectors, this means
that:
$$\underline{\hat{i}}\times\
underline{\hat{i}}=0\\\underline{\hat{ j}}\times\
underline{\hat{ j}}=0\\\underline{\hat{k}}\times\
underline{\hat{k}}=0$$
Next we note that the magnitude of the cross product

of two vectors that are perpendicular to each other is
just the ordinary product of the magnitudes of the
vectors. This is also evident from the equation:
$$|\vec {A}\times\vec{B}|=|\vec A||\vec B|\sin\

theta$$
because if [latex]\vec A[/latex] is perpendicular to

[latex]\vec B[/latex] then θ = 90° and sin90° = 1 so:
$$|\vec A\times\vec B|=|\vec A||\vec B|$$
Now if A and B are unit vectors, then their magnitudes

are both 1, so, the product of their magnitudes is also 1.
Furthermore, the unit vectors i, j, and k are all
perpendicular to each other so the magnitude of the
66 | Statics
cross product of any one of them with any other one of
them is the product of the two magnitudes, that is, 1.
Now how about the direction? Let’s use the right hand
rule to get the direction of i×j:
[To find the direction, we use the right-hand rule which

we will cover more in section 3.1. Here is an overview].
With the fingers of the right hand pointing directly away
from the right elbow, and in the same direction as i, (the
first vector in “[latex]\underline{\hat{i}}\times\
underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex]”) to make it so that if one
were to close the fingers, they would point in the same
direction as [latex]\underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex], the palm
must be facing in the +y direction. That being the case,
the extended thumb must be pointing in the +z

direction. Putting the magnitude (the magnitude of each
unit vector is 1) and direction (+z) information together
we see that:
• [latex]\underline{\hat{i}}\times\
underline{\hat{ j}}=\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]
• [latex]\underline{\hat{ j}}\times\
underline{\hat{k}}=\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex]
• [latex]\underline{\hat{k}}\times\
underline{\hat{i}}=\underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex]
• [latex]\underline{\hat{ j}}\times\
underline{\hat{i}}=-\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]
• [latex]\underline{\hat{k}}\times\
underline{\hat{ j}}=-\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex]
• [latex]\underline{\hat{i}}\times\
underline{\hat{k}}=-\underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex]
One way of remembering this is to write

[latex]\underline{\hat{i}},\underline{\hat{ j}},\underlin
e{\hat{k}}[/latex] twice in succession:
[latex]\underline{\hat{\textbf{i}}},\underline{\hat{\t
extbf{ j}}},\underline{\hat{\textbf{k}}},\underline{\hat{
\textbf{i}}},\underline{\hat{\textbf{ j}}},\underline{\hat
{\textbf{k}}}[/latex]
Then, crossing any one of the first three vectors into

the vector immediately to its right yields the next vector
to the right. But crossing any one of the last three
vectors into the vector immediately to its left yields the
negative of the next vector to the left (left-to-right “+“,
but right-to-left “−“).
Now we’re ready to look at the general case. Any
68 | Statics
vector [latex]\vec A[/latex] can be expressed in terms
of unit vectors:
$$\vec{\textbf{A}}=A_x\hat{\underline{i}}+A_y\
hat{\underline{ j}}+A_z\hat{\underline{k}}$$
Doing the same for a vector [latex]\vec B[/latex]

then allows us to write the cross product as:
$$\vec{\textbf{A}}\times\vec{\textbf{B}}=(A_x\
hat{\underline{i}}+A_y\hat{\underline{ j}}+A_z\
hat{\underline{k}})\times(B_x\hat{\underline{i}}+B_y\
hat{\underline{ j}}+B_z\hat{\underline{k}})$$
Using the distributive rule for multiplication we can

write this as:
$$\begin{aligned}\vec{\textbf{A}}\times\
vec{\textbf{B}}=&A_x\hat{\underline{i}}\times(B_x\
hat{\underline{i}}+B_y\hat{\underline{ j}}+B_z\
hat{\underline{k}})+\\&A_y\
hat{\underline{ j}}\times(B_x\hat{\underline{i}}+B_y\
hat{\underline{ j}}+B_z\hat{\underline{k}})+\\&A_z\
hat{\underline{k}}\times(B_x\hat{\underline{i}}+B_y\
hat{\underline{ j}}+B_z\
hat{\underline{k}})\end{aligned}$$
vec{\textbf{B}}=&A_x\hat{\underline{i}}\times B_x\
hat{\underline{i}}+A_x\hat{\underline{i}}\times B_y\
hat{\underline{ j}}+A_x\hat{\underline{i}}\times B_z\
hat{\underline{k}}+\\&A_y\hat{\underline{ j}}\times
B_x\hat{\underline{i}}+A_y\hat{\underline{ j}}\times
B_y\hat{\underline{ j}}+A_y\hat{\underline{ j}}\times
B_z\hat{\underline{k}}+\\&A_z\
hat{\underline{k}}\times B_x\hat{\underline{i}}+A_z\

hat{\underline{k}}\times B_y\hat{\underline{ j}}+A_z\
hat{\underline{k}}\times B_z\
hat{\underline{k}}\end{aligned}$$
Using, in each term, the commutative rule and the

associative rule for multiplication we can write this as:
vec{\textbf{B}}=&A_xB_x(\hat{\underline{i}}\times\
hat{\underline{i}})+A_xB_y(\hat{\underline{i}}\times\
hat{\underline{ j}})+A_xB_z(\hat{\underline{i}}\times\
hat{\underline{k}})+\\&A_yB_x(\hat{\underline{ j}}\ti
mes\
hat{\underline{i}})+A_yB_y(\hat{\underline{ j}}\times\
hat{\underline{ j}})+A_yB_z(\hat{\underline{ j}}\times\
hat{\underline{k}})+\\&A_zB_x(\hat{\underline{k}}\ti
mes\
hat{\underline{i}})+A_zB_y(\hat{\underline{k}}\times\
hat{\underline{ j}})+A_zB_z(\hat{\underline{k}}\times\
hat{\underline{k}})\end{aligned}$$
Now we evaluate the cross product that appears in

each term:
$$\begin{aligned}\vec A\times\vec
B=&A_xB_x(0)+A_xB_y(\underline{\hat{k}})+A_xB_z(-
\underline{\hat{ j}})+\\&A_yB_x(-
\underline{\hat{k}})+A_yB_y(0)+A_yB_z(\underline{\h
at{i}})+\\&A_zB_x(\underline{\hat{ j}})+A_zB_y(-
\underline{\hat{i}})+A_zB_z(0)\end{aligned}$$
Eliminating the zero terms and grouping the terms

with i together, the terms with j together, and the terms
with k together yields:
$$\begin{aligned}\vec A\times\vec
70 | Statics
B=&A_yB_z(\underline{\hat{i}})+A_zB_y(-
\underline{\hat{i}})+\\&A_zB_x(\underline{\hat{ j}})+A
_xB_z(-
\underline{\hat{ j}})+\\&A_xB_y(\underline{\hat{k}})+
A_yB_x(-\underline{\hat{k}})\end{aligned}$$
Factoring out the unit vectors yields:
$$\begin{aligned}\vec A\times\vec B=&(A_yB_z-

A_zB_y)\underline{\hat{i}}+\\&(A_zB_x-
A_xB_z)\underline{\hat{ j}}+\\&(A_xB_y-
A_yB_x)\underline{\hat{k}}\end{aligned}$$
which can be written on one line as:
$$\vec A\times\vec B=(A_yB_z-

A_zB_y)\underline{\hat{i}}+(A_zB_x-
A_xB_z)\underline{\hat{ j}}+(A_xB_y-
A_yB_x)\underline{\hat{k}}$$
This is our end result. We can arrive at this result

much more quickly if we borrow a tool from that branch
of mathematics known as linear algebra (the
mathematics of matrices).
We form the 3×3 matrix:
$$ \begin{bmatrix}
\underline{\hat{i}} & \underline{\hat{ j}} &
\underline{\hat{k}} \\
A_x & A_y & A_z \\
B_x & B_y & B_z
\end{bmatrix} $$
by writing i, j, k as the first row, then the components

of the first vector that appears in the cross product as
the second row, and finally the components of the

second vector that appears in the cross product as the
last row. It turns out that the cross product is equal to
the determinant of that matrix. We use absolute value
signs on the entire matrix to signify “the determinant of
the matrix.” So we have:
$$ \vec A\times\vec B=\begin{bmatrix}

A_x & A_y & A_z \\
B_x & B_y & B_z
\end{bmatrix} $$
To take the determinant of a 3×3 matrix you work

your way across the top row. For each element in that
row you take the product of the elements along the
diagonal that extends down and to the right, minus the
product of the elements down and to the left; and you
add the three results (one result for each element in the
top row) together. If there are no elements down and to
the appropriate side, you move over to the other side of
the matrix (see below) to complete the diagonal.
For the first element of the first row, the i, take the
product down and to the right,
72 | Statics
( this yields iAyBz) minus the product down and to the
left
( the product down-and-to-the-left is iAzBy).
For the first element in the first row, we thus have:

[latex]\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex]AyBz −
[latex]\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex]AzBy which can be
written as: (AyBz −
AzBy)[latex]\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex]. Repeating the
process for the second and third elements in the first
row (the j and the k) we get (AzBx −
AxBz)[latex]\underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex] and (AxBy −
AyBx)[latex]\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex] respectively.
Adding the three results, to form the determinant of the
matrix results in:
$$\vec A\times\vec B=(A_yB_z-

A_zB_y)\underline{\hat{i}}+(A_zB_x-
A_xB_z)\underline{\hat{ j}}+(A_xB_y-
A_yB_x)\underline{\hat{k}}$$
as we found before, “the hard way.” Below the diagram

shows the direction of each part of the cross product:

Source: Calculus Based Physics, Jeffrey W. Schnick,
item/?id=ce74a181-ccde-491c-848d-05489ed182e7 page
136–141
Key Takeaways
Basically: Cross product is a method to find a
74 | Statics
vector that is a product of two vectors, perpindular
to the plane created from the two vectors.
Application: While bicycling, the force of my foot

pushing on the pedal produces the most rotation
when the force is 90 dgrees (perpindicular) from
the surface of the pedal. The pedals themselves
rotate so I can change the angle I am pushing with,
otherwise when the pedal is at the bottom, it would
be very difficult to produce forward motion.
Looking ahead: In the next section, 1.6 on Torque,

we will use the cross product to find the moment
produced from forces.

1.6 Torque/Moment
1.6.1 Moments
Moments are created by a force acting a distance from the center of

rotation. There are three ways to calculate moments: scalar, vector,
and using the right hand rule. The first two methods will be
presented in this section and the third way will be discussed in
section 3.1.3 on the right-hand rule.
A moment (sometimes called a torque) is defined as

the “tendency of a force to rotate a body”. Where forces
cause linear accelerations, moments cause angular
accelerations. In this way moments, can be thought of
as twisting forces.
The Vector Representation of a Moment:
76 | 1.6 Torque/Moment
Moments, like forces, can be represented as vectors
and have a magnitude, a direction, and a “point of
application”. For moments however a better name for
the point of application is the axis of rotation. This will
be the point or axis about which we will determine all
the moments.
Magnitude:
The magnitude of a moment is the degree to which

the moment will cause angular acceleration in the body
it is acting on. It is represented by a scalar (a single
number). The magnitude of the moment can be thought
of as the strength of the twisting force exerted on the
body. When a moment is represented as a vector, the
magnitude of the moment is usually explicitly labeled.
though the length of the moment vector also often
corresponds to the relative magnitude of the moment.
The magnitude of the moment is measured in units of

force times distance. The standard metric units for the
magnitude of moments are newton meters, and the
standard English units for a moment are foot pounds.
[latex]M= F\ast d\\Metric: N\ast m\\English: lb

\ast ft[/latex] .
Direction:
In a two dimensional problem, the direction can be

thought of as a scalar quantity corresponding to the
direction of rotation the moment would cause. A
moment that would cause a counter-clockwise rotation
1.6 Torque/Moment | 77
is a positive moment and a moment that would cause a
clockwise rotation is a negative moment.
In a three dimensional problem however, a body can

rotate about an axis in any direction. If this is the case
we need a vector to represent the direction of the
moment. The direction of the moment vector will line
up with the axis of rotation that moment would cause,
but to determine which of the two directions we can
use along that axis we have available we use the right
hand rule. To use the right hand rule, align your right
hand as shown so that your thumb lines up with the axis
of rotation for the moment and your curled fingers
point in the direction of rotation for your moment. If
you do this, your thumb will be pointing in the direction
of the moment vector.
If we look back to two dimensional problems, all

rotations occur about an axis pointing directly into or
out of the page (the z axis). Using the right hand rule,
counter-clockwise rotations are represented by a vector
78 | Statics
in the positive z direction and clockwise rotations are
represented by a vector in the negative z direction.
Axis of Rotation:
In engineering statics problems we can choose any

point/axis as the axis of rotation. The choice of this
point will affect the magnitude and direction of the
resulting moment however, and the moment is only
valid about that point.
Though we can take the moment about any point in a

statics problem, if we are adding together the moments
from multiple forces, all the moments must be taken
about a common axis of rotation. Moments taken about
different points cannot be added together to find a ‘net
moment’
Additionally, if we move into the subject of dynamics,

where bodies are moving, we will want to relate
moments to angular accelerations. For this to work, we
will need to take the moments either about a single
point that does not move (such as the hinge on a door)
or we will need to take the moments about the center of
mass of the body. Summing moments about other axes
of rotation will not result in valid calculations.
Calculating Moments:
To calculate the moment that a force exerts on a body,

we will have two main options: scalar
methods and vector methods. Scalar methods are
generally faster for two dimensional problems where a
body can only rotate clockwise or counter-clockwise,
while vector methods are generally faster for three
dimensional problems where the axis of rotation is more
complex.
Given any point on an extended body, if there is a

force acting on that body that does not travel through
that point, then that force will cause a moment about
that point. As discussed on the moments page, a
moment is a force’s tendency to cause rotation.

1_mechanics_basics/1-5_moments/moments.html
80 | Statics
1.6.2 Scalar Method in 2 Dimensions
In discussing how to calculate the moment of a force

about a point via scalar quantities, we will begin with
the example of a force on a simple lever as shown below.
In this simple lever there is a force on the end of the
lever, distance d away from the center of rotation for
the lever (point A) where the force has a magnitude F.
When using scalar quantities, the magnitude of the

moment will be equal to the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the force and the point we
are taking the moment about.
$$M=F\ast d$$
To determine the sign of the moment, we determine

what type of rotation the force would cause. In this case
we can see that the force would cause the lever to
rotate counterclockwise about point A.
Counterclockwise rotations are caused by positive
moments while clockwise rotations are caused by
negative moments.
Another important factor to remember is that the

value d is the perpendicular distance from the force to
the point we are taking the moment about. We could
measure the distance from point A to the head of the
force vector, or the tail of the force vector, or really any
point along the line of action of force F. The distance we
need to use for the scalar moment calculation however
is the shortest distance between the point and the line
of action of the force. This will always be a line
perpendicular to the line of action of the force, going to
the point we are taking the moment about.
82 | Statics
3_equilibrium_rigid_body/3-1_moment_scalar/
moment_scalar.html
If the position vector and force aren’t at exactly 90 degrees, the

equation T = |r| |F| sin Θ can be helpful and still produce a scalar
number for moment or torque. This is good if we had really simple
systems, such as opening a door or spinning a top. What happens
when you have a rotating door and a few people are trying to go
through it? Or a force that isn’t exactly along two axes? To solve
that, we’ll use vectors as shown in the next section.
1.6.3 Vector Method in 3 Dimensions
An alternative to calculating the moment via scalar

quantities is to use the vector method or cross product
method. For simple two dimensional problems, using
scalar quantities is usually easier, but for more complex
problems, using the cross product method is usually
easier. The cross product method for calculating
moments says that the moment vector of a force about a
point will be equal to the cross product of a
vector r from the point to anywhere on the line of
action of the force and the force vector itself.
$$\vec M=\vec r\times\vec F$$
A big advantage of this method is that r does not have

to be the shortest distance between the point and the
line of action, it goes from the point to any part of the
line of action. For any problem, there are many
possible r vectors, though because of the way the cross
product works, they should all result in the same
moment vector in the end.
It is important to note here that all quantities
84 | Statics
(r, F and M) are vectors. Before you can solve for the
cross product, you will need to write out r and F in
vector component form. Also, even for two dimensional
problems, you will need to write out all three
components of the r and F vectors. For two dimensional
problems the z components of the r and F vectors will
simply be zero, but those values are necessary for the
calculations.
The moment vector you get will line up with the axis
of rotation for the moment, where you can use the right
hand rule to determine if the moment is going clockwise
or counterclockwise about that axis.
Finally, it is also important to note that cross product,
unlike multiplication, is not communicative. This means
that the order of the vectors matters, and r cross F will
not be the same as F cross r. It is important to always
use r cross F when calculating moments.

3_equilibrium_rigid_body/moment_vector/
momentvector.html
86 | Statics
Whether you use scalars: M = |r| |F| sinΘ or vectors: M = r x F
you can solve most moment/torque problem. The scalar method is
faster for 2-d problems, especially if the vectors are at 90 degree
angles from each other (sin 90º = 1). The vector method is more
robust, especially if there are additional angles involved. There is
the potential to make errors, so it’s recommended to use the Step
6 Review step to try multiple methods to ensure your answer is
correct.
See the examples in section 1.8 as many of them concern
moments.
Key Takeaways
Basically: There are three methods to calculate moments,

two of which were discussed here. Moments or Torque is
created by a force acting some distance from an axis of
rotation.
Application: When you are opening a heavy door, you

push on the door. If you push closer to the axis of rotation,
you’ll need a bigger force to make it move. If you push
further away from the axis (so r is bigger), the force can be
smaller to make the same motion occur.
Looking ahead: Moments apply when rigid bodies are

involved, so we’ll pick up moments again in Chapter 3.1.3,
when you’ll learn the third way to calculate moments
(torque).
1.7 Problem Solving Process
Learning how to use a structured problem solving process will help
you to be more organized and support your future courses. Also, it
will train your brain how to approach problems. Just like basketball
players practice jump shots over and over to train their body how to
act in high pressure scenarios, if you are comfortable and familiar
with a structured problem solving process, when you’re in a high
pressure situation like a test, you can just jump into the problem like
muscle memory.
6 Step Problem Solving Method:
1. Problem
◦ Write out the answer with all necessary information that is

given to you. It feels like it takes forever, but it’s important
to have the problem and solution next to each other.
2. Draw
◦ Draw the problem, this is usually a free-body diagram

(don’t forget a coordinate frame). Eventually, as you get
further into the course, you might need a few drawings.
One would be a quick sketch of the problem in the real
world, then modelling it into a simplified engineering
drawing, and finally the free-body diagram.
3. Known and Unknowns
◦ Write out a list of the known/given values with the

variable and unit, i.e m = 14 kg (variable = number unit)
88 | 1.7 Problem Solving Process

◦ Write out a list of the unknown values that you will have to
solve for in order to solve the problem
◦ You can also add any assumptions you made here that
change the problem.
◦ Also state any constants, i.e. g = 32.2 ft/m2 or g = 9.81
m/s2
◦ This step helps you to have all of the information in one
place when you solve the problem. It’s also important
because each number should include units, so you can see
if the units match or if you need to convert some numbers
so they are all in English or SI. This also gives you the
variables side by side to ensure they are unique (so you
don’t accidentally have 2 ‘d’ variables and can rename one
with a subscript).
4. Approach
◦ Write a simple sentence or phrase explaining what

method/approach you will be using to solve the problem.
◦ For example: ‘use method of joints’, or equilibrium
equations for a rigid body, MMOI for a certain shape, etc.
◦ This is going to be more important when you get to the
later chapters and especially next semester in Dynamics
where you can solve the same problem many ways. Might
as well practice now!
5. Analysis
◦ This is the actual solving step. This is where you show all
the work you have done to solve the problem.
◦ When you get an answer, restate the variable you are
solving for, include the unit, and put a box around the
answer.
6. Review
1.7 Problem Solving Process | 89

◦ Write a simple sentence explaining why (or why not) your
answer makes sense. Use logic and common sense for this
step.
◦ When possible, use a second quick numerical analysis to
verify your answer. This is the “gut check” to do a quick
calculation to ensure your answer is reasonable.
◦ This is the most confusing step as students often don’t
know what to put here and up just writing ‘The number
looks reasonable’. This step is vitally important to help you
learn how to think about your answer. What does that
number mean? What is it close to? For example, if you find
that x = 4000 m, that’s a very large distance! In the review,
I would say, ‘the object is 4 km long which is reasonable for
a long bridge’. See how this is compared to something
similar? Or you could do a second calculation to verify the
number is correct, such as adding up multiple parts of the
problem to confirm the total length is accurate i.e. ‘x + y +
z = total, yes it works!’
Additional notes for this course:
• It’s important to include the number and label the steps so it’s
clear what you’re doing, as shown in the example below.
• It’s okay if you make mistakes, just put a line through it and
keep going.
• Remember your header should include your name, the page
number, total number of pages, the course number, and the
assignment number. If a problem spans a number of pages, you
should include it in the header too.
90 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: Use a 6-step structured problem solving

process: 1. Problem, 2. Draw, 3. Known & Unknown, 4.
Approach, 5. Analysis (Solve), 6. Review
1.7 Problem Solving Process | 91

Application: In your future job there is likely a structure
for analysis reports that will be used. Each company has a
different approach, but most have a standard that should be
followed. This is good practice.
Looking ahead: This will be part of every homework

assignment.
Written by Gayla & Libby
92 | Statics
1.8 Examples
Here are examples from Chapter 1 to help you understand these
concepts better. These were taken from the real world and supplied
by FSDE students in Summer 2021. If you’d like to submit your own
examples, please send them to:
[email protected]
Example 1.8.1: Vectors, Submitted by Tyson

Ashton-Losee
1. Problem
After a long day of studying, a student

sitting at their computer moves the cursor
from the bottom left of the screen to the top
right in order to close a web browser. The
computer mouse was displaced 6 cm along
the x-axis and 3.5 cm along the y-axis. Draw
the resultant vector and calculate the
distance traveled.
1.8 Examples | 93
Source:
https://
www.fli
ckr.com
/
photos/
dejankr
smanov
ic/
3321820
7918
94 | Statics
2. Draw
3. Knowns and Unknowns
Known:
x = 6 cm
y = 3.5 cm
Unknown: r, θ
4. Approach
Use SOH CAH TOA, first find θ, then r
5. Analysis
\begin{aligned}
&\tan \theta=\frac{y}{x} \\
&\tan \theta=\frac{3.5 \mathrm{~cm}}{6
\mathrm{~cm}} \\
&\theta=\tan ^{-1}\left(\frac{35}{6}\right) \\
&\theta=30.256^{\circ} \\
&\sin \theta=\frac{y}{r} \\
&r=\frac{y}{\sin \theta} \\
&r=\frac{35 \mathrm{~cm}}{\sin
\left(30256^{\circ}\right)} \\
&r=6946 \mathrm{~cm} \\
1.8 Examples | 95
&r=6.9 \mathrm{~cm}
\end{aligned}
6. Review
It makes sense that the angle is less that 45, because y

is smaller than x. Also, if you use Pythagorean theorem
to find r, you get the same answer.
Example 1.8.2: Vectors, Submitted by Brian

MacDonald
1. Problem
Mark is fishing in the ocean with his

favourite fishing rod. The distance between
the tip of the rod and the reel is 8 ft and the
length of the reel handle is 0.25 ft. The angle
96 | Statics
between the fishing rod and fishing line is 45
degrees. If Mark catches a fish when 25 ft of
the fishing line is released while the fish is
diving down with a force of 180 N, how much
force does Mark need to apply (push down)
to the reel handle to bring in the fish? Draw
the position vector of the fish relative to the
reel.
Assumptions:
• Mark can reel in the fish when he

generates more torque with the handle
than the amount of torque that the fish
is applying to the reel while pulling on
the line.
• The fishing line comes out of the reel
in a straight line at a 90-degree angle.
1.8 Examples | 97
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Deepsea.JPG
98 | Statics
2. Draw
Sketch:
Free-body diagram:
1.8 Examples | 99
Known:
rAB = 0.25 ft
rBC = 8 ft
rCD = 25 ft
FD = 180 N
θ = 45°
Unknown: FA , vector rAD
4. Approach
Convert inches to meters, then use the below

equation.
[latex]T=|r| *|F| * \sin \theta\\[/latex]
5. Analysis
Step 1: convert inches to meters
[latex]\begin{align} &25 \mathrm{ft} * \frac{12

\mathrm{in}}{1 \mathrm{ft}} * \frac{2.54
\mathrm{cm}}{\operatorname{l in} } *
\frac{\operatorname{l m}}{100 \mathrm{cm}}=7.62
\mathrm{m}\\\\ &\quad\mathrm{and}\\\\ &0.25
\mathrm{ft} * \frac{12 \mathrm{in}}{1\mathrm{ft}} *
\frac{2.54 \mathrm{cm}}{\operatorname{1 in} } *
\frac{\mathrm{1 m}}{100 \mathrm{cm}}=0.0762
\mathrm{m}\\ \end{align}[/latex]
Step 2: solve for TD
[latex]\begin{aligned}&T_{D}=\left|r_{C D}\right| *
\left|F_{D}\right| * \sin \theta\\ &T_{D}=(7.62 m)(180
N) \sin \left(45^{\circ}\right)\\ &T_{D}=969.86766
\mathrm{Nm} \end{aligned}[/latex]
100 | Statics
Step 3: Solve for FA
[latex]\begin{aligned}&T_{A}=\left|r_{AB}\right| *
\left|F_{A}\right| * \sin \theta\\ &\text { Assume }
T_{A}=T_{D}\\
&F_{A}=\frac{T_{D}}{\left|r_{AB}\right| * \sin \theta}
\\ &F_{A}=\frac{969.86766 \mathrm{ Nm}}{0.0762
\mathrm{~m} \cdot \sin \left(45^{\circ}\right)} \\
&F_{A}=17,999.998 \mathrm{N} \\ &F_{A}=18,000
\mathrm{N} \end{aligned}[/latex]
Vector rAD:
[latex]\begin{aligned} &\vec r_{A D}=\vec r_{A

B}+\vec r_{B C}+\vec r_{C D} \\ &\vec {r}_{A
D}=\left[\begin{array}{c} 0.25 \\ 0 \end{array}\right] f
t+\left[\begin{array}{l} 0 \\ 8 \end{array}\right] f
t+\left[\begin{array}{c} 25 \sin 45^{\circ} \\ -25 \cos
1.8 Examples | 101

45^{\circ} \end{array}\right] f t \\ &\vec r_{A
D}=\left[\begin{array}{cc} 17.93 \\ -9.68
\end{array}\right] ft \end{aligned}[/latex]
6. Review
The answer, though yielding a very large number,

appears to be correct from the information given.
18,000 N of force is the amount of force Mark would
need to apply the reel handle to generate the same
amount of force that the fish creates. 18,000 N in reality
is too much for one to generate but also in real
scenario’s one would not have to generate the same
amount of force to reel in the fish to reel gearing, the
amount of torque generated by the fishing rod itself and
etc. In other words 18 000 N of force is too high in a real
scenario but with the assumptions given in the problem,
the number seems reasonable. The answer also has the
correct unit, N.
102 | Statics
Example 1.8.3: Dot product and cross
product, submitted by Anonymous ENGN
1230 Student
1. Problem
$$\underline{a}=[6\;\;\;5\;\;\;3]\;\;\;\u
nderline{b}=[8\;\;\;1\;\;\;3]$$
a) Find 6b
b) Find [latex]a\cdot b[/latex]
c) Find [latex]a\times b[/latex]
d) Find [latex]2a\times b[/latex]
2. Draw
n/a
Known: a, b
Unknowns: a) 6b, b) [latex]a\cdot b[/latex], c)

[latex]a\times b[/latex], d) [latex]2a\times b[/latex]
4. Approach
1.8 Examples | 103

Use dot product, cross product equations
5. Analysis
Part a:
$$6\underline{b}=6*[6\;\;\;5\;\;\;3]\\6\
underline{b}=[36\;\;\;30\;\;\;18]$$
Part b:
$$\underline{a}\cdot\
underline{b}=[6\;\;\;5\;\;\;3]\cdot[8\;\;\;1\;\;\;3]\
\=6\cdot 8+5\cdot 1+3\
cdot3\\=48+5+9\\\underline{a}\cdot\
underline{b}=62$$
Part c:
$$\underline{a}\times\underline{b}=\begin{bmatrix}
\underline{\hat{i}} &\underline{\hat{ j}} &
6 & 5 & 3 \\
8&1&3
\end{bmatrix}\\(5\cdot 3-3\cdot
1)\underline{\hat{i}}-(6\cdot 3-3\cdot
8)\underline{\hat{ j}}+(6\cdot 1-5\cdot
8)\underline{\hat{k}}\\\underline{a}\times\
underline{b}=12\underline{\hat{i}}+6\
underline{\hat{ j}}-34\underline{\hat{k}}$$
Part d:
$$ 2\
underline{a}=2*[6\;\;\;5\;\;\;3]=[12\;\;\;10\;\;\;6]\\
\underline{b}=[8\;\;\;1\;\;\;3]\\2\
underline{a}\times\underline{b} = \begin{bmatrix}
104 | Statics
12 & 10 & 6 \\
8&1&3
\end{bmatrix} \\=(10\cdot 3-6\cdot
1)\underline{\hat{i}}-(12\cdot 3-6\cdot
8)\underline{\hat{ j}}+(12\cdot 1-10\cdot
8)\underline{\hat{k}}\\2\underline{a}\times\
underline{b}=24\underline{\hat{i}}+12\
underline{\hat{ j}}-68\underline{\hat{k}}$$
6. Review
The answer to part d is double the answer for part c,

which makes sense. It also makes sense that the
answers to b, c, and d have values in three directions,
while a only has magnitude.
Example 1.8.4: Torque, Submitted by Luke

McCarvill
1. Problem
1.8 Examples | 105

To start riding her bicycle, Jane must push
down on one of her bike’s pedals which are
on 16 centimeter long crank arms. Jane can
push directly downwards with her legs with a
force of 100N. Jane notices that the pedal’s
starting position can sometimes make it
more or less useful in generating torque.
a) What is the ideal angle that Jane’s bike

pedal should be at in order to generate the
most torque? Prove this mathematically.
(Assume we only care about the very start of
her very first push, and choose a reference
frame for the angle that makes most sense
for you).
b) What angle(s) should the bike pedal be at

if Jane wants to generate exactly half of the
maximum amount of torque?
c) Is there any position(s) at which the

pedal will create zero torque? Where are
they and why?
106 | Statics
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Girl_on_a_Bike_(Imagicity_116).jpg
1.8 Examples | 107

Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/
bicycle-cycle-two-wheeler-pedal-3168934/
2. Draw
108 | Statics
Knowns:
[latex]\begin{aligned} &\vec r=\left[\begin{array}{c}

0.16 \\ 0 \\ 0 \end{array}\right] m \\ &\vec
F_{A}=\left[\begin{array}{c} 0 \\ -100 \\ 0
\end{array}\right] N \end{aligned}[/latex]
Unknowns:
• position of r for maximum torque

• position of r for half of maximum torque
• position of r for zero torque, and why
4. Approach
For part a), I will find a general equation for torque

based on the given values in terms of θ, then analyze the
function for its maxima
For part b), I will find the magnitude of 50% of

maximum torque and then reverse-engineer the
1.8 Examples | 109

equation to determine what angle(s) the pedal needs to
be at to satisfy the equation.
For part c), I will look back at my equation and find

when the equation equals zero, then try to understand
why given the example problem.
5. Analysis
Part a:
[latex]\begin{aligned} &T=\left|\vec F_{A}\right| *

\left|\vec r\right| * \sin \theta \\ &T=(100 N) *(0.16 m)
* \sin \theta \\ &T=16 \sin \theta \mathrm{Nm} \\
&\quad\left\{90^{\circ}+360^{\circ} k ; k \in
\mathbb{Z}\right\} \end{aligned}[/latex]
Thinking about the shape of the sine function in the

first period, the maximum occurs at 90 degrees.
You could say algebraically that the maximum is at 90,

450, 810 etc., but these angles all represent the same
position on the wheel. Therefore, we will use 90.
Part b:
[latex]\begin{aligned} &T_1=\left|F_{A}\right| *|r| *

\sin \theta \\ &T_1=(100 N)(0.16 m) \sin 90^{\circ} \\
&T_1=16 N m \end{aligned}[/latex]
Find 50% of the maximum torque:
[latex]T_2=\frac{T_1}{2}[/latex]
[latex]\frac{16 Nm}{2}=8 Nm[/latex]
Rearrange T2 equation: [latex]T_{2}=\left|F_{A}\right|

*|{r}| \sin \theta[/latex]
[latex]\begin{aligned}&\sin \theta=\frac{T_{2}}{\left|
110 | Statics
F_{A}\right| * \left| r \right|} \\ &\sin \theta=\frac{8
N m}{(100 N)(0.16 m)} \\ &\sin \theta=0.5 \\
&\theta=30^{\circ}, 150^{\circ}, etc
\end{aligned}[/latex]
Therefore, Jane could push at 30 from vertical, or 150

from vertical to create half the torque.
*Interesting to note is that half the angle does not

yield half the torque; the angle is 30, not 45. This is
because the sine function is non-linear.*
Part c:
T = 16 sinθ tells us that the angles of 0 and 180 will

give us zero torque.
This makes sense given that pushing straight down on

a stable pendulum will not cause the pendulum to
rotate!
Likewise, if you just stand on your pedals, you’re

providing lots of downward force, but creating zero
torque since the crank arm and the direction of the
force are parallel (or antiparallel)!
6. Review
These answers have the correct units (Nm and

degrees) and are within a reasonable order of magnitude
based on the given information. See logic/explanations
above for more detail.
1.8 Examples | 111

Example 1.8.5: Torque, submitted by Hamza
Ben Driouech
1. Problem
A person is pushing on a door with a force

of 100 N. The door is at an angle α = 45° as
shown in the sketch below.
a) Calculate the moment when r is 45 cm

and 75 cm.
b) At what angle(s) is the moment zero?

