DISCOURSE MARKERS – CONNECTORS

The word discourse is used to refer to a piece or unit of writing or speech that is longer
than, respectively, a sentence or an utterance. In writing, especially academic writing, it is
essential for the author to guide the reader through the discourse signalling what is
important and how each sentence connects to others. Readers who have to “work” too
hard to understand where to focus their attention and to link together the concepts
presented in the writing do not have enough mental energy to process the author’s ideas
and to remember them after having finished reading.
One of the main ways that authors help guide readers through discourse is by “marking”
how the coming sentence or clause (NB discourse markers generally come at the
beginning of clauses and sentences) relates back to previous discourse. Thus if the author
wants to show a continuation of a previous line of thought, s/he will begin the coming
sentence with a marker such as in addition or moreover. This automatically helps the
reader to approach the coming sentence with the knowledge of how it relates to the theme
the author is constructing (i.e. this is another sentence in support of an idea previously
posited). If, on the other hand, the author wants to signal a change in direction of the
discourse, s/he will utilize a marker such as on the other hand or conversely (now go back
to the beginning of this sentence and note how the phrase on the other hand prepared you
to understand that the sentence would pose an idea in opposition to the previously
presented idea of supporting a previous theme, replaced by the concept of contrasting a
previous theme).
It isn’t easy to present a complete list of discourse markers and their various functions.
There are many of them, and, perhaps even more importantly, some of them are used
more in speech than in writing, or vice versa or some of them are more informally used
than formally and so on and so on. The best way to understand an effective use of
discourse markers (which, remember, is essential for academic writing!) is to read a lot.
However, reading without paying special attentions to discourse markers may be
somewhat helpful, but not completely. You must take a step back from the reading process
in order to pick out and notice how the author is employing discourse markers and what
they add to the reading experience. In this way, you can begin to develop both a conscious
and unconscious knowledge of how to use them yourself. What’s important is NOT to
simply throw discourse markers haphazardly into your writing. This is the case, for
example, of learners who remember suddenly, “oh yeah, I’m supposed to be using those
discourse markers” and then arbitrarily write one of the common ones remembered at the
moment (indeed, for some unknown reason, Italian students love moreover and use it
constantly, often when it’s not appropriate).
I have compiled some lists of discourse markers for you to look at and study, and to keep
close at hand when you are writing. While it is obvious that you may develop a preference
for certain discourse markers, you should try to vary them, especially now as you are
learning to write academic English. You are in the process of learning and developing a
writing style and so if you limit yourself to the use of just a few discourse markers now, you
will inevitably continue to develop a style which is more limited and less versatile.
Below you will find 3 separate lists and/or tables which show discourse markers, their
functions, grammatical definitions and some examples. I have decided to include all three,
even if this means that there are repetitions, in order to show you how different people
might look at discourse markers differently. In other words, these are not mathematical
formulas but rather expressions which may be interpreted and utilized in slightly different
ways by different authors. You may find that one list or table in particular appeals to you in
its presentation, explanation and organization. Or you may vary between them without a

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particular preference; what’s important is that you don’t simply read through them once,
but that instead you refer to them during your writing process so as to stimulate your
creativity and remind yourself of the importance of discourse marker usage in your writing.

A LIST OF DISCOURSE MARKERS WITH EXAMPLES

with regard to; regarding; as regards; as far as ……… is concerned, as for
These expressions focus attention on what follows in the sentence. This is done by
announcing the subject in advance. As regards and as far as………is concerned usually
indicate a change of subject
Examples:
His grades in science subjects are excellent. As regards humanities …
With regard to the latest market figures we can see that ...
Regarding our efforts to improve the local economy, we have made ...
As far as I am concerned, we should continue to develop our resources.
As for John's thoughts, let's take a look at this report he sent me.

on the other hand; while; whereas

These expressions give expression to two ideas which contrast but do not contradict each
other.
Examples:
Football is popular in England, while in Australia they prefer cricket.
We've been steadily improving our customer service center.
On the other hand our shipping department needs to be redesigned.
Jack thinks we're ready to begin whereas Tom things we still need to wait.

