Classic Arabic

as
The Ancestor of
Indo-Europian Languages

and
Origin of Speech
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 Classic Arabic
as
The Ancestor of
Indo-Europian Languages

and
Origin of Speech
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 Contents

Key to Symbols Used .................................................. xv

Chapter I Early Inscriptions

1.1 The earliest Semitic inscriptions .............................. 1
1.2 The relation of Semitic tongues to each other............. 1
1.3 Usage among the Semitic and Arab tribes .................. 2
1.4 The definite article among Semitic tribes ................... 2
1.5 Usage among the North Arab tribes (1-31) ................. 2
1.6 The rise of Classic Arabic (CA) .............................. .4
1.7 The word poet in CA ............................................. 6
1.8 A CA image ........................................................ 6
1.9 CA image analyzed ............................................... 6

Chapter II A Brid's Eye View of Language

2.1 The common word ................................................ 9
2.2 Heaven and earth ................................................... 9
2.3 The features of the face ......................................... 10
2.4 Parts of body ...................................................... 11
2.5 Attachment of word to RV .................................... 11
2.6 Family names .................................................... 12
2.7 Designation of human beings ................................ 15
2.8 Comparison between CA and OE words and
CA and L ones ................................................... 15
2.9 CA, Gr and SKr words ......................................... 17
2.10 CA and Proto-Ger ............................................... 17
2.11 CA and Mod Eng ................................................ 18
2.12 Section II Fauna and Flora .................................... 18
2.13 Wild life ......................... ;.................................. 18
2.14 Vacca ................................................................ 20
2.15 Animalis ........................................................... 20
2.16 Domestic animals ............................................... 21
2.17 Plants ............................................................... 22

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 2.18 ....... 23
2.19 Diet. ................................................................. 23
2.20 ................................ 24
2.21 Titles ................................................................ 25
2.22 Exclamations ..................................................... 26
2.23 Taxes and bribes ................................................. 26
2.24 Time ................................................................ 2T
2.25 The '" ..'""n.J'" of the IE and Semitic tribes ................. 28
2.26 Climate ............................................................ 29
2.27 Referenl. ......................................................,~ .... 31
2.28 The home of the IE tirbes ............................. ~.:~ .... 32
2.29 Clues from the four cardinal
2.30 The five features of forms .......................... 34

III An Outline of The of CA

3.1 The five levels .................................................... 37
3.2 Co-ordination of the five levels .............................. 37
3.3 The verb ............................................................ 37
3.4 ..
~.~"'.~u. level. ...................................... 38
3.5 39
3.6 40
3.7 of economy in CA ............................. .41

IV The Consonants of CA
4.1 Form of
4.2 The consonants of CA ......................................... 44
4.3 The order of consonants in the CA 47
4.4 Sounds not found in Land OE .............................. .48
4.5 The three due to loss ............ 49
4.6 An loss ................................. 50
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4.8 CA V in IE 53
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4.9 54
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Chapter V Tbe Vowels or CA
5.1 The VI of CA ..................................................... 57
5.2 The written form ................................................. 57
5.3 The VI system of CA .......................................... 57
5.4 VI quality .......................................................... 58
5.5 Example of VI quality in patterns ........................... 59
5.6 VI on the level of SS ........................................... 59
5.7 VI in L and OE ................................................... 60
5.8 The differences between CA, Land OE VI... ............ 61
5.9 Cyclic movement of VL ...................................... 62
5.10 VI of CVCC pal. ................................................ 62
5.11 Foreign influence on Land OE. ............................. 63
5.12 Two morphological rules ...................................... 63
5.13 The VI stop ....................................................... 64
5.14 Deletion of VI stop ............................................. 64
5.15 Cors of VI stop with consonant. ............................ 64
5.16 Cors of VI stop wiLh a simple Vl... ........................ 65
5.17 The sound X in L ................................................ 65
5.18 Homophones due to VI stop .................................. 65
5.19 Long VI and diphthongs in CA .............................. 66
5.20 Semi-VI in Land OE ........................................... 66
5.21 CA plural in Land OE ......................................... 67
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5.22 The VI of the CA : CEC pat in Land OE ................ 68
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5.23 VI of the CACIYC pat in L and OE. ...................... 68
5.24 Cors of Iyl : Ig/ .................................................. 69
5.25 The cors of Iyl : 111.............................................. 69
5.26
~ Some early changes ............................................. 70

Chapter VI Tbe CA Ver b

6.1 The CA verb ...................... .-. .............................. 71
6.2 The Root' in CA ................................................. 71
6.3 The stress pattern of two syl and three syl V............ 72
6.4 Twin verbs ........................................................ 72
6.5 Geminetle stop ................................................... 73
6.6 The unmarked form and the supine ......................... 73

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 6.7 Assimilation in the OE inf... ................................ 74
6.8 chllDgles that have taken in the L verb ............. 75
6.9 '-'"'''5''''''' that have taken in the OE V .............. 75
6.10 of 2 V in CA and OE. ..................... 76
6.11 Latin qu ............................................................ 77
6.12 Results of reduction in Land OE ............: .............. 77
6.13 The verb in the three 78
6.14 Far r .. ",r-hi"" consequence ...................................... 79

VII Tense in The CA Verb

7.1 The tense of CA ....................................... 81
7.2 Tense in Land OE .............................................. 81
7.3 CA V SI
7.4 The future lenses in CA ....................................... 82
7.5 in OE and CA ........................... 82
7.6 rmTlnl1, ..i<:l,n of the V in Land CA ................... 83
7.7 On L tenses ....................................................... 84
7.S The tense VI in CA and OE verbs .......................... 8S
7.9 The dental suffix in CA and L. ........................ 86
7.10 in CA .................................................. 87
7.11 of sentences in OE and
CA ................................................................... 88
7.12 CA and OE .................................. 88
7.13 mood ........................................... 89
7.14 voice ................................................ 90
7.15 and Modal verbs in CA .......................... 91
7.16 The verb to be .................................................... 92
7.17 of verbs in OE. ........................................ 92
7.18 The root C-N in OE and L. ............................ 92
7.19 The a - in OE and CA ............................. 94
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7.20 A T ................................................................ 96
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7.21 The
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7.22 The
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7.24 The re- in L ............................................ 98

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 7.25 The prefix de- in L .............................................. 99
7.26 The prefix (M VL) .............................................. 99
7.27 Gradation and potential in the CA verb .................. 101

Chapter VIII Natural Correspondence (NC)

8.1 Natural correspondence ....................................... 103
8.2 ALC ............................................................... 103
8.3 The cors of /q/.................................................. 103
8.4 Triangular cors .................................................. 104
8.5 Cors of /c/ in OE .............................................. 104
8.6 Cors of /h/ in OE .............................................. I05
8.7 Cors of /c/ in Latin ............................................ 106
8.8 Cors of /q/ by CC ............................................ 106
8.9 Cors of /q/ in Land Cairene Arabic ....................... 107
8.10 /h/ in Latin ...................................................... 107
8.11 Cors of /q /in OE .............................................. 107
8.12 Counterbalancing .............................................. 109
8.13 The cors of CA /HI in Land OE .......................... 110
8.14 The cors of /H/ by CC ....................................... 111
8.15 Rule of NC ...................................................... 111
8.16 Intermediate correspondence (Inc) .......................... 112
8.17 Phonetic cycle ................................................. 113
8.18 The cors of /3/.................................................. 113
8.19 Cors /3/ : /a/.................................................... 114
8.20 The cors /3/ : /r/ ................................................ 114
8.21 /3/:/ as a SLOp ................................................... 115
8.22 The cors /3/ : fbI ............................................... 115
8.23 Deletion of 13/ .................................................. 111
8.24 The cors of /R/ ................................................. 111

