COTM3002

DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MNAGEMENT

COURSE TITLE: - COT M 3002 – FOUNDATIONS

COURSE OUTLINE
1. SOIL EXPLORATION
1.1 PURPOSE OF EXPLORATION
1.2 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
1.3 METHODS OF EXPLORATION
1.4 FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS
1.5 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
1.6 LABORATORY TESTS
1.7 GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT
1.8 DEPTH AND NUMBER OF BORINGS
1.9 DATA PRESENTATION
1.10 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

2 . BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS
2.3 FAILURE ZONES BENEATH A SHALLOW CONTINUOUS FOOTING
2.4 BEARING CAPACITY EQUATIONS
2.4.1 Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Equation
2.4.2 HANSEN’S ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY EQUATION
2.4.3 Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity
2.4.4 Factors on Which the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of a Soil Depends
2.4.5 Bearing Capacity Factors for Local Shear Failure

3. FOUNDATIONS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PURPOSES OF FOUNDATIONS
3.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
3.3.1 Shallow Foundations
3.3.2 Deep Foundations

Dire Dawa university Department of COTM

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3.4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION DESIGN

3.4.1 General
3.4.2 Loads on Foundations
3.4.3 Pressure Distribution beneath Foundations
3.4.4 Settlement of Foundations
3.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type

4. Design of shallow Foundations

4.1 Design of Isolated, Strip and Combined Footings.

4.2 Design of Mat/Raft Foundations.

5. Analysis and Proportioning of Retaining walls.

References

1. Foundation Engineering
By Alemayehu Teferra
2. Foundation Analysis and Design
By J. E. Bowles

4. Foundation Design and Construction

By M.T. Tomlinson
5. Foundation Design
By W.C. Teng
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1. SOIL EXPLORATION

1.1 PURPOSE OF EXPLORATION

The purpose of soil exploration is to find out strength characteristics of the sub-soil over
which the structure has to be built. Soil characteristics vary both with respect to depth from
the ground surface and stretch in the horizontal direction. It is, therefore, the prime
objective of soil exploration for a building, bridge or other civil Engineering works, to
analyze the nature of soil in all respects.

The main purposes of soil exploration are: -

a. Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical
sites.
b. Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation
c. Selection of alternative methods of construction.
d. Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
e. Location and selection of construction materials.

The soil exploration should provide the following data: -

1. Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification, bearing
capacity or settlement calculation)
2. Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil)
3. Location of ground water level

1.2 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM

The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon

i. The nature of sub-soil
ii. The type of structure
iii. The importance of structure
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The soil engineer should constantly keep in mind, when planning the exploration
program, the purpose of the program and the relative costs involved. Normally, the cost
involved in the soil exploration is a function of the total cost of the project. It is always
advisable to spend a little more on soil investigation to understand clearly the nature of the
soil so that suitable foundation can be recommended. Often an indication of the extent of
an exploration of program can be estimated from the history of foundations successes and
failures in an area are very helpful. Also, for planning the program, the engineer should be
well acquainted with the current methods of soil boring, sampling and testing and have
some idea of the limitations on both the field and laboratory equipments and methods.

The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or all of the
following steps: -

I. Assembly of all available information on type and use of the structure, and also of
the general topographic and geological character of the site.
II. Reconnaissance of the area: - This involves inspection of behavior of adjacent
structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc.
III. A preliminary site investigation: - This is usually in the form of a few borings or
a test pit to establish the types of materials, Stratification of the soil, and possibly
the location of the ground water level. For small projects this step may be
sufficient to establish foundation criteria, in which case the exploration program is
finished.
IV. A detailed site investigation: - For complex projects or where the soil is of poor
quality and/or erratic, a more detailed investigation may be undertaken this may
involve sinking several boreholes, taking soil samples for laboratory investigations,
conducting sounding and other field tests.

1.3 METHODS OF EXPLORATION

Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of sub-surface

are
ƒ Test pits
ƒ Boring and sampling
ƒ Field tests
ƒ Geophysical methods
ƒ Laboratory tests
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1.3.1 Test Pits

The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration is to sink test pit to
depths of 3 to 4 m. The use of Test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be examined
visually, thus the boundaries between strata and the nature of any macro-fabric can be
accurately determined. It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples:
in cohesive soils block samples can be cut by hand from the bottom of the pit and tube
samples can be obtained from the sides of the pit.

1.3.2 Soil Boring and Sampling

1.3.2.1 Soil Boring

This is the most widely used method. It provides samples from shallow to deeper depths
for visual inspection as well as laboratory tests. The most commonly used methods of
boring are: -
⇒ Auger boring
⇒ Wash boring
⇒ Percussion drilling
⇒ Rotary drilling
a) Auger boring: - Operated by hand or by power. Hand operated augers, φ= 15 to
20cm, are of two types. Post-hole and helical augers. They are used for shallow borings
depth 3 to 7.5m in soils, which possess sufficient cohesion to sand unsupported. This
boring method provides highly disturbed soil samples. Power operated augers (helical) can
be used to great depths, even to 30m, and used in almost all types of soils above water
table.

Fig.1.1 Hand Augers a) helical and b) post hole

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b) Wash boring: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a

light chopping bit and jetting action of drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure.
Loosened soil particles raise as suspended particles through the annular space between
casing and drill rod. This method best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard
soil strata (i.e. boulders) and rocks. Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more. Changes
in soil strata are indicated by changes in the rate of progress of boring, examination of out
coming slurry and cutting in the slurry. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be
obtained by use of proper samplers.

Fig.1.2 Wash boring

c) Percussion drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a

heavy chisel into the bottom of the hole. The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole
is removed by bailer or sand pump. Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this
method of boring is not favored. Casing is generally required. Maximum depth of boring is
60m.
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d) Rotary drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which
cuts the material at the bottom of the hole into small particles which are removed by
circulating fluids, which may be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry. This is the most rapid
method for penetrating highly resistant materials (e.g. bed rock). In this method
undisturbed samples can be obtained at desired depths by using suitable samplers.
Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.

1.3.2 Soil Sampling

There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore holes or
trial pits. These are: - Disturbed and Undisturbed samples.

a) Disturbed Samples: - are samples where the structure of the natural soil has been
disturbed to a considerable degree by the action of the boring tolls or excavation
equipment. Disturbed samples, however, need to be truly representative of the stratum.
Disturbed samples are satisfactory for performing classification tests such as, sieve
analysis, Atterberg limits etc.

b) Undisturbed Samples: - are samples, which represent as closely as is practicable,

the true in-situ structure and water content of the soil. Undisturbed samples are required
for determining reliable information on the shearing resistance and stress-deformation
characteristics of a deposit. Undisturbed samples in cohesionless deposits are extremely
difficult to obtain. Because of this the above characteristics are provided by field tests.

Types of Samplers

It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples, especially from moderate

to deep holes. The process of boring, driving the coring too, raising and withdrawing
the coring tool and extruding the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause some
disturbance. In addition, samples taken from holes may tend to swell as a result of
stress relief. Samples should be taken only from a newly- drilled or newly extended hole,
with care being taken to avoid contact with water. As soon as they are brought to the
surface, core tubes should be labeled inside and outside, the ends sealed with wax and
capped, and then stored away from extremes of heat or cold and vibration. Sample
disturbance may be reduced by using an appropriate type of sample tube. The types of
tube samplers in common use are described below:
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a) Split Spoon Sampler: - A standard split spoon sampler has a 2“ outside diameter,
1⅜″ inside diameter tube, 18 to 24” long. The tube is split longitudinally in the middle.
While the sample is being taken, the two halves of the spoon are held together at the ends
by short pieces of threaded pipe, one of which couples, it to the drill rod and the other
serves as the cutting edge. The sampler is forced or driven into the soil to obtain a sample
and is then removed from the hole. With these sampler-disturbed samples of soft rock,
cohesive and cohesionless soils are obtained. This sampler is used for making standard
penetration test.

b) Thin-Walled Tube Sampler: - It is a thin walled seamless brass or steel tubing, with
common out side diameter of 2 to 3” and length of 30 to 36”. The lower end is beveled to
form a cutting edge and it can be slightly tapered to reduce the wall friction and the upper
end fitted for attachment to the drill rod. In order to take sample the sampler is pushed
downward into the soil by static force instead of being driven by a hammer. This sampler is
used to take undisturbed samples from cohesive soils.

c) Piston Samplers: - They are very thin tube samplers with pistons fitted at their
cutting ends. While taking sample, the piston is held in positions and the tube pushed
down. The piston aids the retention of the soil in the tube during withdrawal. Piston
samples provide best-undisturbed samples of cohesive soils.

1.4 FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS

These tests are valuable means of determining the relative densities; shear strengths
and bearing capacities of soils directly without disturbing effects of boring and sampling.

The most commonly used field tests are; -

♦ Penetration or sounding tests
♦ Vane shear test
♦ Plate loading test
♦ Pile loading test
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1.4.1 Penetration Tests

Penetration tests are the most useful tests. They are conducted mainly to get
information on the relative density of soils with little or no cohesion. The tests are based on
the fact that the relative density of a soil stratum is directly proportional to the resistance of
the soil against the penetration of the drive point. From this, correlations between values of
penetration resistance versus angle of internal friction (φ), bearing pressure, density and
modulus of compressibility have been developed. Penetration tests are classified as:
Static and dynamic penetration tests.

a) Static Penetration Tests.

1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test: -This method of testing is widely used in
Scandinavia and here in Ethiopia. The test consists of weights: 5,10,10.25,25, and
25kgs(∑=100 kg), screw point, driving rod (φ 20 to 22 mm), made up of 100cm parts, and a
rotating handle. The depth of penetration is measured for each loading after which the
number of half-turns is counted by 100Kg.load; the penetration depth is then measured
after 25 half-turns. If the penetration after 25 half-turns is less than 5cm the rod is
unloaded and driven down by a 5 to 6kg hammer.

