Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The studies and literature that would support the viability and potential of using

pineapple leaves and banana pseudo-stems as alternatives to plastic cups will be reviewed

in this chapter. The review will focus on the information that has already been compiled

from numerous reliable sources and published in the past.

Musa acuminata (Banana) Origin and Distribution

Banana (Musa acuminata) is among the major crops in tropical and subtropical

countries around the world and is widely consumed and cultivated on a large scale. One

of the first fruit crops to be cultivated since the beginning of civilization was the banana.

Southeast Asian nations, like the Philippines, have easy access to bananas, which are also

grown in 130 other countries worldwide in tropical and subtropical climates (Mohandas,

Ravishankar, & K. V., 2016). In addition, this crop was listed as the fourth greatest food

crop after wheat, corn, and rice (Adhikari et al., 2015). This makes the banana a largely

potential raw material for making a practical product.

The estimated annual production of bananas around the world is 5.6 million

hectares of planting and is used to produce 114 million metric tons of products (Bentsen

et al. 2014). The production and economic value of the banana make it the most

significant crop in the Philippines. The cultivation of bananas, one of the Philippines'

most economically significant crops, takes the top spot since it boosts the national

economy by more than 100 million USD each year. In several areas of the Philippines,

Davao is regarded as the nation's leading banana-producing region. According to the

Cavendish, Lakatan, and Saba account for 48%, 30%, and 11% of the overall production,

respectively.

Musa acuminata (Banana) Production of Fiber

Banana fibers have a huge contribution to the textile and packaging industries;

however, the banana stem forms a major source of waste material. But today, most of the

banana fibers are used for making ropes and cordage (Kumar et al., 2014). The most

well-known variety of banana plant for its fiber is abaca (Musa textiles). In contrast to the

most popular banana consumed by humans, which is a Musa acuminata species member,

its fiber is extremely significant within the leaf fiber group (Ahmad & Danish, 2018).

A decorticator machine can be used to separate the fibers from the leaves of the

banana pseudo-stem. It is a device used to remove grain, stalk, skin, bark, and wood.

Once the leaves of the pseudo-stem have been chopped, the extraction procedure will be

next. The most widely used technique combines water retting and scraping. Furthermore,

tuxing is the first stage, which involves separating the fiber bundles from the other

components. Tuxing can be done either manually or mechanically using a machine

(Pappu et al., 2015). The leaves are stripped from the chopped pseudo-stems. A knife is

then inserted between the outer and middle layers of the leaf shaft at the butt end, and the

outer layer is peeled out while being kept securely in place. This tuxing process produced

fiber bundles that were around 5-8 cm wide, which is equal to the length of the leaf. After

the tuxing process, the second step is to remove any remaining gum or non-fibrous
materials from the fibers (Franck & R. R., 2005). The processes performed helped extract

fibers from the banana that are to be used in making paper.

Before the fiber is physically spun into fine yarn count, these gums and cells are

removed because they are typically not soluble in water. It is a numerical term that

describes the thickness and fineness of the yarn. Mass per unit length, or length per unit

mass of the yarn, is the unit of count. The main components of these gums are arabans

and xylans, both of which are soluble in alkaline solutions. The basic steps in the

degumming process are as follows: boiling the fibers twice in an aqueous alkaline

solution with or without pressure, agitation, and reducing agents; washing them in water

to neutralize; bleaching them with dilute hydrogen peroxide or hypochlorite; and finally,

washing them in water to neutralize and oiling them with a sulfonated hydrocarbon.

Caustic soda is used in the majority of procedures to treat gum, lignin, and pectin

leftovers.

Although chemicals are frequently used to degum pseudo-stem fibers, retting

offers some interesting options (microbial degumming). Additionally, a number of

academic studies suggested that using ultrasonic vibrations could speed up the

degumming procedure (Subagyo et al., 2018). The fibers produced in the extraction of

fibers are still far enough from being made, leaving residues that are not soluble in water.

The degumming process helps clean the fiber to produce fibers that are feasible for

making paper.

Utilization of Paper Making and Potency of the Products of Banana Pseudo-Stem

paper, anti-grease paper, check paper, and hardboard industries (Mohiuddin et al., 2014).

In the textile industries of countries like the Philippines, Malaysia, Japan, and Korea,

banana fiber is widely used as a blending ingredient. It is simple to blend it with other

fibers, such as the natural fibers jute and mesta.

Many industrial items, including gunny bags, door mats, carpets, yarn, ropes,

geotextiles, trinkets, luggage carriers, interior ornamental crafts paper, tissue paper, paper

bags, etc., where high strength is required, can therefore be created from this fiber.