however, nonetheless, nevertheless

All these words are used to present two contrasting ideas.
Examples:
Smoking is proved to be dangerous to the health. Nonetheless, 40% of the population
smokes.
Our teacher promised to take us on a field trip. However, he changed his mind last week.
Peter was warned not to invest all of his savings in the stock market. Nevertheless, he
invested and lost everything.

moreover, furthermore, in addition

We use these expressions to add information to what has been said. The usage of these
words is much more elegant than just making a list or using the conjunction 'and'.
Examples:
His problems with his parents are extremely frustrating. Moreover, there seems to be no
easy solution to them.
I assured him that I would come to his presentation. Furthermore, I also invited a number
of important representatives from the local chamber of commerce.
Our energy bills have been increasing steadily. In addition to these costs, our telephone
costs have doubled over the past six months.

therefore, as a result, consequently

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These expressions show that the second statement follows logically from the first
statement.
Examples:
He reduced the amount of time studying for his final exams. As a result, his marks were
rather low.
We've lost over 3,000 customers over the past six months. Consequently, we have been
forced to cut back our advertising budget.
The government has drastically reduced its spending. Therefore, a number of programs
have been cancelled.

CONNECTORS TABLE

Type of
Con n e ct or ( s) Ex a m ple s
Con n e ct or
Professionals can som et im es be ext rem ely
Coordinat ing
for ( ca u se ) , so ( e ffe ct ) im pat ient , for t heir posit ions are at t im es
conj unct ions
rat her st ressful.
Since high level posit ions are at t im es rat her
Subordinat ing
be ca u se , sin ce st ressful, professionals can som et im es be
conj unct ions
ext rem ely im pat ient .
High level posit ions are at t im es rat her
Conj unct ive t h e r e for e , a s a r e su lt ,
st ressful; t herefore, professionals can
adverbs con se qu e n t ly
som et im es be ext rem ely im pat ient .
Due t o t he st ressful nat ure of high level
be ca u se of, du e t o, a s a
Preposit ions posit ions, professionals can som et im es be
r e su lt of
ext rem ely im pat ient .
Type of Connect or Con n e ct or ( s) Exam ples
Coordinat ing High level posit ions are st ressful at t im es,
and
Conj unct ion and can be harm ful t o your healt h.
in a ddit ion , a ddit ion a lly, High level posit ions are st ressful at t im es;
Conj unct ive
fu r t h e r m or e , m or e ove r , furt herm ore, t hey can be harm ful t o your
adverbs
a lso healt h
Not only are high level posit ions st ressful at
Correlat ive
n ot on ly...bu t a lso t im es, but t hey also can be harm ful t o your
conj unct ions
healt h.
Preposit ional in a ddit ion t o, a lon g w it h , Along wit h being st ressful, high level
phrases a s w e ll a s posit ions can also be harm ful t o your healt h
Type of Connect or Con n e ct or ( s) Exam ples
High level posit ions are st ressful at t im es,
Coordinat ing
bu t but professionals can learn t o m anage t heir
conj unct ion
st ress levels.
Despit e t he fact t hat high level posit ions are
Subordinat ing a lt h ou gh , de spit e t h e fa ct
st ressful at t im es, professionals can learn t o
conj unct ions that
m anage t heir st ress levels.
High level posit ions are st ressful at t im es;
Conj unct ive
h ow e ve r , n e ve r t h e le ss nevert heless, professionals can learn t o
adverbs
m anage t heir st ress levels.
Preposit ional de spit e , in spit e of I n spit e of t he st ressful nat ure of high level

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phrases posit ions, professionals can learn t o m anage
t heir st ress levels