25
100 75 50 HT/20cm penetration
Depth

Fig. 1.3 Swedish weight sounding equipment, penetration diagram

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The correlation between density of frictional soils and consistency of cohesive soils and
ht/m (half-turns per meter) are as given below.
3
Frictional Soils Density (kN/m )
Very loose <50ht/m 11-16
Loose 50 -150ht/m 14.5 - 18.5
Medium 150 - 300ht/m 17.5 - 21
Dense 300 - 500ht/m 17.5 - 22.5
Very dense > 500ht/m 21 - 24

Cohesive Soils Density (kN/m3)

Soft 0 ht/m 16 –19
Firm 0 – 100 ht/m 17.5 – 21
Stiff 100-200 ht/m 19 – 22.5
Very stiff 200 - 500 ht/m
Hard >500 ht/m

2) Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test): -This method is
widely used in Europe. The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600, overall diameter
2
35.7mm, end area 10cm , rods (⅝” φ), casing pipe (φ ¾”). The rod is pushed hydraulically
into the ground at a rate of 10mm/sec. The pressure exerted on the rod is measured with a
proving ring, manometer or a strain gauge. Readings are usually taken every 20cm. From
this test point resistance and skin frictional resistance can be determined separately.
st
♦ The cone is 1 pushed into the ground. The force required to push the cone
20cm into the soil is recorded.
♦ The casing pipe is then advanced to join the cone. The force required to push the
pipe is also recorded.
♦ The readings thus taken are plotted against depth.

The correlation between the cone (point) resistance and relative density of frictional
soils are given in Table 1.1
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Table 1.1 Correlations between Cone (Point) Resistance and Relative Density of
Frictional Soils
2
Relative Density Point Resistance (kN/m )
Very loose soil < 2500
Loose soil 2500 – 5000
Medium dense 5000 – 10,000
Dense 10,000 – 15,000
Very dense > 15,000

Cone resistance (point resistance) in kN/m2

Skin friction
Depth

Point resistance

2
Casing (skin) resistance in kN/m

Fig. 1.4 Static cone penetration testing equipment, penetration diagram

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- According to Meyerhof:
N = ¼ (Ckd) ……………… (1.1)

where N = Standard penetration number

2
Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm )

For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated from cone resistance from
the following relationship.
ES =3/2( Ckd) ……………………… (1.2)

b) Dynamic Penetration Tests

1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT): -This is the most common of the field tests and
measures the resistance of the soil to dynamic penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon
sampler which is driven into the soil at the bottom of a borehole (sometimes cased). The
sampler is attached to drill rods and the dynamic driving force is a 63.5kg mass falling
through a height of 76cm onto the top of the rods as shown in Fig.11.5. The sampler is
initially driven 15cm below the bottom of the borehole. It is then further driven 30cm. The
number of blows required to drive the last 30cm is termed as the standard penetration
value denoted by N. The standard penetration number has been correlated to soil
characteristics such as: density, angle of shearing resistance, φ, unconfined compressive
strength, as given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.

Table 1.2 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Angle of Internal Friction and
Relative Density of Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and Peck).

N 0-4 4 -10 10-30 30 - 50 > 50

0 0 0 0 0
φ <28 28 -30 30-36 35 - 40 >42
Relative Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Density

Table 1.3 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Unconfined Compressive Strength
and Consistency of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi and Peck).

N 0 -2 2-4 4-8 8 -15 15-30 >30

2
qu(kN/m ) 0 -25 25 -50 50 -100 100 -200 200-400 >400
Consistency Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff Hard
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RAM 63.5 kg

ANVIL

MOTOR

89mm
CASING

SAMPLER 2 “ (STANDARD)

Fig. 1.5 Standard penetration test (SPT) equipment.

The relationship between φ and Dr may be expressed approximately by the following

equation (Meyerhof).
0
φ =30+0.15Dr …………………….. (1.3)
For granular soil, containing more than 5 percent fine sand and silt.

0
φ =30+0.15Dr …………………… (1.4)

For granular soil, containing less than 5 percent fine sand and silt. In the equations Dr is
expressed in percent.

Correction to be applied to measured values of SPT

The N. values of SPT as measured in the field may need to be corrected.

i. When SPT is made in fine saturated sands, saturated silty sands, or saturated silts,
correction is usually made for possible build up of pore water pressure. The SPT
values, greater than 15 are modified as follows

N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15) Suggested by Terzaghi and peck

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where N= corrected value
N’= actual value
ii. The other type of correction is known as correction for overburden pressure. This
correction is applied only to cohesionless soils (dry, moist or wet). The correction
suggested by Gibbs and Holtz and widely used is as follows.

345' N 2
N = ≤ 2N’, for σo’ ≤ 276 kN/m
(σ o '+69)

2 35 N ' 2
σo’ = effective overburden pressure in kN/m N = ≤ 2N’, for σo’ ≤ 28kN/m
(σ o '+7)

2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test: - This is another useful test, which is normally
used to determine the relative resistance offered by the different soil layers. The cone is
fixed to the bottom of a rod by pushed fit. The cone is driven into the ground in the same
way as a SPT is performed. The number of blows required to penetrate 30 cms depth is
called as Nc value. In the case of dynamic cone penetration test no borehole is used.
Experiments carried out indicate that beyond about 6m depth, frictional resistance on the
rod increases which gives erroneous results for Nc value. The maximum depth suggested
for this test is about 6 m. If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m depth, one has to use
drilling mud (bentonite slurry) under pressure forced through the pipe and the cone as
shown in Fig 11.6. The mud solution coming out of the cone rises above along the drill rod
eliminating thereby the frictional resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The former
method is called as dry method and the latter wet method.

rod

Bore-hole

0
60

Fig. 1.6 Dynamic cone penetration testing equipment.

To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the general practice is to convert Nc to
N values of SPT
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Nc = N/C …………………………… (1.5)
where
N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2 when bentonite is used.
Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m
Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m

Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure in cohesionless soils like SPT

1.4.2 Vane Shear Test

This test is useful in determining the in-place shear strength of very soft and sensitive
clays, which lose a large part of their strength when even slightly disturbed by the sampling
operation. The strength parameter obtained is consolidated- undrained shear strength, Cu.

In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired depth, where the vane shear test is
planned to be performed and the vane is carefully pushed into the soil. A torque necessary
to shear the cylinder of soil defined by the blades of the vane is applied by rotating the arm
of the apparatus with a constant speed of 0.5 degree/sec. The maximum torque is then
measured from which the shearing strength is determined.

From the measured maximum torque one may estimate the shearing resistance of the
tested clay from the following formula

T
τ= …………………… (1.6)
⎡ 2 H D3 ⎤
π ⎢D + ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 12 ⎥⎦

where T = Torque
D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height

Since for quick condition τ = Cu, one ultimately arrived the in-situ value of cohesion
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Fig.1.7 Vane shear test

1.4.3 Plate Loading Test

In this test a gradually increasing static load is applied to the soil through a steel plate,
and readings of the settlement and applied load are recorded, from which a relationship
between bearing pressure and settlement for the soil can be obtained.

Fig. 1.8 shows the arrangement and typical load settlement curve for a plate load test.
The test procedure used for performing the test is as follows:

1. Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the plate.
2. The plate should be properly placed in the soil. In the case of cohesionless soil (to
prevent early displacement of soil under the edges of the plate), the plate must be
positioned in cast in-situ concrete.
3. Loading platform should be properly erected.
4. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading increment is kept constant).
5. Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the same incremental steps (to
draw the expansion curve).
Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is determined from settlement consideration. If
the maximum permissible settlement, S, of a footing of width Bf is given, the settlement, Sp,

of a plate of width Bp under the same intensity of loading is given by

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Sp (2 Bf ) 2
S= …………………… (1.7)
(B f + B p ) 2

Using the value Sp, computed from the above equation, the loading intensity under the
footing could be read from the load settlement curve.
The settlement of footing in clay is normally determined from principles of consolidation.
However from plate load test, the approximate settlement of footing of width B can be
determined using the following expression

Bt
S = Sp …………………………… (1.8)
Bp

Dead Weight Load

Loaded platform
Pressure gauge

Hydraulic jack
Short block

Settlement dial gauge

Bp

Bearing pressure (kPa)

Settlement, Sp (cm)

Fig. 1.8 Plate loading test, test result

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Limitation of Plate Loading Test
™ Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence consolidation settlement does not
fully occur during the test.
™ For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to sandy soils, and to partially
saturated or rather unsaturated clayey soils.
™ Plate loading test can give very misleading information of the soil is not
homogeneous within the effective depth (depth of stress influence) of the
prototype foundation.
™ Plate loading test should not recommended in soils which are not homogeneous

at least to depth of 1½ to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation

Pressure
bulb Firm soil

Soft soil

Fig. 1.9 Pressure bulbs for the plate and the actual foundation.

1.4.4 Pile Loading Test

This is the most reliable means for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile. The
load arrangement and testing procedure are more or less similar to the plate-loading test.
From the results of this test the allowable bearing capacity and load- settlement relationship
of a group of friction piles can be estimated.

1.5 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

These comprise the seismic and resistivity methods. These methods are usually limited
to establishing location of bedrock underlying softer material (by seismic method) or
locating gravel or sand deposits (by resistivity method). The seismic method is based on
the fact that sound waves travel faster through rocks than through soils. The resistivity
method makes use of the fact some soils (e.g. soft clays) have low electrical resistivity than
others (e.g. sand or gravel). These methods are normally employed as preliminary or
supplementary to other methods of exploration.
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1.6 LABORATORY TESTS

Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for calculating ultimate bearing
capacity of soils, stability and settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining
physical characteristics of soils. Results of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction
with borehole records and results of field test.

The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are
♦ Grain size analysis
♦ Atterberg limits
♦ Natural moisture content
♦ Unit weight
♦ Unconfined compression test
♦ Direct shear test
♦ Triaxial compression test
♦ Consolidation test
♦ Compaction test
♦ Chemical analysis

1.7 GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT

Ground water affects many elements of foundation design and construction. Because
of this its location should be determined in each job with reasonable accuracy.

Water table level can be determined by measuring the depth to the water surface in a
borehole. Water levels in bore holes may take a considerable time to stabilize, this time,
known as the response time, depending on the permeability of the soil. Measurements,
therefore, should be taken at regular intervals until the water level becomes constant.

The depth of water table is measured by lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the
borehole. The depth can also be measured by lowering the leads of an electrical circuit. As
soon as the open ends of the leads touch the water in the borehole, the circuit is
completed. It is indicated by glow of the indicator lamp.
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1.8 DEPTH AND NUMBER OF BORINGS.