Explain why.
112 | Statics
Assumptions: model the force as a single
point load acting on the door.
2. Draw
Sketch:
Free-body diagram:
1.8 Examples | 113

Knowns:
• F = 100 N
• r1 = 45 cm
• r2 = 75 cm
• α = 45°
Unknowns:
• M1, M2, angle when M is zero
4. Approach
Use equation below.
$$ M=|r|\cdot|F|\cdot\sin\theta$$
5. Analysis
Part a)
The angle we were given is not technically the one we

should use in the moment equation. The angle should be
between r and F. Therefore, we have to find the new
angle.
114 | Statics
As shown below, the angle we find is also 45°. Now we
can continue and solve for M1 and M2.
$$\theta=90^{\circ}-45^{\circ}$$
$$\theta=45^{\circ}$$
$$ M_1=|r_1|\cdot|F|\cdot\sin\theta\\M_1=0.45m\
cdot 100N\
sin(45^{\circ})\\m_1=31.82Nm\\\\M_2=|r_2|\cdot
|F|\sin\theta\\M_2=0.75m\cdot 100N\cdot\
sin(45^{\circ})\\M_2=53.03Nm$$
Part b)
$$M=|r|\cdot|F|\cdot\sin\theta\\if \sin\theta=0,
M=0\\\sin\
theta=0\\\theta=\sin^{-1}(0)\\\theta=0^{\circ},
180^{\circ}, 360^{\circ}$$, etc
Answer: the moment is zero when the angle between

the force and the moment arm is 0° or 180° (360 would
represent the same angle as 0°, as would 540°, etc.)
6. Review
1.8 Examples | 115

It makes sense that the moment is zero when the door
is either closed or wide open, because when we apply a
force at those positions, no movement of the door is
possible.
Example 1.8.6: Bonus Vector Material,

Submitted by Liam Murdock
1. Problem
Firstly, George traveled a displacement of

dg = [7 0 8] m from his car. George’s dog
named Sparky on the other hand traveled a
displacement of ds = [0 6 6] m from George’s
car. Secondly, George called Sparky’s name
and the dog ran to George’s position. It took
Sparky four seconds to get there.
a. What is the displacement from
116 | Statics
George to his dog?
b. What is Sparky’s velocity? (no need
to draw)
c. What is Sparky’s speed? (no need to
draw)
Source: https://www.piqsels.com/en/
public-domain-photo-oekac
2. Draw
1.8 Examples | 117

Part a:
dg = [7 0 8] m Unknown: dsg= ?
ds = [0 6 6] m
Part b:
dsg=(determined in A) Unknown: vsg = ?

t= 4 seconds
Part c:
vsg =(determined in B) Unknown: vsg= ?
4. Approach
We are going to use vector operations (both

subtraction and division), velocity – displacement
relationship, velocity – speed relationship, and
pythagoras theorem to solve this problem.
118 | Statics
5. Analysis
Part a:
dsg= dg– ds
dsg =[7 0 8] m – [0 6 6] m
dsg =[7-0 0-6 8-6] m
dsg =[7 -6 2] m
Part b:
vsg=dsg/t
vsg=[7 -6 2] m/s
vsg=[7/4 -6/4 2/4] m/s
vsg=[1.75 -1.5 0.5] m/s
Part c:
vsg=vsg
vsg=(vsgx)2 + (vsgy)2 + (vsgz)2
vsg=(1.75)2 + (-1.5)2 + (0.5)2
vsg=2.36 m/s
6. Review
Part a:
One way to review the question is to walk through the

solution verbally. Our solution shows that for Sparky to
get to Gerorge, he must walk 7 m in the positive x-
direction (almost out of the page), 6 m in the negative y-
direction (left), and finally 2 m in the positive z-direction
(up).
Firstly, since the dog initially did not go in the x-

direction it makes sense Sparky would have to copy
1.8 Examples | 119

George’s exact x movement. Secondly, since George did
not move in the y – direction, it would make sense that
Sparky would just have to retrace his steps and if he
initially went 6 m right, he would have to go 6 m left.
Thirdly, George and Sparky both went upwards, but
George went 2 m higher with an altitude of 8 m
compared to Sparky’s 6 m correlating to Spraky having
to go positive 2 m in the z – direction to meet Geroge.
Therefore, since all the movements make sense for

Sparky to meet George (using logic), the answer is
proven to be right.
Part b and c:
Since B and C correlate to the same magnitude they

can be reviewed together. From a quick search, an
average dog tops out at a speed of 19 miles per hour. We
can convert this to SI units:
[latex]\frac{19 \text { miles }}{1 h r}\left(\frac{1

\mathrm{~km}}{0.621371 \text { miles
}}\right)\left(\frac{1000 \mathrm{~m}}{1
\mathrm{~km}}\right)\left(\frac{1
\mathrm{hr}}{3600}\right)=8.49 \mathrm{~m} /
\mathrm{s}[/latex]
The top speed of an average dog is 8.49 m/s. So

2.36m/s is approximately a quarter of the top speed of
an average dog. Sparky probably was not sprinting at full
speed and he could be a slower dog breed, making
2.36m/s a reasonable answer.
120 | Statics
CHAPTER 2: PARTICLES
In this chapter, we analyze our first static bodies (motion where
acceleration = 0), treating them as particles. The sections in this
chapter include:
• 2.1 Particle & Rigid Body – the difference between particles and
rigid bodies
• 2.2 Free Body Diagrams for Particles – learning how to model
forces and motion
• 2.3 Equilibrium Equations for Particles – analyzing static
bodies
• 2.4. Examples – problems submitted by other students.
Very simply, here are the important equations for this section (the
Ch 1 equations might be helpful too)
Chapter 2: Particles | 121

2.1 Particle & Rigid Body
This may seem like a simple concept, but it is important to know the
difference between particles and rigid bodies, because it will change
the type of analysis you perform.
Particles are bodies where all the mass is

concentrated at a single point in space. Particle analysis
will only have to take into account the forces acting on
the body and translational motion because rotation is
not considered for particles.
Rigid bodies on the other hand have mass that is

distributed throughout a finite volume. Rigid body
analysis is more complex and also has to take into
account moments and rotational motions. In actuality,
no bodies are truly particles, but some bodies can be
approximated as particles to simplify analysis. Bodies
are often assumed to be particles if the rotational
motions are negligible when compared to the
translational motions, or in systems where there is no
moment exerted on the body such as a concurrent force
system.
2.1 Particle & Rigid Body | 123

124 | Statics
Source: Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore, et al.
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/mechanics-
map-open-mechanics-textbook/view
Particles are typically part of a larger scale, such as a sky diver falling
126 | Statics
through the sky, or a football flying through the air. Rigid body
analyses are required when the length or size of the object must be
considered, such as if you need to calculate the torque from turning
a bolt with a wrench, or if there is rotation, such as the bolt that is
being turned.
One way to think of it is that particles have mass, whereas rigid
bodies have mass and shape. We make an assumption that neither
particles nor rigid bodies deform (change shape). Note: we say
particles don’t deform even though we are already assuming that
the shape of particles is negligible.
In baseball, if you want to consider how far the ball travels, that
would be a particle analysis because the speed is much greater than
the size of the ball. A rigid body analysis would be how the bat
swings to hit the ball, because the length of the bat would change
how far the ball travels. A rigid body analysis could be to calculate
the spin on the ball as it flies through the air (if you focus on how it
is rotating).
Free photo: softball, batter, female, hitter, bat, helmet, stance |

Hippopx
Source: https://i0.hippopx.com/photos/613/24/1019/
softball-batter-girl-game-preview.jpg
You would have done particle analyses in your high school physics
classes. Starting in chapter 3, we’ll expand on these concepts to
include rigid bodies and bring shape and size into the problem.
Key Takeaways

Basically: Particles have non-deforming mass & rigid
bodies have non-deforming mass with shape & size. Rigid
body analyses are required when length or size of the
object much be considered, including rotation and torque.
Particle analyses are for a grander scale where the object is
small in comparison to the distance or speed.
Application: A particle analysis would be an airplane as it

flies at a high speed through the air. A rigid body analysis
would be if you analyze how the plane is rotating in order
to turn, or to consider the size of the wheels as it is taxing
on the runway or the size of the wings to keep it in the air.
Looking ahead: Chapter 2 concerns particle analyses and

Chapters 3 – 7 focus on rigid body analyses.
128 | Statics
2.2 Free Body Diagrams for
Particles
A free-body diagram (FBD) helps you to simplify a complicated
problem. The first thing to remember is the object should always be
free which means, floating in space. You represent the floor or other
surfaces with forces. You might have done these particle free body
diagrams in your high school physics class, where all the forces act
at the centre of the object. (This will be different for rigid bodies).
To draw a free-body diagram remember four points:
• Add coordinate frame (which way is positive x and positive y?)

• Replace surfaces with forces ( floor, hand, and objects touching
it become arrows)
• Point forces in the correct direction (the head of the arrow
points to where the force acts. FG acts down)
• Use unique (different) names (be sure to name each force with a
different name).
For a baseball being hit by a bat (and neglecting air), the force of
gravity acts at the center, the force of the bat acts on the outside.
1
Notice in the figure the names FBat and FG are different in the figure
below. Also – you can understand what they represent quickly. Also
see the coordinate frame? You’ll be adding these in your sleep by the
end of this class.
1. Original image of baseball from:

https://openclipart.org/detail/258473/baseball-refixed
Annotations added by the author
2.2 Free Body Diagrams for
Particles | 129
As you draw a free body diagram, there are a couple of
things you need to keep in mind:
(1) Include only those forces acting ON the

object whose free body diagram you are drawing.
Any force exerted BY the object on some other
object belongs on the free body diagram of the
other object.
(2) All forces are contact forces and every force
has an agent. The agent is “that which is exerting
the force.” In other words, the agent is the life
form or thing that is doing the pushing or pulling
on the object. No agent can exert a force on an
object without being in contact with the object.
130 | Statics
We are going to introduce the various kinds of forces
by means of examples. Here is the first
example:
A rock is thrown up into the air by a person. Draw the

free body diagram of the rock while it is up in the air.
(Your free body diagram is applicable for any time after
the rock leaves the thrower’s hand, until the last instant
before the rock makes contact with whatever it is
destined to hit.) Neglect any forces that might be exerted
on the rock by the air.
If you see the rock flying through the air, it

may very well look to you like there is nothing
touching the rock. But the earth’s gravitational
field is everywhere in the vicinity of the earth. It
can’t be blocked. It can’t be shielded. It is in the
air, in the water, even in the dirt. It is in direct
contact with everything in the vicinity of the
earth. It exerts a force on every object near the
surface of the earth. We call that force the
gravitational force. You have already studied the
gravitational force. We give a brief synopsis of it
here.
2.2 Free Body Diagrams for Particles | 131

The Gravitational Force Exerted on Objects
Near the Surface of the Earth.
Because it has mass, the earth has a

gravitational field. The gravitational field is a
force-per-mass field. It is invisible. It is not
matter. It is an infinite set of force-per-mass
vectors, one at every point in space in the
vicinity of the surface of the earth. Each force
per-mass vector is directed downward, toward
the center of the earth and, near the surface of
the earth, has a magnitude of 9.81 N/kg. The
effect of the earth’s gravitational field is to exert
a force on any object that is in the earth’s
gravitational field. The force is called the
gravitational force and is equal to the product of
the mass of the object and the earth’s
gravitational field vector: Fg=mg. Where g=9.81
N/kg is the magnitude of the earth’s
gravitational field vector. The direction of the
near-earth’s-surface gravitational force is
downward, toward the center of the earth.
Here is the free body diagram and the

corresponding table of forces:
132 | Statics
(1) The only thing touching the object while it
is up in the air (neglecting the air itself) is the
earth’s gravitational field. So there is only one
force on the object, namely the gravitational
force. The arrow representing the force vector is
drawn so that the tail of the arrow is touching
the object, and the arrow extends away from the
object in the direction of the force.
(2) Unless otherwise stipulated, label the

diagram yourself however it makes most sense.
Always draw a coordinate frame (Usually x is
upwards, and y extends to the right).
(3) There is no velocity information on a free

body diagram
(4) There is no force of the hand acting on the

object because, at the instant in question, the
hand is no longer touching the object. When you
draw a free body diagram, only forces that are
acting on the object at the instant depicted in
the diagram are included. The acceleration of
the object depends only on the currently-acting
forces on the object. The force of the hand is of
historical interest only.
(5) Regarding the table of forces:

a) Make sure that for any free body diagram you
draw, you are capable of making a complete

table of forces. You are not required to provide a
table of forces with every free body diagram you
draw, but you should expect to be called upon to
create a table of forces more than once.
b) In the table of forces, the agent is the life form
or thing that is exerting the force and the victim
is the object on which the force is being exerted.
Make sure that, in every case,
the victim is the object for which the free body
diagram is being drawn.
c) In the case at hand, there is only one force so
there is only one entry in the table of forces.
d) For any object near the surface of the earth,
the agent of the gravitational force is the earth’s
gravitational field. It is okay to abbreviate that to
“Earth” because the gravitational field of the
earth can be considered to be an invisible part of
the earth, but it is NOT okay to call it “gravity.”
Gravity is a subject heading corresponding to
the kind of force the gravitational force is,
gravity is not an agent
A ball of mass m hangs at rest, suspended by a string.

Draw the free body diagram for the ball, and create the
corresponding table of forces.
134 | Statics
To do this problem, you need the following
information about strings:
The Force Exerted by a Taut String on an

Object to Which it is Affixed (This also applies
to ropes, cables, chains, and the like.)
The force exerted by a string, on an object to

which it is attached, is always directed away
from the object, along the length of the string.
Note that the force in question is exerted by the
string, not for instance, by some person pulling
on the other end of the string. The force exerted
by a string on an object is referred to as a
“tension force” and its magnitude is
conventionally represented by the symbol FT.
Note: There is no formula to tell you what the

tension force is. If it is not given, the only way to
get it is to use Newton’s 2nd Law.
Here is the free body diagram of the ball, and

the corresponding table of forces:
There is no “force of motion” acting on an object. Once

you have the force or forces

exerted on the object by everything that is touching the
object, you have all the forces. Do not add a “force of
motion” to your free body diagram. It is especially
tempting to add this force when there are no actual forces
in the direction in which an object is going. Keep in mind,
however, that an object does not need a force on it to keep
going in the direction in which it is going; moving along
at a constant velocity is what an object does when there is
no net force on it.
Source: Calculus-Based Physics 1, Jeffery W. Schnick.

item/?id=ce74a181-ccde-491c-848d-05489ed182e7 page
86
Key Takeaways
Basically: Free-body diagrams (FBDs) give you a way to

model complicated problem in a simple way. All exterior
forces are modeled with an arrow.
Application: A baseball can be modeled using a FBD to

show how the bat and gravity affect the ball.
Looking ahead: You’ll use a FBD in every step 2 in nearly

every homework problem. These are especially helpful with
Equilibrium Equations in the next section.
136 | Statics
2.3 Equilibrium Equations for
Particles
For a particle in static equilibrium, Newton’s 2nd law can be adapted
for [latex]\vec a = 0[/latex] and componentized in x y and z:
$$\sum\vec F=m*\vec a$$
$$\sum\vec F=0$$
$$\sum F_x=0\quad\quad\sum F_y=0\quad\quad\sum
F_z=0$$
Notice that the left size of the equation says ‘sum of the forces’
which means add up all the forces in that direction. In statics, they
will all cancel out. If you aren’t sure if something is in static motion,
sum the forces and see if they equal 0.
Static Equilibrium:
Objects in static equilibrium are objects that are not

accelerating (either linear acceleration or angular
acceleration). These objects may be stationary, or they
may have a constant velocity.
Newton’s Second Law states that the force exerted on

an object is equal to the mass of the object times the
acceleration it experiences. Therefore, if we know that
the acceleration of an object is equal to zero, then we
can assume that the sum of all forces acting on the
object is zero. Individual forces acting on the object,
2.3 Equilibrium Equations for

Particles | 137
represented by force vectors, may not have zero
magnitude but the sum of all the force vectors will
always be equal to zero for objects in equilibrium.
The equations used when dealing with particles in

equilibrium are:
$$\sum\vec F=0$$
Which leads to:
$$\sum F_x=0\\\sum F_y=0\\\sum F_z=0$$
Since it is a particle, there are no moments involved

like there is when it comes to rigid bodies.

2_equilibrium_concurrent/2-1_static_equilibrium/
staticequilibrium.html
Finding the Equilibrium Equations:
The first step in finding the equilibrium equations is

to draw a free body diagram of the body being analyzed.
This diagram should show all the known and unknown
force vectors acting on the body. In the free body
diagram, provide values for any of the know magnitudes
or directions for the force vectors and provide variable
138 | Statics
names for any unknowns (either magnitudes or
directions).
The first step in equilibrium analysis is drawing a free

body diagram. This is done by removing everything but
the body and drawing in all forces acting on the body. It
is also useful to label all forces, key dimensions, and
angles.
Next you will need to chose the x, y, and z axes. These
axes do need to be perpendicular to one another, but
they do not necessarily have to be horizontal or vertical.
If you choose coordinate axes that line up with some of
your force vectors you will simplify later analysis.
Once you have chosen axes, you need to break down

all of the force vectors into components along the x, y
and z directions (see the vectors page in Appendix 1 if
you need more guidance on this). Your first equation will
be the sum of the magnitudes of the components in the
x direction being equal to zero, the second equation will
be the sum of the magnitudes of the components in the
y direction being equal to zero, and the third (if you
have a 3D problem) will be the sum of the magnitudes in
2.3 Equilibrium Equations for Particles | 139

the z direction being equal to zero. Collectively these
are known as the equilibrium equations.
Once you have your equilibrium equations, you can

solve them for unknowns using algebra. The number of
unknowns that you will be able to solve for will be the
number of equilibrium equations that you have. In
instances where you have more unknowns than
equations, the problem is known as a statically
indeterminate problem and you will need additional
information to solve for the given unknowns.
Example:
$$F_g=(9.8)(6)\\F_g=58.8N\\\sum F_x=-T_1+T_2\
cos(15^{\circ})=0\\\sum F_y=T_2\
sin(15^{\circ})-58.8=0\\T_2=\frac{58.8}{\sin(15^{\cir
c})}=227.2N\\-T_1+227.2\
cos(15^{\circ})=0\\T_1=227.2\
140 | Statics
cos(15^{\circ})=219.4N\\T_1=219.4N\\T_2=227.2N$$

2_equilibrium_concurrent/
2-5_equilibrium_equations_particle/
equilibriumequationsparticle.html Many more examples
are available at this site.
See additional examples: Example 1, Example 5,

Example 8
Key Takeaways
2.3 Equilibrium Equations for Particles | 141

Basically: Equilibrium equations allow you to separate the
forces and motion into each axis.
Application: A heavy object is lifted using a rope and

pulley. Based on the forces, is it in static equilibrium?
(Answer: if sum of the forces in each direction equal zero,
then yes!)
Looking ahead: We will next apply equilibrium equations

to rigid bodies, allowing use to solve more complex
problems.
142 | Statics
2.4. Examples
examples, please send them to the author [email protected].
No examples submitted from students, yet. In the mean time, here
are examples ( Example 1, Example 5, Example 8) from Engineering
Mechanics, Jacob Moore, et al. http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/
websites/2_equilibrium_concurrent/
2-5_equilibrium_equations_particle/
equilibriumequationsparticle.html
2.4 Examples | 143

CHAPTER 3: RIGID BODY
BASICS
In this chapter, you will learn some fundamental tools for rigid
bodies, what I call the rigid body basics. Recall, rigid bodies have
mass and a particular shape or size. Here are the sections in this
Chapter:
• 3.1 Right Hand Rule – a way to help you make accurate

coordinate frames
• 3.2 Couples – rotational motion created from two forces
• 3.3 Distributed Loads – a way to express a force over a certain
area
• 3.4 Reactions & Supports – how to model the constraints that
keep an object in place
• 3.5 Indeterminate Loads – how to determine if there are too
many forces
• 3.6 Examples – examples from your peers
Here are the important equations for this chapter.
Chapter 3: Rigid Body Basics | 145

146 | Statics
3.1 Right Hand Rule
Before we can analyze rigid bodies, we need to learn a little trick to
help us with the cross product called the ‘right-hand rule’. We use
the right-hand rule when we have two of the axes and need to find
the direction of the third.
This is called a right-orthogonal system. The ‘orthogonal’ part
means that the three axes are all perpendicular to each other, and
the’ right’ part means that [latex]\underline{\hat{i}}\times\
underline{\hat{ j}}=\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex], hence the right
hand rule. Remember these from section 1.5?
▪ [latex]\underline{\hat{i}}\times\
underline{\hat{ j}}=\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]
▪ [latex]\underline{\hat{ j}}\times\
underline{\hat{k}}=\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex]
▪ [latex]\underline{\hat{k}}\times\
underline{\hat{i}}=\underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex]
▪ [latex]\underline{\hat{ j}}\times\underline{\hat{i}}=-
\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]
▪ [latex]\underline{\hat{k}}\times\underline{\hat{ j}}=-
\underline{\hat{i}}[/latex]
▪ [latex]\underline{\hat{i}}\times\underline{\hat{k}}=-
\underline{\hat{ j}}[/latex]
The opposite of the right-orthogonal system is the left-orthogonal

system where [latex]\underline{\hat{i}}\times\
underline{\hat{ j}}=-\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]. We don’t use that
one!
There are two ways to do the right hand rule, and they take
practice to conceptually understand, but this will make solving
problems much quicker. You’re going to use your fingers and thumb
to represent the x, y, and z axes.
3.1 Right Hand Rule | 147

3.1.1 The Whole-Hand Method
In the following description, A x B = C, so for the coordinate frame,

X x Y = Z ([latex]\underline{\hat{i}}\times\
underline{\hat{ j}}=\underline{\hat{k}}[/latex]). Your fingers go in
the direction of X, then you bend them 90 degrees to point
towards Y, and your thumb is in the direction of Z.
The direction of the cross product vector A x B is

given by the right-hand rule for the cross product of
two vectors. To apply this right-hand rule, extend the
fingers of your right hand so that they are pointing
directly away from your right elbow. Extend your thumb
so that it is at
right angles to your fingers.
Keeping your fingers aligned with your forearm, point

your fingers in the direction of the first vector (the one
148 | Statics
that appears before the “×” in the mathematical
expression for the cross product; e.g. the A in A x B ).
Now rotate your hand, as necessary, about an

imaginary axis extending along your forearm and along
your middle finger, until your hand is oriented such
that, if you were to close your fingers, they would point
in the direction of the second vector.

Your thumb is now pointing in the direction of the
cross product vector. C = A x B. The cross product
vector C is always perpendicular to both of the vectors
that are in the cross product (the A and the B in the case
at hand). Hence, if you draw them so that both of the
vectors that are in the cross product are in the plane of
the page, the cross product vector will always be
perpendicular to the page, either straight into the page,
or straight out of the page. In the case at hand, it is
straight out of the page.
When we use the cross product to calculate the

torque due to a force F whose point of application has a
position vector r, relative to the point about which we
are calculating the torque, we get an axial torque vector
τ. To determine the sense of rotation that such a torque
vector would correspond to, about the axis defined by
the torque vector itself, we use The Right Hand Rule For
Something Curly Something Straight. Note that we are
calculating the torque with respect to a point rather
than an axis—the axis about which the torque acts,
comes out in the answer.
Source: Jeffrey W. Schnick

item/?id=ce74a181-ccde-491c-848d-05489ed182e7
pages 135–137
The hardest part of right-hand rule is imagining the different axes
150 | Statics
and envisioning how they are perpendicular to each other.
Try this one in 2d and 3d. Imagine (or draw) the right-angle
symbols (Answer will be in a few steps)
Example 1:
Using this x and y, let’s use the right-hand rule to find the direction
of z.
Here are steps you can follow:

Example 2:
Sometimes you will need to flip your hand 180 degrees to find which
way lets you point your fingers in the y direction, for example:
152 | Statics
Example 3:
It’s important for you to be able to envision how the axes are
perpendicular. Now practice using the right hand rule if you are
trying to find x.

Your Turn!
Keep going with these examples. The rules stay the same: thumb
towards z, curled fingers towards y, extended fingers towards x.
Find the missing axis:
.
.
Did you do it?
.
.
.
Here are the answers:
.
.
3.1.2 Right Hand Rule and Torque
The third way to calculate torque, as was alluded to in Section 1.6

is to use the right hand rule to identify the axis of rotation. The
first way (the scalar method) uses | M | = |r| |F| sin Θ, and often
the angle between the position vector and force is 90 degrees.
The vector method is for more complicated situations and uses
154 | Statics
the cross product r x F = M. The third method finds the scalar
value separately, then uses the right hand rule to find the direction
(positive or negative along the third axis).
• Point your fingers in the direction of the perpendicular part of

position vector r (as you would for x)
• Curl them towards the direction of the Force vector F (as you
would for y)
• Your thumb is in the direction of the moment M that results
from the force (as for z)
The following will help you understand what is meant by: the
perpendicular part of position vector:
The torque τ can be expressed as the cross product of

the position vector r for the point of application of the
force, and the force vector F itself: r x F = M
Before we begin our mathematical discussion of what

we mean by the cross product, a few words about the
vector r are in order. It is important for you to be able to
distinguish between the position vector r for the force,
and the moment arm, so we present them below in one
and the same diagram. We use the same example that

we have used before:
in which we are looking directly along the axis of

rotation (so it looks like a dot) and the force lies in a
plane perpendicular to that axis of rotation. We use the
diagramatic convention that, the point at which the
force is applied to the rigid body is the point at which
one end of the arrow in the diagram touches the rigid
body. Now we add the line of action of the force and the
moment arm r⊥ to the diagram, as well as the position
156 | Statics
vector r of the point of application of the force.
The moment arm can actually be defined in terms of

the position vector for the point of application of the
force. Consider a tilted x-y coordinate system, having an
origin on the axis of rotation, with one axis parallel to
the line of action of the force and one axis
perpendicular to the line of action of the force. We label
the x axis ┴ for “perpendicular” and the y axis || for

“parallel”.
Now we break up the position vector r into its

component vectors along the ┴ (perpendicular) and ||
(parallel) axes.
158 | Statics
From the diagram it is clear that the moment arm r is
just the magnitude of the component ┴ vector, in the
perpendicular-to-the-force direction, of the position
vector of the point of application of the force.
Source: Calculus Based Physics, Jeffrey W.