Type of
Con n e ct or ( s) Ex a m ple s
Con n e ct or
Coordinat ing High level posit ions are st ressful, and can be
a n d...t oo
Conj unct ion harm ful t o your healt h t oo.
Subordinat ing Just as high level posit ions are st ressful,
j u st a s
conj unct ion t hey can be harm ful t o your healt h.
Conj unct ive High level posit ions are st ressful at t im es;
sim ila r ly, in com pa r ison
adverbs sim ilarly, t hey can be harm ful t o your healt h.
Sim ilar t o ot her im port ant professions, high
Preposit ions lik e , sim ila r t o level business posit ions are st ressful at
t im es.
Type of Connect or Con n e ct or ( s) Exam ples
I f you consider t he financial rewards of high
Subordinat ing
if, u n le ss, on ly if, e ve n if level posit ions, t he st ressful nat ure of t hese
conj unct ions
posit ions becom es less im port ant .
You should rem em ber t he financial rewards
Conj unct ive of high level posit ions; ot herwise, you m ight
ot h e r w ise
adverb find t he st ressful nat ure of t hese posit ions
t oo dem anding.
Type of Connect or Con n e ct or ( s) Exam ples
High level posit ions are st ressful at t im es,
Coordinat ing
bu t but t he financial rewards m ake t hese
conj unct ion
posit ions very desirable indeed.
While high level posit ions are st ressful at
Subordinat ing
w h e r e a s, w h ile t im es, t he financial rewards m ake t hese
conj unct ions
posit ions very desirable indeed.
High level posit ions are st ressful at t im es; on
Conj unct ive in con t r a st , on t h e ot h e r
t he ot her hand, t he financial rewards m ake
adverbs hand
t hese posit ions very desirable indeed.
Unlike t he undesirable st ress of high level
Preposit ions u n lik e posit ions, t he financial rewards m ake t hese
posit ions very desirable indeed.

DISCOURSE MARKER TABLE

Basic Form and Formal

Meaning More Formal Most Formal
Use
ADDITION also additionally equally
important
first, second, etc. besides
moreover
further
similarly

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 furthermore

in addition

ADDITION last but not least

next

not only... but

also

too
CAUSE-EFFECT then as a result accordingly

therefore for this reason as a

consequence
thus
consequently

hence
COMPARISION also as well as by comparison

like both... and in common with

too compared to similarly

in the same way in like manner

likewise

neither... nor
CONTRAST however instead conversely

nevertheless in contrast to

on the other in opposition to

hand
on the contrary

otherwise

still

whereas
TIME after a while afterward concurrently

after that at the same time previously

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 also formerly simultaneously

at last immediately subsequently

currently in the meantime

earlier later

eventually

finally

first, second, etc.

in the future

in the past

last

next

now
EXAMPLE for example for instance as an example

in other words as an illustration

to exemplify
SUMMARY- finally after all accordingly
CONCLUSION
therefore all in all as a
consequence
at last
in brief
briefly
in closing
consequently
in conclusion
last
in short
on the whole
in sum
thus
in summary

to conclude

to summarize

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 Paragraphs and Topic Sentences
A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related
to a single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences
should be organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where
the subdivisions of an text begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of
the text and grasp its main points.
Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a
series of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a
place, character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more
things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the
kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the
most important of these is a topic sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCES
A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is
expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important
functions: it substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of
a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the
subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look to
the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the
paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the
paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s more effective to place another sentence before
the topic sentence—for example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous
one, or one providing background information.
More specifically, let’s look below at some functions of topic sentences, illustrated through
examples:
1. announcing the topic: A polar bear walks in a way all its own. – Barry Lopez
2. making a transition from a previous paragraph: Like sensations, ideas are neither
true nor false. – Mortimer J. Adler
3. asking and answering a rhetorical question: What about motion that is too slow to
be seen by the human eye? That problem has been solved by the use of the time-
lapse camera” – James C. Rettie
4. forecasting sub-topics to be dealt with in the paragraph or in a whole section of
paragraphs: Oppressed groups are denied education, economic independence, the
power of office, representation, an image of dignity and self-respect, equality of
status, and recognition as human beings. – Kate Millet

COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling
idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence
flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also
highlights the ties between old information and new information to make the structure of
ideas or arguments clear to the reader.
Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also be related to
its length. If you have written a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed
page, for example, you should check it carefully to see if you perhaps need to start a new
paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On the other
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hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to
develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph.
A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are
described below.
Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify
an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and
repetition will bind the paragraph together and help your reader understand your definition
or description. This notion may contrast with your previous ideas about repetition in writing;
however, you must now accept that in order to write academic English well, you will have
to learn to approach the concept of repetition from a different point of view.
Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more
phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts of
speech. By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer and easier to
read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive sentences helps your
reader see the connections between ideas. The paragraph below shows how a few
carefully placed parallel structures (CAPITALIZED) create a balanced and clear
presentation of fairly complex material.