Chapter IX Favourite Correspondence

9.1 FC ................................................................. 119
9.2 Degrees of acceptability ...................................... 120
9.3 L in L and OE. ................................................. 121
9.4 The OE rune Lagu ............................................. 122

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 9.5 F in L and OE .................................................. 123
9.6 P in OE ........................................................... 125
9.7 S in and 127
9.8 S in Mod 129
9.9 P in L ............................................................. 130
9.10 P in OE ........................................................... 134
9.11 W in OE .......................................................... 135
9.12 W and V in L ................................................... 136
9.13 Hand h in OE .................................................. 137
9.14 in OE ......................................................... 139

X Echoic
10.1 Echoic corresJ)onlcl.ence 143

XI CA Nominam and Patterns

11.1 in CA .................................................... 145
11.2 >.. VLauu of VI in CA ........................................ 146

11.3 CVCC ............................................................ 146

11.4 CVCVC .......................................................... 147
11.5 CVCV:C ......................................................... 148
11.6 CV:CEC ......................................................... 148
11.7 The CVCI and CVCVCI... ........................ 148
11.8 CVCIYC ......................................................... 149
11.9 The feminine 149
11.10 Let us see how the fern in Land OE ..................... 150
11.11 of the fern pat in CA ................................. 151
11.12 Patterns of the two verbs ............................... 152
11.13 Nominal and of two
verbs ............................................................... 152
11.14 Patl V CVCV .................................................. 153
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11.15 Pat 2 ............................................................... 153

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11.16 Pat 3 CVC·CV ................................................. 153

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11.17 Infectional in CA ................................... 154

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11.18 The definite article in CA .................................... 155

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11.19 The indefinite art in CA ...................................... 155

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11.20 The indef art in Land OE. ................................... 156

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Chapter XII Six Causes or Change
12.1 Final T ............................................................ 157
12.2 The GS pattern in Land OE. ............................... 158
12.3 VI stops replaced by GS ..................................... 158
12.4 GS replaced by consonant stop ............................. 159
12.5 Final -n in CA (Tanwiyn) ................................... 159
12.6 Words derived fonn CA frequentative verbs ............. 162

Chapter XIII Merger and Homophones in Land OE

13.1 CA V paradigms .............: ................................. 163
13.2 On CA verb paradigms ....................................... 163
13.3 Merger in L and OE ........................................... 164
13.4 [Hamre] and Lhre:na] in L. ................................... 164
13.5 The verbs [hae:na] and [Haenae:] in 0E. ................. 165
13.6 Verb and prefix in L. .......................................... I66
13.7 [bredrel] and [ba:TeIJ merger in OE. ...................... 167
13.8 [rare:] in OE. .................................................... 168
13.9 The comparative of good ..................................... 168
13.10 The comparative of bad ....................................... 169
13.11 Bonus and - melior ............................................ 169
13.12 Malus and peior.. .............................................. 170

Chapter XIV On Clusters in L, CA and OE

14.1 Clusters in CA ................................................. 171
14.2 Clusters in Land OE. ........................................ 171
14.3 Clusters in L, OE and Gr .................................... 173
14.4 The V [qab·bala] ................................................ 173
14.5 [Burhreh] ......................................................... 174
14.6 The V [bar' Ta 3a] ............................................. 174
14.7 Tracing /ri 3<£:3/ in Modem English ..................... 175
14.8 Syllable division in CA ...................................... 176
14.9 Final clusters in CA .......................................... 176
14.10 Medial consonants in CA .................................... I77
14.11 Final clusters in Land OE .................................. 178
14.12 L circa ............................................................. 179
14.13 The changes that words have to undergo to
acquire the CCVCC pat... ................................... 180

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Chapter XV Topology of The Movement of Consonats in
The Three Languages
15.1 The position of cons in CA ................................. 183
15.2 The importance of initial position ........................ 183
15.3 Cons groups in CA ........................................... 185
15.4 The static, the dynamic, the moderate.................... 185
15.5 /n/ in CA, Land OE. ......................................... 187
15.6 /3/ and its correspondents .................................... 187
15.7 /m/ ................................................................. 187
15.8 /r/................................................................... 188
15.9 Cons /HI and /h/ ............................................... 188
15.10 Cons /q/.......................................................... 189
15.11 /s/ and /5/ ........................................................ 189
15.12 /w/ ................................................................. 190
15.13 /x/.................................................................. 190
15.14 The cons /g/ ..................................................... 190
15.15 The cons /b/. .................................................... 191
15.16 /0/ and /d/........................................................ 191
15.17 The cons /f/ ...................................................... 192
15.18 The cons !s/ ...................................................... 192
15.19 The cons /R/.................................................... 193
15.20 The cons IT/ and /t/........... ................................ 193
15.21 ~ The fricatives /a 9 oh/.... ... ................................. 193
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15.22 The cons /z/ .................. .... ............................... 193
15.23 The semi VI Y................................................. 194
15.24 ~ The new role of VI in Land OE. .......................... 194

Chapter XVI The New and The Old

16.1 Summary of previous findings ............................. 195
16.2 Pat that did not exist in CA ................................. 196
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16.3 Patterns that exist in th~ three languages ................ 196

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16.4 Comparison of L curro and CA [car'ra] ................... 197

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16.5 Comparison of OE haerfest and the CA

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/Har9/ + /faraH/ ................................................ 197

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16.6 Difference in pat of OE Caru and CA [carb] ............ 197

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 16.7 Comparison of L lenis and CA [Iayen] .................. 197
16.8 The pat CVCI in Land OE. ................................ 198
16.9 Comaprison of the cognate form /falq/. in L.
OE and CA ...................................................... 198
, 16.10 New adjectival pattern in OE. .............................. 199
16.11 Merger of patterns in Land OE. ........................... 200

Chapter XVII Verb and Derivatives

17.1 The origin of nouns ........................................... 201
17.2 Statistic estimate of number of verbs in L,
OE and CA ...................................................... 202
17.3 Compounds in OE ............................................. 203
17.4 Cog in Land OE ............................................... 203
17.5 Comparison of L iam and OE gear ........................ 204
17.6 The names of animals of the IE tribes .................. 205
17.7 Sea life the IE tribes knew .................................. 207
17.8 The names of boats of the IE tribes ....................... 208
17.9 Numbers from One to ten ................................... 208
17.10 The numbers one hundred and one thousand ............ 212
17.11 Proper names .................................................... 2l3
17.12 [a1 Fariyd] ........................................................ 216
17.13 Skills of the IE ................................................. 217
17.14 Cognate and referent. .......................................... 218

Chapter XVIII Different Tendencies in OE

18.1 The four dialects ................................................ 221
18.2 Morphological tendencies .................................... 222
18.3 Phonetic lendencies ................... ,........................ 224
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18.4 [s] and [s] ........................................................ 224
18.5 /d/ as favourite .................................................. 225
18.6 Medial infix ..................................................... 225
18.7 (b) Vs (c) in OE. ............................................... 226

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 AC Affinitive
ALC
CA Classical Arabic
CC Contrastive
Cons any consonant
C Cons in
EC Echoic
FC Favourite
Fr French
Ger German
GR Greek
GS Geminette
IE
Inc Intermediate
L Latin
MC
N
NC
OE Old
OF Old French
OHG Old German
ON Old Norse
RV Root Verb
SKr Sansrit
SS Sound
Tri cors
TV Twin Verb
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 PREFACE
This book is based on a research into old languages that has taken the
present writer nearly ten years. The three languages chosen for intensive study
and comparison were Latin, Old English (Anglo-Saxon) and Classic Arabic. The
reason why these languages were chosen is the striking similarities I have found
between them while undertaking other studies upon each. I had to acertain and
settle once and for all whether they were related or not and to what an extent The
research deals with other old languages like Greek and OHG only as influence or
in relation to the three above.