Additionally, banana fibers have some industrial uses as a natural water purifier, a basic

material for bioremediation and recycling, and a natural sorbent (Mohapatra et al., 2010).

Potentials for fiber recovery from banana pseudo-stem have previously been

reported in the scientific literature. According to Li et al. (2010), the high content of

holocellulose and low content of lignin make banana pseudo-stem leaves an ideal

material for application in pulping and papermaking. This proves that bananas can be

used as a raw material in manufacturing paper for paper cups.

Banana Pseudo-Stem Properties

Morphological Properties

Several characteristics, including fiber length (FL), fiber diameter (FD), lumen

diameter (LD), and cell-wall thickness (CWT), are crucial for fiber morphology (Suhaimi

et al., 2021). The quality of the paper is significantly influenced by these features. This
would help in producing high-quality paper cups, taking into account the morphological

characteristics of banana pseudo-stem.

The hollow structure of the banana pseudo-stem suggests that the fiber will have

good insulation and absorbance properties. Treating the fiber with either alkali or acid

may result in good-quality fibers. The treatment of pseudo-stem fiber with different

concentrations of NaOH has indicated that the surface morphology of the 5% NaOH-

treated fibers was not much different from that of the raw fibers. The surface looked

clearer due to the removal of some impurities and debris, though the fiber is not clearly

visible. The fibers and their fibrils are clearly visible when the pseudo-stem fiber is

treated with 10% NaOH (Subagyo, 2012). This proves that NaOH treatment does not

affect the fiber of the banana pseudo-stem; rather, it helps remove impurities that affect

the overall quality of the fiber.

Banana Pseudo-Stem Properties

Morphological Properties

Several characteristics, including fiber length (FL), fiber diameter (FD), lumen

diameter (LD), and cell-wall thickness (CWT), are crucial for fiber morphology (Suhaimi

et al., 2021). The quality of the paper is significantly influenced by these features. This

would help in producing high-quality paper cups, taking into account the morphological

characteristics of banana pseudo-stem.

make up a sheet of paper determine the attributes of that sheet. The strength properties of

paper are greatly influenced by all of these traits. Determining the morphological

properties of the banana pseudo-stem would greatly help in determining if this raw

material is suitable for manufacturing paper.

The hollow structure of the banana pseudo-stem suggests that the fiber will have

good insulation and absorbance properties. Treating the fiber with either alkali or acid

may result in good-quality fibers. The treatment of pseudo-stem fiber with different

concentrations of NaOH has indicated that the surface morphology of the 5% NaOH-

treated fibers was not much different from that of the raw fibers. The surface looked

clearer due to the removal of some impurities and debris, though the fiber is not clearly

visible. The fibers and their fibrils are clearly visible when the pseudo-stem fiber is

treated with 10% NaOH (Subagyo, 2012). This proves that NaOH treatment does not

affect the fiber of the banana pseudo-stem; rather, it helps remove impurities that affect

the overall quality of the fiber.

Physical Properties

Banana pseudo-stem fibers have physical and other properties that make them a

good-quality fiber. According to Li et al. (2010), in terms of physical properties, it has

been reported that the banana pseudo-stem fiber has a good modulus of elasticity, tensile

strength, and stiffness, which makes it a promising fiber material. The banana pseudo-

stem’s appearance is quite shiny, which depends on the extraction and spinning
processes. It has low density and strong moisture absorption qualities. Its absorbance and

release of moisture are quite fast.

The appearance of banana pseudo-stem fiber is quite like that of ramie and

bamboo fiber, but its spin ability and fineness are much better than those of ramie and

bamboo, as it has an average fineness of 2400 nm. According to Venkateshwaran et al.

(2010), banana pseudo-stem can be a strong fiber as it has a lower strain at break.

The research made by Ahmed et al. (2019) demonstrates the physical

characteristics of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) reinforced Banana Pseudo Stem

(BPS) composites with various fiber weight percentages. BPS fibers underwent a 24-hour

pretreatment using a 5% sodium hydroxide solution. Composites made of 0, 10, 20, and

30 wt. ABS/BPS were created. % of fibers We investigated the moisture content (MC%)

and water absorption (WA%) of BPS fiber. Investigations were done into the composites'

thickness swelling (TS%) and water absorption (WA%).