I DON’T WISH to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied
"stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, but I DO
WISH to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. First of all, large animals
have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size
with body size among kindred animals (ALL reptiles, ALL mammals, for example) is
remarkably regular. As we move FROM small TO large animals, FROM mice TO
elephants or small lizards TO Komodo dragons, BRAIN SIZE increases, but not AS
FAST AS BODY SIZE. In other words, bodies grow faster than brains, and large
animals have low ratios of BRAIN WEIGHT to BODY WEIGHT. In fact, brains grow
only about two-thirds AS FAST AS bodies. Since we have no reason to believe that
large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude
that large animals require relatively less brain to do AS WELL AS smaller animals. If
we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power
of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.

Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”

Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view,
verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the
more personal "you" to the impersonal “one,” from past to present tense, or from “a man”
to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can
also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.
Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs.
Transitional expressions (also known as discourse markers or connectors) emphasize the
relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your train of thought or see
connections that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand. The same paragraph from
above now serves to demonstrate how carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead
the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.

I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus"
houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert
that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have
relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. INDEED, the correlation of brain

27
size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is
remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or
small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not as fast as body size. IN
OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of
brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as
bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider
than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less
brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are
likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.

ibid

In order to grasp the underlying concepts and usage of coherence, it is important for
you to have a chance to do some exercises that focus on topic sentences and on the
creation of coherence. In the next section of this manual, beginning on the following
page, you will find paragraphing exercises that will help you work on your ability to
identify, define and eventually generate topic sentences. You will also be working on
paragraph division and on coherence.
Although none of the exercises focuses exclusively on the placement of new and old
information as in the above examples, ideally you should make a concerted effort to
notice how the sentences you read begin and end. Can you find a “thread” that weaves
together the writing as the author carries the reader from old and familiar towards new
and important information? Do you see how what was old information in one sentence
(introduced towards the end of a sentence) is transformed into new information and
then often occurs at the beginning of a subsequent sentence? This sort of progressive
linking of ideas and information is at the heart of clear and successful English writing
and your ability to be aware of the process can make all the difference in your own
capacity to write well. The ability to consciously notice this and other aspects of
language use is known as language awareness and increasing it is one of the best
ways to improve your capacity for learning.
Language awareness implies a constant curiosity about language and an active
participation in your own learning processes. You mustn’t ever forget that old models of
passive learning focused almost exclusively on the teacher have been replaced by a
model promoting active student research and exploration that is focused primarily on
the learner. As writing is so clearly an active skill (in that you generate the language
rather than having to understand it only), your active involvement and your level of
language awareness become key factors in your eventual improvement and
satisfaction.

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 PARAGRAPHING EXERCISES
Exercise 1
Below you will find the first part of a text discussing the White House in Washington. The first
paragraph is in its original form and format, the only exception being that its topic sentence
appears in bold type. In addition, any elements throughout the paragraph that contribute to its
coherence have been highlighted in bold as well in order to help you get a feel for how the
language is being used to create a unified, easy-to-follow text. As stated above, coherence
can be created by the use of discourse markers, which help orient the reader towards the flow
of the information, and it can also be created through the repetition of old information to link
back to previous text.
For two hundred years, the White House has stood as a symbol of the Presidency,
the United States government, and the American people. Its history, and the
history of the nation’s capital, began when President George Washington signed an Act
of Congress in December of 1790 declaring that the federal government would reside in
a district "not exceeding ten miles square…on the river Potomac." President
Washington, together with city planner Pierre L’Enfant, chose the site for the new
residence, which is now 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue. As preparations began for the new
federal city, a competition was held to find a builder of the "President’s House." Nine
proposals were submitted, and Irish-born architect James Hoban won a gold medal for
his practical and handsome design.
Below you will find the second paragraph of the text, but the sentences have been separated
from each other and their order has been changed. Decide which of them should be the first,
or topic sentence of the second paragraph and then put the other sentences into the most
logical order possible. When you feel sure about the order, write out your final version of the
second paragraph in the space provided, underlining the topic sentence and also any
coherency items as well. Make sure that your layout of the paragraph reflects its inherent
structure; in other words, do not simply write out 4 separate sentences as shown below,
changing only the order, but rather create a unified block of sentences that are clearly and
instantly identifiable as a paragraph.