The research proved both interesting and productive. It has been able to
settle some points that had occupied my thoughts for years as well as others that
had been the subject of debate among linguists for a number of decades. The
book gives in concise form the main points the research has revealed. Previous
knowledge of the languages involved would help but it is not a necessity. The
Arabic language is concentrated upon more than the other two for we assume that
most readers would know less about it than about Latin and Old English.

I should like to express my gratitude to all those who have helped and
encouraged the progress of this work. The truth is that lowe a great and
incomparable debt to some who are no longer with us, to the early Arab
grammarians of the seventh century who have compiled with meticulous and
conscientious care every word the Arabs have ever spoken or written. Theirs was
a labour of love for at that time poetry and poets had all the honours. They stud-
ied language because they loved it and wanted to understand it. Without their
work I could have never understood the Sound Symbolism of Classic Arabic.

lowe an equally great debt to Dr. I.Bosworth. Without his excellent work
on Old English I could have never traced the relationship of OE and CA. Other
dictionaries, Arabic, Latin, English on historical principles have been of
immense help.

Whatever I am able to elucidate is based upon the work of others and due to
their having paved the way.

T.I.
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 CHAPTER I
Early Inscriptions

1 . 1 Scattered all over the Middle East in the lands where Semitic populations
had lived, inscriptions concerning different occasions in their lives have
been found. The earliest of these (1850 B.C.) was round in the Sinai desert
in Arabic script. It was written by the workers who worked in the turquoise
mines there. It is of special importance because it reveals the link between
Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics and the writing or the phoenicians. This
inscription, (in the Cairo Museum today), shows how hieroglyphics became
letters. The word ror house in CA is [ba:yt]. So a rectangulinear thing is
drawn that could be a house, but it stands ror the letter B. Similarly the
word for hand in CA is [yred] (ror the difrerence between hand and [yred]
which is a cognate see 9.13). A hand is drawn but the letter stands for Y.

Inscriptions arc particularly numerous in the north where the Nabatrean

civilization of Petra and Palmira had been. Many inscriptions where found
in the South belonging to the civilizations of the south, and also in the
north where they carried their trade and had stations all along the way. At
first CA took the rectangulinar lines of the South Arabs to write their in-
scriptions, but when the Nabat<ean civilization was destroyed and the Na-
baLa!ans disper~d among the tribes, the north Arab tribes whose language
I~
is CA rorsook ~he rectangulinear script of the south for the more rounded
one of the NabaLa!ans.

1 . 2 Through these inscriptions it became apparent that Semitic tongues share

many features in common. The pattern of verbs, nouns and the pronouns,
and the characteristic that while nouns and adjectives arc inOectionable cer-
tain particles (see 19.6) arc not. They all share the rule that allows the
change or an intransitive verb to a transitive one by means of a prefix.
This prefix is an [h] in Sabian and Hebrew, an [s] in abyssinian and Akkadi-
an, while the Thamudites and Lihyanites (north Arab tribes) used both
forms. In languages of the south, excluding Sumarian, it is an [h In CA
it is a vowel usually Ia!. It is believed that the prefix was originally an [s]

1
 which was to in the .... uu"',-., mentioned above and an I h I in
Hebrew and some Semitic then it became an in CA. We
have our on the which we shall discuss when rn'nn~,rl

] . J In the :>U","'''';U'''~ pages of this we shall some of the usages of

the Semitic and Arab tribes. While we cannot go into detail Litmann
or for a more detailed we shall mention the characteris-
tics which will us understand the of CA to L and DE.
Sometimes we shall a hint of a connection we shall draw but
these connections we cannot to discuss until the different of
CA have become known to us.

1.4 There are three ways of the definite article among

Semitic
The that of the Nabaueans and as well as CA is to
use The Nabatreans the and the vowel after it. a
process that Arab call since it is easier to pro-
nounce so. It became with Fr. Ie and Italian

The second means of the definite article is

fore the word. This is done in Hebrew and Thamudite
withL

the definite article is the use of "the", .. that"

which were ~•• ~ ••. ~II and have remained so in CA.

This is done it is
C'h!~n[""rlto

I.S among the North Arab Tribes:

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The northern tribes of very

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close to it. Nevertheless Arab

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or tribal differences in the

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 I.The addition of lsi as a suffix to verbs in the second person singular
(cf,with L usage).
2. The tribes of Tarniym, Assad and Rabia replaced [a] by [3]
3. While Tyee replaced [3] by [a], that is the opposite process.
4. The tribe of Hazil replaced [hJ by [al
5. The use of [i) instead of fal. Interestingly this feature is found in a
tribe where some rcplace [aJ by Ii], so that two opposite tendencics arc
found in the same tribe.
6. Hazil, AI Azd and the inhabitants of AI Madina replace [3] by In].
7. Thc change of [I] La [m] in certain words by Tyc· in thc definitc article
(see Appendix 9).
8. The deletion of thc vowcl stop of CA by the Tamiymites. One of the
processes of facilation that Amb grammarians record. Ex: [sreaola] be-
comes in their language lsa::la:].
9. The Hamirites changed Is] to [l] in some words, they said [ca:yt] in-
stead ofCA [ca:ys] (Mod. Eng. case).
10. Some tribes pronounce the final inflection, while others drop it. This
is characteristic ofthc language itself since it is optional.
11. Deletion of one syi from CA patLcms by TamimylCs.
Ex.: [crerahcyahl [carahah] Igrereyah] [gre:rah] (Mod. Eng girl).
12. They replaced 101 [or Ia! Ex.: Maria - Moria
Iii for 101 [ridwan] [rodwan]
13. Thcy changed Iwl to Iyl and Iyl to Iwl
Ex.: [qalansuwahJ fqalansuyah]
[qalawan] [qalyan]
14. Deletion of Iwl [waqadre] laqad3] (cf. OE Woden and OHG Odin)
15. The replacement of IfI by leI. This feature is found also in Tamyim as
well as those immediately perceding it. They seem to have most of
the differences from CA. Thus CA [fa:m] is [erem] in their language.
The word is found in OE after melathisis of an (m) and (e) as mup
and in Mod Eng as mouth.
24. The change of /tI to /hI by the inhabitants of Al Madina.
Ex.: (tabout] ftabouh) (tomb). Late L. tumba
25. The tribe of Rabia changed CA raj La fdl
(cf. CA [arecrera] Rabia lda:cara] L dicerc (La say, mention)

3
 26. There is also metathesis in tribal usage.
Ex.: CA Mod thunder. In the OE word
p the order is that of CA since CA 13] is
in OE in certain environments. with No.6
above.
27. Some tribes pronounce the pronoun for the second person in
CA which is as or
with L pro for second peTS.
28. Rabia vu'vu."", ..."" the pers. pro. for the third pers. as instead
orCA
with OE pro. for third pers. PI
29. Banouu Mazin as well as other tribes
Ex.: instead of I
The word has entered into L as monLen and
as well as some of its
30. Some of the tribes CA vowel SLOpS
3 I. accenled CA
in iy and Germanic in-
CA

hence
to be master or teacher of.