Durability and Biodegradability

Studies on the durability of banana pseudo-stem fiber have been carried out at the

Center of Study for Natural Fiber and Natural Dyes (CSNFD) at the Department of

Chemical Engineering, Concentration Textile Engineering, Universitas Islam Indonesia

(UII). The studies showed that the durability of banana pseudo-stem fiber can last up to 3

months in storage. However, if the storage period of the fiber is longer than 3 months, the

strength of the fiber is considerably decreased. Furthermore, banana pseudo-stem fibers

are biodegradable and thus can be categorized as environmentally friendly. Banana

pseudo-stem fiber can be spun using almost any method of spinning, such as open-end
spinning, ring-spinning, bast fiber spinning, and semi-worsted spinning (Asmanto et al.,

2018).

As one of the primary components of lignocellulosic biomass, cellulose is

biodegradable and readily available, which makes it a promising alternative to plastics for

food packaging applications. However, owing to strong hydrogen bond interactions,

natural cellulose possesses high orientation and crystallinity, which makes it nearly

insoluble in ordinary solvents, which limits its applications. Regenerated cellulose can be

obtained by chemically modifying cellulose into carboxymethyl cellulose, cellulose

xanthate (Weißl et al., 2018), or a cuprammonium cellulose complex (Sayyed et al.,

2019).

Thermal Properties

The first stage of degradation of the banana pseudo-stem was evaporation of

moisture at a temperature range of 30–144 °C (Alwani et al., 2013). As the fiber was

continuously heated, its weight decreased by releasing moisture and some volatile

extractives. This is a common phenomenon that occurs in plant fibers, which makes the

fibers more flexible and collapse easily and increases heat transfer (Ndazi et al., 2006).

Nevertheless, the moisture contained in the fiber cannot be completely removed due to

the fiber's structural resistance and its hydrophilic nature.

In this first stage, the weight loss of the fiber was in the range of 5–10 wt%. The

second stage was the degradation of hemicellulose. For banana pseudo-stem fiber, the

hemicellulose started to decompose at a temperature of approximately 178 °C. The lower

stability of the hemicellulose is likely due to the presence of acetyl groups, which make
the hemicellulose degrade much more quickly than the other components, for example,

lignin and cellulose. The third stage was the degradation of cellulose, which occurred at a

temperature of approximately 296 °C. The last stage (that is, the fourth stage) is the

decomposition of lignin.

Lignin is more difficult to decompose compared to other components. Generally,

for any plant fiber, the decomposition of lignin occurs slowly in all temperature ranges up

to 700 °C (Srinivasan et al., 2014). This process makes the fiber of the banana pseudo-

stem suitable for making paper.

Chemical properties

In the past, many researchers were interested in the chemical constituents of plant

fibers. It was found that plant fibers contain some of the following components: Fats and

waxes, which are mostly found on the surface of plants, can be extracted using benzene.

Pectin, which exists in water-soluble form as calcium and magnesium from galacturonic

acid, These substances are converted into butyric and acetic acids during biological

retting. Hemicelluloses are amorphous short-chain polysaccharides and polyuronides.

The polysaccharide hemicelluloses are chemically partly linked or intermingled with

cellulose molecules. Cellulose, which is the major constituent of the fiber, Lignin, which

is a short-chain isotropic and non-crystalline polymer made up of units derived from

phenyl propane, Ash content. aqueous extract, which is extracted by boiling the dewaxed

fibers in water (Batra, 2018).

The main problem to be encountered during wet processing of banana pseudo-

stem fiber is the removal of lignin, residual gum, and other cementing materials, which
interfere with the absorption property and thus lead to poor scouring, bleaching, and

dyeing of the fiber. The exact structure of lignin is not clearly revealed, although it is

generally regarded as a three-dimensional polycondensate of dehydrogeneration products

of hydroxy and methoxy cinnamyl alcohols. Lignin is mainly composed of methoxyl,

hydroxyl, and carbonyl groups (Subagyo et al., 2018).

Native banana pseudo-stem flour (NBPF) has a high fiber content. NBPF contains

high levels of antioxidant compounds. The tender core of banana pseudo-stem flour

(TCBPF) has good functional properties. TCBPF has high water holding capacity,

swelling power, and solubility. NBPF and TCBPF have the potential to be developed as

functional food ingredients (Aziz et al., 2011).

Paper Making and Production

Almost any leftover from the processing of the banana plant is suitable for paper

production. Therefore, the utilization of this wasted biomass will influence the social,

environmental, geographic, and technological aspects of the country in some way (Essien

et al. 2005). The banana pseudostem is found to be capable of being used as a raw

material as it is fast-growing and yields high biomass. From this viewpoint, the banana

stem, which contains satisfactory cellulose content, can be processed into paper. Since

there is large-scale availability of banana-resultant wastes in the country and

insufficiency of raw materials for pulp production, it is a wise idea to implement cleaner

production techniques for banana paper making (Kennedy, 2009).

dehydrated slices, and pickles can be made from male buds, immature fruits, and pseudo-

stems. According to Rosentrater et al. (2009), paper board, tissue paper, etc., can be

prepared out of banana pseudostem. Banana fibers can be used as a natural sorbent and

bioremediation agent for bacteria in natural water purifiers, for mushroom production,

and in handicrafts and textiles when mixed with paddy straw.