Schnick, https://openlibrary.ecampusontario.ca/
catalogue/
pages 132–137
You use the right hand rule twice during this method to find the
vector. First to determine the coordinate frame and again to see
which the direction the torque is aligned. Then you multiply by the
magnitude of the perpendicular portion of the position vector (r⊥
or the “moment arm”) and the magnitude of the force vector. ):

|M| = +/- |r⊥| |F| [latex]\hat{\underline{k}}[/latex]
* though it’s not always the [latex]\hat{\underline{k}}[/latex]
direction, it could be [latex]\hat{\underline{i}}[/latex] or
[latex]\hat{\underline{ j}}[/latex] as well. It depends how you define
your coordinate frame.
Example 4:
3.1.3 Three-Finger Configuration
If you find curling your fingers too confusing, you can try this
method that uses your thumb, pointer finger, and middle finger all
90 degrees apart. Your thumb is x, your pointer finger is y, your
middle finger is z.
160 | Statics
This is done by using your right hand, aligning your
thumb with the first vector and your index with the
second vector. The cross product will point in the
direction of your middle finger (when you hold your
middle finger perpendicular to the other two fingers).
This is illustrated in Figure A.14. Thus, you can often
avoid using equation A.1 and instead use the right hand
rule to determine the direction of the cross product and
equation A.2 to find its magnitude.
Source: Introductory Physics, Ryan Martin et

al.,https://openlibrary.ecampusontario.ca/catalogue/

item/?id=4c3c2c75-0029-4c9e-967f-41f178bebbbb, page
823–825
The “Curly Method”
For axial vectors, you use what I’m calling the curly method. To find
whether the axis of rotation is positive or negative, curl your fingers
in the direction of rotation and your thumb shows the direction of
rotation, i.e. whether rotation is along the positive or negative x y
or z direction. (This assumes you already have a coordinate frame
defined to see which axis the wheel is rotating around and which
direction).
If a wheel is rolling, the axis is what it rolls around. Curl your
fingers in the direction of rotation and your thumb shows the
1
direction of rotation.
1. Hand from page 127 of Calculus Based Physics, Jeffrey W.

Schnick, https://openlibrary.ecampusontario.ca/
catalogue/
item/?id=ce74a181-ccde-491c-848d-05489ed182e7 & tire
from page 828 of Introductory Physics, Ryan Martin et
al., https://openlibrary.ecampusontario.ca/catalogue/
item/?id=4c3c2c75-0029-4c9e-967f-41f178bebbbb,
Edited by author.
162 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: The right hand rule helps us to be consistent

with how the x – y – z axes are oriented. It follows the rule
that X x Y = Z. Using your fingers and thumb, there are two
different methods. For one: point your fingers in the
direction of x, curl them towards y (you may have to flip
your hand), and your thumb shows the direction of z.
Trying to copy this 3d image onto your 2d page may be
difficult, but with practice you’ll see the right angles
between the drawn axes.
Application: How do I know which way to push on the

torque wrench to make the bolt on my wheel turn? If I

point my thumb in the direction I want the bolt to move,
and curl my fingers around the direction of the threads, I
can see whether to push or pull on the wrench.
Looking Ahead: We will calculate the moment many times

throughout the rest of the book, and we need the right-
hand rule every time especially as we get into Chapter 4
and Rigid Body Equilibrium Equations.
164 | Statics
3.2 Couples
A couple is a set of equal and opposite forces that

exerts a net moment on an object but no net force.
Because the couple exerts a net moment without
exerting a net force, couples are also sometimes
called pure moments.
3.2 Couples | 165

The moment exerted by a couple also differs from the
moment exerted by a single force in that it is
independent of the location you are taking the moment
about. In the example below we have a couple acting on
a beam. Each force has a magnitude F and the distance
between the two forces is d.
166 | Statics
Now we have some point A, which is distance x from
the first of the two forces. If we take the moment of
each force about point A, and then add these moments
together for the net moment about point A we are left
with the following formula.
$$M=-(F\ast x)+(F\ast(x+d))$$
If we rearrange and simplify the formula above, we

can see that the variable x actually disappears from the
equation, leaving the net moment equal to the
magnitude of the forces (F) times the distance between
the two forces (d).
$$M=-(F\ast x)+(F\ast x)+(F\ast d)\\\\M=(F\ast

d)$$
This means that no matter what value of x we have,

the magnitude of the moment exerted by the couple will
be the same. The magnitude of the moment due to the
couple is independent of the location we are taking the
moment about. This will also work in two or three
dimensions as well. The magnitude of the moment due
to a couple will always be equal to the magnitude of the
3.2 Couples | 167

forces times the perpendicular distance between the
two forces.

3_equilibrium_rigid_body/3-3_couples/couples.html
Key Takeaways
Basically: Couples are made from two forces in opposite

directions that create a moment around an axis
Application: Turning the steering wheel of your car, you

push one hand up and the other down to turn the wheel. To
calculate the size of the couple, you multiply the force
exerted by the distance between your hands (the diameter
of the wheel).
Looking Ahead: While moments are more common in Ch 4

rigid body equations, it’s important to know what couples
are and how to find them.
168 | Statics
3.3 Distributed Loads
3.3.1 Intensity
Distributed loads are a way to represent a force over a certain

distance. Sometimes called intensity, given the variable:
Intensity w = F / d [=] N/m, lb/ft
While pressure is force over area (for 3d problems), intensity is
force over distance (for 2d problems). It’s like a bunch of mattresses
on the back of a truck. You can model it as 1 force acting at the
center (an equivalent point load as in 3.3.2, or you can model it as
intensity and divide the total force by the width of the truck bed (the
1
distance that’s not visible in this image ).
1. Image of truck from: https://get.pxhere.com/photo/

car-transport-truck-vehicle-market-mattress-full-load-
small-business-rwanda-overload-pickup-truck-overfull-
automobile-make-612534.jpg
3.3 Distributed Loads | 169

A distributed load is any force where the point of
application of the force is an area or a volume. This
means that the “point of application” is not really a point
at all. Though distributed loads are more difficult to
analyze than point forces, distributed loads are quite
common in real world systems so it is important to
understand how to model them.
Distributed loads can be broken down into surface

forces and body forces. Surface forces are distributed
forces where the point of application is an area (a
surface on the body). Body forces are forces where the
point of application is a volume (the force is exerted on
all molecules throughout the body). Below are some
examples of surface and body forces.
Distributed loads are represented as a field of vectors.

This is drawn as a number of discrete vectors along a
170 | Statics
line, over a surface, or over a volume, that are
connected with a line or a surface as shown below.
Though these representations show a discrete

number of individual vectors, there is actually a
magnitude and direction at all points along the line,
surface, or body. The individual vectors represent a
sampling of these magnitudes and directions.
It is also important to realize that the magnitudes of

distributed forces are given in force per unit distance,
area, or volume. We must integrate the distributed load
over its entire range to convert the force into the usual
units of force.

Analyzing Distributed Load:
For analysis purposes in statics and dynamics, we will

usually substitute in a single point force that is statically
equivalent to the distributed load in the problem. This
single point force is called the equivalent point load and
it will cause the same accelerations or reaction forces as
the distributed load while simplifying the math.

4_statically_equivalent_systems/
4-4_distributed_forces/distributedforces.html
An additional example:
This is a more complex example of a distributed load.

This is a cartoon of an airplane with its wing covered in
a combination of snow and ice. In a real world situation
loads will not accommodate people for ease of
172 | Statics
calculation, you get what you get. In this case we could
approximate this shape with two semi-circles on each
end of the wing with a triangle (∇"
role="presentation">∇) in the middle. For more accuracy
we could use a system similar to the trapezoidal rule.
Source: ” Statics” by LibreTexts is licensed under CC

BY-NC-SA . https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Introduction_to_Engineering/
EGR_1010%3A_Introduction_to_Engineering_for_Eng
ineers_and_Scientists/
14%3A_Fundamentals_of_Engineering/
14.11%3A_Mechanics/14.11.01%3A_Statics
3.3.2 Equivalent Point Load & Location
Distributed loads can be modeled as a single point force that is

located at the centroid of the object. You can use straight-forward
algebra, or use integration for more complex shapes. Then you
replace the distributed load with the single point load acting at x
distance. See in the truck example:

There are two ways to calculate this, using integrals and using the
area and centroid.
An equivalent point load is a single point force that

will have the same effect on a body as the original
loading condition, which is usually a distributed load.
The equivalent point load should always cause the same
linear acceleration and angular acceleration as the
original load it is equivalent to (or cause the same
reaction forces if the body is constrained). Finding the
equivalent point load for a distributed load often helps
simplify the analysis of a system by removing the
integrals from the equations of equilibrium or equations
of motion in later analysis.
Finding the Equivalent Point Load
When finding the equivalent point load we need to
174 | Statics
find the magnitude, direction, and point of application
of a single force that is equivalent to the distributed load
we are given. In this course we will only deal with
distributed loads with a uniform direction, in which case
the direction of the equivalent point load will match the
uniform direction of the distributed load. This leaves the
magnitude and the point of application to be found.
There are two options available to find these values:
1. We can find the magnitude and the point of

application of the equivalent point load via
integration of the force functions.
2. We can use the area/volume and the centroid/
center of volume of the area or volume under the
force function.
The first method is more flexible, allowing us to find

the equivalent point load for any force function that we
can make a mathematical formula for (assuming we have
the skill in calculus to integrate that function). The
second method is usually faster, assuming that we can
look up the values for the area or volume under the
force curve and the values for the centroid or center of
volume for the area under the curve.
Using Integration in 2D Surface Force

Problems:
Finding the equivalent point load via integration

always begins by determining the mathematical formula

that is the force function. The force function
mathematically relates the magnitude of the force (F) to
the position (x). In this case the force is acting along a
single line, so the position can be entirely determined by
knowing the x coordinate, but in later problems we may
also need to relate the magnitude of the force to the y
and z coordinates. In our example to the left, we can
relate magnitude of the force to the position by stating
that the magnitude of the force at any point in Newtons
per meter is equal to the x position in meters plus one.
The magnitude of the equivalent point load will be

equal to the area under the force function. This will be
the integral of the force function over it’s entire length
(in this case from x = 0 to x = 2).
$$F_{eq}=\int_{xmin}^{xmax}F(x)dx$$
176 | Statics
Now that we have the magnitude of the equivalent
point load such that it matches the magnitude of the
original force, we need to adjust the position (xeq) such
that it would cause the same moment as the original
distributed force. The moment of the distributed force
will be the integral of the force function (F(x)) times the
moment arm about the origin (x). The moment of the
equivalent point load will be equal to the magnitude of
the equivalent point load that we just found times the
moment arm for the equivalent point load (xeq). If we set
these two things equal to one another and then solve for
the position of the equivalent point load (xeq) we are left
with the following equation:
$$x_{eq}=\frac{\int_{xmin}^{xmax}(F(x)\ast
x)dx}{F_{eq}}$$
Now that we have the magnitude, direction, and

position of the equivalent point load, we can draw the
point load in our original diagram. This point force can
be used in place of the distributed force in further
analysis.

Using the Area and Centroid in 2D
Surface Force Problems:
As an alternative to using integration, we can use the

area under the force curve and the centroid of the area
under the force curve to find the equivalent point load’s
magnitude and point of application respectively.
178 | Statics
The magnitude(Feq) of the equivalent point load will
be equal to the area under the force function. We can
find this area using calculus, but there are often easier
geometry based ways of finding the area under the force
function.
The equivalent point load will also travel through

centroid of the area under the force function. This
allows us to find the value for xeq. The centroid for many
common shapes can be looked up in tables, and the
parallel axis theorem can be used to determine the
centroid of more complex shapes (see the centroid page
for more details).

4_statically_equivalent_systems/
4-5_equivalent_point_load/equivalentpointload.html
Here are the equations for some common shapes:
Example 1: Equivalent force and location:

What is the resultant force and where does it act from the wall?
180 | Statics
Source: http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/
4_statically_equivalent_systems/4-5_equivalent_point_load
See solution here using integration from Engineering Mechanics,

Jacob Moore et al., http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/
4_statically_equivalent_systems/4-5_equivalent_point_load/
pdf/EquivalentPointLoad_WorkedExample1.pdf
Example 2 (note: 1 kip = 1000 lb):

Example 3:
Example 4:
182 | Statics
Source: ” Equilibrium Structures, Support Reactions,
Determinacy and Stability of Beams and Frames” by
LibreTexts is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND .
https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Civil_Engineering/
Book%3A_Structural_Analysis_(Udoeyo)/01%3A_Chap
ters/
1.03%3A_Equilibrium_Structures_Support_Reactions_
Determinacy_and_Stability_of_Beams_and_Frames

3.3.3 Composite Distributed Loads
When there is a complicated shape, it can be easier to model it

as more than 1 type of distributed load. You calculate each force
separately and then use a weighted equation to find the total
distance the force acts from a point that you select.
[latex]\quad\quad\quad\quad\text{Using area: }\quad\quad\
quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad \text{Using
Integrals:}\\ \quad\quad\quad\quad\bar{x}=\frac{\sum
F_{i}x_i}{\sum F_i} \quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\
quad\quad\quad \bar{x}=\frac{\int x w(x) d x}{\int w(x) d
x}[/latex]
A bit bigger:
For the following complex shape, this is how you find the
composite equivalent point force and location
([latex]\bar{x}[/latex]):
184 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: Distributed loads are a way to model forces in

2d. F = w d Sometimes called intensity, distributed loads
have units of force over distance: N/m or lb/ft.
Application: For a truck carrying a heavy uneven load,

find where the center of the force is.
Looking ahead: Distributed load helps to model uneven

loads. We’ll see it again as we do beam analysis

3.4 Reactions & Supports
Imagine a beam extending from the wall. How much weight can the
beam handle before it breaks away or falls ‘off’ the wall? It depends
on the way it’s attached to the wall. We model these real world
situations using forces and moments.For example, the grand canyon
skywalk lets people walk out over the grand canyon. You want to be
sure that the skywalk is so the people on it are safe.
We call the skywalk a cantilever beam and turn the real world
beam into a 2d model with constrains. So we can use the same
terminology, it is a fixed constraint, preventing horizontal
movement, vertical movement, and rotation.
186 | 3.4 Reactions & Supports

Reaction forces and moments are how we model constraints on
structures. They are external forces. There are 3 different kinds
of constraints we will focus on in this course and they each have
different reaction forces and moments:
1. Pinned (Frictionless)
◦ Two reaction forces acting perpendicularly in the x and y

directions.
◦ Pinned constraint and then its free body diagram shown:
2. Fixed
◦ Two reaction forces acting perpendicularly in the x and y

directions
3.4 Reactions & Supports | 187

◦ Moment rotating about fixed constraint (usually a wall),
use right hand rule to find its direction
◦ This is also called a cantilever beam.
◦ Fixed constraint and then FBD shown
3. Roller (there are multiple kinds)
◦ Single reaction force acting in the y direction

◦ No moment is created
◦ This can be the ground that the object rests on as well
◦ Free body diagram shown for roller
Notice that the Fixed restraint is the most restrictive and the
roller is the least restrictive. You put a force to show how the
restraint restricts motion. The roller only keeps the object from
moving vertically, so there is only 1 force. The pinned restraint
doesn’t allow horizontal or vertical movement, hence the two
forces. The fixed beam restricts vertical translation, horizontal
translation, and rotation, so there is a moment and two forces. Note
that this applies only to 2d restraints.
Here is a summary showing what motion is allowed by that type
of constraint:
188 | Statics
Typically reaction forces are either as follows: a pinned and a
fixed reaction force together (1 reaction force + 2 reaction forces =
3 restraints) or a fixed beam (2 reaction forces and 1 moment = 3
restraints).
The information shown here is to model 2d situations. We don’t

get into 3d problems in this statics course, needless to say, there
are more reaction forces and moments involved in 3-dimentsions
instead of 2 dimensions. The following section provides a second
explanation on reactions & supports:

3.4.1 Pin or Hinge Support
A pin support allows rotation about any axis but

prevents movement in the horizontal and vertical
directions. Its idealized representation and reactions are
shown in Table 3.1:
3.4.2 Roller Support
A roller support allows rotation about any axis and

translation (horizontal movement) in any direction
parallel to the surface on which it rests. It restrains the
structure from movement in a vertical direction. The
idealized representation of a roller and its reaction are
also shown in Table 3.1.
3.4.3 Rocker Support
190 | Statics
The characteristics of a rocker support are like those
of the roller support. Its idealized form is depicted in
Table 3.1.
3.4.4 Link
A link has two hinges, one at each end. It permits

movement in all direction, except in a direction parallel
to its longitudinal axis, which passes through the two
hinges. In other words, the reaction force of a link is in
the direction of the link, along its longitudinal axis.
3.4.5 Fixed Support
A fixed support offers a constraint against rotation in

any direction, and it prevents movement in both
horizontal and vertical directions.
Example 1:

Example 2 (Ax added even though it turns out to be 0):
Example 3:
192 | Statics
Example 4:

Civil_Engineering/
ters/
194 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: Reaction forces and moments (or constraints)

show how motion is restricted, here that is in 2 dimensions.
Application: A beam attached to the wall has three ways

of restricting the motion: horizontal, vertical, and
rotational.
Looking Ahead: Every time we model an scenario, we will

use reaction forces to show what type of motion is being
restrained. In Chapter 4, we will be able to calculate the
reaction forces/moments.

3.5 Indeterminate Loads
Determinate Loads
Once you have your equilibrium equations, you can solve them for
unknowns using algebra. The number of unknowns that you will be
able to solve for will be the number of equilibrium equations that
you have. In the x-y-z coordinate frame, there are 3 equations. so
there can be 3 unknowns. These are statically determinate.
Typically reaction forces are either as follows: a pinned and a
fixed reaction force together (1 reaction force + 2 reaction forces =
3 restraints) or a fixed beam (2 reaction forces and 1 moment = 3
restraints).
Indeterminate Loads
When you have more unknowns than equations, the problem is

a statically indeterminate problem and you will need additional
information to solve for the given unknowns. You’ll learn how to
model and solve for these problems in your Structures course, but
for Statics you need to be able to identify what is determinate and
what is indeterminate.
Essentially, a problem in statically indeterminate if there are more
unknown variables then there are equations you can use to solve
for the unknowns. This means it cannot be solved using equilibrium
196 | 3.5 Indeterminate Loads

equations alone. You would need to simplify the problem or make
as assumption for it to be solved. You’ll look into that more in
Structures, because in real life, we want redundancy. We want to be
sure that structures are strong and one part can fail but that the
whole building doesn’t collapse. However, we cannot over-constrain
something so that is breaks because it has no way to expand during
heat or cooling. All of this makes it harder to model, but safer to use.
Here are examples of statically indeterminate problems:
Here is a real world example of beams. Notice the breaks between

sections (in the yellow circles) to allow for expansion and
contraction. The top beam in between yellow circles would be an
example of a pin and roller system where one side is pinned and the
other side is a roller allowing for horizontal expansion.
3.5 Indeterminate Loads | 197

Source: https://www.maxpixel.net/
Guangdong-Structure-Shenzhen-Bridge-Metro-Station-5998185
Examples of statically indeterminate structures:
198 | Statics
Civil_Engineering/
ters/
Key Takeaways
Basically: When you have more unknowns than

equations, the problem is a statically indeterminate
problem
Application: Most situations are statically indeterminate,
3.5 Indeterminate Loads | 199

such as how beams are supported to provide for
redundancy, thus we make assumptions to model a problem
using equilibrium equations.
Looking Ahead: In Structures you will learn how to solve

for statically indeterminate problems. In Statics, you need
to be able to identify them.
200 | Statics
3.6 Examples
Example 3.6.1: Reaction Forces, Submitted

by Andrew Williamson
1. Problem
A family is sitting watching TV on their

couch. The couch is 5 m long and weighs 120
N. The child is sat 1 m away from one end and
has a mass of 30 kg. The mother is sat 0.5 m
away from the child and has a mass of 60 kg.
The father is 3 m away from the mother and
has a mass of 70 kg.
a) Draw a free-body diagram of the couch
3.6 Examples | 201

b) Calculate the reaction force on each of
the two legs.
Assume the couch is supported by two

rollers.
Source: https://www.maxpixel.net/
Seat-Couch-Interior-Home-Furniture-Room-Sofa-4
2817
2. Draw
Sketch:
202 | Statics
Knowns:
• g = 9.81 m/s2
• mc = 30 kg
• mM = 60 kg
• mf = 70 kg
• Fg = 120 N
• rc = 1 m
• rM = 1.5 m
• rf = 4.5 m
• rB = 5 m
• rg = 2.5 m
Unknowns: NA, NB
4. Approach
Use equilibrium equations
3.6 Examples | 203

5. Analysis
Part a:
Part b:
$$\sum M_B=0=N_B\cdot r_B-F_c\cdot r_c-

F_M\cdot r_M-F_f\cdot r_f-F_g\cdot
r_g\\\\N_B(5m)=(30kg\cdot 9.81m/s^2)(1m)+(60kg\
cdot 9.81m/s^2)(1.5m)\\+(70kg\cdot 9.81m/
s^2)(4.5m)+(120N)(2.5m)$$$$\\N_B(5m)=294.3Nm+882.
9Nm +3090.15Nm+300Nm\\\\N_B(5m)=4567.35N
m\\\\N_B\
frac{4567.35Nm}{5m}\\\\N_B=913.47N\\\\N_B=913N
$$
204 | Statics
$$\sum F_y=0=N_A+N_B-F_C-F_M-F_f-
F_g\\\\N_A=F_C+F_M+F_f+F_g-
N_B\\\\N_A=(30kg\cdot 9.81m/s^2)+(60kg\cdot
9.81m/s^2)\\+(70kg\cdot 9.81m/
s^2)+120N-913.47N$$$$\\N_A=294.3N+588.6N+686.7N+
120N-913.47N$$$$\\N_A=776.13N\\\\\\underline{N_
A=776N}$$
6. Review
It is interesting that NB is larger than NA, because the

weight of the mother and child combined (80 kg) is
larger than that of the father (70 kg). However, when you
sum the moments at point B instead of A, you get the
same answer. The distance between the reaction forces
and the nearest forces is important, as well as the
magnitude of the forces themselves. The distance
between A and Fc is 1 m, while the distance between B
and Ff is only 0.5 m.
Additionally, it makes sense that both NA and NB are

positive, i.e. are in the positive y direction.
3.6 Examples | 205

Example 3.6.2: Couples, Submitted by Kirsty
MacLellan
1. Problem
A water valve is opened by a wheel with a

diameter of 10 inches. It takes 7.5 lb of force
to open the valve. What is the moment it
takes to open the valve?
Real-life scenario:
Source: https://www.pxfuel.com/en/
free-photo-ekahu
206 | Statics
2. Draw
Sketch:
Free-body diagram:
3.6 Examples | 207

Known:
d = 10 in
F = 7.5 lb
Unknown: M
4. Approach
Determine the moment by finding the cross product

of rA and FA, then rB and FB, then add.
5. Analysis
Find radius:
$$r=\frac{d}{2}\\r=\frac{10in}{2}\\r=5in\\5in\
times\frac{1ft}{12in}=0.42ft$$
Find rA, FA, rB, and FB in vector form:
$$ \underline{r}_A= \begin{bmatrix}
0.42 \\
0
\end{bmatrix}ft\:\; \underline{F}_A=\begin{bmatrix}
0 \\
7.5
\end{bmatrix}lb \\\underline{r}_B=\begin{bmatrix}
-0.42 \\
0
\end{bmatrix}ft\:\; \underline{F}_B=\begin{bmatrix}
0 \\
-7.5
\end{bmatrix}lb $$
208 | Statics
Find MA:
$$\underline{M}_A=\underline{r}_A\times
\underline{F}_A=\begin{bmatrix}
0.42 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 7.5 & 0
\end{bmatrix}$$ $$\underline{M}_A=\hat{i}
\begin{bmatrix}
0 & 0 \\
7.5 & 0
\end{bmatrix} -\underline{\hat{ j}} \begin{bmatrix}
0.42 & 0 \\
0&0
\end{bmatrix}+\underline{\hat{k}} \begin{bmatrix}
0.42 & 0 \\
0 & 7.5
\end{bmatrix}\\\underline{M}_A=(\underline{\hat{i}}(
0)-\underline{\hat{ j}}(0)+\underline{\hat{k}}(o.42\cdot
7.5-0\cdot 0))ft\cdot lb\\\underline{M}_A=3.15\
underline{\hat{k}} ft\cdot lb$$
Find MB:
$$\underline{M}_B=\underline{r}_B\times
\underline{F}_B=\begin{bmatrix}
-0.42 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & -7.5 & 0
\end{bmatrix}$$$$\underline{M}_B=\hat{i}
\begin{bmatrix}
0 & 0 \\
3.6 Examples | 209

-7.5 & 0
\end{bmatrix} -\underline{\hat{ j}} \begin{bmatrix}
-0.42 & 0 \\
0&0
\end{bmatrix}+\underline{\hat{k}} \begin{bmatrix}
-0.42 & 0 \\
0 & -7.5
\end{bmatrix}\\\underline{M}_B=(\underline{\hat{i}}(
0)-\hat{ j}(0)+\underline{\hat{k}}(-0.42\cdot -7.5-0\
cdot 0))ft\cdot lb\\\underline{M}_B=3.15\
underline{\hat{k}} ft\cdot lb$$
Add MA and MB to get M:
$$\underline{M}=\underline{M}_A+\underline{M}_B
\\\underline{M}=3.15ft\cdot lb+3.15ft\cdot
lb\\\underline{M}=6.3\underline{\hat{k}}ft\cdot lb$$
6. Review
This answer makes sense because there is only

moment acting in the k direction.
Note: we could have come to the same answer using

the formula M = F*d, which would have been faster.
$$M=f\cdot d\\M=7.5lb\cdot
10in(\frac{1ft}{12in})\\M=7.5lb\cdot
\frac{5}{6}ft\\\\M=6.25ft\cdot lb$$
This answer is slightly more accurate, because we

didn’t round when converting between inches and feet
(in the original solution, we rounded 0.416667 to 0.42).
210 | Statics
Example 3.6.3: Distributed Load, Submitted
by Luciana Davila
1. Problem
A shelf on the wall is 1.5 meters away from

the floor. The shelf has a length of 100 cm. A
person starts putting different objects on it
to create a distributed load. The load created
a curve described by:
w = 4x4 +2 N/m.
Calculate the resultant force and how far it

is acting from the wall.
Shelf, Floating, Bathroom, Glass,

Interior, Decor Source:
https://
www.m
axpixel.
net/
photo-5
76088
3.6 Examples | 211

2. Draw
Sketch:
Free-body diagram:
212 | Statics
Knowns:
• w = 4x4 + 2 N/m
• L = 100 cm
• xmin = 0
• xmax = 1
Unknowns: xr, Fr
4. Approach
Use distributed load equations:
$$F_r=\int^{xmax}_{xmin}
wdx\\X_r=\frac{\int^{xmax}_{xmin}
x*w(x)*dx}{\int^{xmax}_{xmin}wdx}$$
5. Analysis
Solve for Fr:
$$ F_r=\int^1_0 (4x^4+2)dx\;\;
N\\F_r=(\frac{4x^5}{5}+2x)\vert^1_0\;\;N\\F_r=(\f
rac{4}{5}+2)N\\F_r=2.8N$$
Solve for xr:
$$X_r=\frac{(\int^1_0x(4x^4+2)dx)N/
m}{\int^1_0(4x^4+2)dx)N}\\X_r=\frac{\int^1_0(4x^
5+2x)dxN/
m}{2.8N}\\X_r=\frac{(\frac{4x^6}{6}+\frac{2x^2}{2})\
vert^1_0N/m}{2.8N}\\X_r=\frac{(\frac{2}{3}+1)N/
m}{2.8N}\\X_r=0.59m$$
6. Review
The function shows an increasing curve on the

interval, so it makes sense that the resultant force would
3.6 Examples | 213

be applied closer to the right end of the beam than the
left end.
214 | Statics
CHAPTER 4: RIGID BODIES
This is arguably the most fundamental chapter for Statics. Learn
these concepts and the next two chapters will make a lot of sense.
Without this chapter, the next chapters will be much more
confusing. When people talk about Statics, this chapter contains the
concepts they are talking about. You will use free-body diagrams
and the equilibrium equations in many other courses. Here are the
sections in this Chapter:
◦ 4.1 External Forces – Types of external forces

◦ 4.2 Rigid Body Free Body Diagrams – How to model
problems to be able to solve them ** very important
section
◦ 4.3 Rigid Body Equilibrium Equations – How to apply what
you learned on particles to rigid bodies
◦ 4.4 Friction and Impending Motion – Special cases of an
external force looking at slipping and tipping
◦ 4.5 Examples – Examples from your peers
Here are the important equations for this chapter.
Chapter 4: Rigid Bodies | 215

4.1 External Forces
When we say ‘forces’ in Statics, we are generally talking about
external forces (such as the reaction forces discussed in the
previous chapter) and internal forces (that we will discuss in
Chapter 5 and 6). Generally, external forces include:
• gravitational force (or weight)

• normal force
• frictional force
• spring force
• applied force (such as reaction forces & tension) – this also
includes applied moments such as from motors
In science class you probably learned about the fundamental forces

of nature: gravitational, electromagnetic, and weak and strong
nuclear forces. Normal force, friction, spring, and applied forces
are all types of electromagnetic forces. The charged and neutral
particles attract or repel each other. For example, the reason your
laptop doesn’t fall through the table is that the electrons in the
atoms of the two objects are repelling each other, and both objects
are being pulled down by another fundatmental force: gravitational
force. See this page for more information. The four fundamental
forces are beyond the scope of this Statics class, but ti’s important
to know the background how the external forces operate. In this
class, we’ll use our understanding of the the external forces to learn
how to quantify the forces and calculate the value of other forces.
To calculate each force individually, use the following equations:
• Gravity: Fg = mg
• Normal: Calculated
• Friction: Ff = mN
• Spring: FS = -kx
• Applied: Measured or calculated
4.1 External Forces | 217

Forces are given many names, such as push, pull,
thrust, and weight. Traditionally, forces have been
grouped into several categories and given names
relating to their source, how they are transmitted, or
their effects. Several of these categories are discussed in
this section.
Normal Force
Weight (also called the force of gravity) is a pervasive

force that acts at all times and must be counteracted to
keep an object from falling. You must support the
weight of a heavy object by pushing up on it when you
hold it stationary. But how do inanimate objects like a
table support the weight of a mass placed on them, such
as shown in the figure below? When the bag of dog food
is placed on the table, the table sags slightly under the
load. This would be noticeable if the load were placed on
a card table, but even a sturdy oak table deforms when a
force is applied to it. Unless an object is deformed
beyond its limit, it will exert a restoring force much like
a deformed spring (or a trampoline or diving board). The
greater the deformation, the greater the restoring force.
Thus, when the load is placed on the table, the table
sags until the restoring force becomes as large as the
weight of the load. At this point, the net external force
on the load is zero. That is the situation when the load is
218 | Statics
stationary on the table. The table sags quickly and the
sag is slight, so we do not notice it. But it is similar to
the sagging of a trampoline when you climb onto it.
We must conclude that whatever supports a load, be

it animate or not, must supply an upward force equal to
the weight of the load, as we assumed in a few of the
previous examples. If the force supporting the weight of
an object, or a load, is perpendicular to the surface of
contact between the load and its support, this force is

defined as a normal force and here is given by the
symbol [latex]\vec N[/latex] N→." role="presentation"
style="font-family: proxima-nova, sans-serif;padding:
1px 0px;margin: 0px;font-size: 17.44px;vertical-align:
#373d3f"> . (This is not the newton unit for force, N.)