1.8.1 Depth of Boring

The depth to which boreholes should be sunk is governed by the depth of soil affected
by foundation bearing pressures. According to Tomlinson the following depths of boreholes
for various foundation conditions may be used.

i. For widely spaced strip of pad foundations, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5
times the width of the foundation.
ii. For raft foundations, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of raft should be
used.
iii. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations where there is overlapping of the zones
of pressure, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of building should be used.
iv. For group of piled foundation on soil, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times
width of pile group, the depth being measured from a depth of two- thirds of the
length of the piles.
v. For piled foundation on rock, boring depth should be deeper than 3.0m inside
bedrock.
According to Teng, for high ways and airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m, but
should be extended below organic soil, fill or compressible layers such as soft clays and
silts.

1.8.2 Number of Borings

Boring is an expensive undertaking. One should therefore minimize the number of

borings for a construction in a given site. From experience Teng has suggested the
following guideline for preliminary exploration.

Distance between boring (m) Minimum number

Project Horizontal stratification of soil of boring for each
Uniform Average Erratic structure
Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
One or two story building 60 30 15 3
Bridge piers, abutments, - 30 75 1-2 for each
television towers, etc foundation unit
Highways 300 150 30
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1.9 DATA PRESENTATION

The results of borings, samplings, penetration tests and laboratory tests of a site are
usually plotted graphically on a sheet of drawing paper. The graphical presentation should
include.

a. A plot plan, showing the location of all boreholes, test pits, etc and their
identification number.
b. A separate plot, showing the soil profile as established from the drillings or test
pits records.
c. Soil profiles along given lines in the ground surface, showing the boundaries
between identifiable soil layers, variation of thickness of firm bottom layer,
thickness of soft clay layers etc.
d. The penetration number, the unconfined compression strength, Atterberg limits,
natural moisture content, and other appropriate laboratory data may be shown on
each boring on the soil profile.
e. The location of ground water table should also be shown on the soil
profile.

1.10 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

A soil exploration report should contain all available data from bore holes, test pits, field
and laboratory tests and site observation. Most reports have the following contents.

1. Introduction: - Purpose of investigation, type of investigation carried out.

2. General description of the site: - general configuration and surface features of the
site.
3. General geology of the area.
4. Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits)
5. Laboratory test results.
6. Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and
constructions.
7. Conclusion: - recommendations on the type and depth of foundations, allowable
bearing pressure and methods of construction.
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2. BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW

FOUNDATIONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The lowest part of a structure is generally called a foundation and its function is to
transfer the load of the structure to the soil on which it is resting. If the soil near the surface
is capable of adequately supporting the structural loads it is possible to use either a footing
or a raft. A footing is a relatively small slab giving separate support to part of the structure.
A footing supporting a single column is referred to as an individual (isolating) footing, one
supporting a group of columns as a combined footing and one supporting a load-bearing
wall as strip footing. A raft is a relatively large single slab, usually stiffened, supporting the
structure as a whole. If the soil near the surface is incapable of adequately supporting the
structural loads, piles or piers are used to transmit the loads to suitable soil at greater
depth.

A foundation must satisfy two fundamental requirements: -

I. The factor of safety against shear failure of the supporting soil must be adequate,
II. The settlement of the foundation should be tolerable and, in particular, differential
settlement should not cause any unacceptable damage nor interfere with the
function of the structure.

Foundations may be broadly classified into two categories: i) Shallow foundations,

ii) Deep foundations.
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2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS

1. Ultimate Bearing Capacity: - The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the least
pressure, which would cause shear failure of the supporting soil immediately below and
adjacent to a foundation.
2. Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity: - It is the net increase in pressure at the base of
foundation that causes shear failure of the soil. It is equal to the gross pressure minus
overburden pressure.

Thus qnult = qult - γD ………………………. (2.1)

where qult = ultimate bearing capacity (gross)

γ = effective unit weight of soil above foundation base, and
D = depth of foundation

It may be noted that the overburden pressure equal to γD existed even before the
construction of foundation.
3. Allowable Bearing Capacity: - The allowable bearing capacity or safe bearing
capacity, of a soil is defined as the maximum pressure which provides an adequate safety
factory against soil rupture and also insures that settlement due to static loading will not
exceed the tolerable value
4. Net Allowable Bearing Capacity: - It is the net allowable bearing pressure that can
be used for the design of foundation. It is equal to the allowable bearing capacity minus
overburden pressure.

2.3 FAILURE ZONES BENEATH A SHALLOW CONTINUOUS FOOTING.

Let us consider a footing placed on the surface of the ground. If the base of the footing
is perfectly smooth, theoretical investigations have shown that if overloaded, the soil below
the footing fails as shown in Fig.2.1.The failure wedge may be divided into five zones.
Zone Ι represents active Rankine zone and the two zones ΙΙΙ on either side represent
passive Rankine zones. The inclination of the active Rankine zone with the principal plane
⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
(horizontal) is ⎜ 45 + ⎟ while that of passive Rankine zone is ⎜ 45 − ⎟ . The two zones ΙΙ
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
located between the zones Ι and ΙΙΙ are zones of radial shear. One set of lines of the shear
 24
patterns in these zones radiates from the outer edges of the base of the footing. The
curved surfaces of sliding de and de1 in Fig.2.1 are logarithmic spirals. The Dotted lines on
the right hand side of the central line indicate the boundaries of the zones Ι and ΙΙΙ at the
instant of failure and the solid lines represent these boundaries when the foundation sinks
into the soil. The soil in zone Ι spreads in the horizontal direction, while the soil in zone ΙΙΙ
is compressed laterally.

φ
45+
φ 2 f1
f 45-
2 ΙΙΙ Ι C
ΙΙΙ
ΙΙ
ΙΙ
e
e1
d
Fig. 2.1 Failure zones below a footing with smooth base

If the base of the footing is rough, which is the usual case in practice, the failure zones
are as sketched in Fig. 2.2. Because of the friction and adhesion between base of the
footing and the soil, the soil in zone I cannot expand laterally and essentially remains in
elastic state and acts as a part of the footing. The inclination of this wedge with the
horizontal is equal to the angle of internal friction of the soil. Zone ΙΙ and ΙΙΙ are similar to
the corresponding zones in case of a footing with smooth base.

Qult

φ φ
f φ
45-
Ι ΙΙΙ f1
2 ΙΙΙ
ΙΙ ΙΙ
e
e1
d

Fig. 2.2 Failure zones below a footing with rough base.

For a cohesive soil, φ=0, the logarithmic spiral becomes a circle and zone Ι in Fig. 2.2
vanishes. Model tests indicate that in dense sands, well-defined failure zones occur when
the footing is subjected to gradually increasing loads.
 25
2.4 BEARING CAPACITY EQUATIONS.
2.4.1 Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Equation

The following assumptions were made by Terzaghi (1943) to develop an ultimate

bearing capacity equation for soils under a strip footing;
a. The base of the footing is rough
b. The footing is laid at a shallow depth, i.e. D≤ B
c. The shear strength of the soil above the base of footing is neglected. The soil
above the base is replaced by a uniform surcharge, γD.
d. The load on the footing is vertical and is uniformly distributed.
e. The footing is long, i.e. L/B ratio is infinite, where B is the width and L is the length
of the footing.
f. The shear strength of the soil is governed by the Mohr-Coulomb equation.

The failure surface assumed by Terzaghi for the determination of ultimate bearing
capacity is shown in Fig. 2.3. As the footing sinks into the ground, the faces ac and bc of
the wedge abc push the soil to the sides. When the soil mass below the footing is in a state
of plastic equilibrium, the analysis of forces acting on the wedge abc gives the ultimate
bearing capacity. The forces acting on the faces of this wedge at the instant of failure are
shown in the same figure.

B
Qult

φ φ
g φ a b e
45-
2 Ca
Ca
f
d
c

Pp
Pp

Fig 2.3 Failure surfaces as assumed by Terzaghi

 26

The equilibrium of the mass of soil located within the zone Ι of elastic equilibrium
requires that the sum of all vertical forces should be equal to zero.

That is
Qult – 2 Pp – 2 Ca sin φ = 0

Qult =2 Pp + 2 Ca sin φ

B
ac=bc =
2 cos φ
C B
Ca =
2 cos φ
where Ca = Cohesive force
C = Unit cohesion
C B
Qult = 2 Pp + 2 sin φ
2 cos φ
= 2 Pp + B.C. tan φ

In the above equation total passive earth pressure Pp is composed of the following: -
i. P'p, passive earth pressure because of weights of the wedges acfg and bcde. These
are computed by considering the stability of the wedges and assuming C=0, D = 0,
P'p acts at one-third distance from c along ac and bc.

ii. Pc, passive earth pressure because of cohesive force only. This is computed on the
assumption that γ = 0, D = 0, It acts at middle of ac and bc.

iii. Pq, passive earth pressure because of surcharge; it is computed by considering

γ = 0, c=0 and also acts at middle of ac and bc.

Therefore, the above equation becomes,

Qult = 2 (P'p + Pc+ Pq+ ½ Bc tan φ)

= B ⎡⎢ 2 P ' P + 2 PC + ⎤
2 Pq
+ C tan φ ⎥
⎣ B B B ⎦
2 PC
Let + C tan φ = N C .C
B
 27

2P'P γB
= Nγ .
B 2
2 PQ
= N q .γD
B
Then
Qult = B (CNc + ½ γBNγ + γD Nq)
Qult
qult =
A
For strip footing, A = Bx1
qult = CNc + ½ γBNγ + γD Nq …………… (2.2)

Where qult is ultimate bearing capacity per unit area.