1.6 The Rise of Classic Arabic

A in the firth century,
the the inhabit.ants of became the dominant
and most tongue in all the It was natural thal it
because all the tribes had to go to
the tribes had Lo go to Macca
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who wanted their poems to become classics had LO write them in the
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and the tribes of the south had 10 CID-

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'-"b-'~b- of of the north gen-

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north. Centuries earlier when the Arab tribes immigrated from the peninsu-
la, and found the lands they emigrated to already inhabited, it was their lan-
guage that ousted out the native tongue. In almost every case, it was the
Semitic tongue that prevailed.

The cause of this phenomenon, the prevalence of CA, or what comes

closest to it, may be found in what the Arabs themselves called CA. They
called it "AI Fusha" or the clear one. The vcrb [fa: Sa Hal in CA means to
be cear, unequivocal, pure, precise, to have power of expression, to be free
from flaws of phonetic, syntactic or morphological nature(1). It compre-
hends very much indeed. When we examine CA on all its five levels in the
succeeding pages, we will be in a position to judged whether it deserves
this title or not.

Were the Arabs who called CA "AI Fusha" primitive tribesmen, who
knew little about language? To the contrary, theirs was the golden age of
poetry, and CA poetry, the qusidah in panicular has meter and rythum as
complex as the [Iliad or Odyssiy. Language as a medium of verse, oratory,
prose or song was their fort, their love, their only means of expressing
themselves and the an they excelled in. They loved and cherished their lan-
guage; they were very proud of it. Their ear is sensitive to iL<; least nuance,
its smallest variation. When an Arab is excited, pleased, happy, disappoint-
ed or sad, he does not speak in prose but expresses himself in poctry.
Those who had left the peninsula and mixed with other peoples were able to
expresses their artistic taste in great feats of architecture or paintings, but
those who remained could find nothing in the land that was growing drier
and drier, except the language they had inherited, to satisfy their craving for
expression. The khalif Omar Ibn AI Khattab, who was a lover of poetry
and an very good critic says. "It is the an of a people who have no other
an".

Of the hundreds of tribes that went to him on business, he distin-

guished one tribe by lheir deceased poet, "He used to praise you well", said
Omar.

"And we paid him handsomely", they said.

5
 "What you have given him has perished; what he has given you re-
mains". answered Omar.

1 . 7 It is not our purpose to discuss CA poetry in this work. but we mention it

to show how very old and complex it is. When reading the poetry of a Pre-
Islamic poet one becomes aware. both by the very complex and sophisticat-
ed metre and rythum. and the equally complex and well made imagery that
this is the apex of an old art. belonging to an old culture and not the begin-
ning of a new one. Complex rine art does not spring overnight. it takes
centuries to mature. then the poets themselves arc aware that they arc the
end of a civilization that used to be. rather than a people creating a new onc.
One poet complains that there is nothing new under the sun. all has been
said and writlcn. (see Georges Zedan for more on the subjcct).

1.8 What was a poet like in olden times? The word in L is taken from Greek
and it means to build. to do, to make. The CA cognate is derived from the
verb [brenre:] sup. [bren yan). It has wide usage and it can mean to create.
initiate. construct build. A poet was a constructor or maker of verse.

The CA word for poet is [Sa! 3re raj. to feel. to understand, to compre-
hend with one's whole being, mind. heart, intuition and senses. A poet
therefore, was a super-sensitive being who could see distant horizons that
no one else notices. or remember those that no one else remembers.

1.9 One cannot translate to the reader the grand yet rest~ained beauty of CA
verse because part of this beauty lies in the med ium of expression, in the
very powerful yle t highly flexible language(2). We sHall give below a para-
phrase of one image from a Pre-Islamic poet, Labidas small example, be-
fore beginning examination of the language.

The rains have made the ruins glow, like books whose dextrous writ-
ht

ing is ever renewed.

tp
://
a

The image above compares two widely different entities. Ancient, de-
l-m

serted and fallen ruins, and books in which the history of mankind is con-
ak

sciously recorded. Wide apart, the two entities contain one common char-
ta

acteristic that is held in focus by the very fact that all else concerning these
be
h.
co

6
m
 two entities is different. This common characteristic is that they record the
history of mankind. The ruins record, and the history books record, but the
ruins speak a universal language that all can pereeive and understand, then
with each gust of wind, each torrent of rain a new line is added upon the
old, so that each moment sets down its history before it expires, while the
book records a limited period of time from a limited moment in time, where
the writer has written, and nothing can change this picture of human histo-
ry nor ehange the writlen words, once they are set down.

This wide contrast together with the single common feature have
created the image. Ullman (1956) shows that the wider the angle of the
image, that is the more apart two entities compared are, the greater the im-
age. This quality in which the ancient poet excelled, he calls the hallmark
of the true image. (for more translated CA verse see the verse of Omar
Khayam or the verse of Job in the Holy Bible. He is called in Arabic
"Ayoub" and he was the chief of Banou Qucdcm.).

NOTES:
1. AI Akkad defines this quality as: AI fushah is immunity from overlap, as
previously mentioned, and this is the distinctive feature in pronunciation
that has been actualized in the Arabic language in the points of articulation
of the different sounds as it is for the lellers. In the Arabic language there
is no letter where overlap occurs between two points of articulation and in
Arabic pronunciation there is no point of articulation where two lellers co-
incide.

AI Lurha A-shaira P51 1960.

2. The causes of this perfect art which made adC<luale its metre in its feet and
its rhymes may be preceivc<1 by the study of the history of prosody in the
Arabic language .... but the comprehensive cause which includes all these
causes is that musical form is one of the basis of this language that cannot
be separated from the divisions of its articulation, nor the divisions of its
word patterns not the significance of their changes where meaning is con-
cerned or its composition either in syntax or derivation of words. Opus cit
P31.

7
 m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
al-m
://
tp
ht
 CHAPTER II

A bird's Eye View of Language

2.1 The common word :

The common everyday word is the word that is used by all, high and
low, and carried forward from generation to genreration. This chapLer gives
the conganLe forms in CA and IE languages of common, homely everyday
things. These words are classified according to their usage and classification
in everyday life, while in the succeeding chapLers words arc classified accord-
ing to their linguistic properties, that is according to the linguistic feature
under discussion. The purpose of this chapter is twofold. First it allows
the reader a ca<;ual introduction to CA forms, and second it will allow a
glimpse into the life of the IE tribes.

2.2 Heaven and Earth :

Probably two of the first things that man has learnt to name are the
earth he walks upon and the heaven that rains to bring plenty, or menaced
with fcarfulthunder.
The earth is called [arD] in CA, in OE it is tOt'~t and also tOt'tlJan.
In Du it is called aa\'~t, in Gothic airtha in Mod German "t\'i)t". The
main difference between the Gennan and the CA word is that the latLer ha<; a
more open initial vowel. We would like to draw attention to this phenome-
non because we shall meet it very frequently in CA. It is the mark of old
languages and has very interesting causes in the structure of the language
(see VI. 8). It is found in other old languages also (see Lockwood, 1965
P.12). The German and the CA word may be described as cognates that
have undergone so much change that we can recognise them only by apply-
ing the rules of correspondence that operate between the two languages
compared.
If the word for earth is the same, could the word for sky be the same?
The word for high cloud is in CA is [sreSa:) in ON it is gIW', in OE geto.
Could these forms be cognates? Yes, resemch has provcd them to be the
samc.