The word normal means perpendicular to a surface. This
means that the normal force experienced by an object
resting on a horizontal surface can be expressed in
vector form as follows:
$$\vec N=-m\vec g$$
In scalar form, this becomes:
$$N=mg$$
The normal force can be less than the object’s weight

if the object is on an incline.
When an object rests on an incline that makes an

angle θ θ" role="presentation" style="font-family:
proxima-nova, sans-serif;padding: 1px 0px;margin:
0px;font-size: 17.44px;vertical-align:
#373d3f">with the horizontal, the force of gravity acting
220 | Statics
on the object is divided into two components: a force
acting perpendicular to the plane, wywy"
0px;min-height: 0px;color: #373d3f">, and a force
acting parallel to the plane, wx. The normal force
[latex]\vec N[/latex] N→." role="presentation"
style="font-family: proxima-nova, sans-serif;padding:
1px 0px;margin: 0px;font-size: 17.44px;vertical-align:
#373d3f"> is typically equal in magnitude and

opposite in direction to the perpendicular component of
the weight wy. The force acting parallel to the plane, wx,
causes the object to accelerate down the incline.

Be careful when resolving the weight of the object
into components. If the incline is at an angle θ θ"
0px;min-height: 0px;color: #373d3f">to the horizontal,
then the magnitudes of the weight components are:
$$w_x=w\sin\theta=mg\sin\theta$$
and
$$w_y=w\cos\theta=mg\cos\theta$$
We use the second equation to write the normal force

experienced by an object resting on an inclined plane:
$$N=mg\cos\theta$$
Instead of memorizing these equations, it is helpful to

be able to determine them from reason. To do this, we
draw the right angle formed by the three weight
222 | Statics
vectors. The angle θ θ" role="presentation" style="font-
family: proxima-nova, sans-serif;padding: 1px
0px;margin: 0px;font-size: 17.44px;vertical-align:
#373d3f">of the incline is the same as the angle formed
between w and wy. Knowing this property, we can use
trigonometry to determine the magnitude of the weight
components:
$$\cos\theta=\frac{w_y}{w},\:w_y=w\cos\
theta=mg\cos\theta\\\sin\
theta=\frac{w_z}{w},\:w_x=w\sin\theta=mg\sin\
theta$$
Tension
A tension is a force along the length of a medium; in

particular, it is a pulling force that acts along a stretched
flexible connector, such as a rope or cable. The word
“tension” comes from a Latin word meaning “to stretch.”
Not coincidentally, the flexible cords that carry muscle
forces to other parts of the body are called tendons.
Any flexible connector, such as a string, rope, chain,

wire, or cable, can only exert a pull parallel to its length;
thus, a force carried by a flexible connector is a tension
with a direction parallel to the connector. Tension is a

pull in a connector. Consider the phrase: “You can’t push
a rope.” Instead, tension force pulls outward along the
two ends of a rope.
Consider a person holding a mass on a rope. If the

5.00-kg mass in the figure is stationary, then its
acceleration is zero and the net force is zero. The only
external forces acting on the mass are its weight and the
tension supplied by the rope. Thus,
$$F_{net}=T-w=0$$
where T and w are the magnitudes of the tension and
weight, respectively, and their signs indicate direction,
with up being positive. As we proved using Newton’s
second law, the tension equals the weight of the
supported mass:
$$T=w=mg$$
Thus, for a 5.00-kg mass (neglecting the mass of the
rope), we see that
$$T=mg=(5.00kg)(9.80m/s^2)=49.0N$$
If we cut the rope and insert a spring, the spring

would extend a length corresponding to a force of 49.0
N, providing a direct observation and measure of the
tension force in the rope.
224 | Statics
Flexible connectors are often used to transmit forces
around corners, such as in a hospital traction system, a
tendon, or a bicycle brake cable. If there is no friction,
the tension transmission is undiminished; only its
direction changes, and it is always parallel to the flexible
connector, as shown below:
If we wish to create a large tension, all we have to do

is exert a force perpendicular to a taut flexible
connector. We can see that the tension in the rope is
related to the force acting perpendicularly in the
following way:
$$T=\frac{w}{2\sin\theta}$$
We can extend this expression to describe the

tension T created when a perpendicular force (F⊥) is
exerted at the middle of a flexible connector:
$$T=\frac{F\perp}{2\sin\theta}$$
The angle between the horizontal and the bent

connector is represented by θ. In this case, T becomes
large as θ approaches zero. Even the relatively small
weight of any flexible connector will cause it to sag,
since an infinite tension would result if it were
226 | Statics
horizontal (i.e., θ=0 and sin θ=0). For example, the image
below shows a situation where we wish to pull a car out
of the mud when no tow truck is available. Each time the
car moves forward, the chain is tightened to keep it as
straight as possible. The tension in the chain is given
by[latex]T=\frac{F\perp}{2\sin\theta}[/latex] and
since θ is small, T is large. This situation is analogous to
the tightrope walker, except that the tensions shown
here are those transmitted to the car and the tree
rather than those acting at the point where F⊥ is
applied.
Friction
Friction is a resistive force opposing motion or its

tendency. Imagine an object at rest on a horizontal
surface. The net force acting on the object must be zero,
leading to equality of the weight and the normal force,
which act in opposite directions. If the surface is tilted,
the normal force balances the component of the weight
perpendicular to the surface. If the object does not slide
downward, the component of the weight parallel to the
inclined plane is balanced by friction. Friction is
discussed in greater detail in the next chapter.

Spring Force
A spring is a special medium with a specific atomic

structure that has the ability to restore its shape, if
deformed. To restore its shape, a spring exerts a
restoring force that is proportional to and in the
opposite direction in which it is stretched or
compressed. This is the statement of a law known as
Hooke’s law, which has the mathematical form
$$\vec F=-k\vec x$$
The constant of proportionality k is a measure of the

spring’s stiffness. The line of action of this force is
parallel to the spring axis, and the sense of the force is
in the opposite direction of the displacement vector.
The displacement must be measured from the relaxed
position; x=0 when the spring is relaxed.
228 | Statics
Source: University Physics Volume 1, Openstax CNX.
osuniversityphysics/chapter/5-6-common-forces/

Key Takeaways
• Basically: External forces include: gravitational,

applied, normal, frictional, and spring.
• Application: Everything. A book on a table, Tigger
bouncing on his tail, a shooting star, and a soccer ball
rolling into the goal.
• Looking Ahead: Ch 5 and 6 will look at internal
forces. Section 4.3 will use the known forces to
calculate the unknown forces. Section 4.2 will model
the forces on a diagram.
230 | Statics
4.2 Rigid Body Free Body
Diagrams
Following what we learned in Section 2.2 on particle Free-Body
Diagrams (FBDs), this section will expand on that for rigid bodies.
The biggest difference between a particle and rigid body FBD is
where the force is applied. In a rigid body FBD, you have to be
precise about pointing the head of the force arrow to the location
where it applied. For example. if we wanted to make a FBD of you
and me high-5’ing, you would apply the force from your hand onto
my hand, not at my center of mass.
In this section, first we will learn how to do a FBD for a part, then
we look at how to model a system of multiple objects.
4.2.1 Part FBD
When modelling a single object using an FBD, you are simplifying

a complex problem into specific forces using arrows and an object
floating in space. The floor becomes a normal force arrow and a
frictional force arrow. Pushing or pulling on an object becomes an
applied force with the arrow pointing to or from (pushing or pulling)
the location where the pushing or pulling occurs. Remember the
rules from section 2.2 still apply:
• Add coordinate frame (which way is positive x and positive y?)

• Replace surfaces with forces ( floor, hand, and objects touching
it become arrows)
• Point forces in the correct direction (the head of the arrow
points to where the force acts. FG acts down)
• Use unique (different) names (be sure to name each force with a
4.2 Rigid Body Free Body

Diagrams | 231
different name).
Here are some tips to keep in mind about each of the forces:
• Gravity acts on every particle in an object. Because we don’t

want a million little arrows on the object, we sum the effect of
gravity at the center of mass. This is also because we generally
know the total mass of something and where that occurs on an
object (often at the geometric center), so we concentrate the
force of gravity at this center of mass.
• Normal forces always act perpendicular to the surface, so if the
ground is at an angle, then the normal force acts 90 degrees
from that angle (perpendicular).
• Frictional forces act parallel to the plane between the two
surfaces. This makes it a shear force, which we’ll look at in
Chapter 6.
• Friction always opposes motion, a fact that will be very
important in your dynamics class.
• Spring force is often shown as negative because the force acts
in the opposite direction of the motion traveled. In application,
you set the direction of the frictional force to match if it is
pushing or pulling.
• Applied forces (and moments), such as distributed loads,
motors, pushing on an object, tension, etc.
The steps to make a FBD are:
1. Draw shape
2. Add coordinate frame
3. Replace forces with arrows
4. Label each force uniquely
To model a book being pushed across the table, you would apply the
following forces at the following locations (see image below)
• the normal force on the bottom of the book (green arrow)
232 | Statics
• the frictional force running along the bottom surface between
the book and table (yellow arrow)
• the gravitational force acting at the center of mass (pink arrow)
• any applied force at the point of application, such as your hand
pushing on the book (blue arrow)
If instead, the book were being pulled by a string, the image would
be the same but the applied force and frictional force would change
direction (because friction always opposes motion).
4.2 Rigid Body Free Body Diagrams | 233

A free body diagram is a tool used to solve
engineering mechanics problems. As the name suggests,
the purpose of the diagram is to “free” the body from all
other objects and surfaces around it so that it can be
studied in isolation. We will also draw in any forces or
moments acting on the body, including those forces and
moments exerted by the surrounding bodies and
surfaces that we removed.
The diagram below shows a ladder supporting a

person and the free body diagram of that ladder. As you
can see, the ladder is separated from all other objects
and all forces acting on the ladder are drawn in with key
dimensions and angles shown.
234 | Statics
The first step in solving most mechanics problems will
be to construct a free body diagram. This simplified
diagram will allow us to more easily write out the
equilibrium equations for statics or strengths of
materials problems, or the equations of motion for
dynamics problems.
To construct the diagram we will use the following

process.
1. First draw the body being analyzed, separated

from all other surrounding bodies and surfaces.
Pay close attention to the boundary, identifying
what is part of the body, and what is part of the
surroundings.
2. Second, draw in all external forces and
moments acting directly on the body. Do not
include any forces or moments that do not
directly act on the body being analyzed. Do not

include any forces that are internal to the body
being analyzed. Some common types of forces
seen in mechanics problems are:
◦ Gravitational Forces: Unless otherwise

noted, the mass of an object will result in a
gravitational weight force applied to that
body. This weight is usually given in pounds
in the English system, and is modeled as 9.81
(g) times the mass of the body in kilograms
for the metric system (resulting in a weight
in Newtons). This force will always point
down towards the center of the earth and
act on the center of mass of the body.
▪ Normal Forces (or Reaction

Forces): Every object in direct contact
with the body will exert a normal force
on that body which prevents the two
objects from occupying the same
space at the same time. Note that only
objects in direct contact can exert
normal forces on the body.
▪ An object in contact with
236 | Statics
another object or surface will
experience a normal force that
is perpendicular (hence normal)
to the surfaces in contact.
▪ Joints or connections between

bodies can also cause reaction
forces or moments, and we will
have one force or moment for
each type of motion or rotation
the connection prevents.
▪ Friction Forces: Objects in direct

contact with the body can also exert
friction forces on the body, which will
resist the two bodies sliding against

one another. These forces will always
be perpendicular to the surfaces in
contact. Friction is the subject of an
entire chapter in this book, but for
simple scenarios we usually assume
rough or smooth surfaces.
▪ For smooth surfaces we

assume that there is no friction
force.
▪ For rough surfaces we assume
that the bodies will not slide
relative to one another no
matter what. In this case the
friction force is always just large
enough to prevent this sliding.
▪ Tension in Cables: Cables, wires or

ropes attached to the body will exert a
tension force on the body in the
direction of the cable. These forces
will always pull on the body, as ropes,
cables and other flexible tethers
238 | Statics
cannot be used for pushing.
▪ The above forces are the most

common, but other forces such as
pressure from fluids, spring forces and
magnetic forces may exist and may act
on the body.
3. Once the forces are identified and added to the

free body diagram, the last step is to label any key
dimensions and angles on the diagram.
Source: Engineering Mechanic, Jacob Moore, et al.

http://wwhttp://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/
1_mechanics_basics/1-6_free_body_diagrams/
free_body_diagrams.htmlw.oercommons.org/courses/
mechanics-map-open-mechanics-textbook/view
4.2.2 System FBD
A system free-body diagram is composed of multiple parts, so you

can have multiple ‘levels’ to consider: the system level with all
objects on the same FBD, and a part FBD for each individual part.

This is especially helpful if you have a more unknowns than
equations when using the equilibrium equations, so you can find
more information by splitting the system up into individual parts.
For the system FBD, you look at the parts combined together
and add only the external forces (gravity, applied, normal, frictional,
spring). When you look at each part separately, you now have to
include the interaction between the objects, replacing a part with
forces (generally 2 forces: vertical and horizontal force).
For example, if there are 2 books stacked on top of each other, you
now need 3 FBDs:
1. a system level FBD with both books,

2. a part FBD for the bottom book with the top book replaced by
arrows (forces)
3. a part FBD for the top book with the bottom book replaced by
arrows (forces)
To make a system FBD:
1. Draw system FBD using unique consistent labels (ie. a letter or

number per part)
240 | Statics
◦ The system should be floating in space with no surface
(such as the floor)
◦ Include coordinate frame
◦ Use only external forces on system FBD (gravity, applied,
normal, frictional, spring).
◦ DO NOT include internal forces
◦ It is especially important to use unique labels, so the top
book forces are labelled 1, and the bottom book forces are
labelled 2 (or T for top and B for bottom, or A and B).
2. Draw a FBD for each part separately & coord frame with equal
and opposite arrows for internal system forces
◦ The part should be floating in space with no surfaces or

other objects
◦ Include a coordinate frame (yes, again! This is to ensure
you didn’t rotate the object).
◦ Copy the external forces onto the part FBD from the
system FBD with the identical labels and arrow directions
◦ Now add internal forces replacing the other object with
force arrows (red arrows)
◦ When you draw the second part FBD, follow the above
bullets for the second object (with label 2 instead of 1,
copying the system level external force labels). Note
though that you use the same labels for the internal forces
from the first part FBD, but the direction is reversed (left
becomes right and up becomes down). Following Newton’s
laws, the objects extert equal and opposite forces on each
other, and should cancel out at the system level, so they
have the same label (magnitude) and opposite directions.
Some tips:
• Differentiate one object from the other through the labels,

using either a letter or number for each part. These same

labels go on the system level FBD (except for the internal
labels).
• Use the same labels between the part and system FBDs for
external forces. Don’t change the label – that will make the
equations impossible to solve and look like you have more
unknowns.
• Use the same unique labels between the internal forces for the
part FBDs, but in the opposite direction.
• If you know the location of the center of mass, you could
combine the gravitational forces into 1 system level
gravitational force. You could also model the gravitational force
into one force per part acting at the center of mass for each
object. This is the better method if you have to separate the
objects to do the calculations.
4.2.3 Examples
Here are some examples from: http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/

websites/1_mechanics_basics/1-6_free_body_diagrams/
free_body_diagrams.html
Example 1: Part FBD
The car shown below is moving and then slams on the
242 | Statics
brakes locking up all four wheels. The distance between
the two wheels is 8 feet and the center of mass is 3 feet
behind and 2.5 feet above the point of contact between
the front wheel and the ground. Draw a free body
diagram of the car as it comes to a stop.

1_mechanics_basics/1-6_free_body_diagrams/pdf/
P3.pdf
244 | Statics
Example 2: Part FBD (a beam)
Imaged adapted. Source: Engineering Mechanics,

Jacob Moore, et al. http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/
websites/4_statically_equivalent_systems/
4-1_statically_equivalent_systems/images/
equivalentexample.png

Example 3: System FBD
Two equally sized barrels are being transported in a

hand truck as shown below. Draw a free body diagram of
each of the two barrels.

1_mechanics_basics/1-6_free_body_diagrams/pdf/
P2.pdf
External forces in green, pink, and yellow. Internal forces between
246 | Statics
the cart and barrels (C and A/B) in red and between the barrels
(A & B) in blue. Notice the matching labels for internal forces but
opposing directions. Notice that the coordinate frame has been
rotated consistently in all of the FBDs.
Key Takeaways
Basically: A part free-body diagrams (FBDs) give you a

way to model complicated problem in a simple way with
arrows. Systems FBDs allows you to combine objects and
analyze them separately.
Application: A bat swinging could be modeled as a part

FBD with gravity and multiple applied forces (hands on one
end and the ball on the other). You could model the

moment the bat and ball are touching using a system FBD.
Looking ahead: You’ll use a FBD in every step 2 in nearly

every homework problem. These are especially helpful with
Equilibrium Equations in the next section.
248 | Statics
4.3 Rigid Body Equilibrium
Equations
We use the equilibrium equations to calculate any unknown forces
& moments using the known forces and values, and the following
equations:
The particle equilibrium equations were covered in section 2.3.
These are:
$$
\Sigma F_{x}=0, \Sigma F_{y}=0, \Sigma F_{z}=0
$$
Now for a rigid body where forces are analyzed at different points
on a body, we can take moments into account. There are 3 equations
for 2d and 4 equations for 3d:
Rigid Body-Two Dimensions
$$
\Sigma F_{x}=0, \Sigma F_{y}=0, \Sigma M_{O}=0
$$
Rigid Body-Three Dimensions
$$
\begin{gathered}
\Sigma F_{x}=0, \Sigma F_{y}=0, \Sigma F_{z}=0 \\
\Sigma M_{x^{\prime}}=0, \Sigma M_{y^{\prime}}=0, \Sigma
M_{z^{\prime}}=0
\end{gathered}
$$
Because these are static bodies, the right side of the equations
equal 0. In dynamics, they will equal the mass times the acceleration
for translation and rotation.
4.3 Rigid Body Equilibrium

Equations | 249
For a rigid body in static equilibrium, that is a non-
deformable body where forces are not concurrent, the
sum of both the forces and the moments acting on the
body must be equal to zero. The addition of moments
(as opposed to particles where we only looked at the
forces) adds another set of possible equilibrium
equations, allowing us to solve for more unknowns as
compared to particle problems.
Moments, like forces, are vectors. This means that our

vector equation needs to be broken down into scalar
components before we can solve the equilibrium
equations. In a two dimensional problem, the body can
only have clockwise or counter clockwise rotation
(corresponding to rotations about the z axis). This
means that a rigid body in a two dimensional problem
has three possible equilibrium equations; that is, the
sum of force components in the x and y directions, and
the moments about the z axis. The sum of each of these
will be equal to zero.
For a two dimensional problem, we break our one

vector force equation into two scalar component
equations.
$$\sum\vec F=0\\\sum F_x=0\:\sum F_y=0$$
The one moment vector equation becomes a single

moment scalar equation.
$$\sum\vec M=0\\\sum M_z=0$$
If we look at a three dimensional problem we will

increase the number of possible equilibrium equations
to six. There are three equilibrium equations for force,
250 | Statics
where the sum of the components in the x, y, and z
direction must be equal to zero. The body may also have
moments about each of the three axes. The second set
of three equilibrium equations states that the sum of the
moment components about the x, y, and z axes must
also be equal to zero.
We break the forces into three component equations
$$\sum\vec F=0\\\sum F_x=0\:\sum

F_y=0\:\sum F_z=0$$
We break the moments into three component

equations
$$\sum\vec M=0\\\sum M_x=0\:\sum

M_y=0\:\sum M_z=0$$
Finding the Equilibrium Equations:
As with particles, the first step in finding the

equilibrium equations is to draw a free body diagram of
the body being analyzed. This diagram should show all
the force vectors acting on the body. In the free body
diagram, provide values for any of the known
magnitudes, directions, and points of application for the
force vectors and provide variable names for any
unknowns (either magnitudes, directions, or distances).
Next you will need to choose the x, y, z axes. These

axes do need to be perpendicular to one another, but
they do not necessarily have to be horizontal or vertical.
4.3 Rigid Body Equilibrium Equations | 251

If you choose coordinate axes that line up with some of
your force vectors you will simplify later analysis.
Once you have chosen axes, you need to break down

all of the force vectors into components along the x, y
and z directions (see the vectors page in Appendix 1
page for more details on this process). Your first
equation will be the sum of the magnitudes of the
components in the x direction being equal to zero, the
second equation will be the sum of the magnitudes of
the components in the y direction being equal to zero,
and the third (if you have a 3D problem) will be the sum
of the magnitudes in the z direction being equal to zero.
Next you will need to come up with the the moment

equations. To do this you will need to choose a point to
take the moments about. Any point should work, but it is
usually advantageous to choose a point that will
decrease the number of unknowns in the equation.
Remember that any force vector that travels through a
given point will exert no moment about that point. To
write out the moment equations simply sum the
moments exerted by each force (adding in pure
moments shown in the diagram) about the given point
and the given axis (x, y, or z) and set that sum equal to
zero. All moments will be about the z axis for two
dimensional problems, though moments can be about x,
y and z axes for three dimensional problems.
Once you have your equilibrium equations, you can

solve these formulas for unknowns. The number of
unknowns that you will be able to solve for will again be
the number or equations that you have.
252 | Statics
3_equilibrium_rigid_body/
3-6_equilibrium_equations_rigid_body/
equilibrium_equations_rigid_body.html
Here is a visual example of using the equilibrium equations:

http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/4_statically_equivalent_systems/
4-1_statically_equivalent_systems/images/equivalentexample.png
If we only consider the y (vertical) direction, the 200 lbs pushing

down on the beam must be balanced by the reaction forces pushing

up. The two reaction forces are equivalent because the forces on
top are balanced evenly between the reaction forces. If they are at
different locations, we use the sum of the moments equation and
the distances of the people to determine the size of the reaction
forces.
Example 1:
The car below has a mass of 1500 lbs with the center
of mass 4 ft behind the front wheels of the car. What are
the normal forces on the front and the back wheels of
the car?
254 | Statics
3-6_equilibrium_equations_rigid_body/pdf/
EquilibriumEquationsExtended_WorkedProblem1.pdf

Example 2:
While sitting in a chair, a person exerts the forces in

the diagram below. Determine all forces acting on the
chair at points A and B. (Assume A is frictionless and B is
a rough surface).
256 | Statics
3-6_equilibrium_equations_rigid_body/pdf/
EquilibriumEquationsExtended_WorkedProblem5.pdf

Key Takeaways
Basically: The equilibrium equations for rigid bodies are a

way to determine unknown forces and moments using
known forces and moments, separating the motion in 2 (or
3) directions for translation and rotation. Moments could
be calculated because rigid bodies also consider shape and
length.
Application: Calculate the reaction forces from the

combined weight of an object.
Looking Ahead: This method will be used extensively in

Ch 5 and 6.
258 | Statics
4.4 Friction and Impending
Motion
Dry Friction
Dry friction is the force that opposes one solid

surface sliding across another solid surface. Dry friction
always opposes the surfaces sliding relative to one
another and can have the effect of either opposing
motion or causing motion in bodies.
The most commonly used model for dry friction

is coulomb friction. This type of friction can further be
broken down into static friction and kinetic friction.
These two types of friction are illustrated in the diagram
below. First imagine a box sitting on a surface. A pushing
force is applied parallel to the surface and is constantly
being increased. A gravitational force, a normal force,
and a frictional force are also acting on the box.
4.4 Friction and Impending

Motion | 259
Static friction occurs prior to the box slipping and
moving. In this region the friction force will be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the pushing
force itself. As the magnitude of the pushing force
increases so does the magnitude of the friction force.
If the magnitude of the pushing force continues to

rise, eventually the box will begin to slip. As the box
begins to slip the type of friction opposing the motion of
the box changes from static friction to what is called
kinetic friction. The point just before the box slips is
known as impending motion. This can also be thought
of as the maximum static friction force before slipping.
The magnitude of the maximum static friction force is
equal to the static coefficient of friction times the
normal force existing between the box and the surface.
This coefficient of friction is a property that depends on
both materials and can usually be looked up in tables.
Kinetic friction occurs beyond the point of

impending motion when the box is sliding. With kinetic
260 | Statics
friction, the magnitude of the friction force opposing
motion will be equal to the kinetic coefficient of friction
times the normal force between the box and the
surface. The kinetic coefficient of friction also depends
upon the two materials in contact, but will almost
always be less than the static coefficient of friction.

http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/7_friction/
7-1_dry_friction/dryfriction.html
Slipping vs. Tipping
Imagine a box sitting on a rough surface as shown in

the figure below. Now imagine that we start pushing on
the side of the box. Initially the friction force will resist
the pushing force and box will sit still. As we increase
the force pushing the box however, one of two things
will occur.
1. The pushing force will exceed the maximum

static friction force and the box will begin to slide
across the surface (slipping).
2. Or, the pushing force and the friction force will
create a strong enough couple that the box will
rotate and fall on it’s side (tipping).
4.4 Friction and Impending Motion | 261

When we look at cases where either slipping or
tipping may occur, we are usually interested in finding
which of the two options will occur first. To determine
this, we usually determine both the pushing force
necessary to make the body and the pushing force
necessary to make the body tip over. Whichever option
requires less force is the option that will occur first.
Determining the Force Required to Make an Object

“Slip”:
A body will slide across a surface if the pushing force

exceeds the maximum static friction force that can exist
between the two surfaces in contact. As in all dry
friction problems, this limit to the friction force is equal
to the static coefficient of friction times the normal
force between the body. If the pushing force exceeds
this value then the body will slip.
262 | Statics
Determining the Force Required to Make an Object
“Tip”:
The normal forces supporting bodies are distributed

forces. These forces will not only prevent the body from
accelerating into the ground due to gravitational forces,
but they can also redistribute themselves to prevent a
body from rotating when forces cause a moment to act
on the body. This redistribution will result in the
equivalent point load for the normal force shifting to
one side or the other. A body will tip over when the
normal force can no longer redistribute itself any
further to resist the moment exerted by other forces
(such as the pushing force and the friction force).

The easiest way to think about the shifting normal
force and tipping is to imagine the equivalent point load
of the distributed normal force. As we push or pull on
the body, the normal force will shift to the left or right.
This normal force and the gravitational force create a
couple that exerts a moment. This moment will be
countering the moment exerted by the couple formed
by the pushing force and the friction force.
Because the normal force is the direct result of

physical contact, we cannot shift the normal force
beyond the surfaces in contact (aka. the edge of the
box). If countering the moment exerted by the pushing
force and the friction force requires shifting the normal
force beyond the edge of the box, then the normal force
and the gravity force will not be able to counter the
moment and as a result the box will begin to rotate (aka.
tip over).
264 | Statics
7-2_slipping_vs_tipping/slippingvstipping.html
Example 1
The box shown below is pushed as shown. If we keep increasing the

pushing force, will the box first begin to slide or will it tip over?
Therefore, the box will TIP first.

Source: Gayla Cameron.
Example 2:
A 500 lb box is sitting on concrete floor. If the static

coefficient of friction is .7 and the kinetic coefficient of
friction is .6:
• What is the friction force if the pulling force is

150 lbs?
• What pulling force would be required to get the
box moving?
• What is the minimum force required to keep the
box moving once it has started moving?
266 | Statics
7-1_dry_friction/pdf/
DryFriction_WorkedExample1.pdf
Example 3:
A 30 lb sled is being pulled up an icy incline of 25
268 | Statics
degrees. If the static coefficient of friction between the
ice and the sled is .4 and the kinetic coefficient of
friction is .3, what is the required pulling force needed
to keep the sled moving at a constant rate?

270 | Statics
Example 4:
A plastic box is sitting on a steel beam. One end of the

steel beam is slowly raised, increasing the angle of the
surface until the box begins to slip. If the box begins to
slip when the beam is at an angle of 41 degrees, what is
the static coefficient of friction between the steel beam
and the plastic box?