Terzaghi equations establish ultimate bearing value as a function of resistance due to

three factors, namely, cohesion, internal friction, and surcharge effect.
The general expression for ultimate bearing capacity is given by,

qult = K1NcC + K2γ1NγB + Nqγ2D ………… (2.3)

Cohesion Friction Surcharge

Where K1 & K2 = Coefficient dependent on the type of footing

For continuous footing, K1 = 1.0 and K2 = 0.5

For square footing, K1 = 1.30 and K2 = 0.4

For round footing, K1 = 1.30 and K2 = 0.6, B = R

Nc, Nγ ,Nq = Non- dimensional bearing capacity factors and they are depend
only on the angle of internal friction of a soil, see Table 2.1
C = Unit Cohesion
γ1 = Effective unit weight of soil below footing grade
γ2= Effective unit weight of soil above footing grade
B = Breadth of footing
D = Depth of footing
 28

Table 2.1 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors

φ0 NC Nγ Nq
0 5.7 0.0 1.0
5 7.3 1.0 1.6
10 9.6 1.2 2.7
15 12.9 2.5 4.4
20 17.7 5.0 7.4
25 25.1 9.7 12.5
30 37.2 19.7 22.5
34 52.6 35.0 36.5
35 57.8 42.4 41.4
40 95.7 100.4 81.3
45 172.3 297.5 173.3
50 347.5 1153.0 415.1

2.4.2 HANSEN’S ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY EQUATION

Hansen (1961) has proposed a general equation for determining ultimate bearing
capacity of soil as follows

qult = CNc Scdcic+ q Nq Sqdqiq + ½ B γ Nγ Sγdγ iγ ………. …… (2.4)

Where
qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing
C = Cohesion
B = Width of footing
q = Effective surcharge at the base level of the footing.
γ = effective unit weight of soil
Nc, Nq, Nγ = Bearing capacity factor

Sc, Sq ,Sγ = Shape factors

dc ,dq, dγ = Depth factors

ic, iq, iγ , = Inclination factors

Hansen’s Bearing capacity factors

π tanφ
Nq = tan2 (45+φ/2) e

Nc = (Nq – 1) Cot φ

Nγ = 1.8 ((Nq – 1) tan φ

 29
Hansen’s Shape Factors
Factors Types of foundation
Shape factor Continuous (strip) Rectangular Square Circular
Sc 1.0 1+0.2B/L 1.3 1.3

Sq 1.0 1+0.2B/L 1.2 1.2

Sγ 1.0 1-0.4B/L 0.8 0.6

Hansen’s Depth Factors

dc = 1+ (0.2 Df / B) tan (45+φ/2)

dq = dγ = 1 for φ≤ 100

dq = dγ = 1+0.1(Df / B) tan (45+φ/2) for φ> 100

Where φ = Angle of shearing resistance of soil in degree

Hansen’s Inclination Factors

ic = iq = ( 1-α / 900)2

iγ = ( 1-α / φ)2

Where α = Inclination of the load to the vertical in degree

2.4.3 Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity

The unit weight of soil gets reduced when submerged. The unit weight γ, used in the
bearing capacity equations, should be the effective unit weight. The effect of submergence
on the bearing capacity may be explained with reference to the equation.

qult = CNc + ½ γBNγ + γD Nq

The first term CNc in the above equation is not affected by the position of the water
table. However, the shear parameter C used in the term should be found out in the
laboratory for the soil under saturated conditions since this state gives the minimum value

for C. The second term ½ γBNγ is not affected if the water table level is at a depth Dw equal
to or greater than B, the width of the footing, from the base of the footing as shown in Fig.
2.4 (a)
 30
Since the depth of the shear failure zone below the base of the footing is assumed to be

about equal to the width of the footing the unit weight γ in the term ½ γBNγ will not be
affected if Dw ≥B. When the water table level is at the base of the footing, i.e., when Dw=0,

the submerged unit weight γb should be used in the term. For all practical purposes the

submerged unit weight, γb of the soil may be taken as equal, to half its saturated unit

weight, γsat. In such a case the term ½ γBNγ gets reduced by 50 percent when the water
table is at the base of the footing. When 0<Dw<B the soil below the base is partly
submerged and partly moist.In such a case, a linear interpolation for the reduction in the
bearing capacity is proposed as follows. The bearing capacity term for the soil below the
base of the footing may be written as

½ γBNγRw …………………….. (2.5)

Where Rw is designated as the correction factor. The unit weight γ is taken as the
saturated weight. We may write

Dw
Rw = 1, when ≥1
B
Dw
Rw = 0.5, when =0
B

When 0 < Dw / B < 1 the equation for Rw may be written as

⎛ Dw ⎞
Rw = ½ ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ B ⎠

The variation of Rw with the ratio Dw/B is shown in Table 2.2.

When the water table is at the base or below the base of the footing, the third term γDNq

is not affected. When the water table is at ground level, the term γDNq gets reduced by 50
percent in the same way. For any position of water table at or above the base of the
foundation, we may write the bearing capacity expression as γDNq R’w. The equation for

R’w may be written as

R’w=½ ⎛⎜1 +
D' w ⎞ ……………………………… (2.6)
⎟
⎝ B ⎠
 31
where, R’w = The correction factor for the surcharge soil. The maximum value is one.

D’w = Depth of water table below the ground level limited to the depth equal to D.

Dw '
The variation of R’w with is shown in Table 2.2
D
The bearing capacity equation, which takes the water table effect, may therefore be
written as,

qult= CNc+½ γBNγ Rw+γDNq R’w…………………… (2.7)

qult = CNc Scdcic+ q Nq Sqdqiq + ½ Bγ Nγ Sγdγ iγ RW………… (2.8)

The factor R’w in Eqn (2.6) is indirectly accounted for by taking q as the effective
surcharge.

D’w = 0, D’w/D=0, R’w =0.5

Dw/B =0 D= D’w
Rw =0.5
D=D’w, D’w/D=1,R’w =1
Dw = 0

Dw= B

Dw/B =1, Rw =1

Fig. 2.4. Effect of water table on bearing capacity.

 32
Table 2.2 Water Table Correction Factors for the Second and Third Terms of Bearing
Capacity Equation.

Dw/B Rw D’w/D R’w

0 0.5 0 0.5
0.2 0.6 0.2 0.6
0.4 0.7 0.4 0.7
0.6 0.8 0.6 0.8
0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

2.4.4 Factors on Which the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of a Soil

Depends

Factors, which have influence on the ultimate bearing capacity of a soil, will be
discussed in the light of weather the soil is cohesionless or cohesive.

a) Cohesionless Soil
If the soil on which the footing is to rest is cohesionless, then the cohesion C is zero.
Substituting this in Eqn. 2.3, the ultimate bearing capacity equation for cohesionless soils
reduce to

qult = k2 γ1 Nγ B + Nq γ2 D …………… (2.9)

From the above equation it can be seen that ultimate bearing capacity of sands
depends upon: -

i. Unit weight: - As it was explained in the previous section, if the water table is close
to the ground surface, the effective unit weight is reduced and hence the ultimate
bearing capacity is affected.
ii. Width of footing: - Ultimate bearing capacity increases with width of footing.
iii. Depth of footing: - Ultimate bearing capacity increase with depth of footing.
iv. Relative density: - a sand with greater relative density exhibits larger angle of
internal friction. It will be observed from Table 2.1 that the bearing capacity factors
Nγ and Nq increase with φ. Hence dense sands have greater bearing capacity.
 33

b) Cohesive Soil
If the soil on which the footing is to rest is cohesive and φ= 0,

For φ= 0, Nc = 5.7, Nγ = 0,Nq = 1

Therefore the bearing capacity equations (Eqn.2.3) reduce to

qult = K1 5.7 C+ γ2D ……………………. (2.10)

The ultimate bearing capacity of clays depends on the value of cohesion, and depth of
footing. The former is considerably more important than the later.

2.4.5 Bearing Capacity Factors for Local Shear Failure

The soil which supports a footing begins to yield when the full shear resistance has
been mobilized directly underneath the footing, but does not reach the ultimate bearing
capacity until full resistance is reached all along the boundary of the failure wedge. For
dense sand full resistance is mobilized almost simultaneously along the entire boundary.
However, for loose sand considerable footing movement is necessary before full resistance
is reached along the outermost portions of the boundary. Terzaghi has recommended that
an approximate value of ultimate bearing capacity q’ult of shallow foundations on such soils
may be computed based on the soil parameters C’ and φ’ where

C’ = ⅔ C

and tan φ’ = ⅔ tan φ

Where C and φ are the actual values. The ultimate bearing capacity is such a case is
given by
q’ult = K1Nc’C +K2 γ1 N’γ B + Nq’ γ2D ………… (2.11)

where N’c, N’γ and N’q are the bearing capacity factors for local shear failure.
 34
Example 2.1

0
What will be the gross and net safe bearing capacity of sand having φ= 36 and
3
effective unit weight 18 kN/m under the following cases.

a. 1m wide strip footing

b. 1m x 1 m square footing
c. Circular footing of 1 m diameter
Consider the footings are placed at depth of 1 m from ground surface and no problem of
water table rising. Take a factor of safety of three.

Solution

0
For φ= 36 , Nγ= 43 and Nq = 47

a) Strip footing
qult = k2γBNγ + γD Nq

1
qall = (K2γ BNγ + γDNq)
F.S
=⅓ (0.5x18x1x43+18x1x47)
2
= 411 kN/m
2
qnall = qall- γD = 411-18x1 = 393 kN/m

b) Square footing

qall = ⅓ (0.4x18x1x43+18x1x47)
2
= 385.2 kN/m
2
qnall = 385.2 – 18 = 367. 2 kN/m

c) Circular footing

qall =⅓ (0.6x18x0.5x43+18x1x47)
2
= 359.4 kN/m
2
qnall = 359.4 – 18 = 341.4 kN/m
 35

Example 2.2

For the soil of example 2.1 and a strip footing having width and depth of 1m, what will
be the net allowable bearing capacity under the following conditions of ground water table?
a. Water table touching the base of the foundation
b. Water table touching the ground surface
3
Saturated unit weight of the soil is 21.3 kN/m . The soil is assumed to remain saturated
below ground surface.

