STUDY NOTE: FAILURE THEORIES

Please note that this study note is a combination of Prof Tabakov’s notes and sections
taken from the prescribed book: Mechanics of Engineering Materials by PP Benham &
RJ Crawford.
Remember that the test questions will be very similar to those in this Study Note so
go through them carefully!
Introduction
When dealing with the design of structures or components the physical properties of
the constituent materials are usually found from the results of laboratory
experiments which have only subjected the materials to the simplest stress conditions.
The most usual test is the simple tensile test in which the value of stress at yield or at
fracture (whichever occurs first) is easily determined. The strengths of materials u nder
complex stress systems are not generally known except in a few particular cases.

In practice it is these complicated systems of stress which are more often encountered,
and therefore it is necessary to have some basis for determining allowable working
stresses so that failure will not occur. Thus, the function of the theories of elastic
failure is to predict from the behaviour of materials in a simple tensile test when
elastic failure will occur under any condition of applied stress.

In order to determine suitable allowable stresses for the complicated stress conditions
which occur in practical design, various failure theories or criteria have been
developed. Such theories are also called strength theories or yield criteria.

The purpose of these theories is to predict failure conditions under combined stresses,
assuming that the behaviour in a simple tension or compression is known. by failure
of the material is meant either yielding or actual rupture, whichever occurs first.

Maximum principal stress theory

The theory assumes that when the maximum principal stress in the complex stress
system reaches the elastic limit stress in simple tension, failure occurs. The criterion
of failure is thus:

Note that the principal stresses are denoted σ1, σ2 and σ3.
 Note 1. Remember:
The maximum and minimum principal stresses are calculated
as:

Whilst the theory can be shown to hold fairly well for brittle materials, there is
considerable experimental evidence that the theory should not be applied for ductile
materials. For example, even in the case of the pure tension test itself, failure for
ductile materials takes place not because of the direct stresses applied but in shear
on planes at 45° to the specimen axis.

Also, truly homogeneous materials can withstand very high hydrostatic pressures with­
out failing, thus indicating that maximum direct that maximum direct stresses alone
do not constitute a valid failure criteria for all loading conditions.

1. Maximum Shear Stress (Tresca) Criterion

The failure theories are generally expressed in terms of principal stresses, since these
completely determine a general state of stress, Figure 1. Materials which exhibit "yielding"
followed by some plastic deformation prior to fracture as measured under simple tensile or
compressive stress are termed ductile.

The French engineer Tresca in 1868 made the assumption that yielding is dependent
on the maximum shear stress in the material reaching critical value. This is taken as
the maximum shear stress at yielding in a uniaxial tensile test. The maximum shear
stress in the complex stress system will depend on the relative values and signs of
the three principal stresses.

For a general 3D stress system, or in 2D case with one of the stresses tensile, one
compressive and the third zero, the maximum shear stress is

(1)
Under uniaxial tension there is only one principal stress so that the maximum shear stress is

and at yield this becomes τy = σy/2. Therefore, the criterion states that

or

For the case when two of the principal stresses are of the same type, tension or compression,
and the third is zero:

and yielding occurs when

2. Shear Strain Energy Criterion (aka von Mises Criterion)

The Ukrainian scientist Huber in 1904 proposed that the total elastic strain energy stored in
an element of material could considered as consisting of energy stored due to change in
volume and energy stored due to change in shape, ie. distortion or shear. It was
proposed that the latter contribution of stored strain energy could provide a viable criterion for
complex yield conditions. The same criterion was also suggested independently by
Maxwell, von Mises and Hencky, but now generally referred to the von Mises criterion.
Thus

where the bar above denotes the average stress which produces a change in volume, but no
distortion:

Consider the effect of the σ’ components of stress:

Substituting
we obtain

From the stress-strain relationships we know that

Hence

And since the sum of the stresses is zero we have

Thus, the stress components cause no change in volume but only change in shape.