It was not until 1800, when the White House was nearly completed, that its first
residents, President John Adams and his wife, Abigail, moved in.

It is also the only private residence of a head of state that is open to the public, free
of charge.

Construction began when the first cornerstone was laid in October of 1792. Although
President Washington oversaw the construction of the house, he never lived in it.

Since that time, each President has made his own changes and additions. The White
House is, after all, the President’s private home.

Paragraph Two

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Exercise 2
Below you will find another part of the text on the White House. This time two paragraphs have
been merged together to form one single paragraph. Your task is to decide where the text
should be broken into two different paragraphs as it was presented in the original text. When
we are revising written work, there is a symbol that is used to indicate where a new paragraph
should be started within the text. The symbol looks like this ¶. Read the text below carefully
and decide where to insert the new paragraph symbol in order to break up the text into two
separate paragraphs. Remember that a new paragraph should begin with a topic sentence
which will prepare the reader for what is coming afterwards. You should be able to relate all of
the sentences which follow back to the topic sentence which has set the “theme” for the entire
paragraph.

The White House has a unique and fascinating history. It survived a fire at the

hands of the British in 1814 (during the war of 1812) and another fire in the West

Wing in 1929, while Herbert Hoover was President. Throughout much of Harry S.

Truman’s presidency, the interior of the house, with the exception of the third

floor, was completely gutted and renovated while the Trumans lived at Blair House,

right across Pennsylvania Avenue. Nonetheless, the exterior stone walls are those

first put in place when the White House was constructed two centuries ago.

Presidents can express their individual style in how they decorate some parts of

the house and in how they receive the public during their stay. Thomas Jefferson

held the first Inaugural open house in 1805. Many of those who attended the

swearing-in ceremony at the U.S. Capitol simply followed him home, where he

greeted them in the Blue Room. President Jefferson also opened the house for

public tours, and it has remained open, except during wartime, ever since. In

addition, he welcomed visitors to annual receptions on New Year’s Day and on the

Fourth of July. In 1829, a horde of 20,000 Inaugural callers forced President

Andrew Jackson to flee to the safety of a hotel while, on the lawn, aides filled

washtubs with orange juice and whiskey to lure the mob out of the mud-tracked

White House.

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Exercise 3
Below is an exercise that asks you to give each paragraph in a text about pizza its own heading or
title. To do this properly, you need to identify each paragraph’s topic sentence and then note how
its controlling idea is developed throughout the rest of the paragraph. This analysis will lead you to
the overall theme of each paragraph and from there you should be able to produce a heading for
the paragraph which sums up its theme.

The History of Pizza

Paragraph 1 heading: .
Pizza, like so many ot her foods, did not originat e in t he count ry for which it is now famous. Unless you
have researched t he subj ect , you, like so many people, probably always t hought Pizza was st rict ly an
It alian creat ion. In realit y, t he foundat ions for Pizza were originally laid by t he early Greeks who first
baked large, round and flat breads which t hey t opped wit h various it ems such as olive oils, spices,
pot at oes and ot her t hings. However, t omat oes were not known in Greece at t hat t ime or, very likely, t he
Greeks t oo would have used t hem t o garnish Pizza as we do t oday.

Paragraph 2 heading: .
Event ually t he idea of flat bread found it s way from Greece t o It aly where, in t he 18t h cent ury, t he flat
breads called "Pizzas" were sold on t he st reet s and in t he market s. They were not t opped wit h anyt hing
but were enj oyed au nat urel. Since t hey were relat ively cheap t o make and were t ast y and filling, t hey
were sold t o t he poor all over Naples by st reet vendors.