Solution
1
qall = (0.5γ1 BNγ + γ2DNq)
F.S

a) When water table touching the foundation base

3
γb = γsat - γω = 21.3 – 10 = 11.3 kN/m

qall =⅓ (0.5 x11.3 x43x1 + 47 x 21.3x1)

2
= 414.68 kN/m
2
qnall = 414.68 – ( 21.3x1) = 393.38 kN/m

b) When the water table is at the ground level

qall = ⅓ (0.5x11.3x43x1 + 47 x11.3x1)

2
= 258 .01 kN/m
2
qnall = 258.01-11.3= 246.72 kN/m

Example 2.3

A square column rests 1.5m below the ground surface. The total load transmitted by the
footing is 2000 kN. The water table is located at the base of the footing. Assuming a
3 0
saturated unit weight of sand as 22 kN/m and angle of internal friction of 33 , find a
suitable size of the footing for the above condition. Take F.S = 3
 36

Solution
1
qall = (k2γ BNγ + γDNq)
F.S
For square footing, k2 = 0.4

0
For φ = 33 , Nγ = 32, Nq = 32

3
γ1 = γsat - γω = 22-10 = 11 kN/m ,
3
γ2 = 22 kN/m

qall =⅓ [ 0.4x11x32xB+22x1.5x32]

qall =⅓ [ 140.8B+1056]

Q
≤ qall
B2
2000 1
≤ [140.8B+ 1056]
2 3
B
3 2
6000 = 140.8B + 1056 B
By trial and error, B = 2.15 m
Use footing 2.15 x 2.15 m
 37

3. FOUNDATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to
the ground is called foundation.

The foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground level so as to

increase the lateral stability of the structure. It includes the portion of the structure below
ground level and other artificial arrangements in the form of concrete block, grillage, raft,
piles etc. at its base so as to provide a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the
structure on a large area of the soil lying underneath.

3.2 PURPOSES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations are used for the following purposes.
i. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring
intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.
iii. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
v. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

3.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS.

Foundations can be broadly classified into the following two categories
o Shallow foundations
o Deep foundations
 38
3.3.1 Shallow Foundations

The foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to
the ground level are known as shallow foundations. The purpose of this type of foundations
is to distribute the structural loads over a considerable base area at the foundation bed.
Since spread foundations (shallow foundations) are constructed in open excavations,
therefore, they are termed as open foundations
Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types: -
a. Spread or Isolated footings
b. Combined footing
c. Cantilever footing
d. Continuous or wall footing
e. Raft foundation

Spread or Isolated Footings:- They are used to support individual column.

Isolated footings are stepped type, simple type or slope type, having projections in the base
concrete. To support heavy loads, reinforcement is also provided at the base. The
reinforcement provided is in the form of steel bars and is placed in both directions.

A D
C

b b b

A C D
Plan a a Plan a
Plan

Column Column
Column
Footing
Footing Pedestal
Footing

D D D
b b b

Section A-A Section C-C Section D-D

Single spread footing Stepped spread footing Sloped spread footing
Fig. 3. 1 Spread or isolated footings
 39
Combined Footing:- A combined footing supports two or sometimes three column in a
row. Combined footing is used when property lines, equipment locations, column spacing or
other considerations limit the footing clearance at the column locations. The combined footing
can be rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or can be trapezoidal if
there is a space limitation and they carry unequal loads. Generally they are constructed of
reinforced concrete.

A
A C
C

b b1 b2

a
a
Plan
Plan
Columns Columns
Footing
Footing

D D

a a

Section A.A Section C.C

Combined footing (rectangular) Combined footing (trapezoidal)

Fig. 3. 2 Combined footing

Cantilever or Strap Footing: - Cantilever footing consists of two individual

footings connected by a beam called a strap. It is also sometimes called as strap footing.
Cantilever footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that a
trapezoidal combined footing becomes quite narrow, with resulting high bending moments.
The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil so a strap doesn’t transfer any
pressure to the soil.
 40

A
A

a1 a2

b1 b2

Strap beam

D2
D1

b1 b2
Section A-A
Property line

Fig. 3. 3 Cantilever or strap footing

Continuous or Wall Footing:- In this type of footing a single continuous

reinforced concrete slab is provided as foundation of wall and three or more columns in a
row. This type of footing is suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities. This also
prevents differential settlement in the structure.

Columns
A
C

Wall b b
Plan Plan
A C

Wall Column
Footing Footing

D D
b
b
Section C-C
Section A.A
Wall on footing Columns on footing

Fig. 3. 4 Continuous or wall footing

 41

Raft Foundation:- A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area
beneath a structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low
or the structure loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one-half
of the area, and it may prove more economical to use raft foundation. It is also used where
the soil mass contains compressible layers so that the differential settlement would be
difficult to control the raft tends to bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the
differential settlement.

Flat plate mat foundation Two-way beam and slab

(Ribbed mat)

Fig. 3. 5 Raft footing

3.3.2 Deep Foundations.

When the upper ground stratum at a site is weak and unable to carry the load even by a
raft foundation, then eventually shallow foundation has to be ruled out, and a deep
foundation, taken to an available firm stratum, is adopted. Deep foundation may be in the
form of Piles or Well (i.e., Caissons).

A pile is relatively a small diameter shaft, which is used to transmit the loads to deeper
soil layers capable of supporting the loads. A well on the other hand is a large diameter
circular body, usually, sunk into the ground, by removing the ground soil and it is usually
adopted for structures across rivers streams, where heavy scouring is involved, such as for
supporting the piers of a road or a railway bridge, or some monumental building.
 42

Pile Foundations
A foundation supported on piles is called a pile foundation

Soft
material

Rock
Fig. 3.6 Pile foundation.

Pile foundation is suitable under the following situations

a) When the soil is very soft and solid base is not available at a reasonable depth to
keep the bearing power within safe limits.
b) When shallow foundations are very expensive
c) When the building is a very high and carrying heavy concentrated load.

Classification of Piles
Piles are generally classified into the following categories according to
1. the mode of transfer of load
2. the use
3. composition or material of construction.
4. the method of construction
i. Classification of Piles According to the Mode of Transfer of
Loads
a. End-Bearing Piles:- these piles penetrate through the soft soil or water and their
bottoms rest on a hard stratum and transmits the load to it.
b. Friction Piles:- When loose soil extends to a great depth, piles are driven up to
such a depth that frictional resistance developed at the sides of the piles equals
the load coming on the piles.
c. Combined End-Bearing and Friction Piles:- the piles which rest on hard strata
and resist the loads partly by bearing and partly by their skin friction are known as
friction -cum- Bearing piles
 43

soft material
Frictional soil

Relatively
Soft soil

Hard Relatively hard

strata stratum
End -bearing pile Frictional pile Combined end- bearing and
friction pile
Fig 3.7 Types of piles

ii. Classification of Piles Based on Use

a. Uplift Piles:- These piles anchor down the structure subjected to uplift or
overturning movement.
b. Batter Piles:- The piles driven at an inclination to resist inclined loads are known
as batter piles. These piles are used generally to resist lateral forces in case of
retaining walls, abutments etc.
c. Compaction Piles:- they are used to compact loose granular soils in order to
increase their bearing capacity. These piles themselves do not carry any load.
d. Sheet Piles:- The piles which consist of thin steel sheets driven in the ground to
enclose an area are known as sheet piles. These piles are used to enclose soil so
as to prevent the leakage of water and to enclose soft material.

iii. Classification of Piles According to Their Composition or Material

of Construction.

a. Timber Piles:-Timber piles are made of tree trunks with the branches trimmed off.
The timber to be used for the construction should be free from defects; decay etc. and
it should be well seasoned. These piles are circular or square in cross section. Top of
these piles is provided with an iron ring to prevent it from splitting under bellows of the
hammer. The bottom is fitted with an iron shoe to facilitate sinking of the piles. Piles
entirely submerged in water last long without decay. When a pile is subjected to
alternate wetting and drying the useful life is relatively short.
 44
b. Concrete Piles:- Cement concrete is used in the construction of concrete piles.
These piles are strong and durable and can bear more load than timber piles.
Concrete piles may be classified into the following two types
i) Pre-cast concrete piles
ii) Cast in situ piles

Pre-Cast Concrete Piles:- These piles are manufactured in factory. These are R.C
piles, which are usually square, circular or octagonal in cross-section. Normally these
are made to resist the stresses caused by driving and handling as well as those
produced by loads they are supposed to carry.

Cast-in situ Concrete Piles:- These type of piles are constructed in their locations in
the bore holes prepared for these purpose. The operation consists of boring a hole,
filling it with only concrete or with steel reinforcement and concrete. Straight bored
piles or piles with one or more bulbs at intervals may be cast at site the latter type is
call as under reamed pile.

Single bulb
Straight bored Double bulbs pile

Fig 3.8 Cast-in situ piles

Cast in-situ concrete piles are easy to handle. They do not require any extra
reinforcement to resist the stresses developed during handling or driving operations.
There is no wastage of material as the pile of required length is only constructed. The
extra cost of transporting pile is eliminated.
The disadvantages of these piles are
i. It is difficult to maintain the reinforcement in correct position during
construction of pile
ii. The piles can not be constructed under water, and
iii. It is not possible to have a proper control over the composition and design of
these piles.
 45
c. Sand Piles: - The piles consisting of sand filled in boreholes are called sand
piles. These piles are formed by digging holes. The holes are then filled sand and
compacted. Top of the sand pile is covered with concrete to prevent the sand to come
upwards due to lateral pressure. Sand piles are used occasionally for taking light
loads. They are not suitable in regions subjected to frequent earthquakes.

d. Steel Piles: - The piles consisting of a steel section are called steel piles. These
piles are useful where driving conditions are difficult and other types of piles are not
suitable. Steel piles are usually H shapes or pipe piles. H-piles are proportioned to
withstand large impact stresses during hard driving. Pipe piles fitted with conical cost
iron shoes are driven in the ground and then hollow space is filled with concrete.
e. Composite Piles: - A composite pile is formed when it is a combination either of
a bored pile and a drive pile or of driven piles of two different materials. They are
suitable where the upper part of a pile to project above the water table. They are
economical and easy to construct.

iv. Classification Based on Method of Construction

(Installation)

a. Driven Piles: - These piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy
hammer on their tops.
b. Driven and Cast In-Situ Piles: - These piles are formed by driving a casing
with a closed bottom end into the soil. The casing is later filled with concrete.
The casing may or may not be with drawn.
c. Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles: - These piles are formed by excavating a hole
into the ground and then filling it with concrete.
d. Screw Piles: - The piles are screwed into the soil.
e. Jacked Piles: - These piles are jacked into the soils by applying a downward
force with the help of a hydraulic jack.