9
 The L word for and Fr. come from a different root.
The verb from which are derived in CA is In L the inilial
vowel has metathesis. Il h.'lS been removed to medial In
CA as in L the verb means to raise above. In L il is used ror in
relief and the word derived from il for the In CA it is used more oflen
for the clouds because seem in relief lhe

is in CA
means in CA the hence the

L and it means "r",",I""" barrier li-

linc. lhat is the reason it came to mean in L the or line be-
tween heaven and earth. The DE cog; is and like its CA cognate it
means,

2.3 If the heavens and earth have the same name for the Semitic and the IE
one may expcct to find other Let us try words that are
considered of the oldest in Semitic tongues, lhat is the words thaL desagl1wle
the features of the face and the parts of thc Whal are the words for the
features of the face in CA?

IE

Head L capul
ears Ger.auzon*
eyc.',
mouth It bocca
nose Fr.nez
hair Ger.haar
ht
tp

to be a cog in CA and in IE lan-

://
a

gmlges. We have up the IE form ncarestto CA 10 make

l-m

rn.nn'''r ..,nn easier. The similarities are unmistakable bUlthere are differenc-
ak

es also. Thc differences in the fonns above as well as in the rest of the cog-
ta
be

nates in this are accounted for in the of lhis

h.
co

10
m
 book. The reason is that words do not undergo changes singly and arbitrari-
ly but by certain phonetic and morphological rules. These rules do not af-
fect single fonns but whole groups, so that it is necessary to discuss each
rule and the group of words it has affected separately. In the meantime we
shall pursue these casual comparisons.

2 . 4 Parts or body :
If the features of the face have the same names, may not the parts of
the body have the same names in CA and IE languagcs?

Mod Eng IE language CA

body OE bodig [bada:n]

neck OE hnccca, Mod Fr nuque [3onuq]
back L dors-um [()hahr]
wrist OE wrist [rasx]
stomach proto Ger.magon'" [ma:3cdah]
upper leg Lgamba [ganb]
foot Lpedem [qada:m]
toe OEtoe [Tarf]
It.. kt·
..... II I ....... /
,l
2.5 Attachement or word to R V :
Research ~as revealed that the words designating the parts of the body
arc also cognates in CA in IE languages. Whi le most of theses words exist
in IE languagcslas lone forms wilhout families. in <1:A each of these words
exi~" together with the RV from which it is derived, hence with its whole
fami\y. They arc not lone forms but part of an integrated system. All of
the words given in this chapter as well as the rest of the work are also
members of a family haying a RV al ilS head. because in CA no word oc-
curs without its RV (we shall undersumd the morphological causes in due
course) unless it is a loan from another language. Such loans do not make
pan of this study, and the mre loan word will be pointed out if it occurs.

11
2.6 Names:
the oldcst words that Semitic share are the words that
names and The Arabs in were
very of their ancestors and studied their it back thou-
sands of years. them is a science. So we can trust them
to words ~-'''b'''~'''''b
If we compare the forms below:

CA

mother modor mater

father fodor
son sunnu rilius
dohtor fillia

The CA words above make a The Land OE ones do nol.

Research reveals thal 1 and 2 arc congmes in the three I<.III).;U,J).;'-""-
but No 3 and 4, the rest of the in is
moreover new nouns have been introduced. Have these nouns cong-
nates in CA?

If we compare the fonns below:

1 brother sunnu
1 sister
2 brother
2 sisler dohtor
3
ht
tp

3
://

4 son brodor fmlcr

al-m

4
ak
ta
be
h.
co

12
m
 In CA each of the above forms has both a ma'\c and a fern pattern side
by side. In L and DE this is not the case. some nouns are missing. others
have altered semantic content. while a criss cross movement has take place
between others.

I. From this root both the fern and masc exist in CA and DE but in DE
the mase no longer means brolher but son. while the fern retains the
same seman tie eontent as iL'\ CA cognate. In L the fern was remained
but the mase pat ha'\ been lost.

2. In this pair L retains the masc root. It means mother's brother or un-
cle a\.luncuIus, while DE has lost the masc but retains the fern as
doh tor. and it means daughter not sisler. It is a ease of Inc through
Ger toehter (10.1).

3. This pair is retained in L but has been lost in DE. in L it has acquired
the semantic content of son and daughter not girl and boy (cf with
Mod Fr where WIt can mean girl also).
4. Df this pair the fern has been lost in both L an DE but the masc has
been retained it means brother however and not son as it docs in the
CA paradigm given above.

In the above examples we may observe features of language that com-

parison of related langUilges brings before us again and ..gain.

The same word may be used with altered semantic content in related
languages, so that it may not be entirely missing but differently interpreted.
The implication of this is that one should not rely on the name of a partic-
ular species to infer the place of or the existence of this species because the
name may be used for another which is nlther similar but not identical. For
language in early times was used more casually. less accunltely than it is
today by the IE tribes, but not in CA for rC<lsons we shall discover in due
course.

The second point to remember is that if two words look very different
in related languages, this may not be that they are from different roots. al-
though this is possible, nor due to the inlluence of foreign langU<lges upon
IE langUilges, which is also possible. though less probable. This is not be-
cause one of the forms is a loan word. but in most cases it is due to the

13
 different has submiLlcd lO.
..JIII:;U'"1:;'''

For "''''.... 1'' .... but in CA

are a fem and masc from the same rool. The difference is due to the fact
thaL L has the eors and OE and thaL OE has an initial EC.
These cors are diseussed more in the It suffices
here LO be aware that cognate forms or forms from the same rooL need not
look the same in

TheOEN in bULL
different root. II comes from the V

The difrerence between the Land OE words is

Lhe presence of in the CA and will be dealt with in due course.

or closest relations

uncle OEcon
aunt L amila

Where uncle and aunt nrc concerned we find thnl OE tom is the cog-
nate of CA I but OE is derived form the word it is
of I is L amita. The Mod
ure laken from but are
ht
tp

and the word 'father'. The

://

to be generous.
a
l-m

mc:.ms gre.ll. From the same

ak

RV come also the nouns and so that what has is

ta

that after the loss of the nOllns, Fr. has wken the from the
be
h.
co

14
m
 same root and formed new nouns with it by the help of the nouns for
"father" and "mother".

2.7 Designation or human beings :

There are two oLher words which mean girl an boy in CA, these are
[gurw) and [greriyah). Thc lalLcr may he easily recognizcd as OE girl (for
changc of Iyl to 11/ sec V.25). Thc second Igurw) is noL uscd in CA for
boys but for all young male animals. It means cub. It appears afLcr undcr-
going certain changcs in Fr. as garcon and in It. as gazzonc. AILhough
[gareyah) sLill mcans girl in CA, iL hac; acquired Lhc particular sense of slavc
girltogethcr with its original meaning.

The two words fmarcO) and [marreOtul appear in OE as mregb, that is

young woman or woman, and mann from which comes Mod Eng "man".