Paragraph 3 heading: .
The arrival of t he t omat o in It aly and t he visit of a queen t o Naples cont ribut ed t o t he Pizza as we know
and enj oy it t oday. In about 1889, Queen Margherit a, accompanied by her husband, Umbert o I, t ook an
inspect ion t our of her It alian Kingdom. During her t ravels around It aly she saw many people, especially t he
peasant s, eat ing t his large, flat bread. The queen, who was in Naples at t he t ime, was curious and so
ordered her guards t o bring her one of t hese Pizza breads. The Queen loved t he bread and would eat it
every t ime she was out amongst t he people, which caused some const ernat ion in Court circles. It was not
seemly for a Queen t o dine on peasant 's food.

Paragraph 4 heading: .
Despit e people’ s scandalized react ions, t he queen cont inued t o eat t he bread and at a cert ain point she
decided t o t ake mat t ers int o her own hands. Summoning Chef Rafaelle Esposit o from his Neapolit an
pizzeria t o t he royal palace, t he queen ordered him t o bake a select ion of pizzas for her pleasure. To
honor t he queen who was much beloved by her subj ect s, Rafaelle decided t o make a very special pizza
j ust for her. He baked a Pizza t opped wit h t omat oes, Mozzarella Cheese, and fresh Basil (t o represent t he
colors of t he It alian flag: Red, whit e, and green).

Paragraph 5 heading: .
This became Queen Margherit a's favorit e pizza and when word got out t hat t his was one of t he queen's
favorit e foods, she became even more popular wit h t he It alian people. She also st art ed a culinary
t radit ion, t he Pizza Margherit a, which last s t o t his very day in Naples and has now spread t hroughout t he
world.

31
Exercise 4
The next exercise is similar in that you also have to provide each paragraph in a text with
its own heading. However, here you are given a choice of headings to choose from and
you have to match the most appropriate heading to each paragraph in the text, rather than
inventing your own heading as you did in the previous exercise. The exercise is based on
one that comes from the Reading Comprehension section of the Cambridge First
Certificate Exam and you may find the level a bit more difficult than that of the previous
text and exercise. If you are interested in testing your readiness for possibly taking the
First Certificate Exam (and this could be a very good and motivating activity for you to
think about!), then you should make sure to complete the exercise in not more than 20
minutes and without the use of a dictionary, even a monolingual one. If this proves too
difficult, then take your time and check a monolingual dictionary (only!) for the meaning of
words or expressions you don’t know. Don’t forget that the key to successfully completing
the task is to pay close attention to the topic sentence and its controlling idea in each
paragraph.

Instructions
You are going to read a magazine article on the next page that gives advice about how to
overcome sleep problems. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A - I for each paragraph
(1 - 7) of the article. There is one extra heading you do not need to use. There is an example at the
beginning (0).
______________________________________________________________________________

A Time to get up

B Put your appetite to bed

C Doctors know best

D Sleeping only please

E Rest your weary bones

F Cut down or cut out

G Creatures of habit

H The sleep environment

I Relax the natural way

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 Sleep right, sleep tight
Say goodnight to sleep problems with these effective strategies for getting a better night's sleep.

with gastric reflux. If you're peckish, have a

0 H snack rich in carbohydrates, which trigger the
release of the brain chemical serotonin,
If you've had one or two bad nights lately, you associated with relaxation. Try a cracker or a
can probably solve the problem by taking bowl of cereal.
some of the measures below. For starters,
make your bedroom a haven for sleep. Your 4
room should be quiet and sufficiently dark,
because darkness prompts the pineal gland Watch the caffeine. Too much caffeine
to produce melatonin, the hormone that throughout the day, even if it's not consumed
induces sleep. Heavy curtains can help keep right before bedtime, can contribute to fitful
the light out, and a fan can help drown out slumber. Once you hit 50, your metabolism
any annoying sounds. Cool temperatures slows down, so caffeine may stay in your
help you sleep, so set your thermostat system longer - up to 10 hours. Limit yourself
appropriately. For better air circulation, open to two cups of tea, coffee, or cola, taken at
a window or use a fan. If the air in the room is least 6 hours before bedtime. If that doesn't
too dry, buy a humidifier. work, try eliminating caffeine altogether.