Selection of Type and Length of Piles

The choice of a pile is governed largely by the site and soil conditions. Based on the soil
conditions the following types of piles are recommended.
 46
Soil conditions Choice of pile Remarks
Coarse sand or Gravel Driven pile Develops point
or cast in situ pile bearing and friction
resistance
Firm stratum with soft Cast in-situ Pile Improves bearing
material below with enlarged base capacity
Hard stratum at reasonable Point bearing pile Embed pile about 1m
depth (15-30m). With no soft inside hard stratum
material below
Where hard stratum is very Friction pile Cheaper than long
deep (>30m) point bearing pile
Expansive and poor soils Short cast Base shall rest on
overlying firm soil stratum in-situ pile with stable zone
enlarged base

Based on site conditions the following type of piles are recommended

Site conditions Choice of piles Remarks
Close to existing building Cast in-situ pile Cause less damage to
existing building
Under water construction Driven pile Easier to install and
also cheaper

Pile Cap
The main function of pile cap is to transfer loads from a column or wall to an underlying
group of piles. To ensure stability against lateral forces, a pile cap must include at least
three piles; otherwise it should be connected by the beams to adjacent caps.
In general, pile caps should be arranged in such a manner that the centroid of pile
group coincides with the line of action of load, to ensure that all piles carry an equal load
and avoid tilting of group in compressible bearing stratum.

≥50cm
≥15cm
(Embedded length)

≥30cm

Fig. 3. 9 Pile Cap

 47
3.4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION DESIGN

3.4.1 General
The usual approach to a normal foundation-engineering problem is

1. To prepare a plan of the base of the structure showing the various columns, load-
bearing walls with estimated loads, including dead load, live load, moments and
torques coming into the foundation units.
2. To study the tentative allowable bearing pressures allocated for the various strata
below the ground level, as given by the soil investigation report.
3. To determine the required foundation depth. This may be the minimum depth
based on soil strength or structural requirement considerations.
4. To compute the dimensions of the foundation based on the given loading and
allowable bearing pressure.
5. To estimate the total and differential settlements of the structure. If these are
excessive the bearing pressure will have to be reduced or the foundation taken to
a deeper and less compressible stratum or the structure will have to be founded
on piles or other special measures taken

3.4.2 Loads on Foundation

An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation should be made before it
can be properly designed. A foundation may be subjected to two or more of the following
loads.

a) Dead load: - - Weight of structure

- All material permanently attached to structure
- Static earth pressure acting permanently against the
structure below ground surface.
- Water pressure acting laterally against basement walls and
vertically against slab.
b) Live load:- temporary loads expected to superimpose on the structure during its
useful life.
c) Wind load:- lateral load coming from the action of wind. Local building codes
provide magnitude of design wind pressure.
 48
d) Earth-quake load:- lateral load coming from earth quake motion. The total
lateral force (base shear) at the base of a structure is evaluated in accordance with
local building code.
e) Dynamic load:- load coming from a vibrating object (machinery). In such case,
separate foundation should be provided. The impact effect of such loads should be
considered in design.

3.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type

In selecting the foundation type the following points must be considered

a. Function of the structure
b. Loads it must carry
c. Subsurface conditions
d. Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure.

Having these points in mind one should apply the following steps in order to arrive at a
decision.
i. Obtain at least approximate information concerning the nature of the
superstructure and the loads to be transmitted to the foundation
ii. Determine the subsurface condition in a general way.
iii. Consider each of the usual types of foundations in order to judge whether or not

a. They could be constructed under existing conditions.

b. They are capable of carrying the required load.
c. They experience serious differential settlements.

The types that are found to be unsuitable should then be eliminated.

iv. Undertake a detailed study of the most promising types. Such a study may require
additional information on loads and subsurface conditions.

Determine the approximate size of footing or the approximate length and number of
piles required
v. Prepare an estimate for the cost of each promising type of foundation.
vi. Select the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between
performance and cost.
 49

4. Design of shallow Foundations

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the economical and safe design of the common types of shallow
foundations. The main foundation types that are considered here are: isolated or spread
footings, combined footings, strap or cantilever footings and mat or raft foundations.
Shallow foundations are structural members that are used to transfer safely to the
ground the dead load of the superstructure and all external forces acting upon it. The type
and magnitude of the loading will usually be furnished by the engineer design the
superstructure. It is up to the foundation engineer to collect all the information regarding the
purpose of the superstructure, the material that will be used in its construction, its sensitivity
to settlements in general and to differential settlement in particular and all other pertinent
information that may influence the successful selection and execution of the foundation
design. The foundation engineer should also select the soil stratum that most suitable for
the support of the superstructure.
The design of shallow foundations is based on the assumption that they are rigid so that
the variation of pressure under the foundations will be linear. The distribution of pressure
will be uniform if the centroid of the foundation coincides with the resultant of the applied
loads. The requirements in design of foundations are:
1. The pressure on the soil should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be within the permissible limits. Further
there should be no differential settlement.

In order to proportion shallow foundations one should either know the presumptive
allowable soil pressure as dictated by prevalent code or know the appropriate strength
parameters of the soil, i.e., the angle of internal friction,φ , and cohesion, C.
 50
4.1.1 Proportioning of shallow foundations using presumptive
allowable soil pressure.
Through many years of practice, it has been possible to estimate the allowable soil
pressure for different types of soils for uncomplicated soil conditions. Accordingly different
Building codes give allowable average soil pressure. Here EBCS 7 is presented.

Table 4,1 Presumed Design Bearing resistance * under static loading( EBCS 7)
Supporting Description Compactness** Presumed Remarks
Ground or Design Bearing
Type Consistency*** Resistance
(kPa)
Massively crystalline igneous and Hard and
metamorphic rock ( granite, sound
basalt, gneiss)
5600
Foliated metamorphic rock (slate, Medium hard
schist) and sound

Sedimentary rock (hard shale, Medium hard 2800 These

Rocks siltstone, sandstone, limestone) and sound values are
based on the
Weathered or broken-rock (soft Soft 2800 assumptions
limestone) that the
foundations
Soft shale Soft 1400 are carried
down to
Decomposed rock to be unweathered
assessed as soil below. 850 rock

Non- Gravel, sand and gravel Dense 560 Width of

cohesive Medium dense 420 foundation
soils Loose 280 (B) not less
than 1m
 51
Sand Dense 420
Medium dense 280 Ground
Loose 140 water level
assumed to
be depth not
less than B
below the
base of the
foundation.

Cohesive Silt Hard 280

soils Stiff 200
Medium stiff 140
Soft 70

Clay Hard 420

Stiff 280
Medium stiff 140
Soft 70
Very soft Not applicable

* The given design bearing values do not include the effect of the depth of embedment
of the foundation.
** Compactness: dense: N> 30
medium dense: N is 10 to 30
loose: N< 10, where N is standard penetration value
*** Consistency: hard: qu > 400kPa
stiff: qu = 100 to 200kPa
medium stiff qu = 50 to 100kPa
soft: qu = 25 to 50 kPa, where qu is unconfined compressive strength
 52
4.1.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil strength
parameters φ and C.

For cases where presumptive allowable soil pressures can not be used, one should
determine the soil strength parameters φ and C. These parameters may be approximated
or determined from laboratory tests. Using the value of φ and C thus obtained, one can
easily determine the area of the foundation in question using bearing capacity equations.

In applying the bearing capacity equations one should differentiate two states of
loading, namely, the initial or instantaneous loading condition and the final or long- term
loading condition.

In the initial loading condition, the load is assumed to act instantaneously. At this stage
the pore water pressure in the soil does not have time to dissipate. This situation
corresponds to the quick or undrained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters
are designated by φu and Cu - in most cases φu = 0.

In the final or long term loading condition, the load is assumed to act gradually as
construction progresses thus giving the pore water pressure in the soil ample time to
dissipate. Here the situation corresponds to the slow or drained test condition of the triaxial
test. The soil parameters in this case are designated by φ’ and C’.

The ultimate load that may be applied on a foundation with sides a and b may be
determined from the following equation

Vf = A′σf ----------------------------------------------------------- (4.1)

Where A′ = a′ b′= effective area (Fig. 4.1)

a′ = a-2ea = effective length

b′ = b-2eb= effective width

σf = ultimate bearing capacity of the footing

ea and eb = Eccentricities in the long and short directions, respectively.
 53
The actual sustained load on the footing may be related to the ultimate load

Vf =ηp -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - (4.2)

Where η = factor of safety

P = actual sustained load on the foundation

b’

a’ . ea

eb

Fig.4.1 Effective width and length of a foundation.

One may then express Eqn. (4.1) as

ηp = A′σf -------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.3)

From which it follows

ηP
A′ = ------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.4)
σf
From Eqn. (4.4) one easily determines the required area since all the quantities on the
right hand side of the equation are known.

The ultimate bearing capacity, σf , may be determined from the following equation

σf = CNc Scdcic+ ½ b’ γ Nγ Sγdγ iγ + q Nq Sqdqiq --------------------- (4.5)

 54
Where
qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing,
C = Cohesion,
q = Effective surcharge at the base level of the footing.
γ = effective unit weight of soil
Nc, Nq, Nγ = Bearing capacity factor

Sc, Sq ,Sγ = Shape factors

dc ,dq, dγ = Depth factors

ic, iq, iγ , = Inclination factors

For initial loading conditions, where φu = 0, the failure surface of the soil consist of
straight lines and an arc of a circle. The bearing capacity coefficient would have the values
Nc =5.1, Nq= 1.0, Nγ = 0. Eqn. (4.5) may be written as

σf = 5.1CuSc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq --------------------------------- (4.6)

4.1.3 Structural Considerations.

Before going into the structural design, one should check if the settlement of the
selected foundation is within the prescribed safe limits. If the settlement exceeds the safe
limits, one should increase the dimensions of the foundations until the danger of settlement
is eliminated.