Banana fiber is also used in the production of marine cordages, high-quality paper

cardboard, tea bags, string thread, high-quality fabric material, paper for currency notes,

and good rope for tying purposes (Clarke et al., 2008; Doran et al., 2005). Fibers from

pseudo-stem, leaf sheath, and rachis are used in making fiber-based products. Pseudo-

stem fiber bundles have a higher specific strength modulus and lower strain at break than

leaf sheath and rachis fiber bundles, having values comparable to other lignocellulosic

fibers. Banana fiber, being a natural sorbent, has high potential for absorbing spilled oils

in refineries (Bakar et al., 2007). This makes the banana pseudo-stem fibers suitable for

producing paper.

Ananas comosus (Pineapple) Origin and Distribution

Pineapple (Ananas comosus), a perennial plant of the family Bromeliaceae, and

its edible fruit Pineapple is native to tropical and subtropical America and has been

introduced elsewhere. The fruit has become a characteristic ingredient in the meat,

vegetable, fish, and rice dishes of what is loosely termed Pan-Asian cuisine (Wali, 2019).
The fruit is eaten fresh where available and in canned form worldwide. In the Philippines,

this fruit is sometimes used as a pastry filling or in baked desserts.

It is a commercial fruit crop in the tropics and parts of the subtropics of the world.

The Philippines will produce approximately 2.86 metric tons of pineapples in 2021. It is a

perennial monocotyledonous herb with a short basal stem, adventitious roots below, and a

crown of spirally arranged leaves. It produces a single syncarpous fruit on a terminal

inflorescence. The fruit is juicy and has excellent flavor and taste. Pineapple is now

considered to be the third most important fruit crop in world production after banana and

citrus (Malézieux et al., 2003).

The Philippines is among the top exporters of pineapple in the world and is touted

to be the second largest exporter of sweet golden pineapple following the shift of fresh

fruit from "Smooth C, it exports ayenne" to "Golden Sweet MD2." According to Lorenzo

(2010), the country’s pineapple exports dominate major markets in Japan and South

Korea. This makes pineapple a potential raw material for papermaking, as it is abundant

in the country.

Ananas comosus (Pineapple) as Source of Fiber

Pineapple fibers have a strong enough capacity to bind moisture—even stronger

than cotton. Cotton can only absorb 7.8%, whereas pineapple has an 81.6% moisture

content (Daud et al., 2014). With this feature, pineapple would be a great raw material for

manufacturing paper towels.

characterize PALF. It has a high cellulose content, which contributes to its exceptional

hydrophilic properties. The PALF content of fresh pineapple leaves ranged from 2 to 3%.

The PALF resembles a thread because it is made up of tiny, fine, multicellular fibers. The

pectin molecule helps to securely connect these cells together. Given the exceptional

qualities of PALF as a whole, in place of conventional wood pulps, enterprises can

employ them as a great green alternative raw resource to create new paper.

Pineapple is one of the alternative plants that produce fiber that has been used

only as a source of food, while pineapple leaves can be used as textile fiber material. The

pineapple fiber filler is able to increase the strength of the composite fault, where

maximal impact strength is obtained on a 100-mesh particle size variation in the 90/10

matrix and a fill ratio of 12.3425 m2 above the pure epoxy bending strength of 9,5061

kj / m2 (Asim et al., 2015).

Utilization and the Potency of the products of Ananas comosus (Pineapple) Leaf

PALF (Pineapple Leaf Fibers) contains cellulose (70–82%), and the fiber

organization is the same as that of cotton (82.7%). About 2 to 3% of PALF's fresh leaves

are fibers. Ash (1.1%), lignin (5–12%), and holocellulose (70–82%) make up the

chemical make-up of PALF. Pineapple (PALF) is a fantastic mechanical material that

may be used to create eco-friendly textile products. PALF has a density that is

comparable to other natural fibers and the highest tensile strength of the related natural
fibers. These characteristics make it appropriate for use as table linens, ropes, bags, mats,

and other clothing items. (M. Tamata & Dr. S. Mahajan, 2020).