The L word for man is" IJ(lmo, it comcs from a different root. J}umUS'
is mud or clay. Man is called ~omo because he is made of clay. As far
back as history can peer, the Romans have becn poly thesis. In Roman phi-
losophy and in Greek philosophy, we find no such hypothesis. (see
B.Russel 1956). In fact this hypothesis is maintained only by the three
heavenly religions. Judaism, ChrislianiLY and Islam. How did the Romans
acquire such a bcliclt Did they have in some remote, pre-historic past a hea-
venly religion? This queslion wc shull pursue further when we come to dis-
cuss more words conccming the religion of the IE tribes. The word for clay
in CA is [Ha:mreoJ. It is a cognate of the L form. But the word for human
being in CA is [insa::nl. It docs not come from the samc root but from thc
RV [renisal. which means to find comfort or solace in. A human being is
accordingly "nicc" to have around.

2.8 Comparison between CA and Of<: words and CA and Lones:

In this section wc shall mukc some comparisons betwccn CA and L
words and somc OE ones. The reader may havc noticed that many of the
cognatcs of the CA words compared in thc last section arc of thc Romancc
branch of thc IE languagcs, and an almost equally large number are of the
Germanic branch. We have been using indiscriminately in thc last section

15
 both Germanic and Romance words. In this section the readcr will discovcr
the rcason. Let us first compare some OE words with thcir CA countcr-
parts.

Mod Eng 0 ..: CA

rod, bamboo gyro [gariyd]

butter, fat sam (samn]
v
to separate, take away scclcan sup (saylccn)
loathing, hatred scuncan (~;rnaC£:n]
to bend hnah (Hccn:r:]
to despise hocor ~.I]
eslCCm chtian [chtararna]
effort gchOO (gehdu]
lo~, humble hCan Ih;cycn)
peoplc w..r.l [wam:1
astray heretical d61 lDa:1]

With a Iiule imaginHtion an Arab may comprehend somc OE words. A

word like "wara" needs no explanation to him, because it is the same, while
an Englishman, no maller how imaginative, would have to use an OE dic-
tionary to discover it means people.
If we compare the CA and L w~rds below :

Mod Eng CA

fault, slip [Hllila If:rltah]

fault, weakness noxa (n;cqiSah]
a<;hc..<;
ht

cinis Ic<Uls]
tp

tocorrodc corrode-rc [qarl.lDa]

://

[rag;c:)
a

to beg, plead roga-rc

l-m

to rub frica-rc Ifar.x:a:]

ak

to say, mention <lice-rc [oaca:m]

ta
be
h.
co

16
m
 From the above words one infers that L was equally close to CA.
What then shall we consider the Arabs? Shall we consider them bilingual?
People who speak both Land OE? Historically the Arabs were the contem-
poraries of the Ancient Egyptians. In more than one mural of the Ancient
Egyptians one finds pictures of captured Arab chiefs with a long beard and
dark eyes. Chronologically Arabic is the oldcstliving tongue today and one
of the oldest languages ever spoken. It is much older than either L or OE
and reaches back much further.

2.9 CA. Gr and Skr words :

In fact the further back one regresses the closer OE and L or their an-
cestor get to CA. The connection of CA is not a direct connection with ei-
ther L or OE, but with the ancestor of these languages, that is the reason
we find in CA words from L. OE or any IE tongue, we take the trouble to
search into.

Ex: Greek CA Mod Eng Sanskrit CA Mod Eng

Kofinos [ca:fanJ coffin sapta [s<eb3ahj seven

halos [ha:lah) halo gaws [gamlL<;) buffalo
akm [qcmnh) acme ushas [cSlaJuJ sunrise

2.10 CA and Proto Ger :

If we compare some CA words with their proto Ger. counterpart

Mod Eng OE Proto (icr CA

hay heg hojotn* {hariym)

hoof hM hofoz* [ha:ferJ
harvest hearfest root har()* [hare )
dawn - daganON dtg<U1
fish fisc fisioc* [fisyx)

17
 We notice that the words are closer 10 CA than to OE. Similar-
ly old L is closer to CA than Mod L. In certain .""I;.........~ compare:

2.11
to lind the anCCSlors of Land OE closer to CA
.....'b ...~b~·~. since we know that CA is much but the
is to lind Mod words rather close to their CA coun-
How a word can travel thousands of years. pass on mil-
lions of and still remain and still retain il" semantic
but compare: rock I
merry
Shackle

This
__ .,~v ••".", nn,~nr.m"n(1.n that we shall return to in due course.

2.12 Section II Fauna and Flora :

What kind of environmenl did the IE l;lOd Semitic tribes have '! In this
section we shall compare some of Ihe cognl.lle forms lhe envi-
ronment, the fauna and nom thal these tribes had in order to find out
where lived. One must beware however of the name of a
animal or lived in such or such a cli-
mate for very found in a new environment is named af-
ter what the IE tribes knew, even if il is nOlthe same or resembles
it a litlle. We have seen how names have been "'''.'p''.'' lo
suit certain The same occurs sometimes
and animal life, nevertheless the cogn<lte forms we find
ht
tp

will afford a outline of Ihe kind of life led.

://
a
l-m
ak

2.13 Wild Lire:

ta

Below is a ... n ..... n'<1r ..'nn of the wild life that Ihese tribes knew:
be
h.
co

18
m
Mod Eng IE lang Closest To CA CA

lion L lconem [layS]

snake Fr serpan [Sulbre:n]
shark shark [~]
whale OE hwrel (HuWl]
elephant OF olifant [al fiyl] (see ] 5.23)
fish proto Ger fisioc· (fisiyx]
salmon AF saumoun [sremac]
hoopre OE hoopa: (hud+hud]
leopard L lcopardus [fa:hd)
Deer Gr. aama (aabiy]
elk L alees (reyl]

We notice that the wild life common to the IE tribes and the Semitic
ones contains fish. Moreover great fish that live in open waters and not
small lakes. These tribes must have had access 10 the sea. While whale
and shark mean the same thing in CA und Mod Eng. fish and salmon do
nol. Salmon or CA Isremakl means any fish. any kind of fish in CA.
while [fisiyx] the linguislic congante of fish means a particular kind of
fish. so called because it is splil open and saIted. The RV is (fresrexre]
which means to split open. Such fish is preserved and eaten in many
parL" of Arab land. p<lrticularly in Egypt which has a long border upon the
Mediterranean. Since any kind of fish may be slit and saIted the word
carne to mean all kinds in Germanic languages.

The word for lion in L. l.tOntm is a cog. of il" CA counterpart

[layS] but the female word for lion in CA is lIubu;\hl. In L it is lupa.
but it docs not mean she-lion as it docs in CA but she wolf. In both lun-
guages it means a woman of bad morals figuratively. The lion has very
distinctive characteristics. so that il<; name could not be easily mistaken.
but that the word for she-lion should come 10 mean she-wolf suggests that
the Romans have moved to an environment where the wolf is more im-

19
 than the lion. A more northern environment In
facl one of the oldest of Roman is that the founder of
Rome was reared a she-wolf.

2 4 Vacca:
While Land CA cognates one often encounters the
same word different to the environment the
tribe has moved into as the below reveals.

L vacca CA OE naca

This word means in L cow, in OE sea-horse and in CA she -camel.