The last stage in the design of foundations is the structural design. One should check
the adequacy of the thickness of the footing and provide the necessary reinforcement to
withstand punching shear, diagonal tension (wide beam shear), bending moment and bond
stress.
 55
Allowable stresses according to EBCS-2
I. Punching Shear Resistance

Vp = 0.5fctd ( 1+50ρe) (MPa)

ρe = ρ ex . ρ ey ≤ 0.008

Vup = 0.5fctd ( 1+50ρe) u d (MN)

Ii . Diagonal Tension

Vd = 0.3fctd ( 1+50ρ) (MPa)

as
ρ= ≤ 0.02
bwd

Vud = 0.3fctd ( 1+50ρ) bwd (MN)

iii. Development length
φ f yd
ld = (cm)
4 f bd

f yd =
f yk
γs
; f bd = f ctd
0.35 f ck
f ctd =
γc
Where as= area of tension reinforcement (mm2)
bw= width of web (mm)
d = effective depth (mm)
fbd= design bond strength (MPa)
fck = characteristics compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
fctd = design tensile strength of concrete (MPa)
fyd = design yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
fyk = characteristics yield strength of concrete (MPa)
u = periphery of critical section (mm)
γc = partial safety factor for concrete = 1.5
γs = partial safety factor for steel = 1.15
ρ = geometrical ratio of reinforcement
ρe =effective geometrical ratio of reinforcement
 56
ρex = geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the x-direction
ρey= geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the y-direction

4.2 Isolated or Spread Footings

I. Depth of footing

The depth of embedment must be at least large enough to accommodate the required
footing thickness. This depth is measured from the lowest adjacent ground surface to the
bottom of the footing.
Footings should be carried below
a) zone of high volume change due to moisture fluctuation
b) top (organic) soil
c) peat and muck
d) unconsolidated (or fill) material
According to EBCS-7
- minimum depth of footing should be 50cm
- for footings on sloping sites, minimum depth of footing should be 60cm and
90cm below ground surface on rocky and soil formations, respectively.

Footing at different elevations: - When adjacent footings are to be placed at different

levels, the distance between the edges of footings shall be such as to prevent undesirable
overlapping of stresses in soils and disturbance of the soil under the higher footing due to
excavation for the lower footing. A minimum clear distance of half the width of the footing is
recommended.

II. Proportioning of footing

The required area of the footing and subsequently the proportions will be determined
using presumptive allowable soil pressure and/or the soil strength parameters φ and C as
discussed previously.

III. Structural Design

i) Punching shear:- This factor generally controls the depth of footings. It is the
normal practice to provide adequate depth to sustain the shear stress developed without
reinforcement. The critical section that is to be considered is indicated in Fig. 4.2
 57

A b’ +d A

b’
a
a’ +d a’

Critical
section

d/2 Critical
d/2
section

D d

Average soil
pressure,σ
b
Section A-A
Fig. 4.2 Critical section for punching shear

From the figure it is apparent the concrete shear resistance along the perimeter would
be

2( a’ +d + b’+ d) dVup ……………………………………………………… (4.7)

Where Vup = allowable soil pressure
The net force on the perimeter due to the soil pressure would be

{a ∗ b − [(a '+ d )(b'+ d )]}σ ………………………………………… (4.8)

From equilibrium consideration, Eqn. (4.7) and Eqn. (4.8) should be equal

2( a’ +d + b’+ d) dVup = {a ∗ b − [(a '+ d )(b'+ d )]}σ

 58

(
2a' dVup + 2d 2Vup + 2b' dVup + 2d 2Vup = ab − a' b'−a' d − b' d − d 2 σ )
2a' dVup + 2d 2Vup + 2b' dVup + 2d 2Vup + a' dσ + b' dσ + d 2σ = (ab − a' b')σ

2a' dVup + 2b' dVup + 4d 2Vup + d 2σ + a' dσ + b' dσ = (ab − a' b')σ

d (2a'Vup + 2b'Vup + a' σ + b' σ ) + d 2 (4Vup + σ ) = (ab − a' b')σ

d 2 (4Vup + σ ) + d (2Vup (a'+b' ) + σ (a'+b' )) = (ab − a' b')σ

d 2 (4Vup + σ ) + d (2Vup + σ )(a'+b' ) = (ab − a' b')σ

d 2 (4Vup + σ ) + d (2Vup + σ )(a'+b' ) = (Afooting − Acolumn)σ …………… (4.9)

For square columns a’ = b’ and round columns with diameter a’, Eqn. (4.9) would be

d 2 (4Vup + σ ) + d (2Vup + σ )(2a' ) = (Afooting − Acolumn)σ ……… (4.10)

In the above equations, all quantities with the exception of d are known. By solving one
of the equations the effective depth necessary to sustain the punching shear may be
determined.

ii) Diagonal Tension (wide beam shear)

The selected depth using the punching shear criterion may not be adequate to
withstand the diagonal tension developed. Hence one should also check the safety against
diagonal tension. The critical sections that should be considered are given in Fig. 4.3 .
 59

b
C

D D
B d B
b’
a
a’

d
Critical
section

P Critical
section

d
d

D d

Average soil
pressure,σ
b
Section B-B

Fig. 4.3 Critical section for diagonal tension

The shear forces are calculated along the plane C-C and D-D

V C-C = (b/2 –d - b’/2)σa ………………………………………….. (4.11)

V D-D = (a/2 –d - a’/2)σb ………………………………………….. (4.12)

The actual shear stress is then calculated from

VC − C
v C-C = ……………………………………………………… (4.13)
ad
VD− D
v D-D = ……………………………………………………. (4.14)
bd
These calculated actual shear stresses should be compared with allowable stress.
 60
iii ) Bending Moment
The external moment on any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a vertical plane
through the footing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over the entire area of the
footing on one side of that vertical plane. The critical sections for the bending moment vary
according to the type of columns.
According to EBCS 2-1995, the critical section for moment shall be taken as follows:
a) At the face of column, pedestal or wall for footings supporting a concrete pedestal or
wall
b) Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footings supporting a masonry wall
c) Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base for footings supporting a
column with base plates.

Critical sections
varies according
to the type of
column as given
in a,b and c
a

Column

Concrete
Column Critical
section

D d
a)
ld
b

Available
embedment length
 61

Masonry
column Critical
section

b) D d

X x/2 ld

b
Available
embedment length

Base plate Steel

column
X
x/2 Critical
section
c) D d

ld
b
Available
embedment length

Fig. 4.4 Critical sections for moments

Flexural Reinforcement
1. Distribution: In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement shall be
distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing.
2. In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall be distributed as follows:
a) Reinforcement in long direction shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of
footing
b) For reinforcement in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement given by
Eqn.(4.15) shall be distributed uniformly over a band width ( centered on center line of
column or pedestal) equal to the length of the short side of footing. The reminder of the
reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed uniformly out side the center
band width of the footing.
 62
Re inf orcement in band width 2 ……………
= (4.15)
Total re inf orcement in short direction β + 1

Where β is the ratio of long side to short side of footing (a/b).

IV. Development length

The reinforcement bars must extend a sufficient distance into the concrete to develop proper
anchorage. This distance is called the development length.
The necessary development length may be calculated using the following equation.

φ f yd
ld =
4 f bd

Concrete cover to reinforcement (According to EBCS2-1995)

- Concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover should be greater than
75mm
- Concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover should
be greater than 40mm.
Spacing of reinforcement
The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to the largest of
the following values: (EBCS2-1995)
a) 20mm
b) the diameter of the largest bar
c) the maximum size of the aggregate plus 5mm

The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350mm
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400mm
 63
Examples
4.1 Determine the dimensions of a square footing necessary to sustain an axial column load of
850kN as shown in Fig. below, if
a) an allowable presumptive bearing pressure of 150kN/m2 is used.
b) Cu = 40 kN/m2 ; C’ = 7.5 kN/m2 ; φ’ =22.50

P=850kN

γ = 19.1kN/m3

2m

GWL

Solution
a) Using presumptive value

P 850
A= = = 5.67m 2 = B 2
σ as 150
The dimension of the footing would be 2.40m X 2.40m
b) Using the bearing capacity formula
i) Initial loading condition

σf = 5.1Cu Sc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq
Shape factors
Sc = 1.2, Sq = 1

Depth factors
dc = (1+0.4(2/B)) , dq = 1
Load inclination factors

ic = 1 , iq = 1
 64

Hence
σf = 5.1*40 *1.2*(1+0.8/B)*1+ 19.1*2*1**1*1 = (244.8+195.84/B +38.2)
A σf = Pη
Pη (850)2
A= = = B2
σf 253 + 195.84 / B

253 B2 +195.84B – 1700 = 0

The dimension of the footing would be 2.25m X 2.25m

ii) Final or long term loading condition

σf = CNc Scdcic+ ½ B’ γ Nγ Sγdγ iγ + q Nq Sqdqiq

Bearing capacity factors

Nc= 17.45, Nγ = 6.82, Nq = 8.23

Shape factors
Sc = 1+(Nq/ Nc)=1.47, Sγ = 0.6 , Sq = 1+ tan φ= 1.41

Depth factors

dc = 1+ 0.4 (2 / B)=1+0.8/B

dγ = 1

dq = 1+2 tan 22.5(1-sin22.5)2(Df / B) =1+0.63/B

Load inclination factors

ic = 1, iγ= 1 , iq = 1

Hence
σf = 7.5*17.45*1.47*(1+0.8/B’)*1+ ½ B’ *9.1* 6.82* 0.6*1*1 + 19.1*2*8.23*
1.41*(1+0.63/B)*1 = 192.39 +153.91/B +18.62B +443.28 + 279.27/B
A σf = Pη

2 Pη 850 * 2
=
B =
σf ( )
635.67 + 433.18 + 18.62 B
B
 65
18.62*B3 + 635.67*B2 + 433.18*B = 1700

From the above the dimension of the footing would be 1.35m X1.35m

4.2 Given R.C. column size 30X50 cm with 4φ22.

P = 1000kN
M = 250 kN-m
Net allowable soil bearing pressure = 400kPa
fyk = 300MPa⇒ fyd = 300/1.15 = 260.87 MPa
C25 ⇒fck= 20MPa⇒fctk = 1.5 MPa,
Required:- Design of rectangular R.C. footing

l2

30 l1
b
50
 66

Solution

Size of footing

Let l1 = l2
a − 50 b − 30
Then = ⇒ a − b = 50 − 30 = 20cm = 0.2m
2 2
M 250
Eccentricity, ea = = = 0.25m
P 1000
Contact pressure