Strain energy quantities UT = total strain energy; UV and Us = shear distortion strain
energy:

Using stress strain relationships above and rearranging the terms we get the total energy per unit
volume

The volumetric strain energy can now be determined from the hydrostatic component of
stress
But US = UT - UV thus

After simplification, and per unit volume:

Or using the relationship between E, G and v where G = E/2(1-v)

The shear strain energy theory proposes that yielding commences when the quantity Us reaches
the equivalent value at yielding in simple tension (σ1 and σ3 = 0 and σ1= σY), thus

Next

In the 2D system, σ3 = 0 and for yielding to occur:

(2)

Many experiments have been conducted under complex stress conditions to study the
behaviour of metals and it has been shown that hydrostatic pressure, and by inference
hydrostatic tension, does not cause yielding. Any complex system can be regarded as a
combination of hydrostatic stress and a function of the difference of principal stresses,
and therefore a yield criterion such as that of Tresca or von Mises which based on
principal stress difference seems the most logical.

The principal stresses may then be calculated and plotted to represent yielding, as shown in
Figure 3. It is seen that there is a close correlation with the von Mises shear strain energy
criterion ( r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e e l l i p s e ) and that the Tresca maximum shear stress criterion
(the flat-sided polygon). As can be seen, the Tresca criterion is satisfactory but more
conservative (because the ellipse encloses the flat-sided polygon and thus has a greater area)
Example 1.
A mild steel shaft of 50mm diameter is subjected to a bending moment of
1.9kNm. If the yield point of the steel in simple tension is 200MN/m2, find the
maximum torque that can also be applied according to
(a) the maximum shear stress;
(b) the shear strain energy theory of yielding

Given:
Maximum bending stress:

Maximum shear stress:

Solution:
(a)
We must use the two equations given to calculate the maximum bending stress and shear
stress and then use the equations given in the Note 1 box above to calculate the
maximum and minimum principal stresses

The maximum bending stress is:

The maximum shear stress is:

(a) Maximum shear stress (Tresca) theory is given by equation (1):

Thus,

Also, from Note 1 above,

And

Thus,

equals (after simplifying, and since σx = 155 MPa and τxy = 40.7 x 103T):

Note 2: from above we can see that

(b) The maximum strain energy (von Mises) theory is given by equation (2):

We are told that the yield point is 200MPa, and so may equate the von Mises criterion
equation to σy =155 MPa:

But we know that σ2y = σ2x + 3τ2yx

Thus equating, we get σ2x + 3τ2yx = (200 x 106)2

And after substituting for σx and τxy we find T:

1552 + 3(0.00166T2) = 2002 so T = 1.79KN.m
Example 2.
A thin-walled steel cylinder of 2m diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of
2.5MN/m2. Using a safety factor of 2 and a yield stress in simple tension of 400MN/m2,
calculate wall thickness on the basis of Tresca and von Mises yield criteria. It may be
assumed that the radial stress in the wall is negligible.

Solution: The principal stresses in the cylinder can be calculated as:

(a) Tresca criterion. Since both axial and circumferential stresses are tension the maximum
difference between principal stresses gives:

Hence

(b) von Mises criterion:

We can see that the plate is thicker with the Tresca theory, which proves it is more conservative.
Example 3.
A solid circular shaft is subjected to a bending moment of 8 kNm and a torque of 12 kNm. In a uniaxial
tensile test the shaft material gave the following results: Modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa; Stress at
yield point σY = 300 N/mm2; Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3. Estimate the least diameter of the shaft using the
maximum shear stress theory (ie. the Tresca criterion), and take 3 as a factor of safety.

Also

And

Solution:
Since I = πd4/64 and so the bending stress is σx = 256/πd3
Jp = πd4/32 and so the stress due to torque τx = 192/πd3
(a) at yield, Tresca becomes (after inserting the safety factor)

We know from Note 2 that

Thus,