How has this IJucc different If we
look at the V. from which it is derived.
tawny and while to train or make an animal .... "I'.. u .....
movements. L has taken the semantic content
be of tawny or red in white CA has taken this
with the idea of for this verb is used for a she-camel to
but in OE where the Saxons had a nordic environment of seas and
'''''U''''''. the word is used to mean A seahorse is to them
a which is what used to ride the waves. A horse also can be
white in tawny or reddish and a can be made to sail smooth-
The thrcc words are in accord with the semantic content of the but
each have lL'lCd the word derived from it
ment and their needs.

2.] 5
Did the IE tribes have a nomadic or existence? In other
words were herdsmen or fanners'! of . '''lb~'J' terms
shows that f1l'st as hcrdsmen. If we comparc.
ht
tp
://

L animnlis CA pi OE niten
a
l-m
ak

The L word is a cog of the CA PI while the OE word is a

ta

cog of the CA of the same word. In all the three the

be
h.
co

20
m
 word means animal, particularly cattle or domestic animals. The phonetic
difference between the Land OE word is due to the existence of /3/ in the
CA one, to be discussed in due course. This word is derived from the RV
[na3ima] to become afluent, to live in luxury, to have blessings, com-
forts. In olden times a man's weallh was estimated according to the num-
ber of heads of callIe he had. Land wac; plentiful, and like air or water be-
longed to the whole world, or later to the whole tribe. Similarly L
bot.ltnus is a cog of CA Ih.chiymJ (bovine).

2.16 Domestic Animals :

F.rom words like the above we gather that they began as herdsmen,
moving where pasture was more plentiful. If we compare the names of
the domestic animals below:

Mod Eng IE CA

cat OEcatt [qct]

dog Gerkerl [ca:lb]
v
shccp Gershaff [s~h]

goat ON geiter [gcdiy]

L hredus [h~diy]
~ I
Ox I Gr. UlWrus I [9awr]

~ II n
goose Fr.oie [wczJ
buffalo Skr.gaws [gam use]
cow
~ L hucula
I
0
~
lbaqar.lh]
chicken OE cicen [caLcout]
~
~
foul OE fugol ~ . Ifarxl
rooster Frcoque [diyc]
v
ram L caper [c~bsl
r_ ,

From the above list it appears that (hese tribes had domesticated a
large number of animals, the S<Ime domestic animals we have today. (for
a more detailed account of the kind of horses they kept, for they trained
several kinds see 17.9).

21
2.t7 What kind of life did have? And what names did to
found in a new environment if such was the casc'!

Mod m CA

1 grass L
2 herb L herba
3 rice L aris-um
4 birch L betula
5 L
6 bulb Gr bulbus
7 flowcr L nos
8 nower DE
9 oak OEoac
10 OHG
11 cedar L ccdr-us
12 wood OEwud
13 L baca
14 mclon Lmeloncm
15 lotus 100US

Thc first words are both and

nates. The next seven are
there are differences betwccn the CA 9
is a small tree, a or vine from the S<.lmc rool. No lOis a green con-
ic tree, an cvcrgrcen. No II means lotus tree in CA. No 12 means wood
for fire. No 14 means honied or No 15 means an oak trcc in
ht
tp

CA.
://
a
l-m

Such differences one should expect when their environ-

mcnt to a new one. we can trace their CA cognatc
ak
ta
be
h.
co

22
m
 the morphological rules that exist between CA and Land OE. They are
useful as clues to the differences in climate and environment that the IE
tribes have moved to.

2. 18 There are three congnatc forms for grain or seeds found in CA and IE lan-
guages. The first two concern wheat,

Mod Eng IE CA

l.Wheat OE here [bur)

2. Wheat OE hweat IHantah I
3. com prot Ger kum*-un [gurrn-un)
grain Lgranum

The difference between 1 and 2 in CA is that the first means green

wheat not yet ripe, and the second means full grown or ripe wheat. 3
means any panicle or small seed or grain.

The word bread means any kind of bread in Mod Eng. as [xubz) which
proved to be its cognate (see 9.14) means in CA. And loaf, OE hlaf
turned out to he the cog. of CA IraRiyfl (see 9.13). Did the IE have dif-
ferent kinds of bread? It appears they did. We are told that in OE there
was a kind of bread called ttmmts. What was it like? Is it possible to
tell? Perhaps. If one goes to Saudi Arabia, and leaves the main streets
with their array of modern French breads. to a secluded side street, one
finds a little old man who ha<; an anlique oven. It has a round opening in-
side which there is cylindrical coal-hot disc. If one asks for tamize, one
gets a huge loaf, actually the size of this disc. A very tasty bread.

2.19 Diet :
What was the diet of these peoples. what did they cat with bread?
From the
'7
above we know they ale fish, foul and meal. Fr. mOUlon is the
Cog of CA [da'enJ (Iamb meal). L arizum is the cog of Ca [arz) L lactus
is from the RV \Iacre I. The V means to milk in CA. The Mod. Eng
word milk is the cog of CA Irnrer<lq). butlmaraq) docs not mean milk in

23
 CA but crumps of bread or cook
with is called Ger neish turned out lO
be cog ofCA It means meat. It, tot"ta turned out to
be the an abbreviated form of CA

2.20
[rom the list of cognates these had an u,,'''iu .......
do not have this varied diel before have reached a
standard of civilization. if we look at the kind of houses
lived we would be able lO know more.

great OEhcarh
house OEhus
castle OE castle
[ortified Gr 7.aun, OE Lun
house Ldomus
Home OEham
lOwer OE
collage AFcota
hall OEhal

From Lhe list above one infers that of UUIIUIII!;"

and that had to

docs nOL mean home bur. a where one fccls safe.

ht

The whcre one fccls safc. It comes from the RV to dc-

tp

and in ancient limes it included the of the whole tribe. In

://
a

OE it meant a whole hence

l-m

which is made of two words

ak

defence. Its CA cog is +

ta
be
h.
co

24
m
2.21 Titles :
Just as the IE had buildings for different people of different status in
society, they had different names for people in dilTerent strala of society.

Mod Eng IE CA

1. Sir It el senior [a'sayed]

2. sheriff OE sheriff [kiyfl
3. Mr Gr, Her [hurl
4. noble L nobilis [nabiyl]
5. fellow OE fcologa, ON felaga [falre:H]
6. master L magister [muSaylCr]
7. king LrcJ[ [rae·s]
8. Slave L sclavus, OE Thrall [sccbiy]

From the abovc one infers that it was a society of many different gra-
dations and that they had slaves. No 5 comes from the RV (fa:laHa]
which means to till thc earth. It is used for someone who works with his
hands. While 6 comes from the RV ISaytara] to dominate, to be in con-
trol of. Gr. Her simply means freernan. But in a society that had slaves it
was an advantage to be a frceman. Slave or CA [sa:biy] comes from the
RV [sa:bre:]. It means to take captive in war, to make a slave as a result
of being conquered in war. It appears that the fIrst slaves were prisoners
of war.
What did the IE call foreign tribes? When the Romans met the Ger-
manic tribes they called them 'barbar'. When the Arabs fIrst met the
tribes of North Africa they called them [barbar]. The word comes from
the RV [barbara] which mean 10 make quick and incomprehensible. in-
choate sounds. Any language that one docs not understand may seen to
be quick and incomprehensible. The verb also means to make loud and
angry noise. One of the names of the lion in CA is [al berbar] because it
makes such noiscs. Quiet possibly, when meeting an enemy in baLtle in
olden times people made such loud cries. in which case the epithet would
apply equally well. Later however it acquired the meaning of uncivilized
whereas at fust it had only the meaning of foreign or incomprehensible.