σmin
σmax

P ⎛ 6ea ⎞ P ⎛ 6ea ⎞
σ max = ⎜1 + ⎟ = ⎜1 + ⎟
A⎝ a ⎠ ab ⎝ a ⎠
1000 ⎛ 6 * 0.25 ⎞
400 = ⎜1 + ⎟
(0.2 + b )b ⎝ (0.2 + b ) ⎠
1500
400(0.20b + b 2 ) = 1000 +
(0.2 + b )
400b3 + 160b 2 − 984b − 1700 = 0

by trial and error b= 1.96 m

Take b= 2m
 67

Then a = b+0.20m = 2.20m

Actual contact pressure

1000 ⎛ 6 * 0.25 ⎞
σ max = ⎜1 + ⎟ = 382.23kN / m < σ all
2
ok
(2.2 )(2 ) ⎝ (2.2 ) ⎠
1000 ⎛ 6 * 0.25 ⎞
σ min = ⎜1 − ⎟ = 72.31kN / m > 0
2
ok
(2.2 )(2 ) ⎝ (2.2 ) ⎠

Thickness of footing

i, Wide beam shear

X = 0.85m
1.35m
d

72.31kN/m2 σ 382.23kN/m2

σ1
Contact stress at distance d from the face of the column, σ

(382.23 − 72.31)(1.35 + d )
σ = 72.31 +
2.20
σ = 262.48 + 140.87d
 68

σ max + σ ⎞ ⎛ 382.23 + 262.48 + 140.87d ⎞(

σ 1 = ⎛⎜ ⎟ (0 . 85 − d ) = ⎜ ⎟ 0.85 − d )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 274 − 262.49d − 70.44d 2

V
Vd =
bd
,
[
V = 247 − 262.49d − 70.44d 2 b ]
Vd = 0.3fctd ( 1+50ρ) ≤ 0.02

For C25 ⇒fck= 20MPa⇒ fctk = 1.5 MPa,

fcd = 0.85*fck /γc =0.85 *20/1.5 = 11.33 MPa
fctd = fctk /γc = 1.5/1.5 =1MPa
Assume ρ=0.02

Then
Vd = 0.3*1.0 ( 1+50*0.02)= 0.6 MPa =600kPa

600 =
(274 − 262.49d − 70.44d 2 )2
2*d

140.88d 2 + 1462.49d − 548 = 0

d = 0.36m

take d = 0.40m

ii, Punching shear

Allowable punching shear Vp = 0.5fctd ( 1+50ρe) , assume ρe = 0.008

Vp = 0.5*1( 1+50*0.008)=0.7MPa = 700kPa

 69

P
M

1.55m
0.65m d /2 d /2 0.65m

72.31kN/m2 382.23kN/m2
σ1
σ2
σ

0.65 * (382.23 − 72.31)

σ 1 = 72.31 + = 163.88kN / m 2
2.20
1.55 * (382.23 − 72.31)
σ 2 = 72.31 + = 290.66kN / m 2
2.20
σ +σ2 163.88 + 290.66
σ= 1 * 0.90 = * 0.90 = 204.54kN / m
2 2
V = 204.54 * 2.00 = 409.08kN

Net shear force developed = 1000 – 409.08 = 590.92kN

Punching stress,

V 590.92
= = 461.66kN / m 2 < 700kPa ok
b p d 2(0.90 + 0.7)0.40
 70
Bending Moment

1.35m

0.85m

72.31kN/m2 382.23kN/m2

σ σ2 σ1

1.35 * (382.23 − 72.31)

σ = 72.31 + = 262.49kN / m 2
2.20
1
σ 1 = (0.85)(382.23 − 262.49) = 50.93kN / m
2
1
σ 2 = (0.85)(262.49) = 223.12kN / m
2
⎡ 2 0.85 ⎤
M = ⎢σ 1 (0.85) + σ 2 ( ) b
⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0.85 ⎤
M = ⎢(50.93) (0.85) + (223.12)(
2
)⎥1 = 123.69kN − m / m
⎣ 3 2 ⎦
Moment capacity of concrete

M = 0.32 ∗ f cd ∗ bd 2
= 0.32 ∗ 11.33 × 10 3 ∗ 1.0 ∗ (0.4 ) = 1450 .24 kN − m / m
2

Calculation of reinforcement

Long direction
 71

f cd ⎡ 2M ⎤
ρ = ⎢1 − 1 − ⎥
f yd ⎢⎣ f cd bd 2 ⎥⎦
⎡
11 .33 2 ∗ 123 .69 ⎤
= ⎢ 1 − 1 − 2 ⎥
= 0 .0031 > ρ min
⎢⎣
260 .87 11 .33 × 10 3 ∗ 1 .0 ∗ (0 .4 ) ⎥⎦
As = ρ bd = 0 .0031 ∗ 100 ∗ 40 = 12 .4 cm 2 / m

use φ16

as ∗100 2.01 ∗100

spacing = = = 16.2cm
As 12.4
Use φ16c/c16cm

Short direction

1.15m
0.85m

σ
σ1

average contact pressure ,σ

σ + σ min
σ avg = max
2
382.23 + 72.31
σ avg = = 227.27kN / m2
2
 72

⎡ 0 . 85 ⎤
M = ⎢σ 1 ( ) a
⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 . 85 ⎤
M = ⎢ 227 . 27 ( ) ⎥1 = 96 . 59 kN − m / m
⎣ 2 ⎦

⎡
f cd 2M ⎤
ρ= ⎢1 − 1 − ⎥
⎢⎣
f yd f cd bd 2 ⎥⎦

11.33 ⎡ 2 ∗ 96.59 ⎤
= ⎢1 − 1 − 2 ⎥
= 0.0026 > ρ min
260.87 ⎢⎣ 11.33 × 103 ∗ 1.0 ∗ (0.384 ) ⎥⎦
As = ρbd = 0.0026 ∗ 100 ∗ 38.4 = 9.98cm 2 / m

as ∗ 100 2.01 ∗ 100

spacing = = = 20.1cm
As 9.98
Use φ16c/c20cm
Since there is no much difference between a and b, distribute these reinforcement uniformly.

Development length

φ f yd
ld =
4 f bd

f yd =
f yk ; f bd = f ctd
γ s = 260.87 MPa

0 . 35 f ck 0 . 35 20
f ctd = = = 1MPa
γc 1 .5

φ f yd
1.6 ∗ 260.87
ld = = = 104.35cm
4 fbd 4 ∗1

ldavailable = 85cm < ld , bend the bars upward with a length of 30cm
 73
4.3 Combined Footing

A) Rectangular Combined footing

a) Area of use :- Used to carry two or more columns in one row
-used to carry two columns when X’ = L’/2,
X’= distance to center of gravity of column load

X’

c.g

L’

b) Design Assumptions :- footing is infinitely rigid

Linear soil pressure distribution under footing

c) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam

In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing with effective widths
at exterior and interior columns being a’ +d/2 and a’ +d respectively

a’ a’

a’+d/2 a’+d/2

L
 74
d) Design procedure
i) determine length of footing (L) in such a way that the center of gravity(c.g.)of footing
area coincides that of the c.g. of loads

i.e., L = 2x’

ii) determine the width of footing(B) such that the allowable soil pressure is not
exceeded

∑P
i.e., B=
Lσ all
iii) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of
the footing
iv) calculate depth of footing
v) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

B) Trapezoidal combined footing

Area of use:- used in case where exterior column carries largest load and X’ < L’/2 but X’ >
L’/3
X’

c.g
B1 B2

L’
L

a) Design Assumptions :- footing is infinitely rigid

Linear soil pressure distribution under footing
 75
b) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam
In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing similar to that of
rectangular combined footing.

c) Design procedure
1) determine the sizesof footing (L,B1,B2) from conditions that
i) the minimum required are

∑P
A=
σ all
⎛ B + B2 ⎞
A=⎜ 1 ⎟L
⎝ 2 ⎠

ii) the c.g. of footing are coincides that of column loads. The distance to
the c.g. of trapezoidal footing x’ is calculated from

L ⎛ 2 B2 + B1 ⎞
X '= ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝⎜ B2 + B1 ⎟⎠

2) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of
the footing. In this case, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are 2nd degree
and 3rd degree curves, respectively.

3) calculate depth of footing

4) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement
 76
4.4 Strap or Cantilever Footing

Strap footings are used as alternatives to combined footings when the cost of combined footings
is relatively high.

Essentially a strap footing consists of a rigid beam connecting two pads (footings) to transmit
unbalanced shear and moment from the statically unbalanced footing to the second fotting.

Design Assumptions
- strap is infinitely rigid
- strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. (To confirm with this,
strap is constructed slightly above soil or soil under strap is loosened).

a1 a2
strap

b2
b1 b’ b’’
a’ a’’

WS XS
P1 XC P2

a1 a2

σa2
σa1
XR
a’/2 e R2
R
1. a) Assume1 a1 and establish the eccentricity, e of the soil reaction force R1.
a/2
a1 − a '
e=
2
e = XC − X R
 77

b) Determine the magnitude of the soil reaction force by taking moments about R2.
Xc X
R1 = P1 + Ws s
XR XR
In this equation the weight of the strap, Ws, may be neglected if the strap is relatively short.

c) Determine the reaction R2 from equilibrium consideration

R2 = P1 + P2 + Ws − R1
2. Determine sizes of footings using known values of R1, R2 and σall.

R1
b1 =
σ a1 * a1
R2
b2 =
σ a 2 * a2

R2
( For square footing b2 = a2 = . For rectangular footing assume some value of a2
σ a2
and determine b2).

It should be noted that the actual bearing pressures under the footings should not very
different from each other in order to minimize differential settlement.

3. Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the
footings.
4. Select depths of footings for shear requirement.
5. Select steel reinforcement for bending requirement.
6. In short direction, the footings analyzed as spread footing subject to uniform soil pressure.
 78

7. Design strap as flexural member for the shear and moment obtained above.

b2
b1 b’ b’’
a’ a’’

WS XS
P1 XC P2

a1 a2

σa2
σa1
XR
a’/2 R2
R1
a/2