5
1
Go the exercise route. It's a simple fact: If
you're physically tired at the end of the day,
A night-time routine can be very effective in
you'll sleep better. Outdoor exercise is
letting your body know when it's time to
especially helpful. Try jogging or a brisk walk.
sleep. Go through whatever rituals help you
Remember that your body needs some time
get mentally prepared for sleep. Read a few
to unwind so you should exercise at least
pages of your novel, spend 5 to 10 minutes
three hours before bedtime.
on personal grooming, meditate, or stretch.
It's also critical to go to bed and get up at the
same time every day, even at the weekends.
6
Throw away your sleeping tablets and try
2 taking a warm bath instead. Your body
temperature will slowly drop after you get out
Reserve your bed just for sleeping. Avoid
of the bathtub, making you feel sleepy. For
working, paying bills, reading, or watching
further relaxation, investigate the benefits of
television in bed. If you associate your bed
camomile, valerian, or passionflower. These
only with sleep, you'll be more likely to fall
herbs can be taken in hot drinks or other
asleep when you get under the covers for the
forms. A cup of camomile tea before bedtime
night. A bed that's too soft can cause poor
may be all you need to unwind.
sleep postures, which can also lead to
muscle stiffness and back problems. Replace 7
your mattress if it's more than 10 years old,
and buy one that's as firm as you can tolerate
Following these steps should help you to nod
but still comfortable.
off with ease. But if 30 minutes go by and you
still haven't fallen asleep, don't lie there
3 feeling frustrated. Get out of bed and do
something relaxing, like listening to soothing
Going to bed either hungry or too full can
music or flicking through a magazine. Or
disrupt your sleep. You shouldn’t have a big
make yourself a cup of warm milk. Then try
meal too close to bedtime as the digestion
again. Sweet dreams!
process might keep you awake. Also, if you
lie down after stuffing yourself you can end up

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Exercise 5
Below is another exercise which utilizes a format from the Cambridge First Certificate
Exam. In this case, you have a text which contains gaps for missing sentences. Your task
is to choose from a list of possible sentences in order to complete the text appropriately,
logically and correctly. In order to identify which sentence goes into which gap, you must
pay close attention to the sentences preceding and following the gap. This is because if
you utilize clues from these sentences, you will be able to see which of the possible
sentences logically continues the flow of the writing. In order to complete the exercise
successfully, you are required to focus on the linking of ideas and on the creation of
coherence in the text so as not to create any logical gaps in the progression of the writing.
Once again, if you would like to do the exercise as a preparation for the actual exam, you
should attempt to complete it within 20 minutes and without the use of a dictionary.

You are going to read a magazine article about a holiday in Thailand for elephant-lovers. Eight
sentences have been removed from the article. Choose from the sentences A-I the one which fits
each gap (15-21). There is one extra sentence which you do not need to use. There is an example
at the beginning (0).
______________________________________________________________________________

F It was the first day of my "mahout"

A Initially, the elephants want to follow the (elephant driver) course at the Anantara
mahout. resort in Thailand.

B Elephants only sweat in one place - above G And so I learned lesson one in driving an
their toenails - but they love to be hosed elephant: remember where you parked the
down with cool water. night before.

C After enjoying a cup of green tea in

H Elephants, like humans, have distinct
bamboo cups, it was time to get aboard.
personalities and a wide range of
emotions, from grumpy to giddy.
D A hot breakfast awaits and you are
presented with your elephant mahout
I Guests learn to bathe their elephants, find
license to drive.
a good sleeping spot where food is
plentiful, and drive them using mahout
E Our first task was to drive back to the
commands.
hotel restaurant, park our elephant and
enjoy a hot breakfast on the terrace.