272 | Statics

Example 5: Slipping vs Tipping
Explanation: If it’s tipping, all of the normal force will be at the

corner. If it starts slipping, it must overcome the static frictional
force. Comparing the pushing force needed to tip or slip, the
pushing force is lower to cause tipping occurs than the pushing
force to cause slipping, there fore it will tip first.
The box shown below is pushed as shown. If we keep

increasing the pushing force, will the box first begin to
slide or will it tip over?
274 | Statics
7-2_slipping_vs_tipping/pdf/
TippingVsSlipping_WorkedExample1.pdf
Key Takeaways
Basically: Friction always opposes motion. The coefficient

of static friction is always higher than the coefficient of
kinetic friction.
Application: Slipping and tipping are interesting cases

looking at friction. Depending on the mass, the height of
the applied force, and the frictional surface, you can
calculate whether the object will tip or slip first.
Looking Ahead: This will become important in Dynamics.
276 | Statics
4.5 Examples
Example 4.5.1: External Forces, submitted by

Elliott Fraser
1. Problem
Billy (160 lbs), Bobby (180 lbs), and Joe (145

lbs) are walking across a small bridge with a
length of 11 feet. Both sides of the bridge are
supported by rollers. Billy is 2 feet along the
bridge whereas Joe is 9 feet along the bridge.
If the maximum force that the left side of the
bridge can withstand without failing is 225
lbs, where along the bridge can Bobby stand?
Real-life scenario:
4.5 Examples | 277

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/chumlee/
48306801162/
2.Draw
Sketch:
278 | Statics
Free-body diagram:
Known:
• rBi = 2 ft
• rJ = 9 ft
• rB = 11 ft
• FBi = 160 lb
• FJ = 145 lb
4.5 Examples | 279

• FBo = 180 lb
• Ay = 225 lb (since this is the maximum force
without failure)
Note: Since the mass of the bridge was not given, we

assume it is negligible and ignore it for this question.
Unknown: rBo
4. Approach
Use equilibrium equations ( [latex]\sum\

underline{F}=0[/latex] , [latex]\sum\
underline{M}=0[/latex] . Use sum of forces in y to find
By; use sum of moments to find where Bobby can stand.
Solve for x.
5. Analysis
$$ \sum F_y=0=-F_{Bi}-F_{Bo}-
F_J+A_y+B_y\\\\B_y=F_{Bi}+F_{Bo}+F_J-
A_y\\\\B_y=160 lb+180 lb+145 lb-225
lb\\\\\\B_y=260 lb$$
$$\sum M_A=0=-(F_{Bi})(r_{Bi})-(F_{Bo})(r_{Bo})-
(F_{J})(r_{J})+(B_{y})(r_{B})\\r_{bo}=\frac{-
(F_{Bi})(r_{Bi})-
(F_{J})(r_{J})+(B_{y})(r_{B})}{F_{Bo}}\\r_{Bo}=\frac{-
(160 lb)(2 ft)-(145 lb)(9 ft)+(260 lb)(11 ft)}{180 lb}$$
$$\underline{r_{Bo}=6.86 ft}$$
6. Review
Bobby can stand anywhere from 6.8611 ft – 11 ft from A
280 | Statics
with no problems. If Bobby were to stand between 0 ft
and 6.811 ft, the left side of the bridge would fail.
Example 4.5.2: Free-Body Diagrams,

submitted by Victoria Keefe
1. Problem
A box is sitting on an inclined plane (θ =

15°) and is being pushed down the plane with
a force of 20 N. Draw the free body diagram
for the box, while it is in static equilibrium.
4.5 Examples | 281

2. Draw
θ = 15°
FA
Unknowns: free-body diagram of box
4. Approach
282 | Statics
Draw the box, then draw all forces acting on it
5. Analysis
6. Review
All forces acting upon the box are drawn, including

weight/gravitational force, normal force, friction, and
applied forces.
4.5 Examples | 283

Example 4.5.3: Friction, submitted by
Deanna Malone
1. Problem
A box is being Man Kicking Box

pushed along level Icons - Download Free
ground with a force Vector Icons | Noun
of 150 N at an angle Project
of 30 with the Source:
horizontal. The https://static.thenounproj
ect.com/png/
mass of the box is 12 2745226-200.png
kg.
a) What is the normal force between the

box and the floor?
b) What is the coefficient of friction

between the box and the floor?
2. Draw
Sketch:
284 | Statics
Free Body Diagram:
Knowns:
• FA = 150 N
• θ = 30°
• m = 12 kg
Unknowns: FN, μ
4.5 Examples | 285

4. Approach

underline{M}=0[/latex] ), SOH CAH TOA, friction
equation
5. Analysis
Part a:
Find Fg:
$$Fg=m\cdot g\\Fg=(12kg)(9.81m/
s^2)\\\\Fg=117.72N$$
Find FN using equilibrium equations:
$$\sum Fy=0=F_N-F_g-F_A\sin
30^{\circ}\\0=F_N-117.72N-150N\cdot \sin
30^{\circ}\\F_N=117.72+150N\cdot\sin
30^{\circ}\\\\\underline{F_N=192.7 N}$$
Part b:
Find two equations for Ff, set equal, solve for μ
$$\sum F_x=0=F_A\cos 30^{\circ} -F_f\\0=150N\

cdot\cos 30^{\circ}-F_f$$
$$F_f=150N\cdot\cos 30^{\circ}\\F_f=M\cdot
F_N\\150N\cdot\cos 30^{\circ}=\mu\cdot F_N$$
$$\mu=\frac{150N\cdot\cos
30^{\circ}}{F_N}\\\mu=\frac{150N\cdot\cos
30^{\circ}}{192.72N}=0.67405$$
$$\underline{\mu=0.67}$$
6. Review
286 | Statics
FN, Fg, and the y component of FA are the only forces
in the y direction so it makes sense that they need to
equal zero for the equilibrium equations. FN is the only
positive force in the y direction, so it makes sense that it
equals the magnitude of the other two put together.
The coefficient found between the box and the floor

is reasonable as it is less than 1, and it’s reasonable for a
box on the floor. For example, if the box was wood and
the floor was wood, the coefficient of static friction
would be anywhere from 0.5-0.7, so having a coefficient
of friction being equal to 0.67 makes sense.
Example 4.5.4: Friction, submitted by

Dhruvil Kanani
1. Problem
4.5 Examples | 287

A person is trying to prevent a brick from
sliding on a rough vertical surface by
applying force in the direction of wall.
Assuming the coefficient of static friction is
0.49 and mass of the brick is 5 kg,
• a) Determine the minimum force

required to prevent the brick from
slipping.
• b) Find the distributed load or
intensity if the length of the person’s
hands from the tip of his fingers to
their wrist is 16 cm.
288 | Statics
2. Draw
Sketch:
Free-body diagram (box):
Free-body diagram (distributed load):
Knowns:
• Mass of brick (m) = 5kg

• Coefficient of friction (μ1) = 0.49
4.5 Examples | 289

• Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8m/s2
• Length of the hand (L) = 16 cm
Unknowns:
Applied force (FA), intensity (w)
4. Approach

underline{M}=0[/latex] ), equations for Fg and Ff (see
below).
$$F_g=m g\\F_f=\mu F_N$$
5. Analysis
Part a:
$$F_g=m\cdot g\\F_g=5kg\cdot 9.81m/

s^2\\F_g=49.05N$$
$$\sum F_y=0=-
F_g+F_f\\F_f=F_g\\F_f=49.05N$$
$$F_f=\mu_1
F_N\\F_N=\frac{F_f}{\mu_1}\\F_N=\frac{49.05N}{0
.49}$$
$$\underline{F_N=100.1N}$$
Part b:
$$\sum F_x=0=F_N-
F_A\\F_A=F_N\\F_A=100.1N$$
290 | Statics
$$w=\frac{F}{L}\\w={100.1N}{(16cm\times\
frac{1m}{100cm})}$$
$$\underline{w=625N/m}$$
6. Review
It makes sense that the applied force is larger than the

gravitational force. It also makes sense that the normal
and applied forces are equal, since they are the only
forces in the x direction (same goes for the friction and
gravitational forces).
Example 4.5.5: Friction, submitted by Emma

Christensen
1. Problem
4.5 Examples | 291

A ball is suspended by two ropes, and rests
on an inclined surface with angle 15°. Rope A
pulls on the ball with force 200 N, and rope B
has force 150 N. They each have angles of 20°
and 60° from the inclined surface plane, as
shown in the image below.
a) Draw a free-body diagram of the ball
b) Find the friction force
2. Draw
Sketch:
292 | Statics
• θA = 20°
• θB = 60°
• θC = 15°
• m = 20 kg
• FA = 200 N
• FB = 150 N
Unknowns: Ff
4. Approach
Draw the ball, then add forces. Use equilibrium

equations ( [latex]\sum\underline{F}=0[/latex] ,
[latex]\sum\underline{M}=0[/latex] ) to find the
friction force.
5. Analysis
Part a:
4.5 Examples | 293

Part b:
Step 1: find FG
$$F_G=m g\\F_G=20kg\cdot 9.81m/

s^2\\F_G=196.2N$$
Step 2: Find the x-component of FG
294 | Statics
$$F_{GX}=F_G\sin(15^{\circ})\\F_{GX}=196.2N\
cdot\sin(15^{\circ})\\F_{GX}=50.78N$$
Step 3: Find the x-component of FA
$$\cos(20^{\circ})=\frac{F_A}{F_{AX}}\\F_{AX}=\fr
ac{F_A}{\cos(20^{\circ})}\\F_{AX}=\frac{200N}{\cos(
20^{\circ})}\\F_{AX}=212.8N$$
Step 4: Find the x-component of FB
$$F_{BX}=F_B\cos(60^{\circ})\\F_{BX}=150N\
cos(60^{\circ})\\F_{BX}=75N$$
Step 5: Sum forces in the x-direction to find the

frictional force
4.5 Examples | 295

$$\sum F_x=0=-F_f+f_{BX}-F_{AX}+F_{GX}\\F_f=-
F_{AX}+F_{BX}+F_{GX}\\F_f=-212.8N+75N-50.78N$$
$$\underline{F_f=-87.02N}$$
Because the frictional force is negative, that means

the frictional force actually acts in the opposite
direction, so the friction is keeping the ball from going
up the plane.
6. Review
The units of Ff are newtons, which makes sense

because it is a force. It also makes sense that FAx is
larger than FGx and FBx.
296 | Statics
CHAPTER 5: TRUSSES
This chapter will introduce you to a special type of structure called
a ‘truss’. You’ll analyze these structures more in your Structures
course, but for Statics you will need to know how to calculate the
force in each member, using two methods: method of joints and
method of sections. At first this might seem confusing, but there is
something quite elegant and magical about the method once you
understand it. Here are the sections in this Chapter:
• 5.1 Trusses Introduction – what are trusses?

• 5.2 Method of Joints – one method of finding the forces in the
truss
• 5.3 Method of Sections– another method to find the forces in
the truss
• 5.4 Zero-Force Members – how to identify members with no
forces
• 5.5 Examples – Examples from your peers
Here are the important equations for this chapter:
Chapter 5: Trusses | 297

5.1 Trusses Introduction
Trusses are rigid structures made up of two-force members, which
are objects with exactly two forces/connections. Trusses are
commonly found in the frame of a roof and the sides of a bridge:
Source:Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore, et al.

http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/5_structures/5-1_structures/
structures.html
5.1 Trusses Introduction | 299

Image Source: Billbeee at English Wikipedia. – Transferred from en.wikipedia
to Commons., CC BY-SA 3.0,
You’ll analyze these structures more in your Structures course, but

for Statics you will need to know how to calculate the force in
each member, using two methods: method of joints and method of
sections. Method of joints is more like a particle analysis wherein
you use only x and y equilibrium equations. Method of sections
is more like a rigid body analysis where you can also include the
moment equilibrium equation. Those are in the next sections.
5.1.1 Two Force Members
Before we discuss the structure of trusses, we must begin with

defining two force members:
A two force member is a body that has forces (and
300 | Statics
only forces, no moments) acting on it in only two
locations. In order to have a two force member in static
equilibrium, the net force at each location must be
equal, opposite, and collinear. This will result in all two
force members being in either tension or compression
as shown in the diagram below.
Imagine a beam where forces are only exerted at each

end of the beam (a two force member). The body has
some non-zero force acting at one end of the beam,
which we can draw as a force vector. If this body is in
equilibrium, then we know two things: 1) the sum of the
forces must be equal to zero, and 2) the sum of the
moments must be equal to zero.
In order to have the sum of the forces equal to zero,

the force vector on the other side of the beam must be
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This is the
only way to ensure that the sum of the forces is equal to
zero with only two forces.
In order to have the sum of the moments equal to

zero, the forces must be collinear. If the forces were not

collinear, then the two equal and opposite forces would
form a couple. This couple would exert a moment on the
beam when there are no other moments to counteract
the couple. Because the moment exerted by the two
forces must be equal to zero, the perpendicular distance
between the forces (d) must be equal to zero. The only
way to achieve this is to have the forces be collinear.

http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/5_structures/
5-1_structures/structures.html
302 | Statics
5.1.2 Trusses
A truss is an
engineering structure
that is made entirely
of two force members. In
addition, statically
determinate trusses
(trusses that can be
analyzed completely
Adapted from image by
using the equilibrium ToddC4176 CC-BY-SA 3.0
equations), must
be independently rigid. This means that if the truss was
separated from its connection points, no one part would
be able to move independently with respect to the rest
of the truss.
When we talk about analyzing a truss, we are usually

looking to identify not only the external forces acting on
the truss structure, but also the forces acting on each
member internally in the truss. Because each member of
the truss is a two force member, we simply need to
identify the magnitude of the force on each member,
and determine if each member is in tension or
compression.
To determine these unknowns, we have two methods

available: the method of joints, and the method of
sections. Both will give the same results, but each
through a different process.
The method of joints focuses on the joints, or the

connection points where the members come together.
We assume we have a pin at each of these points that we
model as a particle, we draw out the free body diagram
for each pin, and then write out the equilibrium
equations for each pin. This will result in a large number
of equilibrium equations that we can use to solve for a
large number of unknown forces.
The method of sections involves pretending to split

the truss into two or more different sections and then
analyzing each section as a separate rigid body in
equilibrium. In this method we determine the
appropriate sections, draw free body diagrams for each
section, and then write out the equilibrium equations
for each section.
The method of joints is usually the easiest and fastest

method for solving for all the unknown forces in a truss.
The method of sections on the other hand is better
suited to targeting and solving for the forces in just a
few members without having to solve for all the
unknowns. In addition, these methods can be combined
if needed to best suit the goals of the problem solver.

5-3_trusses/trusses.html
Here are common types of bridge trusses:
304 | Statics
Source: https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Civil_Engineering/
Book%3A_Structural_Analysis_(Udoeyo)/01%3A_Chapters/
1.05%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Plane_Trusses
Here are common types of roof trusses:
Source: https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Civil_Engineering/

5.1.3 Parts of a Truss
A truss is composed of:
• joints
• members, and
• external forces (reaction forces and applied forces).
The joints are often labelled with a letter and are where the
external forces and members connect.
Here is an example of just the joints without the members:
306 | Statics
5-4_method_of_joints/methodofjoints.html
The members are the metal or wooden beams that are labelled
with the connection between joints. For example member AB
connects joints A and B.

The external forces are the reaction forces and the applied forces.
The applied forces come from the load distributed across the bridge
or from the roof.
The applied force / load from trucks and cars goes from the deck,
to the stringers, across the beams, to the joints of the truss where it
is carried as applied (external) forces on the edges of the bridge.
308 | Statics
Image annotated from original source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/en/2/25/Nine_stringers%2C_2_floorbeams.jpg
Here is a second type of structure. Which are the stringers and

which are the beams?

Annotations added from original image source: https://www.maxpixel.net/
static/photo/1x/
Buildings-Leaves-Park-Autumn-Road-Fall-Structure-5623840.jpg
.
.
.
.
.
.
Any ideas?
.
.
.
.
.
Here’s the answer!
310 | Statics
Annotations added from original source: https://www.maxpixel.net/static/
photo/1x/Buildings-Leaves-Park-Autumn-Road-Fall-Structure-5623840.jpg
Here are some examples on how to convert the reaction forces /

moments for a truss. Note: these are the same as in section 3.4.

Source: Internal Forces in Beams and Frames,
Libretexts. https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Civil_Engineering/
ters/1.05%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Plane_Trusses
5.1.4 Tension & Compression
The two-force members carry internal forces in either tension or

compression between the joints. One standard sign convention is to
assume all members are in tension, labelled as positive (+), then any
negative number (-) means the member is in compression.
312 | Statics
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/121935927@N06/13580545445
Following Newton’s 3rd law regarding equal and opposite reactions,

when there is tension in a member, there is also tension in a joint.
Pulling on the member (tension) in turn pulls on the joint. Similarly,
pushing on a member (compression) pushes on the joint as well.
Similarly, the force from member AB (Fab) is distributed from joint

a through member ab to joint b. Shown here in compression, Fab
is negative. The magnitude of Fab on joint a is the same as the
magnitude on joint b, even though they are pointing two different
directions (hence equal and opposite). Member bc will have a
different magnitude.

When you look at each joint, compression (-) appears to be
pushing on the joint while tension (+) is pulling on it with the force
named for the member ( Fab ).
In the next section, we will discuss each of these methods in

greater detail and how to solve problems using them.
Key Takeaways
314 | Statics
Basically: A truss is a rigid structure composed of two
force members (where forces are applied at only two
locations) that connect at joints and have external forces
applied. The internal forces of the truss put members in
compression (-) or tension (+).
Application: The frame of a roof is often composed of a

wooden truss, and trusses are commonly found in wooden
and metal bridges.
Looking Ahead: The next two sections discuss the method

for calculating the force in the members & you’ll talk about
trusses more in your Structures course.

5.2 Method of Joints
The method of joints is a form of particle analysis. After solving for
the reaction forces, you solve for the unknown forces at each joint
until you have found the value of each member. You start with your
model:
Convert the constraints into reaction forces with the appropriate

labels:
Now solve for the reaction forces (Rax Ray Re) looking only at the
external forces using the equilibrium equations for a rigid body:
$$\sum F_x=0\\\sum F_y=0\\\sum M=0$$
Assuming the length of each member is L:
$$\sum F_x=R_{ax} = 0, \\\underline{R_{ax} = 0}$$
316 | 5.2 Method of Joints

$$\sum F_y=R_{ay}+R_e – F_g – F_f= 0, \\R_{ay} +R_e = 150
lb$$
$$\sum M_a= -L*F_g – 2L * F_f+3L*R_e = 0\\R_e = \frac{100L

+ 100L}{3L}\\\underline{R_e =66.7 lb} $$
$$ R_{ay} = 150 lb – 66.7 lb\\ \underline{ R_{ay}= 83.3 lb }$$
Next, pick a joint where there are 2 or fewer unknown values such
as a or e. This is because you only have 2 equations available to find
the unknowns: [latex]\sum F_x=0 \text{, } \sum F_y=0[/latex].
The following table shows the number of known and unknown
forces at each joint.
Joint: a b c d e f g
Known
2 0 0 0 1 1 1
forces:
Unknown
2 3 4 3 2 4 4
forces:
Choosing joint a (or e), do a particle analysis, assuming all of the

members are in tension. That way, if the force is negative, that
means it is in compression. Notice Rax has been excluded because it
is equal to zero.
$$\sum F_y=0\\R_{ay}+F_{ab}sin(60^\circ) = 0\\F_{ab}=-
5.2 Method of Joints | 317

\frac{R_{ay}}{sin(60^\circ}=-\frac{83.7 \text{ lb}}{ 0.866}
\\\underline{F_{ab} = – 96.2 \text{ lb}} \text{(compression)}$$
$$\sum F_x=0\\F_{ag} + F_{ab}cos(60^\circ) = 0 \\F_{ag} =-

F_{ab}cos(60^\circ) = – (-96.2 \text{ lb}) * (0.5) \\
\underline{F_{ag} = + 48.1 \text{ lb}} \text{(tension)}$$
Next move to joint b because you now only have 2 unknowns now
at joint b (Fbc and Fbg).
Keep analyzing joints until you’ve calculated the load in all
members:
Member ab bc cd de ef fg ag bg cg cf df
Force (lb) 96.2 96.2 77.0 77.0 38.5 86.6 48.1 96.2 19.3 19.3 77.0
Tension or
C C C C T T T T T C T
Compression
And that’s it! If you don’t specify compression or tension, you should
use positive and negative to denote tension and compression,
respectively.
Here is a second explanation on how to solve using method of

joints:
318 | Statics
The method of joints is a process used to solve for the
unknown forces acting on members of a truss. The
method centers on the joints or connection points
between the members, and it is usually the fastest and
easiest way to solve for all the unknown forces in a truss
structure.
Using This Method:
The process used in the method of joints is outlined

below:
1. In the beginning it is usually useful to label the

members and the joints in your truss. This will
help you keep everything organized and
consistent in later analysis. In this book, the
members will be labeled with letters and the joints
will be labeled with numbers.
2. Treating the entire truss structure as a rigid

body, draw a free body diagram, write out the
equilibrium equations, and solve for the external
reacting forces acting on the truss structure. This
analysis should not differ from the analysis of a
single rigid body.
3. Assume there is a pin or some other small

amount of material at each of the connection
points between the members. Next you will draw a
free body diagram for each connection point.
Remember to include:
◦ Any external reaction or load forces that

may be acting at that joint.
◦ A normal force for each two force
member connected to that joint. Remember
that for a two force member, the force will
be acting along the line between the two
connection points on the member. We will
also need to guess if it will be a tensile or a
compressive force. An incorrect guess now
though will simply lead to a negative
solution later on. A common strategy then is
320 | Statics
to assume all forces are tensile, then later in
the solution any positive forces will be
tensile forces and any negative forces will be
compressive forces.
◦ Label each force in the diagram. Include
any known magnitudes and directions and
provide variable names for each unknown.
4. Write out the equilibrium equations for each of

the joints. You should treat the joints as particles,
so there will be force equations but no moment
equations. This should give you a large number of
equations.
◦ The sum of the forces in the x direction

will be zero and the sum of the forces in the
y direction will be zero for each of the
joints.$$\sum\vec F=0\\\sum
F_x=0\:\sum F_y=0$$
5. Finally, solve the equilibrium equations for the

unknowns. You can do this algebraically, solving
for one variable at a time, or you can use matrix

equations to solve for everything at once. If you
assumed that all forces were tensile earlier,
remember that negative answers indicate
compressive forces in the members.

5-4_method_of_joints/methodofjoints.html
Additional examples from the Engineering Mechanics webpage:
Example 1:
Find the force acting in each of the members in the

truss bridge shown below. Remember to specify if each
member is in tension or compression.
322 | Statics
Solution:

324 | Statics
5-4_method_of_joints/pdf/
MethodOfJoints_WorkedExample1.pdf

Example 2:
Find the force acting in each of the members of the truss shown
below. Remember to specify if each member is in tension or
compression.
Solution here.
In summary:
326 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: Method of joints is an analysis technique to find

the forces in the members of a truss. It looks at each joint
individually using the particle equilibrium equations.
Application: To calculate the loads on bridges and roofs,

especially if you need to know all of the values of the
members.
Looking Ahead: The next section explores a method to

solve one or two members of a truss (instead of finding all
of them).
328 | Statics
5.3 Method of Sections
The method of sections uses rigid body analysis to solve for a specific
member or two. Instead of looking at each joint, you make a cut
through the truss, turning the members along that line into internal
forces (assume in tension). Then you solve the rigid body using the
equilibrium equations for a rigid body: [latex]\sum F_x=0\;\sum
F_y=0\;\sum M_z=0[/latex]
The truss:

5-5_method_of_sections/methodofsections.html
is split into two to solve for FE.
5.3 Method of Sections | 329

For this example, you could choose the right half or left half. For
some problems, being strategic is necessary otherwise you need to
make multiple cuts. In this problem you had to solve for the reaction
forces first, but that isn’t always the case as you can sometimes just
make the cut (see example 2 below).
Here are more examples of how to make a cut and showing the
naming convention:
330 | Statics
Civil_Engineering/
ters/1.05%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Plane_Trusses

Here is a detailed explanation:
The method of sections is a process used to solve for

the unknown forces acting on members of a truss. The
method involves breaking the truss down into individual
sections and analyzing each section as a separate rigid
body. The method of sections is usually the fastest and
easiest way to determine the unknown forces acting in a
specific member of the truss.
Using This Method:
The process used in the method of sections is

outlined below:
1. In the beginning it is usually useful to label the

members in your truss. This will help you keep
everything organized and consistent in later
analysis. In this book, the members will be labeled
with letters.
332 | Statics
2. Treating the entire truss structure as a rigid
body, draw a free body diagram, write out the
equilibrium equations, and solve for the external
reacting forces acting on the truss structure. This
analysis should not differ from the analysis of a
single rigid body.
3. Next you will imagine cutting your truss into

two separate sections. The cut should travel
through the member that you are trying to solve
for the forces in, and should cut through as few
members as possible (The cut does not need to be
a straight line).

4. Next you will draw a free body diagram for
either one, or both sections that you created. Be
sure to include all the forces acting on each
section.
◦ Any external reaction or load forces that

may be acting at the section.
◦ An internal force in each member that was
cut when splitting the truss into sections.
Remember that for a two force member, the
force will be acting along the line between
the two connection points on the member.
We will also need to guess if it will be a
tensile or a compressive force. An incorrect
guess now though will simply lead to a
negative solution later on. A common
strategy then is to assume all forces are
tensile, then later in the solution any
positive forces will be tensile forces and any
negative forces will be compressive forces.
◦ Label each force in the diagram. Include
334 | Statics
any known magnitudes and directions and
provide variable names for each unknown.
5. Write out the equilibrium equations for each

section you drew a free body diagram of. These
will be extended bodies, so you will need to write
out the force and the moment equations.
◦ You will have three possible equations for

each section, two force equations and one
moment equation.$$\sum\vec F=0\; \;
\sum\vec M=0\\\sum F_x=0\; \; \sum
F_y=0\; \; \sum M_z=0$$
6. Finally, solve the equilibrium equations for the

unknowns. You can do this algebraically, solving
for one variable at a time, or you can use matrix
equations to solve for everything at once. If you
assumed that all forces were tensile earlier,
remember that negative answers indicate
compressive forces in the members.

Source:Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore, et al.
Additional examples from the Engineering Mechanics webpage:
Example 1:
Find the forces acting on members BD and CE. Be

sure to indicate if the forces are tensile or compressive.
336 | Statics
338 | Statics
5-5_method_of_sections/pdf/
MethodOfSections_WorkedExample1.pdf
Example 2:
Find the forces acting on members AC, BC, and BD of

the truss. Be sure to indicate if the forces are tensile or
compressive.

If we make a cut in the top section, we don’t need to
solve for the reaction forces.
340 | Statics
5-5_method_of_sections/pdf/
MethodOfSections_WorkedExample2.pdf
Even more examples are available at: https://eng.libretexts.org/

Bookshelves/Civil_Engineering/
In summary:
342 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: Method of sections is an analysis

technique to find the forces in some members of a
truss. It separates the truss into two sections then
uses the rigid body equilibrium equations.
Application: To calculate the loads on bridges and

roofs, especially if you need to know only one or
two of the members.
Looking Ahead: The next section explores a trick

that makes solving faster, especially for method of
joints.
344 | Statics
5.4 Zero-Force Members
This is a special case that is specially useful for method of joints and
method of sections. These special types of members called zero-
force members ensure the truss stays in a particular shape as a rigid
body, but carries no load.
Zero-force members are members that you can tell just by
inspection that they carry no load. They are important to the
structure to ensure it stays in a rigid shape.
Zero-force members can be found considering the equilibrium
equations. Look at joint e below. In the y direction, there is only
1 force: Feh. So if the sum of the forces in the y direction $latex
\sum F_{eh} = Feh = 0, then Feh = 0. Similarly, Fmk and Fcp are zero-
force members (if you look at joint m and c). Note that if you looked
at joint k or p, you couldn’t tell that Fmk and Fcp are zero-force
members.
5.4 Zero-Force Members | 345

Adapted from original source: https://demo.webwork.rochester.edu/
webwork2_files/tmp/daemon_course/images/
4cbba3a2-d72c-3d22-bba6-f6856747dafd___50b8ddcf-dab2-3209-b817-0ab27
426a1d4.png
There isn’t a huge problem if you can’t find zero-force members just
from inspection, but you might find that certain joints are not able
to be solved as easily. (Zero-force members let you have one less
unknown).
346 | Statics
Also see that L and G have no zero-force members because the
externally applied loads balance the members.
Here are some examples to practice on:
Example 1
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Camelback-truss.svg
(I count 3 zero-force members, assuming there are no loads on

the bridge at the joints).
Example 2
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bowstring-truss.svg

(I count 1 zero-force member, assuming there are no loads on the
bridge at the joints).
Example 3
Source: https://pxhere.com/en/photo/995729
(Looking at only 1 side of the bridge, in theory there are 7 zero-

force members, but because there is a load on the deck it is more
likely that all of them would be carrying a load).
Admittedly, zero-force members are more theoretical than actual.
348 | Statics
Key Takeaways
Basically: Zero-force members are two-force members

that do not carry any load but help keep the structure into
a certain shape.
Application: In trusses.
Looking ahead: We will talk about this again in sections 1.3

on vectors and in section 1.4 and 1.5 on dot products and
cross products.