The study of Teo et al. (2020) demonstrates that paper made with a mixture of

scrap paper and pineapple leaf fiber has better tensile strength. This will make the

manufactured paper durable, as it has a better tensile strength than other papers.

According to Repon et al. (2021), the use of current spinning equipment to

examine the spinnability of pure PALF and PALF mixed cotton 100% PALF yarn was

produced using two different spinning frames: a flyer jute spinning frame and an apron

draft ring spinning frame. The individual yarn counts were 121 tex and 138 tex.

Additionally, two separate cotton-PALF blended 30 tex yarns with twist factors of 90:10

and 80:20 were spun in a cotton spinning machine. Two samples of 1/1 plain and 3/1

twill fabrics were created using both yarns at equal densities. For the warp and weft of

the plain and twill fabrics, respectively, PALF yarns of 121 tex, 138 tex, and 60 tex

PALF blended cotton yarn were utilized.

Paper Making and Production

Pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) is another alternative non-wood fiber that can be used

for paper production. There have been numerous studies carried out by researchers on

various aspects of PALF (Mohamed et al., 2009). PALF has also been incorporated into

thermoplastic materials such as polypropylene and polyethylene to produce biocomposite

materials. The use of non-wood raw materials provides several interesting advantages;

specifically, it allows wood raw materials to be saved for other, more decent uses,
thereby alleviating deforestation and replanting, 2009). PALF has also been incorporated

into thermoplastic materials such as polypropylene and polyethylene to produce

biocomposite materials. The use of non-wood raw materials provides several interesting

advantages; specifically, it allows wood raw materials to be saved for other, more decent

uses, thereby alleviating deforestation and replanting. It can also reduce wood and

cellulose fiber imports in countries with a shortage of wood raw materials.

Pineapple natural fibers have excellent mechanical strength, but due to a lack of

knowledge, they are still not utilized properly. It can be used in various applications, like

artificial fibers, as a sound absorber, and as a thermal insulator. There are various

methods to extract the PALF from the leaves of pineapple. Pineapple leaf fiber is a more

compatible natural fiber resource and has a good chemical composition. Also, PALF has

better mechanical strength than jute when it is used in the making of fine yarn (Dey,

Bhattacharyya, & Bhattacharyya, 2005).

The cellulosic molecule model of PALF is a three-dimensional structure parallel

to the crystalline region of the fiber. The remaining parts of molecular structure are

supposed to associate within amorphous regions. Pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) is a vital

natural fiber that has high specific strength, rigidity, and flexural and torsional rigidity as

much as jute fibers. Considering these exclusive properties of PALF, industries can use it

as an outstanding alternative raw material in the prospect of reinforcing composite

matrices (Lopattananon et al., 2006).

Chemical Components of Ananas comosus (Pineapple) Leaf

season, a lot of agrowaste is unavoidably produced. Agro-waste material can aid various

manufacturing businesses with proper planning and management. Due to this problem,

pineapple (Ananas comosus) leaves were analyzed. This agro-waste material has a high

potential to become an alternative fiber in the papermaking industry. The chemical

compositions of fiber were analyzed by the TAPPI test method, the chlorination method,

and the Kurschner-Hoffner method. Chemical compositions analyzed are cellulose

(Kurschner-Hoffner), holocellulose (chlorination method), hemicellulose (chlorination

method), ash content (T211-om-93), lignin content (T222-om-98), and sodium hydroxide

solubility (T203-om-88). Results indicate pineapple leaves have a high holocellulose

content (85.7%), followed by cellulose (66.2%) and hemicellulose (19.5%). Lignin

content is the lowest (4.2%) compared to other chemical compositions in this study.

Pineapple leaf morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which

showed a condensed composition of fiber structure. The chemical compositions and

morphology studies of pineapple leaves indicate that they are suitable to be used as an

alternative pulp in the papermaking industry, promoting green technology (Daud et al.,

2014).

Pineapple leaf fibers have many chemical constituents like α-cellulose, pentosans,

lignin, fat and wax, pectin, nitrogenous matter, ash content, degree of polymerization,

crystallinity of α-cellulose, and antioxidants (Nadirah et al., 2012). PALF has a large

quantity of cellulose (81.27), low quantities of hemicelluloses (12.31%), and lignin

content (3.46%) (Rahman, 2011). PALF has higher cellulosic content as compared to

other natural fibers like oil palm frond, coir, and banana stem fibers (Khalil et al., 2006).
The higher quantity of cellulose in PALF supports the higher weight of the fruit (Reddy

& Yang, 2005). The chemical composition of fibers directly affects their performance

(Wirawan et al., 2009).