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 Learning to drive in Thailand

We had somehow managed to lose an elephant. John finally gathered the four elephants together

0 F Disco Inferno, our 26-year-old, two-ton and we headed with the other guests to the
charge, was simply nowhere to be found. training arena for shower time. 18 With
Crashing around in 160 hectares of misty jungle at the mahouts, we set about washing off the mud,
6.30am with Khun Nan, the professional mahout, while discussing the texture of their skin, a thick
I couldn't believe he had lost her. 15 hide that feels like prickly vinyl.
19 Sitting up high with my legs behind
There are four elephants at the Anantara elephant her big, floppy ears, I felt comfortable despite the
village, including Disco. They originally worked lack of climate control or seat belt! I learned the
in mining and logging, but were "checked in" to basic commands: stop (leg squeeze); go (one
Anantara in September 2003, having been kick); and reverse (rocking). Trying my best to
acquired from the Thai Elephant Conservation mimic the mahout's instructions, I was delighted
Centre. 16 Those of the Anantara group are when Disco, my elephant, obligingly started to
distinct: there is the eldest Pang Yom (the wise move towards the training arena.
matriarch); Tantawan and Champen, inseparable
and best friends from logging; and lastly Lawann 20 Over three days, however, a bond is
(Disco Inferno). She’s the cheeky elephant who is built between you and your elephant, and that is
an all-night rager, hence her nickname. the main objective of the course. On the last day,
your elephant meets you at the hotel. You drive
The ‘driving school’ is the only one of its type for her unaided through the forest to visit a Buddhist
tourists and is modelled on the professional shrine with a view across the Mekong River to
mahout training camp at Lampang's conservation Burma and Laos. 21
It may not be a vital
centre. Nature ranger John Roberts, formerly an life skill or valuable addition to your curriculum
engineer in England, explains that it is the only vitae, but riding astride an elephant is certainly a
chance for people to become well acquainted with unique way to get off the beaten tourist track and
elephants in a natural setting. 17 They can make a friend who is distinctly larger-than-life.
also trek and explore the resort grounds.

35
Conclusion
You have now come to the end of the manual for the first-year English academic writing
module. Please keep in mind however that a manual is not meant to be read once and put
aside. Rather it should be thought of as a tool and a reference source that you keep
nearby when you are writing and that you go back to from time to time to refresh your
ideas. Some of the notions introduced in this manual may not have made a lot of sense to
you the first time you were exposed to them. This could be the case for a variety of
reasons. For example, it could be that until you have done a certain amount of academic
writing yourself and therefore had the opportunity to put into practice some of the theory
presented in the manual, you find it difficult to completely grasp certain concepts. Or it
could be that you’re particularly tied to your Italian writing style and so automatically or
even unconsciously reject some of the stylistic conventions of the English academic style
(e.g. the use of repetition, short sentences and rigidly structured sentences and
paragraphs). Or it could even be that your overall level of English still needs to be raised
and therefore you’re unable at the moment to properly absorb all of the information in the
manual, needing more time and more exposure to English (never forget how important it is
to maintain a more or less constant contact with a language you’re learning and also how
important READING is!)
Whatever the reason for your possibly not comprehending or applying the material in a
complete or even adequate way at the moment, you should remember that you are only
now at the beginning of a continuing three-year process. This means that your first-year
writing manual may be useful for you in the next two years of university and that, given
time, you will undoubtedly improve your writing skills and your control of English in
general. Although learning to write can be difficult, frustrating and even tedious at times,
you will surely find that the ability to write clearly and correctly in a semi-formal style will
serve you well in the future, from outlining an abstract for your degree thesis to creating a
Curriculum Vitae after graduation, from preparing for international certification exams to
writing e-mails at your future job.
At the end of the writing module, it is time for you to go back to review the primary
objectives fixed at the beginning of this manual. Ask yourself if you have reached the
objectives below before closing out your first-year writing experience.
___ understanding how to use punctuation correctly
___ writing clear and correct sentences
___ understanding and using paragraph structure
___ knowing how to place and order information in a sentence or a paragraph

I sincerely hope that you can confidently put a tick (√ ) next to all four of these objectives. If
not, because you still feel that you need improvement in the above areas, then you now
know what to focus on in your future preparation, study and practice. You will have ample
opportunity to further consolidate and refine your academic writing skills in the 2nd and 3rd
year of your university degree course in Languages. Hopefully you have acquired a solid
foundation for your continued writing activities in the future.

36