5.5 Examples
Example 5.5.1: Method of Sections –

Submitted by Riley Fitzpatrick
1. Problem
A flower cart at a local garden center is

being pushed with a force of 500 n at joint G.
It’s back wheels (A) are locked so it is not
moving. There is 1 meter of space between
each of the four shelves in height and each
shelf is four meters long.
a) Calculate the reaction forces of the

locked wheels and the unlocked wheels.
350 | 5.5 Examples

b) Calculate the load carried by FCG, and
whether it is in tension or compression
Which method did you use, joints or

sections? Which is faster for the style of
questions? How would your strategy change
if your were calculating the load in each
member?
Source: https://flic.kr/p/txjSpP
5.5 Examples | 351

2. Draw
Sketch:
352 | Statics
Free-body Diagram:
Known:
• P = 500 N
5.5 Examples | 353

• Width = 4 m
• Total height = 3 m
Unknowns: RAx, RAy, RBy, FCG
4. Approach
Part a: determine reaction forces using equilibrium

equations
Part b: calculate FCG using method of sections. Make a

cut, then solve internal forces using equilibrium
equations
5. Analysis
Part a:
Solving for RAx:
$$\sum F_x=0=P-
R_{Ax}\\R_{Ax}=P\\R_{Ax}=500N$$
Solving for RBy:
$$\sum M_A=0=(r_{BA}\cdot R_{By})-(r_{GA}\cdot

P)\\r_{BA}\cdot R_{By}=r_{GA}\cdot
P\\R_{By}=\frac{r_{GA}\cdot
P}{r_{BA}}\\R_{By}=\frac{2m\cdot
500N}{4m}\\R_{By}=250N$$
Solving for RAy:
$$\sum F_y=0=R_{By}+R_{Ay}\\R_{Ay}=-
R_{By}\\R_{Ay}=-250N$$
The answer we got is a negative number. All this

means is that the direction of this vector is drawn wrong
on our original diagram (in reference to our coordinate
354 | Statics
frame). This makes sense as RAy and RBy are the only
external forces in the y direction, so they have to cancel
each other for the equilibrium equations to be true.
Therefore, one of them should have a negative direction.
We will leave this answer as is for now, but the next time
we draw the system, we will change the direction of the
arrow.
$$ \underline{R_{Ax}=500N,\; R_{Ay}=-250N, \;
R_{By}=250N}$$
Part b:
Firstly, we re-draw the diagram, changing the

direction of RAy. Then, since we are using method of
sections, we make a cut so that the member FCG (the
one we want to find) is cut.
Now we re-draw, choosing one of the pieces from the

cut. Here the top half is chosen, but you could also
chose the bottom half and get the right answer. The
5.5 Examples | 355

only reason the top half was chosen here is because
there are less external forces to consider for the top.
Solve for the member we are looking for:
$$\sum
F_x=0=P+\frac{4}{\sqrt{17}}F_{CG}\\\frac{4}{\sqrt{17}}
F_{CG}=-P\\F_{CG}=-
P(\frac{\sqrt{17}}{4})\\F_{CG}=-500N(\frac{\sqrt{17}}{4
})\\F_{CG}=-515.388N$$
Again, the number we get is negative. The way we

drew FCG originally was as if the member was in tension.
The negative number just means that it is actually
compression, not tension.
$$ \underline{F_{CG}=515 \text{N (Compression)}}$$
Part c:
For part b I used the method of sections, as it would

be the fastest method. The method of joints would
require the lower joints to be solved first which would
be a much slower process, whereas with this method a
simple cut can be made and the member;s load can be
356 | Statics
quickly solved using equilibrium equations. Had the
question asked for all member loads to be solved
however, the method of joints would have been the
faster approach.
6. Review
Part a:
RAx is equal and opposite to P so we know it is correct,

and the value of RBy should also be correct as its
moment about A (250 * 4m = 1000 Nm), is equal and
opposite to the moment of P about A, (500 N * 2 m =
1000 Nm). as RAy is equal and opposite to RBy it is also
correct.
Part b:
The x component of the calculated value of FCG is

equal in magnitude to P (see equation below), and it is
the only cut member acting in the x direction.
Therefore, it must be correct.
$$\frac{4}{\sqrt{17}}(515 N)=500 N$$
Part c:
The method of sections allows you to solve a very

specific area of the systems internal forces (the
members that are cut), whereas the method of joints
usually requires you to solve most if not all of the
internal forces of the system. Therefore, the method of
sections is the most efficient for finding the internal
forces of specific parts of the system, whereas the
method of joints is more efficient for solving the whole
system.
5.5 Examples | 357

Example 5.5.2: Zero-Force Members,
submitted by Michael Oppong-Ampomah
1. Problem
A bridge with uneven ground has been

built as shown below. Force is applied at
three points on the top of the bridge.
a). Find any zero-force members
b). What purpose do these members serve?
358 | Statics
2. Draw
Free-body diagram:
5.5 Examples | 359

Unknown: which members are zero-force
4. Approach
Look at each joint and determine how many forces are

in each direction. If there is only one force in a
direction, that member is zero-force.
5. Analysis
Part a:
Let’s start with joint C. If we think of the forces acting

in the x and y directions as shown below by the
coordinate frame, we see that there are two forces
acting in the y direction, and only one in the x direction.
Therefore, assuming the joint is in static equilibrium,
member CE is zero-force.
360 | Statics
If we do the same type of analysis for the other joints
and remove the zero-force members, the structure now
looks like this:
After one more analysis of the joints, we find one

more zero-force member, as shown below.
5.5 Examples | 361

Answer: CE, DG, and FG are zero-force members.
Part b:
Zero-force members exist to provide stability to the

truss, to keep the shape rigid.
6. Review
Although the new truss (without zero-force members)

looks strange, there are no joints where there’s only one
force in one direction, therefore there are no more
zero-force members.
362 | Statics
CHAPTER 6: INTERNAL
FORCES
In the last chapter we looked at the normal (axial) force running
through beams joined into trusses by analyzing either the joints or
a whole section of the truss.
In this chapter, we look at what happens along a single beam. We
will look at three types of internal forces and moments. Note that
when we say ‘internal forces’, we really mean ‘internal forces and
moments’. Inside a beam, we will calculate the normal and shear
forces as well as the bending moment at any point in the beam.
For this chapter: the shear force and bending moment change
throughout the beam because additional transverse forces are
applied. However, the normal force usually stays the same, because
it’s uncommon to have applied axial forces along the beam.
Here are the sections in this Chapter:
• 6.1 Types of Internal Forces – shear force, normal force and

bending moment
• 6.2 Shear/Moment Diagrams – graphing the shear force and
bending moment
Chapter 6: Internal Forces | 363

364 | Statics
6.1 Types of Internal Forces
When you make a cut in an object, similar to a fixed reaction, we
describe what is happening at that point using one horizontal force
(called normal force), one vertical force (called shear force), and a
bending moment.
Adapted from source: Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore, et al.

http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/6_internal_forces/
6-2_internal_forces_equilibrium/internal_forces_equilibrium.html
6.1.1 Types of Internal Forces
There are 3 types of internal forces (& moments):
• normal force (N) – the horizontal force we calculated in trusses

in the last chapter
6.1 Types of Internal Forces | 365

• shear force (V) – the vertical force that changes based on the
applied loads
• bending moment (M) – changes based on the applied loads and
applied moments
Normal force is represented by ‘N’. Shear force, the vertical force

is represented with ‘V’. Bending moment is ‘M’. Normal and shear
have units of N or lb and bending moment has units of Nm or ft-lb.
The following table summarizes information on internal forces (and
moments).
Direction
Force/ for a
Abbreviation Unit
Moment horizontal
beam
Normal
N N or lb horizontal
Force
Shear Force V N or lb vertical
Nm or
Moment M rotation
ft-lb
Note that for a vertical column, the normal force would be vertical.
For this reason, the normal force is often called ‘axial’ as in: along
the axis. The shear force for a column would be horizontal and is
sometimes called ‘transverse’.
This is for a 2d analysis of the beam assuming there is negligible
loading in the third dimension.
When a beam or frame is subjected to transverse

loadings, the three possible internal forces that are
developed are the normal or axial force, the shearing
366 | Statics
force, and the bending moment, as shown in section k of
the cantilever of the figure below. To predict the
behavior of structures, the magnitudes of these forces
must be known. In this chapter, the student will learn
how to determine the magnitude of the shearing force
and bending moment at any section of a beam or frame
and how to present the computed values in a graphical
form, which is referred to as the “shearing force” and
the “bending moment diagrams.” Bending moment and
shearing force diagrams aid immeasurably during
design, as they show the maximum bending moments
and shearing forces needed for sizing structural
members.
Normal Force
The normal force at any section of a structure is

defined as the algebraic sum of the axial forces acting
on either side of the section.
Shearing Force
The shearing force (SF) is defined as the algebraic sum

of all the transverse forces acting on either side of the
section of a beam or a frame. The phrase “on either side”
is important, as it implies that at any particular instance
the shearing force can be obtained by summing up the
transverse forces on the left side of the section or on
the right side of the section.
Bending Moment
The bending moment (BM) is defined as the algebraic

sum of all the forces’ moments acting on either side of
the section of a beam or a frame.

Civil_Engineering/
ters/
1.04%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Beams_and_Frames
In 3 dimensions, there are:
368 | Statics
• 1 normal force (N)
• 2 shear forces (V1 & V2), and
• 3 bending moments (M1, M2, & T – torsion).

6-2_internal_forces_equilibrium/
internal_forces_equilibrium.html
6.1.2 Sign Convention
So that there is a standard within the industry, a sign convention is

necessary so we agree on what is positive and what is negative. On

the right for shear – up is positive. Notice that both of the following
figures show the identical sign convention.
Positive sign convention adapted from source: https://eng.libretexts.org/

When you look at the beam as a whole (in the figure below), positive
shear is right side down. When you cut into beam, for it to be in
static equilibrium, the positive shear must then be up on the right
to be equal and opposite of the overall motion.
370 | Statics
Axial (Normal) Force
An axial force is regarded as positive if it tends to tier

the member at the section under consideration. Such a
force is regarded as tensile, while the member is said to
be subjected to axial tension. On the other hand, an
axial force is considered negative if it tends to crush the
member at the section being considered. Such force is
regarded as compressive, while the member is said to be
in axial compression.
Shear Force
A shear force that tends to move the left of the

section upward or the right side of the section
downward will be regarded as positive. Similarly, a shear
force that has the tendency to move the left side of the
section downward or the right side upward will be
considered a negative shear force.
Bending Moment
A bending moment is considered positive if it tends to

cause concavity upward (sagging). If the bending

moment tends to cause concavity downward (hogging),
it will be considered a negative bending moment.

Civil_Engineering/
ters/
6.1.3 Calculating the Internal Forces
To solve the internal forces at a certain point along the beam,
1. Find the external &

reaction forces
2. Make a cut.
3. In a FBD of one side of the Positive sign convention adapted from
cut, add the internal forces https://eng.libretexts.org/
(and moments) using the Book%3A_Structural_Analysis_(Udoe
positive sign convention. yo)/01%3A_Chapters/
1.04%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Beams
4. Use the equilibrium _and_Frames
equations to solve for the
unknown internal forces and moments.
Example: For the following distributed load, a) what are reaction
372 | Statics
forces? b) what are the internal forces at the midpoint b) between
reaction forces?
Adapted from: Source: Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore, et al.

6-3_axial_torque_diagrams/axial_torque_diagrams.html
1. Solve external forces:
Adapted from: Source: Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore, et al.

6-3_axial_torque_diagrams/axial_torque_diagrams.html
[latex]\sum F_{X}=A_{x}=0[/latex]
[latex]\sum F_{y}=A_{y}+C-\omega L=0[/latex]
[latex]\sum M_{A}=-(\omega L)\left(\frac{L}{2}\right)+d_{A B}
C=0[/latex]

$$C = \left(\frac{\omega L^2}{2d_{A B}}\right) = \frac{(100
\frac{lb}{ft} )*(7ft)^2}{2 * (4ft)} = 612.5 lb \text{ (+j direction)} $$
$$A_y = \omega*L- C = (100 \frac{lb}{ft})*(7 ft) – 612.5 lb = 87.5 lb
\text{ (+j direction) }$$
$$\underline{A_x = 0 \qquad A_y = 87.5 \text{ (+j )} \qquad C =
612.5 lb \text{ (+j )} }$$
2. Make a cut at B.
3. In a FBD of one side of the cut, add the internal forces (and
moments) using the positive sign convention.
4. Use the equilibrium equations to solve for the unknown internal

forces and moments.
For just this portion, the force from intensity is: Fw = ( 100 lb/ft
) * ( 2 ft) = 200 lb and acts 1 ft from the left, so the moment due to
intensity is: Mw = w * 2 ft * 1 ft = Fw * 1 ft = ( 100 lb/ft ) * ( 2 ft) * (1
ft) = 200 ft-lb
$$\sum F_y = 87.5 lb – 200 lb – V = 0 \\ V = -112.5 lb \text{ (-
indicates going up not down)} $$
374 | Statics
$$ \sum M_A = – (w * 2 ft) * (1 ft) – V * (2 ft) + M = 0 \\ M = (100
\frac{lb}{ft}) * 2 ft^2 + (-112.5 lb) * (2 ft) \\ M = 200 ft \cdot lb –
225 ft \cdot lb \\ M = -25 ft \cdot lb \text{ (- indicates going
reverse direction)} $$
$$\underline{N = 0 \qquad V = -112.5 lb \text{ (+j )} \qquad M =

-25 ft \cdot lb \text{ (clockwise)} }$$
Key Takeaways
Basically: The internal forces (and moments) for a 2d

beam are: shear, normal, and bending moment. There is a
positive sign convention to use when making a cut along a
beam to determine the forces inside: on the left: shear
down, normal out, moment up.
Application: A bridge that has different loads applied

(from cars, trucks, lampposts, etc). Use this method to
calculate the internal loads at a particular point of interest.
Looking Ahead: In the next section, we’ll look at how to

calculate the internal force across the whole beam, and
display the results graphically.

6.2 Shear/Moment Diagrams
6.2.1 What are Shear/Moment Diagrams?
Shear/Moment diagrams are graphical representations of the

internal shear force and bending moment along the whole beam.
Source (image): By XFEM Skier – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29178249
376 | 6.2 Shear/Moment Diagrams

Shearing Force Diagram
This is a graphical representation of the variation of

the shearing force on a portion or the entire length of a
beam or frame. As a convention, the shearing force
diagram can be drawn above or below the x-centroidal
axis of the structure, but it must be indicated if it is a
positive or negative shear force.
Bending Moment Diagram
This is a graphical representation of the variation of

the bending moment on a segment or the entire length
of a beam or frame. As a convention, the positive
bending moments are drawn above the x-centroidal axis
of the structure, while the negative bending moments
are drawn below the axis.
Below is a simple example of what shear and moment

diagrams look like, afterwards, the relation between the
load on the beam and the diagrams will be discussed.

LibreTexts. https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Civil_Engineering/
ters/
6.2 Shear/Moment Diagrams | 377

6.2.2 Distributed Loads & Shear/Moment
Diagrams
There is a relationship between distributed loads and shear/

moment diagrams. Simply put:
[latex]\frac{dM}{dx}=V(x)[/latex]
[latex]\frac{dV}{dx}=-w(x)[/latex]
[latex]\frac{d^2M}{dx^2}=-w(x)[/latex]
Or:
[latex]\Delta M=\int V(x)dx[/latex]
[latex]\Delta V=\int w(x)dx[/latex]
So, if there is a constant distributed load, then the slope of shear
will be linear and the slope of the moment will be parabolic. If
distributed load is 0, then the shear will be constant and the slope
of the moment will be linear (as shown in example 1 in the next
section).
For the derivation of the relations among w, V, and M,

consider a simply supported beam subjected to a
uniformly distributed load throughout its length, as
shown in the figure below. Let the shear force and
bending moment at a section located at a distance
of x from the left support be V and M, respectively, and
378 | Statics
at a section x + dx be V + dV and M + dM, respectively.
The total load acting through the center of the
infinitesimal length is wdx.
To compute the bending moment at section x + dx,

use the following:
[latex]M_{x+dx}=M+Vdx-wdx \cdot dx/2\\ \qquad

\quad=M+Vdx \text{ (neglecting the small second order
term wdx^2/2)}[/latex]
[latex]M+dM=M+Vdx[/latex]
or
[latex]\frac{dM}{dx}=V(x)[/latex] (Equation 6.1)
Equation 6.1 implies that the first derivative of the

bending moment with respect to the distance is equal to
the shearing force. The equation also suggests that the
slope of the moment diagram at a particular point is
equal to the shear force at that same point. Equation
6.1 suggests the following expression:
[latex]\Delta M=\int V(x)dx[/latex] (Equation 6.2)
Equation 6.2 states that the change in moment equals

the area under the shear diagram. Similarly, the shearing
force at section x + dx is as follows:

[latex]V_{x+dx}=V-wdx\\V+dV=V-wdx[/latex]
or
[latex]\frac{dV}{dx}=-w(x)[/latex] (Equation 6.3)
Equation 6.3 implies that the first derivative of the

shearing force with respect to the distance is equal to
the intensity of the distributed load. Equation
6.3 suggests the following expression:
[latex]\Delta V=\int w(x)dx[/latex] (Equation 6.4)
Equation 6.4 states that the change in the shear force

is equal to the area under the load diagram. Equation
6.1 and 6.3 suggest the following:
[latex]\frac{d^2M}{dx^2}=-w(x)[/latex] (Equation
6.5)
Equation 6.5 implies that the second derivative of the

bending moment with respect to the distance is equal to
the intensity of the distributed load.

LibreTexts. https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Civil_Engineering/
ters/
380 | Statics
6.2.3 Producing a Shear/Moment Diagram
There are many methods you can use to solve a shear/moment

diagram. First, you can find the equation for each portion and
integrate using the above equations.
Second, you could use the method shown in the previous section
to calculate the internal forces at important points (where loads are
applied, the start and end of distributed loads, at reaction points).
Plot these points on the V and M plots at the x locations, then
connect the dots using the appropriate shape slope (more on this at
the bottom of this page).
Third, you can find the equations by using the equilibrium
equations (so there’s no integration/differentiation).
1. Draw a FBD of the

structure
2. Calculate the reactions using
the equilibrium equations
(may not need to do this if
Adapted from original source
choosing a cantilever beam
https://eng.libretexts.org/
and using the free side for Bookshelves/Civil_Engineering/
the FBD). Book%3A_Structural_Analysis_(Ud
oeyo)/01%3A_Chapters/
3. Make a cut and add internal 1.04%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Bea
forces N V and M using the ms_and_Frames
positive sign convention.

Depending on the number of loads, you may need multiple
cuts. Recall the positive convention:
4. For shear, find an equation (expression) of the shear that is x
distance from the origin (often the reaction) for each cut.
5. For moment, find an equation (expression) of the shear that is x
6. Plot these equations on a plot on top of each other.

The rest of this section will use this method.
Example 1
(adapted from https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/

Civil_Engineering/
1.04%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Beams_and_Frames)
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
cantilever beam supporting a concentrated load of 5 lb at the free
end 3 ft from the wall.
1. Draw a FBD of the structure
2. Calculate the reactions using the equilibrium equations (may not

need to do this if choosing a cantilever beam and using the free side
for the FBD).
First, compute the reactions at the support. Since the support
382 | Statics
at B is fixed, there will be three reactions at that support, namely
By, Bx, and MB. Applying the conditions of equilibrium suggests the
following:
[latex]\sum F_{x}=0: \quad \underline{B_{x}=0}[/latex]
[latex]\sum F_{y}=0: \quad-5 lb+B_{y}=0[/latex]
[latex]\qquad \quad \underline{B_{y}=5 lb}[/latex]
[latex]\sum M_{B}=0: \quad(5 lb )(3 \mathrm{ft})-M=0[/latex]
[latex]\qquad \quad \underline{M=15 ft \cdot lb}[/latex]

3. Make a cut and add internal forces N V and M using the positive
sign convention. Depending on the number of loads, you may need
multiple cuts
Only 1 cut needed because only 1 load is added at the end. (If it
were in the middle there would be 2 sections to consider). The value
x could be 0 to 3 ft.
4. For shear, find an equation (expression) of the shear that is x

x is the distance from the free end of the cantilever beam to the
cut. The shearing force at that section is due to the applied load.
Using the equilibrium equations,
[latex]\sum F_y = -5 lb - V = 0 \\ \qquad \quad \underline{V =
- 5 lb} \text{ (- indicates V acts in opposite direction)}[/latex]
The constant number for shear means that it doesn’t change or

vary by x. (If there were a distributed load, x would be part of the
equation).
The negative sign indicates the shear actually goes the opposite
direction. (This is due to the fact that the sign convention for a
shearing force states that a downward transverse force on the left of
the section under consideration will cause a negative shearing force
on that section.)
5. For the moment, find an equation (expression) of the shear that is

x distance from the origin (often the reaction) for each cut.
Here, x is measured from the left. Using sum of the moments
equations, find an expression for M. You could choose to sum the
moments about the end point where the load is applied, or you
could do it at the moving point x. Both take the same effort for this
problem, so let’s choose the left hand side where the 5 lb are being
applied.
[latex]\sum M_L = -Vx - M = 0[/latex]
[latex]\qquad \quad M = + Vx = (-5 lb) * x[/latex]
[latex]\qquad \quad \underline{M = -(5lb)x } \text{ (the negative
sign indicates the arrow goes the other direction.}[/latex]
384 | Statics
The obtained expression is valid for the entire beam (the region
0 < x < 3 ft). The negative sign indicates a negative moment, which
was established from the sign convention for the moment, so the
moment actually goes in the opposite direction. The moment due
to the 5 lb force tends to cause the segment of the beam on the
left side of the section to exhibit a downward concavity, and that
corresponds to a negative bending moment, according to the sign
convention for bending moment.
6. Plot these equations on a plot on top of each other.

Note that because the shearing force is a constant, it must be of
the same magnitude at any point along the beam. As a convention,
the shearing force diagram is plotted above or below a line
corresponding to the neutral axis of the beam, but a plus sign must
be indicated if it is a positive shearing force, and a minus sign should
be indicated if it is a negative shearing force. A way to check the
answer is to ensure the reaction force brings the problem back to
0. The shear is -5 until the last moment when the reaction force of
+5lb brings the force to 0.
Since the function for the bending moment is linear, the bending
moment diagram is a straight line. Thus, it is enough to use the two
principal values of bending moments determined at x = 0 ft and
at x = 3 ft to plot the bending moment diagram. As a convention,
negative bending moment diagrams are plotted below the neutral
axis of the beam, while positive bending moment diagrams are
plotted above the axis of the beam.

Notice the units are included in the axes.
Here is a second explanation for how to create shear/moment

diagrams:
Shear Diagram
To create the shear force diagram, we will use the

following process.
1. Solve for all external forces acting on the body.

2. Draw out a free body diagram of the body
horizontally. Leave all distributed forces as
386 | Statics
distributed forces and do not replace them with
the equivalent point load.
3. Lined up below the free body diagram, draw a
set of axes. The x-axis will represent the location
(lined up with the free body diagram above), and
the y-axis will represent the internal shear force.
4. Starting at zero at the right side of the plot, you
will move to the right, pay attention to forces in
the free body diagram above. As you move right in
your plot, keep steady except…
◦ Jump upwards by the magnitude of the

force for any point forces going up.
◦ Jump downwards by the magnitude of the
force for any point forces going down.
◦ For any uniform distributed forces you
will have a linear slope where the
magnitude of the distributed force is the
slope of the line (positive slopes for upwards
distributed forces, negative slopes for
downwards distributed forces).
◦ For non-uniform distributed forces, the
shape of the shear diagram plot will be the
integral of the force function.
◦ You can ignore any moments or horizontal
forces applied to the body.
By the time you get to the left end of the plot,

you should always wind up coming back to zero. If
you don’t wind up back at zero, go back and check
your previous work.

To read the plot, you
simply need to find the location of interest from the free
body diagram above, and read the corresponding value
on the y-axis from your plot. Positive numbers
represent an upwards internal shearing force to the
right of the cross section and a downwards force on the
left, and negative numbers indicate a downwards
internal shearing force to the right of the cross section
388 | Statics
and a upwards force on the left. A visual of these forces
can be seen in the diagram to the right.
Moment Diagram
The moment diagram will plot out the internal

bending moment within a horizontal beam that is
subjected to multiple forces and moments
perpendicular to the length of the beam. For practical
purposes, this diagram is often used in the same
circumstances as the shear diagram, and generally both
diagrams will be created for analysis in these scenarios.
To create the moment diagram for a shaft, we will use

the following process.
1. Solve for all external forces and moments,

create a free body diagram, and create the shear
diagram.
2. Lined up below the shear diagram, draw a set of
axes. The x-axis will represent the location (lined
up with the shear diagram and free body diagram
above), and the y-axis will represent the internal
bending moment.
3. Starting at zero at the right side of the plot, you
will move to the right, pay attention to shear
diagram and the moments in the free body
diagram above. As you move right in your plot, the
moment diagram will primarily be the integral of
the shear diagram, except…
◦ Jump upwards by the magnitude of the

moment for any negative (clockwise)

moments.
◦ Jump downwards by the magnitude of the
moment for any positive (counter-
clockwise) moments.
◦ You can ignore any forces in the free body
diagram.
By the time you get to the left end of the plot,

you should always wind up coming back to zero. If
you don’t wind up back at zero, go back and check
your previous work.
390 | Statics
To read the plot, you
simply need to take the find the location of interest
from the free body diagram above, and read the
corresponding value on the y-axis from your plot.
Positive internal moments would cause the beam to bow
downwards (think a smile shape) negative internal
moments will cause the beam to bow upwards (think a
frown shape). You can also see the positive and negative
internal moments in the figure to the right.

6_internal_forces/6-4_shear_moment_diagrams/
shear_moment_diagrams.html

Example 2
Draw the shearing force and bending moment

diagrams for the cantilever beam subjected to a
uniformly distributed load in its entire length, as shown
in Figure 4.5a.
Answer:
Support reactions.
First, compute the reactions at the support. Since the

support at B is fixed, there will possibly be three
392 | Statics
reactions at that support, namely By, Bx, and MB, as
shown in the free-body diagram in Figure 4.4b. Applying
the conditions of equilibrium suggests the following:
Shear Force Function
Let x be the distance of an arbitrary section from the

free end of the cantilever beam, as shown in Figure 4.5b.
The shearing force of all the forces acting on the
segment of the beam to the left of the section, as shown
in Figure 4.5e, is determined as follows:
The obtained expression is valid for the entire beam.

The negative sign indicates a negative shearing force,
which was established from the sign convention for a
shearing force. The expression also shows that the

shearing force varies linearly with the length of the
beam.
Shearing force diagram. Note that because the

expression for the shearing force is linear, its diagram
will consist of straight lines. The shearing force at x = 0
m and x = 5 m were determined and used for plotting
the shearing force diagram, as shown in Figure 4.5c. As
shown in the diagram, the shearing force varies from
zero at the free end of the beam to 100 kN at the fixed
end. The computed vertical reaction of By at the support
can be regarded as a check for the accuracy of the
analysis and diagram.
Bending Moment Function
The expression for the bending moment at a section

of a distance x from the free end of the cantilever beam
is as follows:
The negative sign indicates a negative moment, which

was established from the sign convention for moment.
As seen in Figure 4.5f, the moment due to the
distributed load tends to cause the segment of the beam
on the left side of the section to exhibit an upward
concavity, and that corresponds to a negative bending
moment, according to the sign convention for bending
moment.
Bending moment diagram. Since the function for the
394 | Statics
bending moment is parabolic, the bending moment
diagram is a curve. In addition to the two principal
values of bending moment at x = 0 m and at x = 5 m, the
moments at other intermediate points should be
determined to correctly draw the bending moment
diagram. The bending moment diagram of the beam is
shown in Figure 4.5d.

Civil_Engineering/
ters/
The following examples show the shear and moment diagrams

for each beam. For details on how to solve each, go
to: https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Civil_Engineering/
Example 3

Example 4
396 | Statics
Example 5

Example 6
398 | Statics
Civil_Engineering/
ters/

6.2.4 Tips & Plot Shapes
Though there are exceptions, these rules are generally true:
• +V means increasing M
• -V means decreasing M
• When V = 0, that’s max or min M
400 | Statics
How does each plot start/end? Reactions only if no applied load/
moment at ends:
• Cantilever:
◦ At start/reaction: Nonzero V and M

◦ At end/unsupported end: 0 for both
• Simply supported
◦ For V: Start and end with reaction forces

◦ For M: Start and end at zero
• Where are the ‘jumps’ or inflection point where lines change?
◦ In V, forces ‘jump’ up or down where applied forces are,

matching the direction they are applied (also reactions)

◦ In M, moments jump up or down where applied moments
are, matching the direction
• Relationship between graphs
◦ When there is in increasing slope in M, then Shear should

be positive
◦ When there is a decreasing slope in M, then Shear should
be negative
◦ When V is positive, M should be increasing
◦ When V is negative, M should be decreasing
◦ When intensity is positive, V should be increasing
◦ When intensity is negative, V should be decreasing
◦ Inflection points in the M plot (where the slope of the line
changes from negative to positive & max/min values)
should be 0 in the V plot
◦ A zero value in the V plot should produce a max or min
value in the M plot
The following figure shows the relationship between the derivatives.

Remember that the derivative of x2 (quadratic) = x (linear). The
derivative of x (linear) is a constant number. The derivative of a
constant number is 0. The derivative of moment is shear, so if you
have the shape of the moment, use this figure to approximate the
shape of shear by going down the plots.
The reverse is true when going from shear to moment. The
integral of shear is moment. The integral of 0 is a constant number.
The integral of a constant number is linear. The integral of linear
is quadratic. (The integral of quadratic is cubic). This progression
moves up the plots from the bottom to the top.
402 | Statics
There are a few online programs that can help confirm the shape
that you found or help you learn how to translate loads into shear
and moment diagrams. These are not acceptable to use on the
exam or in homework and have limited free versions. This is not an
endorsement of any of the sites, just showing learning tools.

• https://skyciv.com/free-beam-calculator/
• https://clearcalcs.com/freetools/beam-analysis/au
• https://beamguru.com/beam/
Key Takeaways
Basically: Shear / Moment diagrams graphically display

the internal loads along a beam.
Application: This can help you identify the major stress

points to provide a safer design.
Looking Ahead: You will use this more in your structures

class.
404 | Statics
6.3 Examples
Example 6.3.1: Internal Forces – Submitted

by Emma Christensen
1. Problem
The setup that holds the solar panels at the

UPEI FSDE is modeled below. Considering
beam S (1.9 m length), find the internal forces
at point C. Assume the intensity of the solar
panel on the beam is 200 N/m.
Sketch:
6.3 Examples | 405

Model:
2. Draw
406 | Statics
Free-body diagram:
Knowns
• w = 220 N/m
• OA = 0.5 m
• AC = 0.2 m
• AB = 0.4 m
• L = 1.9 m
Unknowns: Nc, Vc, Mc
4. Approach
Use equilibrium equations. First solve for reaction

forces, then make a cut at C and solve for the internal
forces.
5. Analysis
$$w=\frac{F}{L}\\F=wL\\F_R=220N/m\cdot
1.9m\\F_R=418N\\\sum F_X=0=B_X$$
6.3 Examples | 407

Find reaction forces:
$$\sum M_A=0=B_y(0.4m)-
F_R(0.55m)\\(0.4m)B_y=418N(0.55m)\\B_y=\frac{229.
9 N\cdot m}{0.4m}\\B_y=574.75N$$
$$\sum F_y=0=-F_R+A_y+B_y\\A_y=F_R-
B_y\\A_y=418N-574.74N\\A_y=-156.75N$$
The answer we got for Ay is negative, which means

that the arrow should be drawn in the other direction.
We will change it for our next sketch.
Make a cut at C:
Now solve for the internal forces:
$$\sum F_x=0\:\:;\:\:N_c=0\\\sum F_y=0=-A_y-

V_c-(w\cdot L)\\V_c=-156.75N-(220N/m\
cdot0.95m)\\V_c=-346.75 N\\\sum
M_c=A_y(0.2m)+M_c+(F_{Rc}\cdot
408 | Statics
0.475m)\\M_c=-156.75 N (0.2m)-(220N/m\cdot 0.95m\
cdot 0.475m)\\M_c=-130.625N\cdot m$$
Final FBD, showing the arrows in the correct

directions:
6. Review
It makes sense that Ay and By are in different

directions, because the resultant force Fr of the solar
panel on the beam is not between A and B. It also makes
sense that the moment at C is in the clockwise direction
rather than the counterclockwise directions, when you
think about the direction of the forces applied to the
beam.
Example 6.3.2: Shear/Moment Diagrams –

6.3 Examples | 409
Submitted by Deanna Malone
1. Problem
A beam that is simply supported has two

point loads acting on it. One acts 2 m from
point A and the other acts at 2.5 m from C.
Point B is in the middle of the beam. The first
point load is 500 N and the second is 300 N.
What are the internal forces at point B? Solve
for reaction forces and include a shear/
moment diagram.
410 | Statics
2. Draw
Sketch:
Free-body diagram:
Knowns:
6.3 Examples | 411

• F1 = 500 N
• F2 = 300 N
Unknowns: Ay, Ax, Cy, VB, MB, NB
4. Approach
Shear/moment equations, EOM equations
5. Analysis
Solve for reaction forces:
(Ax, Cy)
\begin{aligned}
\sum F_{x}=0=A_{x}=0 \\
\sum M_{A}=0 &=-F_{1} \cdot 2 m-F_{2} \cdot 5.5
m+C_{y} \cdot 8 m \\
C_{y}=&+F_{1} \cdot 2 m+F_{2} \cdot 5.5 m \\
C_{y} &=\frac{500 N \cdot 2 m+300 N \cdot 5.5 m}{8
m} \\
C_{y} &=331.25 \mathrm{~N}
\end{aligned}
(Ay)
\begin{aligned}
\sum F_{y}=0 &=A_{y}+C_{y}-F_{1}-F_{2} \\
A_{y} &=F_{1}+F_{2}-C_{y} \\
A_{y} &=500 \mathrm{~N}+300 \mathrm{~N} – 331.25
\mathrm{~N} \\
A_{y} &=468.75 \mathrm{~N}
\end{aligned}
Cut 1: at B
412 | Statics
\begin{aligned}
\sum F_{X}=0=A_{X} &+N_{B}=0 \\
& N_{B}=0 \\
\sum F_{y}=0 &=A_{y}-V_{B}-F_{1} \\
V_{B} &=A_{y}-F_{1} \\
V_{B} &=468.75 N – 500 N \\
V_{B}=-31.25 N
\end{aligned}
\begin{aligned}
\sum M_{B}=& 0=-A_{y}(4 m)+F_{1}(2 m)+M_{B} \\
& M_{B}=A_{y}(4 m)-F_{1}(2 m) \\
& M_{B}=468.75 N(4 m)-500 N(2 m) \\
M_{B} &=875 \mathrm{~N} \cdot \mathrm{m}
\end{aligned}
Cut 2: At the point where F1 is applied
6.3 Examples | 413

\begin{aligned}
\sum M_{1}=0 &=-A_{y}(2 m)+M_{1}=0 \\
M_{1} &=A_{y}(2 m) \\
M_{1} &=468.75 N(2 m) \\
M_{1} &=937.5 \mathrm{~N} \cdot m
\end{aligned}
Cut 3: At the point where F2 is applied
\begin{aligned}
\sum M_{2}=0 =-A_{y}(5.5 \mathrm{~m})+F_{1}(3.5
\mathrm{~m})+M_{2} \\
M_{2} &=A_{y}(5.5 \mathrm{~m})-F_{1}(3.5
\mathrm{~m}) \\
M_{2} &=468.75 \mathrm{~N}(5.5 \mathrm{~m})-500
\mathrm{~N}(3.5 \mathrm{~m}) \\
M_{2} &=828.125 \mathrm{~N} \cdot \mathrm{m}
\end{aligned}
414 | Statics
Answer: NB = 0, VB = -31.25 N, MB = 875 Nm
6. Review
The reaction forces make sense as they offset the

applied forces. The shear/moment diagrams returned to
zero so they are correct too. The moment found at B is
in the moment diagram, it is smaller than the maximum.
6.3 Examples | 415

CHAPTER 7: INERTIA
This chapter is a major preparation for objects that rotate during
dynamics class. We will cover cg, inertia, composite shapes, and
rotating about axes other than the centre of mass (cm) using the
parallel axis theorem. Here are the sections in this Chapter:
• 7.1 Center of Mass: Single Objects – How to find the cm of a

single object
• 7.2 Center of Mass: Composite Shapes – Finding the cm for
multiple objects or complex objects
• 7.3 Types of Inertia – Wait – there’s more than one type of
inertia!
• 7.4 Mass Moment of Inertia – How to calculate the mass
moment of inertia for rotational motion for single objects
• 7.5 Inertia Intro: Parallel Axis Theorem – Calculating the inertia
for single objects rotating about a different axis or for
composite problem
Chapter 7: Inertia | 417

7.1 Center of Mass: Single
Objects
To start, let’s calculate the center of mass! This is a weighted
function, similar to when we found the location of the resultant
force from multiple distributed loads and forces.
[latex]\bar{x}=\frac{m_1*x_1}{m_1+m_2}+\frac{m_2*x_2}{m_1
+m_2}[/latex]
When the density is the same throughout a shape, the center of
mass is also the centroid (geometric center).
7.1.1 Center of Mass of Two Particles
Consider two particles, having one and the same mass

m, each of which is at a different position on the x axis
of a Cartesian coordinate system.
Common sense tells you that the average position of
7.1 Center of Mass: Single

Objects | 419
the material making up the two particles is midway
between the two particles. Common sense is right. We
give the name “center of mass” to the average position
of the material making up a distribution, and the center
of mass of a pair of same-mass particles is indeed
midway between the two particles. How about if one of
the particles is more massive than the other? One would
expect the center of mass to be closer to the more
massive particle, and again, one would be right. To
determine the position of the center of mass of the
distribution of matter in such a case, we compute a
weighted sum of the positions of the particles in the
distribution, where the weighting factor for a given
particle is that fraction, of the total mass, that the
particle’s own mass is. Thus, for two particles on the x
axis, one of mass m1, at x1, and the other of mass m2, at
x 2,
the position x of the center of mass is given by

equation 8-1:
[latex]\bar{x}=\frac{m_1*x_1}{m_1+m_2}+\frac{m_2
*x_2}{m_1+m_2}[/latex]
Note that each weighting factor is a proper fraction
420 | Statics
and that the sum of the weighting factors is always 1.
Also note that if, for instance, m1 is greater than m2,
then the position x1 of particle 1 will count more in the
sum, thus ensuring that the center of mass is found to
be closer to the more massive particle (as we know it
must be). Further note that if m1 = m2, each weighting
factor is 1/2, as is evident when we substitute m for
both m1 and m2 in equation 8-1:
$$\bar{x}=\frac{m}{m+m}x_1+\frac{m}{m+m}x_2\\\
bar{x}=\frac{1}{2}x_1+\frac{1}{2}x_2\\\bar{x}=\frac{x_
1+x_2}{2}$$
The center of mass is found to be midway between

the two particles, right where common sense tells us it
has to be.

p142, https://openlibrary.ecampusontario.ca/
catalogue/
Below is a more visual representation of where the COM would be

for two different weighing particles.
7.1 Center of Mass: Single Objects | 421

Source (image): Two_body_jacobi.svg: CWitte, from JPG by
Brews oharederivative work: WillowW via Wikimedia
Commons https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Jacobi_coordinates.svg
A second explanation:
The most common real-life example of a system like

this is a playground seesaw, or teeter-totter, with
children of different weights sitting at different
distances from the center. On a seesaw, if one child sits
at each end, the heavier child sinks down and the lighter
child is lifted into the air. If the heavier child slides in
toward the center, though, the seesaw balances.
Applying this concept to the masses on the rod, we note
that the masses balance each other if and only if m1d1 =
m2 d 2 .
422 | Statics
This idea is not limited just to two point masses. In
general, if n" role="presentation">𝑛 masses,
m1,m2,…,mn," role="presentation">𝑚1, 𝑚2,…,𝑚𝑛, are
placed on a number line at points x1,x2,…,xn,"
role="presentation">𝑥1,𝑥2,…,𝑥𝑛, respectively, then the
center of mass of the system is given by:
$$ \bar x=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n m_i

x_i}{\sum_{i=1}^nm_i}$$
Example 1:
Suppose four point masses are placed on a number line

as follows:
• m1=30kg," role="presentation">𝑚1=30𝑘𝑔, placed

at x1=−2m" role="presentation">𝑥1=−2𝑚
• m2=5kg," role="presentation">𝑚2=5𝑘𝑔, placed at
x2=3m" role="presentation">𝑥2=3𝑚
• m3=10kg," role="presentation">𝑚3=10𝑘𝑔,placed
at x3=6m" role="presentation">𝑥3=6𝑚
• m4=15kg," role="presentation">𝑚4=15𝑘𝑔,placed
at x4=−3m." role="presentation">𝑥4=−3𝑚.
Solution
Find the moment of the system with respect to the

origin and find the center of mass of the system.
First, we need to calculate the moment of the system

(the top part of the fraction):

[latex]M =\sum_{i=1}^4 m_i *x_i \\\qquad \quad =
(30kg)*(-2m) + (5kg)*(3m)+(10kg)*(6m)+(15kg)*(-3m)
\\\qquad\quad = (-60+15+60-45)kg*m \\\qquad\
quad = -30 kg*m[/latex]
Now, to find the center of mass, we need the total

mass of the system:
$$ m = \sum_{i=1}^4 m_i = (30+5+10+15) kg = 60kg $$
Then we have [latex]\bar{x} = \frac{M}{m} = \frac{-30

kg*m}{60kg} = -0.5 m[/latex]
The center of mass is located 1/2 m to the left of the

origin.
Source: “Moments and Centers of Mass” by

LibreTexts, https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/67237
7.1.2 Center of Mass in 2D & 3D
When we are looking at multiple objects in 2D or 3D, we perform the

center of mass equation multiple times in the x, y, and z directions.
$$ \bar x=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n m_i x_i}{\sum_{i=1}^nm_i}
\qquad \bar y=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n m_i y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^nm_i}
\qquad \bar z=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n m_i z_i}{\sum_{i=1}^nm_i}$$
424 | Statics
In some sense, one can think about the center of mass
of a single object as its “average position.” Let’s consider
the simplest case of an “object” consisting of two tiny
particles separated along the x-axis, as seen below:
If the two particles have equal mass, then it’s pretty

clear that the “average position” of the two-particle
system is halfway between them. If the masses of the
two particles are different, would the “average position”
still be halfway between them? Perhaps in some sense
this is true, but we are not looking for a geometric
center, we are looking for the average placement of
mass. If m1 has twice the mass of m2, then when it
comes to the average placement of mass, m1 gets “two
votes.” With more of the mass concentrated at the
position x1 than at x2, the center of mass should be
closer to x1 than x2. We achieve the perfect balance by
“weighting” the positions by the fraction of the total
mass that is located there. Accordingly, we define as the
center of mass:
$$\bar
x_{cm}=(\frac{m_1}{m_1+m_2})x_1+(\frac{m_2}{m_1+
m_2})x_2=\frac{m_1x_1+m_2x_2}{M_{system}}$$
If there are more than two particles, we simply add all

of them into the sum in the numerator. To extend this
definition of center of mass into three dimensions, we
simply need to do the same things in the y and

z directions. A position vector for the center of mass of
a system of many particles would then be:
$$\vec{r}_{cm}=\bar x_{cm}\underline{\hat{i}}+\bar
y_{cm}\underline{\hat{ j}}+ \bar
z_{cm}\underline{\hat{k}}\\=\frac{[m_1 x_1+m_2
x_2+…]}{M}\underline{\hat{i}}+\frac{[m_1y_1+m_2y_2
+…]}{M}\underline{\hat{ j}}+\frac{[m_1 z_1+m_2
z_2+…]}{M}\underline{\hat{k}}\\=\frac{m_1[x_1\
underline{\hat{i}}+y_1\underline{\hat{ j}}+z_1\
underline{\hat{k}}]+m_2[x_2\underline{\hat{i}}+y_2\
underline{\hat{ j}}+z_2\
underline{\hat{k}}]+…}{M}\\=\frac{m_1\vec r_1+m_2\
vec r_2+…}{M}$$
Source: ” Center of Mass” by Tom Weideman,

https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/
University_of_California_Davis/
UCD%3A_Physics_9A__Classical_Mechanics/
4%3A_Linear_Momentum/4.2%3A_Center_of_Mass
Example 2:
Suppose three point masses are placed in the x-y plane

as follows (assume coordinates are given in meters):
• m1 = 2 kg placed at (-1, 3)m,
426 | Statics
• m2 = 6 kg placed at (1, 1)m, and
• m3 = 4 kg placed at (2, -2)m.
Find the center of mass of the system.
Solution
First we calculate the total mass of the system:
$$ m = \sum_{i=1}^3 m_i = (2 + 6 + 4) kg = 12 kg $$
Next we find the moments with respect to the x- and

y- axes:
[latex]M_x =\sum_{i=1}^3 m_i *x_i \\\qquad

\quad = (2kg)*(-1m) + (6kg)*(1m)+(4kg)*(2m) \\\qquad\
quad = (-2+6+8)kg*m \\\qquad\quad = 12 kg*m[/latex]
[latex]M_y =\sum_{i=1}^3 m_i *y_i \\\qquad

\quad = (2kg)*(3m) + (6kg)*(1m)+(4kg)*(-2m) \\\qquad\
quad = (6+6-8)kg*m \\\qquad\quad = 4 kg*m[/latex]
Then we have
[latex]\bar{x} = \frac{M_x}{m} = \frac{12 kgm}{12m} =

1 m[/latex]
[latex]\bar{y} = \frac{M_y}{m} = \frac{4 kgm}{12m} =

0.333 m[/latex]
The center of mass of the system is: (1, 0.333)m.
Source: “Moments and Centers of Mass” by

LibreTexts, https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/67237
7.1.3 The Center of Mass of a Thin Uniform

Rod (Calculus Method)
Quite often, when the finding of the position of the

center of mass of a distribution of particles is called for,
the distribution of particles is the set of particles
making up a rigid body. The easiest rigid body for which
to calculate the center of mass is the thin rod because it
extends in only one dimension. (Here, we discuss an
ideal thin rod. A physical thin rod must have some
nonzero diameter. The ideal thin rod, however, is a good
approximation to the physical thin rod as long as the
diameter of the rod is small compared to its length.)
In the simplest case, the calculation of the position of

the center of mass is trivial. The simplest case involves a
uniform thin rod. A uniform thin rod is one for which
the linear mass density µ, the mass-per-length of the
rod, has one and the same value at all points on the rod.
The center of mass of a uniform rod is at the center of
the rod. So, for instance, the center of mass of a uniform
rod that extends along the x axis from x = 0 to x = L is at
(L/2, 0).
The linear mass density µ, typically called linear

density when the context is clear, is a measure of how
closely packed the elementary particles making up the
rod are. Where the linear density is high, the particles
are close together.
To picture what is meant by a non-uniform rod, a rod

whose linear density is a function of position, imagine a
thin rod made of an alloy consisting of lead and
428 | Statics
aluminum. Further imagine that the percentage of lead
in the rod varies smoothly from 0% at one end of the
rod to 100% at the other. The linear density of such a
rod would be a function of the position along the length
of the rod. A one-millimeter segment of the rod at one
position would have a different mass than that of a one-
millimeter segment of the rod at a different position.
People with some exposure to calculus have an easier

time understanding what linear density is than calculus-
deprived individuals do because linear density is just the
ratio of the amount of mass in a rod segment to the
length of the segment, in the limit as the length of the
segment goes to zero. Consider a rod that extends from
0 to L along the x axis. Now suppose that ms(x) is the
mass of that segment of the rod extending from 0 to x
where x ≥ 0 but x < L. Then, the linear density of the rod
at any point x along the rod, is just dm8/dx evaluated at
the value of x in question.


catalogue/
7.1.4 The Center of Mass of a Non-Uniform

Rod
Now that you have a good idea of what we mean by

linear mass density, we are going to illustrate how one
determines the position of the center of mass of a non-
uniform thin rod by means of an example.
Example 3:
Find the position of the center of mass of a thin rod that

extends from 0 to 0.890 m along the x axis of a Cartesian
coordinate system and has a linear density given by µ =
0.650 kg/m3
In order to be able to determine the position of the

center of mass of a rod with a given length and a given
linear density as a function of position, you first need to
be able to find the mass of such a rod. To do that, one
might be tempted to use a method that works only for
the special case of a uniform rod, namely, to try using m
430 | Statics
= µL with L being the length of the rod. The problem
with this is, that µ varies along the entire length of the
rod. What value would one use for µ ? One might be
tempted to evaluate the given µ at x = L and use that,
but that would be acting as if the linear density were
constant at µ = µ(L). It is not. In fact, in the case at hand,
µ(L) is the maximum linear density of the rod, it only has
that value at one point on the rod.
Instead, using integration, we find the equation:
[latex]m=\frac{bL^3}{3}[/latex]
That can now be used to calculate the mass of a non-

linear rod. The value of L is given as 0.890 m and we
defined b to be the constant 0.650 kg/m3, therefore
$$m=\frac{0.650\
frac{kg}{m^3}(0.890m)^3}{3}\\m=0.1527kg$$
That’s a value that will come in handy when we

calculate the position of the center of mass.
Now, when we calculated the center of mass of a set

of discrete particles (where a discrete particle is one
that is by itself, as opposed, for instance, to being part of
a rigid body) we just carried out a weighted sum in
which each term was the position of a particle times its
weighting factor and the weighting factor was that
fraction, of the total mass, represented by the mass of
the particle. We carry out a similar procedure for a
continuous distribution of mass such as that which
makes up the rod in question.
Once again, using integration, we find the equation:
[latex]\bar{x}=\frac{bL^4}{4m}[/latex]

Now we substitute variables with values; the mass m
of the rod that we found earlier, the constant b that we
defined to simplify the appearance of the linear density
function, and the given length L of the rod:
$$m= \frac{\left( 0.650\frac{kg}{m^3} \right)

(0.890m)^4}{4(0.1527kg)}\\\bar{x}=0.668m$$
This is our final answer for the position of the center

of mass. Note that it is closer to the denser end of the
rod, as we would expect.

catalogue/
Key Takeaways
Basically: When there are multiple objects, the center of

mass is the location in the x, y, and z directions between
the objects.
Application: To calculate the acceleration or use F = ma,

m is the total mass at the center of mass.
432 | Statics
Looking Ahead: The next section will look at how to
calculate the center of mass for a complex object.

7.2 Center of Mass:
Composite Shapes
Instead of integrating to find the center of mass, we can split an
object up into recognizable shapes to determine the center of mass.
This is faster than the integration method, and allows for many
different ways to find the answer.
In this section, the terms ‘centroid’ and ‘center of mass’ are used,
somewhat interchangeably. The centroid is the geometric center.
The center of mass takes into account the density of an object. If the
density is the same throughout an object, then the centroid is the
same as the center of mass. For the rigid beams we will be looking at
in statics, the centroid is at the same location as the center of mass.
7.2.1 Centroid Tables
We use the centroid tables that are listed below to combine the
locations of the centers of mass for each shape. Approximations are
needed as real life objects are rarely perfectly square or circular, but
if they are symmetric, it makes it easier to approximate.
The locations of the center of mass (rcm) are as follows. The
source for the images are from Jacob Moore et al.
http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/centroidtables/
centroids2D/centroids2D.html
434 | 7.2 Center of Mass: Composite

Shapes
Images from Jacob Moore et al.
Shape rcm
centroidtables/centroids2D/
centroids2D.html
[latex]Area = bh[/latex]
Rectangle
[latex]r_{cm} =
\left[\frac{b}{2},
\frac{h}{2}\right][/latex]
[latex]Area =
\frac{1}{2}bh[/latex]
Right
Triangle
[latex]r_{cm} =
\left[\frac{b}{3},
[latex]Area =
\frac{1}{2}bh[/latex]
Triangle
[latex]r_{cm} =
\left[\frac{b}{2},
7.2 Center of Mass: Composite Shapes | 435

[latex]Area = \pi r^2[/latex
Circle
[latex]r_{cm} = \left[0,0\
right][/latex]
[latex]Area = \pi
(r_o^2-r_i^2)
\\r_o=\text{outer
radius}\\r_i=\text{inner
Circular
radius}[/latex]
Annulus
right][/latex]
[latex]Area =
\frac{\pi}{2}r^2[/latex]
Semicircle
[latex]r_{cm} =
\left[0,\frac{4}{3\pi}r\
right][/latex]
436 | Statics
[latex]Area =
\frac{\pi}{4}r^2[/latex]
Quarter
Circle
[latex]r_{cm}=\left[\frac{4
3\pi}r,\frac{4}{3\pi}r\
right][/latex]
[latex]Area = \pi a b[/latex]
Ellipse
right][/latex]

Example 1: A Single Object
To find the cm, select the appropriate shape from the above table.
.
.
.
.
.
438 | Statics
Use the equation to solve for rcm.
This is an appropriate answer as it is less than the midpoint,

where it would be for a square:
[latex]\underline{\vec r}_{cm} = [3.4cm, 3.4cm, 0][/latex].
7.2.2 Composite Shapes
To find the center of mass of an object, you:
1. Define an origin
2. Split the object up into recognizable shapes
3. Find the center of mass (cm) of each shape from the origin
4. Calculate the mass of each part: [latex]\rho =
\frac{m}{V}[/latex] (To find the centroid, this step can be
skipped and only the area or volume is used).
5. Use the weighted cm equations to find the x cm. Repeat for y

and z.
$$ \bar x=\frac{\sum m_i x_i}{\sum m_i} \qquad \bar

y=\frac{\sum m_i y_i}{\sum m_i} \qquad \bar z=\frac{\sum m_i
z_i}{\sum m_i}$$
Start the process by labeling an origin point and axes

on your shape. It will be important to measure all
locations from the same point. Next, we must break our
complex shape down into several simpler shapes. This
may include areas or volumes (which we will count as
positive areas or volumes) or holes (which we will count
as negative areas or volumes). Each of these shapes will
have a centroid (𝐶) or center of mass (𝐺) listed on the
diagram.
440 | Statics
For the shape shown at the top, we can break it down
into a rectangle (1), a right triangle (2), and a circular
hole (3). Each of these simple shapes is something we
have listed in the centroid table to the right.
Once we have identified the different parts, we will

create a table listing the area or volume of each piece,
and the 𝑥 and 𝑦 centroid coordinates (or 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧
coordinates in 3D). It is important to remember that
each coordinate you list should be relative to the same
base origin point that you drew in earlier. You may need
to mentally adjust diagrams in the centroid tables so
that the shape is oriented in the right direction, and
account for the placement of the shape relative to the
axes in your diagram.

For each of the shapes, we need to find the area and the x and y
coordinates of the centroid. Remember to find the centroid
coordinates relative to a single set of axes that is the same for all
shapes.
Once you have the areas and centroid coordinates for

each shape relative to your origin point, you can find
the 𝑥 and 𝑦coordinate of the centroid for the overall
shape with the following formulas. Remember that areas
or volumes for any shape that is a hole or cutout in the
design will be a negative area in your formula.
$$ \bar x=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n m_i

x_i}{\sum_{i=1}^nm_i} \qquad \bar
y=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^n m_i y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^nm_i} $$
442 | Statics
This generalized formula to find the centroid’s 𝑥-
location is simply Area 1 times [latex]\bar x_1[/latex]
plus Area 2 times [latex]\bar x_2[/latex], plus Area 3
times [latex]\bar x_3[/latex], adding up as many shapes
as you have in this fashion and then dividing by the
overall area of your combined shape. The equations are
the same for the 𝑦-location of the overall centroid,
except you will instead be using [latex]\bar y[/latex]-
values in your equations.
For centroids in three dimensions we will simply use

volumes in place of areas, and we will have a 𝑧
coordinate for our centroid as well as the 𝑥 and 𝑦
coordinates.
Source: Jacob Moore et al.

A2_moment_intergrals/method_of_composite_parts/
methodofcompositeparts.html
Example 2 – A Composite Object
For the following C shape, where is the center of mass?

444 | Statics
This example used the density to calculate mass. To find the
centroid, the area could have been used instead of the mass.
However to find the center of mass, the density was used to
calculate the mass of each object individually: [latex]\rho =
\frac{m}{V}[/latex].
Example 3: Using Subtraction instead of Addition
For the following C shape, where is the center of mass? (Use

different shapes than above).

The same answer is reached! This method involved only 2 shapes
instead of 3.
There are more examples at http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/
446 | Statics
websites/A2_moment_intergrals/method_of_composite_parts/
methodofcompositeparts.html with pdfs and video solutions.
Key Takeaways
Basically: When there are complicated shapes, the

center of mass can be found by breaking the shape
up into better known shapes.
Application: To calculate the inertia of an object

rotating about its center of mass, you will need to
know where the center of mass is.
Looking Ahead: The next section will look at types

of inertia.

7.3 Types of Inertia
There are multiple kinds of inertia. In this course, when we talk
about inertia, we usually refer to mass moment of inertia. For this
course, you need to know the names of three types of moment of
inertia (MOI), when to use each, and the units for each.
Area moment of inertia is used in structures to determine how
stiff a beam is, or how much it will deflect. The unit is m4 or ft4.
Source: Sonitron Support https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Piezo_bending_principle.jpg
Product moment of inertia is a shaft’s resistance to torsion (or

twisting). The unit is m4 or ft4.
Source: Orion8 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Twisted_bar.png
448 | 7.3 Types of Inertia

Mass moment of inertia is the rotational equivalent to mass. A
really heavy object is hard to move, hence it resists motion. An
object with a really big inertia is hard to rotate, hence it resists
rotation. An inertia is a quantity of how mass is distributed around a
body, such as an ice skater spinning with their arms in or spread out.
The unit is kgm2 or slugft2. We will talk more about mass moment of
inertia in the next sections.
Source: Sandro Halank

https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/
File:2020-01-11_Women%27s_Single_
Figure_Skating_Short_Program_(202
Source: K. “bird” 0_Winter_Youth_Olympics)_by_San
https://commons.wikimedia.o dro_Halank%E2%80%93668.jpg
rg/wiki/
File:Elena_Sokolova_04_NH Here is a table summarizing the three
K_2.jpg
types of inertia:
7.3 Types of Inertia | 449

A moment integral, as the name implies, is the
general concept using integration to determine the net
moment of a force that is spread over an area or volume.
Because moments are generally a force times a distance,
and because distributed forces are spread out over a
range of distances, we will need to use calculus to to
determine the net moment exerted by a distributed
force.
$$ \int M = \int f (d) * d $$
Beyond the most literal definition of a moment

integral, the term ‘moment integral’ is also general
applied the process of integrating distributed areas or
masses that will be resiting some moment about a set
axis.
Some of the applications of moment integrals include:
1. Finding point loads that are equivalent to

distributed loads (the equivalent point load)
2. Finding the centroid (geometric center) or
center of mass for 2D and 3D shapes.
3. Finding the area moment of inertia for a beam
cross section, which will be one factor in that
beam’s resistance to bending.
4. Finding the polar area moment of inertia for a
shaft cross section, which will be one factor in
that shaft’s resistance to torsion.
5. Finding the mass moment of inertia, indicating
a body’s resistance to angular accelerations.
When looking at moment integrals, there are number

of different types of moment integrals. These will
450 | Statics
include moment integrals in one dimension, two
dimensions, and three dimensions, moment integrals of
force functions, of areas/volumes, or of mass
distributions, first order or second order moment
integrals, and rectangular or polar moment integrals.
Any combination of these different types is possible

(for example a first, rectangular, 2D, area moment
integral or a second, polar, 3D, mass moment integral).
However, only some combinations will have practical
applications and will be discussed in detail on future
pages.
1D, 2D, and 3D Moment Integrals
Technically we can take the moment integral in any

number of dimensions, but for practical purposes we
will never deal with moment integrals beyond 3
dimensions. The number of dimensions will affect the
complexity of the calculations (with 3D Moment
integrals being the more involved than 1D or 2D moment
integrals), but the nature of the problem will dictate the
dimensions needed. Often this is not listed in the type of
moment integral, requiring you to assume the type
based on the context of the problem.
Force, Area/Volume, and Mass Moments Integrals
The next distinction in moment integrals is regard

what we are integrating. Generally, we can integrate
force functions over some distance, area, or volume, we
can integrate the area or volume function itself, or we
can integrate the mass distribution over the area or
volume. Each of these types of moment integrals has a
different purpose and will start with a different
mathematical function to integrate, but the integration
process beyond that will be very similar.
First vs. Second Moments Integrals
For moment integrals we will always be multiplying

the force function, area or volume function, of the mass
distribution function by a distance, or a distance
squared. First moment integrals just multiply the initial
function by the distance, while second moment
integrals multiply the function by the distance squared.
Again the type of moment integral we will use depends
upon our application, with things like equivalent point
load, centroids, and center of mass relying on first
moment integrals, and area moments of inertia, polar
moments of inertia, and mass moments of inertia relying
on second moment integrals. As you can probably
deduce from this list, second moment integrals, are
often labeled as a ‘moment of inertia‘
Rectangular vs. Polar Moments Integrals
Finally we will talk about rectangular moments
452 | Statics
integrals versus polar moments integrals. This is a
difference in how we define the distance in our moment
integral. Let’s start with the distinction in 2D. If our
distance is measured from some axis (for example the x-
axis, or the y-axis) then it is a rectangular moment
integral. If on the other hand the distance is measured
from some point (such as the origin) then it is a polar
moment integral.
In 2D, if we measure the distance from some axis (similar to what

x and y do here) then we have a rectangular moment integral. If
we measure the distance from some point (such as r does) then
we have a polar moment integral.
This distinction is important for how we will take the

integral. For rectangular moment integrals we will move
left to right or bottom to top. For polar moment
integrals we will instead take the integral by radiating
out from the center point.

In three dimensional problems, the definitions change
slightly. For rectangular moment integrals the distance
will be measured from some plane (such as the xy plane,
xz plane, or yz plane). Again we will integrate left to
right, bottom to top, or now back to front with distances
corresponding to the x, y or z coordinates of that point.
For a polar moment integrals the distance will be
measured from some axis (such as the the x, y, or z axis),
and we will integrate by radiating outward from that
axis.
Source: Jacob Moore et al.

A2_moment_intergrals/moment_integrals/
momentintegrals.html
Key Takeaways
Basically: There are many types of inertia, including area,

product, and mass. They have different units and represent
different physical quantities of an object.
Application: A beam’s resistance to bending (area moment

of intertia), a shaft’s resistant to torsion (product/polar
454 | Statics
moment of inertia), and an object’s resistance to rotating
(mass moment of inertia).
Looking Ahead: Area and product moment of inertia will

be covered more in structures. Mass moment of inertia is
used in statics nd dynamics. The next section will look at
how to calculate the mass moment of inertia.

7.4 Mass Moment of Inertia
7.4.1 Intro to Mass Moment of Inertia
Mass moment of inertia, or inertia as it will be referred to from here

on, is resistance to rotation. The bigger the inertia, the slower the
rotation. [latex]\sum M = I\alpha[/latex]. Inertia is always positive
and has units of kgm2 or slugft2.
For an infinitesimal unit of mass, the inertia depends on how far it
is from the axis of rotation.
$$ I = \int_m r^2dm $$
As shown in this image, each little dm at r distance from the axis
of rotation (y) is added up (through integration). If r is bigger, the
inertia is bigger.
If there is more mass closer to the axis of rotation, the inertia

is smaller. A skill that you can develop is your visualization of the
rotation about each axis. As shown in the following figure, rotating
about the different axes will produce different types of rotation. You
can imagine sticking your pencil into an object and twisting along
456 | 7.4 Mass Moment of Inertia

that axis. In this image, rotation about the y axis and x axis produce
different types of rotation. Due to the symmetry, rotation about the
x axis and z axis looks identical.
The red r’s in this image show the distance that is being measured
when adding up each little infinitesimal dm. Notice how the r
changees direction from x to y but looks the same between x and z.
Equations have been developed for common shapes so that you
don’t have to integrate every time you want to find the inertia of an
object. The result is different for each axis, as shown in the following
figure.
‘Ixx‘ can be read as ‘the inertia if rotating about the x-axis’. Notice
7.4 Mass Moment of Inertia | 457

for Ixx and Izz that the height and radius of the cylinder affect the
inertia, whereas for Iyy, only the radius is considered.
The equations for each of the objects are listed in a table below.
First is a second explanation of inertia.
We start by constructing, in our minds, an idealized

object for which the mass is all concentrated at a single
location which is not on the axis of rotation: Imagine a
massless disk rotating about an axis through the center
of the disk and perpendicular to its faces.
Let there be a particle of mass m embedded in the disk
at a distance r from the axis of rotation. Here’s what it
looks like from a viewpoint on the axis of rotation, some
distance away from the disk:
where the axis of rotation is marked with an O.

Because the disk is massless, we call the moment of
inertia of the construction, the moment of inertia of a
458 | Statics
particle, with respect to rotation about an axis from
which the particle is a distance r.
2
I = mr
is our equation for the moment of inertia of a particle

of mass m, with respect to an axis of rotation from
which the particle is a distance r.
Now suppose we have two particles embedded in our

massless disk, one of mass m1 at a distance r1 from the
axis of rotation and another of mass m2 at a distance r2
from the axis of rotation.
The moment of inertia of the first one by itself would

be
2
I 1 = m 1 r1

and the moment of inertia of the second particle by
itself would be
2
I 2 = m 2r2
The total moment of inertia of the two particles

embedded in the massless disk is simply the sum of the
two individual moments of inertial.
I = I 1 + I2
2 2
I = m 1r1 + m 2r2
This concept can be extended to include any number

of particles. For each additional particle, one simply
includes another miri2 term in the sum where mi is the
mass of the additional particle and ri is the distance that
the additional particle is from the axis of rotation. In the
case of a rigid object, we subdivide the object up into an
infinite set of infinitesimal mass elements dm. Each
mass element contributes an amount of moment of
inertia
2
dI = r dm
to the moment of inertia of the object, where r is the

distance that the particular mass element is from the
axis of rotation.

460 | Statics
7.4.2 Inertia Table of Common Shapes
Specific inertia equations depending on the shape of the object and

axis of rotation can be found below. Notice some of the shapes
have multiple sets of axes: [latex]I_{xx} \text{ and }
I_{xx}^\prime[/latex]. There are multiple equations.

Symmetric Shapes
$$ I_{xx} = \frac{1}{2}mr^2 \\I_{yy}=

\\I_{zz} = \frac{1}{2}mr^2 $$
Thin Ring
* thickness << 1
$$ I_{xx} = \frac{1}{4}mr^2
\\I_{yy}=\frac{1}{2}mr^2 \\I_{zz} =
\frac{1}{4}mr^2 $$
Circular Plate
$$ I_{yy^\prime} = \frac{3}{2}mr^2
* thickness << 1
$$ I_{xx} = \frac{1}{12}m(3r^2+h^2)
\\I_{yy}=\frac{1}{2}mr^2 \\I_{zz} =
Cylinder \frac{1}{12}m(3r^2+h^2) $$
$$Volume = \pi r^2 h $$
$$I_{xx}=\frac{2}{5}mr^2
\\I_{yy}=\frac{2}{5}mr^2
\\I_{zz}=\frac{2}{5}mr^2 $$
Sphere
$$Volume = \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 $$
462 | Statics
$$ I_{xx} = \frac{1}{12}ml^2
\\I_{yy}=0\\I_{zz} = \frac{1}{12}ml^2
Slender Rod
$$ I_{xx^\prime} = \frac{1}{3}ml^2
\\I_{zz^\prime} = \frac{1}{3}ml^2 $
* radius << length
$$ I_{xx} = \frac{1}{12}mh^2
\\I_{yy}=\frac{1}{12}m(h^2+b^2) \\I
Rectangular
\frac{1}{12}mb^2 $$
Plate
* thickness << 1
$$ I_{xx} = \frac{1}{12}m(h^2+d^2)
\\I_{yy}=\frac{1}{12}m(d^2+w^2) \\I
Rectangular = \frac{1}{12}m(h^2+w^2) $$
Block
$$ Volume = bwh $$
Asymmetric Shapes

$$ I_{xx} = \left( \frac{1}{4}-\frac{16}{
\pi^2} \right)mr^2 + \frac{1}{12}mh^
\\I_{yy}= \left( \frac{1}{2}-\frac{16}{9
\pi^2} \right) mr^2 \\I_{zz} =\left(
\frac{1}{4}-\frac{16}{9 \pi^2} \right)m
\frac{1}{12}mh^2 $$
Half Cylinder
$$ I_{xx^\prime} =
\frac{1}{12}m(3r^2+h^2) \\I_{yy^\p
\frac{1}{2}mr^2)\\I_{zz^\prime} =
\frac{1}{12}m(3r^2+h^2) $$
$$Volume = \frac{1}{2} \pi r^2 h $$
$$I_{xx}=\frac{83}{320}mr^2
\\I_{yy}=\frac{2}{5}mr^2
\\I_{zz}=\frac{83}{320}mr^2 $$
Hemisphere
$$I_{xx^\prime}=\frac{2}{5}mr^2
\\I_{zz^\prime}=\frac{2}{5}mr^2 $$
$$Volume = \frac{2}{3}\pi r^3 $$
$$I_{xx}=\frac{3}{80}m(4r^2+h^2)
\\I_{yy}=\frac{3}{10}mr^2
\\I_{zz}=\frac{3}{80}m(4r^2+h^2) $$
Cone $$I_{xx^\prime}=\frac{1}{20}m(3r^
2)
\\I_{zz^\prime}=\frac{1}{20}m(3r^2
$$
$$Volume = \frac{1}{3}\pi r^2h $$
Hallow Shells
464 | Statics
$$ I_{xx} = \frac{1}{6}m(3r^2+h^2)
\\I_{yy}=mr^2 \\I_{zz} =
Cylindrical \frac{1}{6}m(3r^2+h^2) $$
Shell
* Thickness << 1
$$I_{xx}=\frac{2}{3}mr^2
\\I_{yy}=\frac{2}{3}mr^2
Spherical \\I_{zz}=\frac{2}{3}mr^2 $$
Shell
* Thickness << 1
$$I_{xx}=\frac{5}{12}mr^2
\\I_{yy}=\frac{2}{3}mr^2
\\I_{zz}=\frac{5}{12}mr^2 $$
Hemispherical
Shell
$$I_{xx^\prime}=\frac{2}{3}mr^2
\\I_{zz^\prime}=\frac{2}{3}mr^2 $$
* Thickness << 1
Images source: Jacob Moore et al. http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/centroidtab

centroids3D/centroids3D.html
Notice how different objects with the same mass and radius
rotate at different rates. This simulation shows a cylinder (blue),
ring (green), solid sphere (yellow-brown), and spherical shell (red).
Which one has the least inertia? Why?

Source: Lucas Vieira. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Moment_of_inertia#/media/File:Rolling_Racers_-_Moment_of_inertia.gif
7.4.3 Radius of Gyration
A concept called the radius of gyration (k) converts a shape into

a thin ring. This is used for particularly complex shapes. If a
homework problem says ‘the radius of gyration k = 15 cm’, that
means if the shape were a thin ring, it would have a radius of 15 cm.
You calculate the mass moment of inertia using the ring equation:
[latex]I = mk^2[/latex]
466 | Statics
[latex]\qquad I =
mk^2[/latex]
Source:
https://phys.libretexts.org/@go/page/
18431
For example, if the mass of an
object is m=10 kg, the radius of
gyration is 5 m, then the inertia is:
I = mk2 = 10 kg * 5 m * 5 m = 250 kgm2.
To find the radius of gyration:
$$ k=\sqrt{\frac{I}{m}}=\sqrt{\frac{250 kgm^2}{10kg}} = 5 m $$
Key Takeaways
Basically: Mass moment of inertia is an object’s

resistance to rotation and is impacted by mass and
distance from the axis of rotation.
Application: The speed that something rotates,

such as a satellite spinning in space, is impacted by
it’s inertia. A bigger inertia has a smaller angular
acceleration. A smaller inertia allows for a larger
angular acceleration.

Looking Ahead: This will be used throughout
dynamics. The next section looks at calculating
inertia of composite objects or from a different axis.
468 | Statics
7.5 Inertia Intro: Parallel Axis
Theorem
There are two great uses for the parallel axis theorem:
1. Finding the inertia of a complex object with multiple parts.
Source: Jacob Moore et al. mechanicsmap.psu.edu/

websites/A2_moment_intergrals/
parallel_axis_theorem/parallelaxistheorem.html
2. Rotating an object about an axis other than through the center of

mass (y’)
7.5 Inertia Intro: Parallel Axis

Theorem | 469
Source (image): By Jack Ver,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=6613952
To begin with, the parallel axis theorem is equal to the inertia about
the center of mass (Icm) plus the distance between the axes of
rotation squared times the mass.
$$I=I_{cm}+md^2$$
Example 1:
For a disk, the distance between axes y and y’ is d and the

[latex]I_{cm} = \frac{1}{2}mr^2[/latex].
470 | Statics
Adapted from: Adapted from source: mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/
A2_moment_intergrals/parallel_axis_theorem/parallelaxistheorem.html
$$I=I_{cm}+md^2 = \frac{1}{2}mr^2+mr^2 = \frac{3}{2}mr^2$$
You will need the table of common geometric shapes in the

previous section to find the Icm for each object.
• I is the moment of inertia of an object with

respect to an axis from which the center of
mass of the object is a distance d.
• ICM is the moment of inertia of the object with
respect to an axis that is parallel to the first axis
and passes through the center of mass.
• m is the mass of the object.
• d is the distance between the two axes.
The parallel axis theorem relates the moment of

inertia ICM of an object, with respect to an axis through
the center of mass of the object, to the moment of
inertia I of the same object, with respect to an axis that
is parallel to the axis through the center of mass and is
7.5 Inertia Intro: Parallel Axis Theorem | 471

at a distance d from the axis through the center of mass.
A conceptual statement made by the parallel axis

theorem is one that you probably could have arrived at
by means of common sense, namely that the moment of
inertia of an object with respect to an axis through the
center of mass is smaller than the moment of inertia
about any axis parallel to that one. As you know, the
closer the mass is “packed” to the axis of rotation, the
smaller the moment of inertia; and; for a given object,
per definition of the center of mass, the mass is packed
most closely to the axis of rotation when the axis of
rotation passes through the center of mass. The PAT is
visually shown below, as z represents the axis on which
the objects COM rotates about, z’ is the axis it is now
going to rotate about, and d is the distance between
these two axis’.

Steps for finding the MMOI of an object
1. Determine the shape of the object (or shapes, if it a composite

object).
2. Determine which axis the object is rotating about.
3. Find the center of mass for each individual shape.
4. Find the ICM (inertia about its center of mass) for each shape.
5. Determine the distance from the CM of the shapes to the axis
of rotation.
6. Use the Parallel Axis Theorem to find the inertia for each
472 | Statics
shape.
7. Add up all these individuals inertias to find IT.
Example 2:
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform rod with ICM=0.05kgm2,

L=0.08m, and mass=0.250kg, with respect to an axis that is
perpendicular to the rod and passes through at 1/4 of the length of the
rod.
We know the distance (d) to be L/4 = 0.08m / 4 = 0.02m away

from the z axis. Here we present the solution to the problem:
2
I=ICM + md
2 2
I=0.05 kgm + (0.250kg)(0.02m)
2
I=0.0501 kgm
Example 3
A dumbbell consists of two .2 meter diameter spheres, each with a

mass of 40 kg, attached to the ends of a .6 meter long, 20 kg slender
rod. Determine the mass moment of inertia of the dumbbell about the
y axis shown in the diagram.
Source: mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/A2_moment_intergrals/
parallel_axis_theorem/parallelaxistheorem.html
Organize the known and unknown data in a table to complete as you

go:
Find the center of mass:
• For each sphere, the rcm is 0.3m + 1/2 radius = 0.3m + 1/2
(0.2m) = 0.4m
• For the bar, the rcm is at 0.
474 | Statics
Find the inertia about the center of mass for each shape separately.
Use the rectangle equation:
For the sphere:
$$ I_{cm-sph}=\frac{2}{5}mr^2 =\frac{2}{5}*(40kg)*(0.1m)^2 \\
\qquad \quad =0.16kgm^2$$
For the rod,

$$I_{cm-rod}=\frac{1}{12}ml^2 =
\frac{1}{12}*(20kg)*(0.6m)^2\\\qquad \quad = 0.6 kgm^2$$

Next the parallel axis theorum is needed to change the axis of
rotation from the cm of the sphere to the system cm. The distance
between axes of rotation is 0.3m + 1/2 radius = 0.3m + 1/2 (0.2m) =
0.4m
$$I_{o-sph}=I_{cm-sph}+md^2 = 0.16 kgm^2 + (40kg)*(0.4m)^2
\\\qquad \quad = 6.56kgm^2$$
Finally, add up the parts: the 2 spheres and the cm of the rod:
$$I_{total} = 2 * I_{o-sph}+I_{cm-rod}\\\qquad \quad = 2*(6.56
kgm^2) + (0.6 kgm^2)\\\qquad \underline{I_{total} = 13.72
kgm^2}$$
Source: mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/
A2_moment_intergrals/parallel_axis_theorem/
parallelaxistheorem.html
Key Takeaways
Basically: The parallel axis theorem helps you to find the

inertia about a different axis of rotation than the cg, and it
lets you combine multiple objects.
Application: Find the total inertia of shape with multiple

objects.
Looking Ahead: This will be used throughout dynamics.
476 | Statics
7.6 Examples
examples, please send them to the author author [email protected].
Example 7.6.1: All of Ch 7 – Submitted by

William Craine
1. Problem
A person is playing soccer. The ball they

are using has a diameter of 20 cm, and a
mass of 0.45 kg. The person’s leg has a mass
of 18 kg, and their foot has a mass of 8 kg.
Assume that all the shapes are uniform
density.
a) Find the cm for the ball.
7.7 Examples | 477

b) Calculate the mass moment of inertia
(MMOI) for the ball.
c) Find the cm for the person’s leg and foot.
d) Find the MMOI for the person’s leg and

foot on the y-axis about A.
Source:
https://encrypted-tbn0.gs
tatic.com/
images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTM
4e4xHaRSXBdQMGugm1g
ISi2Qgn7rQx_K3w&usqp
=CAU
478 | Statics
2. Draw
7.7 Examples | 479

Known:
• mb = 0.45 kg
• db = 20 cm
• mL = 18 kg
480 | Statics
• mf = 8 kg
Unknowns: xb, Ib, xp, Ip x
4. Approach
Find the cm for both objects using arbitrary

coordinates since no origin is given.
Use the sphere MMOI formula for the ball.
Calculate the individual MMOIs for the leg and foot,

then use parallel axis theorem to get each shape’s MMOI
about the system cm, add them, and then use parallel
axis theorem to get MMOI about A.
5. Analysis
Part a (find the center of mass of the ball):
7.7 Examples | 481

$$x_b=(10\underline{\hat{i}}+10\
underline{\hat{ j}}+10\underline{\hat{k}})cm$$
Part b (find the MMOI of the ball about its center of

mass):
$$I_{xx}=I_{yy}=I_{zz}=\frac{2}{3}mr^2\\\qquad
\quad=\frac{2}{3}(0.45
kg)(0.1m)^2\\I_b=0.003kgm^2$$
Part c (find the center of mass for the system of the

person’s leg):
Step 1: find the center of mass of the foot ( f)
$$f=\frac{15cm}{2}\underline{\hat{i}}+\frac{7cm}{2}\
underline{\hat{ j}}+\frac{7cm}{2}\underline{\hat{k}}\\f
=(7.5\underline{\hat{i}}+3.5\underline{\hat{ j}}+3.5\
underline{\hat{k}})cm$$
Step 2: find the center of mass of the leg (L)
482 | Statics
$$L_1=(3.5\underline{\hat{i}}+3.5\
underline{\hat{ j}}+15\
underline{\hat{k}})cm\\L_2=(15cm-7cm-1cm)\underlin
e{\hat{i}}+(0cm)\underline{\hat{ j}}+(7cm)\underline{\h
7.7 Examples | 483

at{k}}\\\qquad \quad L_2 = (7
\underline{\hat{i}}+(0)\underline{\hat{ j}}+(7)\underline
{\hat{k}} )cm$$
$$\\L=L_1+L_2\\L=(3.5cm+7cm)\underline{\hat{i}}+
(3.5cm+0cm)\underline{\hat{ j}}+(15cm+7cm)\underline{
\hat{k}}\\L=(10.5\underline{\hat{i}}+3.5\
underline{\hat{ j}}+22\underline{\hat{k}})cm$$
Step 3: find the center of mass of the system (P)
$$x_p=\frac{\sum m_i x_i}{\sum

m_i}\\X_p=\frac{m_f\cdot x_f+m_L\cdot
x_L}{m_f+m_L}\\x_p=\frac{8kg\cdot 7.5cm+18kg\
cdot 10.5cm}{8kg+18kg}\\x_p=9.58cm$$
$$y_p=\frac{\sum m_i y_i}{\sum

m_i}\\y_p=\frac{8kg\cdot 3.5cm+18kg\cdot
3.5cm}{8kg+18kg}\\y_p=3.5cm$$
$$z_p=\frac{\sum m_i z_i}{\sum

m_i}\\z_p=\frac{8kg\cdot 3.5cm+18kg\cdot
22cm}{8kg+18kg}\\z_p=16.3cm$$
$$\underline{\underline{P}=(9.58\
underline{\hat{i}}+3.5\underline{\hat{ j}}+16.3\
underline{\hat{k}})cm}$$
484 | Statics
Part d (find the inertia of the person’s leg about point
A):
Step 1: Find the MMOI of the foot about f (Iff)
$$x_f=0.15m\\z_f=0.07m\\m_f=8kg$$
$$I_{ff}=\frac{1}{12}\cdot m\cdot
(x^2+z^2)\\I_{ff}=\frac{1}{12}(8kg)(0.15m^2+0.07m^2)
\\I_{ff}=0.0182kg\; m^2$$
Step 2: Find the MMOI of the foot about P (IPf)
$$
d^2=(0.0208m)^2+(0.128m)^2\\I_{pf}=I_{ff}+m_f(d_f)
^2\\I_{pf}=0.0182kgm^2+8kg[(0.0208m)^2+(0.128m)^
2]\\I_{pf}=0.1527kgm^2$$
7.7 Examples | 485

Step 3: Find the MMOI of the leg about L (ILL)
$$r=0.035m\\h=0.3m\\m_L=18kg\\I_{LL}=\frac{1}{
12}\cdot m\cdot
(3_r^2+h^2)\\I_{LL}=\frac{1}{12}\cdot
18kg(3(0.035m)^2+(0.3m)^2)\\I_{LL}=0.1405kgm^2$$
Step 4: Find the MMOI of the leg about P (IPL)
$$r_{LP}=[(9.58-10.5)\underline{\hat{i}}+(3.5-3.5)\un
derline{\hat{ j}}+(16.3-22)\underline{\hat{k}}]cm\\r_{L
P}=(-0.92\underline{\hat{i}}-5.7\
underline{\hat{k}})cm\\I_{PL}=I_{LL}+m(d^2)\\I_{PL}
=0.1405kgm^2+18kg[(0.0092m)^2+(0.057m)^2]\\I_{PL}
=0.2005kgm^2$$
Step 5: Find the MMOI of the entire system about P (IP)
$$I_p=I_{PL}+I_{pf}\\I_p=0.1527kgm^2+0.2005kg\\
I_p=0.3532kgm^2$$
Step 6: Find the MMOI of the entire system about A (IA)
$$A=(10.5\underline{\hat{i}}+3.5\
underline{\hat{ j}}+37\underline{\hat{k}})cm\\P=(9.58\
underline{\hat{i}}+3.5\underline{\hat{ j}}+16.3\
underline{\hat{k}})cm\\r_{AP}=P-
A\\r_{AP}=[(9.58-10.5)\underline{\hat{i}}+(3.5-3.5)\und
erline{\hat{ j}}+(16.3-37)\underline{\hat{k}}]cm\\r_{AP}
=(-0.92\underline{\hat{i}}-20.7\
underline{\hat{k}})cm$$
$$I_A=I_p+m(d^2)\\I_A=0.3532kgm^2+(8kg+18kg)[(
486 | Statics
0.0092m)^2+(0.207m)^2]\\I_A=1.4695kgm^2\\\unde
rline{I_A=1.47kgm^2}$$
6. Review
It makes sense that the numbers are small, since

before the final step, the mass was small, or the distance
to the new axis was small.
Example 7.6.2 Inertia – Submitted by Luke

McCarvill
1. Problem
A figure skater with a mass of 60 kg is

about to perform a spin about her long axis
(z). She is 167 cm tall, and her body can be
approximated as a circular cylinder of 30 cm
diameter while her limbs are at her side, and
7.7 Examples | 487

a circular cylinder of 60 cm diameter while
her arms (and one leg) are outstretched.
a) What should she do in order to generate

the highest angular acceleration, assuming
she can generate a net torque of 200 Nm?
Does lowering her height increase or
decrease her angular acceleration?
b) How fast will she be spinning after 0.5

seconds of her maximum vs minimum
accelerations, assuming she starts from zero
(⍵0 = 0 rad/sec)?
488 | Statics
Annotat
ed from
original
source:
https://
commo
ns.wiki
media.o
rg/
wiki/
File:201
9_Inter
nationa
ux_de_
France
_Friday
_ladies
_SP_gr
oup_1_
Starr_A
NDREW
S_8D9A
6706.jpg
2. Draw
7.7 Examples | 489

Knowns:
490 | Statics
• m = 60 kg
• ΣM = 200Nm
• h = 167cm
• d1 = 30cm
• d2 = 60cm
• t = 0.5sec
• Izz = ½ mr2
• ΣM = I∝
• ⍵0 = 0rad/sec
Unknowns:
• ∝1 = ?
• ∝2 = ?
• Izz1 = ?
• Izz2 = ?
• ⍵1 = ?
• ⍵2 = ?
4. Approach
I’ll be using MMOI for circular cylinders, as well as the

sum of moments/torque equaling MMOI times angular
acceleration, as well as acceleration equaling change in
velocity over time.
5. Analysis
Part a:
Step 1: find the inertia when the arms are hugged to the
body
Izz1 = 0.5 (60kg) (0.15m)2
Izz1= 0.675 kg m2
7.7 Examples | 491

Step 2: find the inertia when the arms are spread out
Izz2 = 0.5(60kg)(0.3m)2
Izz2 = 2.7 kg m2
Step 3: find the angular acceleration for both cases
ΣM = I∝ therefore ΣM/I = ∝
∝1 = ΣM / Izz1
∝1 = 200 Nm / 0.675 kg m2
∝1 ≈ 296.296 rad/sec2
∝2 = ΣM / Izz2
∝2 = 200Nm/2.7 kg m2
∝2 ≈ 74.074 rad/sec2
The acceleration when the skater had her arms close

to her body was about 296 rad/sec2, while that when
she had her arms spread out was about 74 rad/sec2.
Therefore, having her limbs closer to her body will give
her a much higher angular acceleration!
As seen in the equation Izz = ½ m r2, her height is

arbitrary, thus lowering her height would not change
the inertia nor will it change her angular acceleration.
492 | Statics
Part b:
∝ = ⍵/t therefore ∝*t = ⍵
⍵1 = 296.296 s-2(0.5s)
⍵1 = 148.148 rad/sec
⍵2 = 74.074 s-2(0.5s)
⍵2 = 37.037 rad/sec
Given that these are in radians per second, let’s

convert this to rotations per second to make it more
meaningful. To do so, simply divide by 2pi since there
are 2pi radians per rotation. Thus, with her arms in, she
can achieve about 23.6 rotations per second after 0.5
seconds of acceleration, compared to about 5.9
rotations per second with her limbs out. This is on par
with an Olympian according to this site.
6. Review
It makes sense that they spin faster when their limbs

are hugged to their body; we can try this at home with a
swivel chair!
7.7 Examples | 493

Engineering Textbooks:
Intro Engineering: https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Introduction_to_Engineering/
EGR_1010%3A_Introduction_to_Engineering_for_Engineers_an
d_Scientists/14%3A_Fundamentals_of_Engineering/
14.11%3A_Mechanics/14.11.01%3A_Statics
Mechanics Map Digital Textbook: Jacob Moore, et al.
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/mechanics-map-open-
mechanics-textbook/view. Creative Commons Attribution.
Structural Analysis: https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Civil_Engineering/
Internal Forces in Beams and Frames, Libretexts.
https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Civil_Engineering/
1.04%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Beams_and_Frames Creative
Commons.
Physics Textbooks:
University Physics Volume 1:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osuniversityphysics/
Introductory Physics : Building Models to Describe Our World
(pdf download): https://openlibrary.ecampusontario.ca/catalogue/
item/?id=4c3c2c75-0029-4c9e-967f-41f178bebbbb
Information at the foundation of modern science and technology
from the Physical Measurement Laboratory of NIST:
https://www.physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/index.html
“UCD: Physics 9A – Classical Mechanics” by Tom Weideman,
LibreTexts is licensed under CC BY-SA.
Source: https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/
University_of_California_Davis/
UCD%3A_Physics_9A__Classical_Mechanics
Appendix A: Included Open

Textbooks | 495
Math Textbook:
Key Concepts of Intermediate Level Math (pdf download):
item/?id=d8bdc88b-5439-4652-b4bb-2948f0d5c625
Calculus Volume 1: https://openstax.org/books/calculus-
volume-1/pages/1-3-trigonometric-functions
Calculus Based Physics, Jeffrey W. Schnick,
item/?id=ce74a181-ccde-491c-848d-05489ed182e7 Creative
Commons Attribution.
496 | Statics

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Engineering Mechanics: Statics

LIBBY OSGOOD, GAYLA CAMERON, AND

• particles and rigid body equilibrium equations,

This book is a combination of many other open

Most sections have a ‘key takeaway’ that includes text

The last section of each chapter includes examples that were

Book cover image by malinoh from Pixabay

• 1.1 Math & Physics Important Concepts (Mass, Weight, Slugs,

Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts | 5

1.1.1 Scalar vs. Vector

Many familiar physical quantities can be specified

Scalar quantities that have the same physical units can

1.1 Preparatory Concepts | 7

Many physical quantities, however, cannot be

Basically: a scalar has only magnitude, whereas a vector

Application: I might have gone for a 4 km walk (scalar) but

Looking ahead: We will talk about this again in sections 1.3

1.1.2 Newton’s Laws

1.1 Preparatory Concepts | 9

This law, also sometimes called the “law of inertia”,

Net Forces: It is important to note that the net

Rotational Motion: Newton’s first law also applies to

Newton’s second law states that: “When a net force

You will notice that the force and the acceleration in

1.1 Preparatory Concepts | 11

You should again notice that the moment and the

Source: Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore et

Newton’s Third Law states “For any action, there is

Though there may be two equal and opposite forces

Source: Engineering Mechanics, Jacob Moore et al.,

1.1 Preparatory Concepts | 13

Basically: These 3 laws form the foundation of statics and

• 1st law: the motion of an object won’t change unless

Looking ahead: You’ll see these concepts again in Ch 7 on

Giving numerical values for physical quantities and

We define a physical quantity either by specifying

Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in

Two major systems of units are used in the world: SI

1.1 Preparatory Concepts | 15

SI Units: Base and Derived Units

In any system of units, the units for some physical

Based on such considerations, the International

You are probably already familiar with some derived

1.1 Preparatory Concepts | 17

Similarly, volume is a derived quantity that can be

Source: University Physics Volume 1, OpenStax CNX,

While most Canadian companies use SI, much manufacturing still

Quantity SI Unit English

Mass kg (kilogram) slug

Force N (Newton) lb (pound)

psi (pound per

Very helpful additional information about units is at this webpage:

1.1 Preparatory Concepts | 19

Application: In 1999, after taking 286 days for NASA Mars

Looking Ahead: The next section (1.1.4) will look at

1.1.4 Measurement Conversions

It is often necessary to convert from one unit to

Let’s consider a simple example of how to convert

[latex]80 m\times\frac{1 km}{1000 m}=0.080