2S
2.22 Exclamations :
Exclamations do not carry semantic content in the same sense that a
word like "horse" docs, nevertheless they carry an expression, a message
of some sort. It may be inchoate and sometimes equivocal, hence more
subject to chance than words that designate a particular object. They are
often characteristic of panicular peoples and epochs. Do we find any such
utterances common to CA and IE languages'!

When the Saxons were distressed or grieved they cried toa. When the
Arabs were distress or grieved they cried Iwu::). When the English found
something nonsensical or were indignant, they said (bah, bah) while in
OF it is (ba) or (bah). In CA it is [b:cx + ba:xJ.

The Romans have the expression "ah" to express surprise, joy, exit-
ment or emotion generally. In CA a short [ahJ expresses surprise but a
long [a:h) expresses grief, pain or disappointment. The expression bret in
L means true, granted or admiued. In CA it has the same meaning but
phonetically it is [HaqJ. The RV is rHaq'qaJ (to be true, actualized, con-
finned) .

The expression "ahem" immitating a cough is usually to draw atten-

tion in Mod Eng. In CA it is also to draw allention but it has the added
connotation sometimes of a cynkml "I don't believe it".

When the Germans, even today, like someth ing ~ey say Stb6U when
the Arabs, even today, like something they say [zeyn). The word is the
cog of the Ger one which has undergone some changes. The R V is the V
[zre: nre] to be lovely, beautiful, ornamental etc.

2.23 Taxes and bribes

CA [grebeyreh] is Fr. gabtUt derived from L gabulum or tax. and
ht
tp

CA [bartala) is OF brtbt. or Mod Eng to tribe. Unfortunately taxes and

://

bribes are two of the marks of a civilized society. So one can infer that
a
l-m

the IE had a central govemment and that it had rules or laws, that officials
ak

were bribed to allow citizens LO escape these laws, and that they paid
ta

taxes.
be
h.
co

26
m
2.24 Time

Mod Eng IE CA

day yahr Ger. jour Fr. [yawm]

hour Ger. stunde [srelatu]
while OEhwile [hrewl]
year L annus [3re:m]

From the words above one notices that morphologicaly Ger. vsbt' is
the same as CA [ya:wmJ or proto-Ger. ,tt'Om *. It is also the same as
Fr. jOUt'. Semantically they seem very different. The cause of the differ-
ence is that [yrewm] in CA means a period of time. It can be twenty four
hoUl-:s or a million years. It ha" been interepted in Ger as a year, in Fr.
and most Arabic dialccts as twenty four hours, but in old scripts its se-
manLic content is simply a period of time.

L bOt"8 or OF ure from which Mod Eng hour is derived is a cognate of

OE bttJtlt and CA [Ha:wl]. The RV is lhrewala]. It means to tum over.
[Hawl] is therefore a turning over of Lime from one year to another on the
same date. Thus from Easter to Easter would be one [Ha:wl]. From the 1
of November to the same date the next year would be one [Hrewl]. It is
one year, but not a: calendar year, but a year marked by a particular date.
In L it has acquired the meaning of one hour and in Germanic languages
an indefinite period of time, a while.

The word for hour in CA is [sa3atu]. It is a cog of Ger stUltbt. In

both languages it means one hour or sixty minutes. While the word be-
gins with lsI in CA , it begins with I~I in some Arabic dialccts (norh Af-
rican) as it docs in German.

The word for year, that is twelve months is [3rem] in CA and altltus
in L. (For cor of 13/:/a/sce 8.19). Although the words that designate Lime
are sometimes not identical in CA and L or CA and Germanic languages,

27
 arc There is here as in the above the same
criss-cross movements liable to lake between that have
been channels communication for thousand.. of years. FOi discus-
sion of the Mod Word its CA cog and L dies which is
not a cog.

2.25 The or the IE and Semitic tribes :

to the facl lhal these tribes were monolhcis-
tic at some remote but that with the pas-
sage of time their wn,r<:n"n and IOtenism.

What deities did the IE and Semitic tribes have in Common? Deities
before The chief among the Semitic
both the south Arab tribes and lhe north
He has a wife and son
his wife was the sun, and their
was a star, it is said Venus.

the Germanic tribes this is called Woden in OE and Odin

"thnlr.ov he

prcme. It is unrivalled and is lherefore the chief but in a colder cli-

mate, it is lhat the chief should the thunderer.
We have clues however that out that in earliest limes he was the
moon among the Germanic tribes also.

There was a belief among these tribes that the moon could affeclthe
brain of man moon must have been in a warm
ht

cloudless From this belief comes the L

tp
://

which is derived from the N From the same belief comes

a
l-m

the OE which means mad and is derived from the N It

Woden. Here we have a clue that lhe Germanic tribes
ak
ta

also believed La be the moon in earliesl limes.

be
h.
co

28
m
 The next deity whose name is found in both. Arab and Germanic my-
thology is CA [mren:ch] Proto Ger. mStnOn, OE mons and L luns.
[mrenreh] is the goddess of destiny or death among the South Arab tribes.
but among the Land OE tribes it has become the moon goddess after
tuo~tn has become the thunderer. (for the change of Iml to II/ in L sec
9.3).

There are two more goddesses whose names in CA arc [al Latty] and
[al lozza]. The names of these two have been merged together in L for
phonological reasons(l) and produced the larts or household gods. Since
our main interest is the language rather than the religion of the IE tribes
we shall stop here, but those interested in pursuing the subjcct will find
several more.

2.26 Climate :
What kind of climate did the IE tribes have and how do they describe
it? The words that describe the climate arc not cognates in CA and L, nor
in L and OE. These differences when referring to the climate marks to us
the beginning of a separate existence for each group. First, we shall refer
to the words what have remained the same, then proceed to those that have
changed semantic content or altered it a liLLie. We find the words describ-
ing rain the same, for rain can be identified as rain anywhere. But the dif-
ferent varieties found in CA sbould be significant to us.

Mod. Eng. IE CA Meaning in CA

rain OEregen [ncgsanl heavy downpour,

great thunder
v
shower OE scur lSaI'mhl lesser pouring
rain pluvia lbal'lahl ",eUless I
water proto Ger watar'" lmaTar\ ~ rain water _~

From the above it appears that the words for water and rain arc the
same, though. as it is often the case, L has chcscn the word cOHtain;ng
[p] and [I) which are favourites in this language, as we shall soon sec, (cf.
the same tendency in the choice of filius and filia above).

29
 summer OE sumor este
winter OEwinter hiems

The word for summer in OE is sumot'o Its m.n,rnt.n cognate is

and it docs nol mean summer at all in CA but convers-
---'----J manner at How has this come about? Let
us go back to the RV from which it is The RV means to graze at
To the Germanic tribes summer was the sea-
The RV is the N is

This V is used <L>,,,... mo-

jJ ....

manner, or
m.r'!'In,in<f of

The L word for summer 'este' seems very different from CA

The RV of the CA word is to be of clear hence sum-
mer is the season of clear skies. To seck a summer resort, or to the
summer in CA is in L it is The word is a V + It is
from this derived from lhatthc L word for summer is derived.
So for the Romans and the Arabs summer was a season of or rela-
cl.::ar while for the Gennanic tribes it was a season of
of may or m~ly not have had clear skies but have pre-
ferred the word oriented towards which was the basic dif-
ference between their summer and winler or the difference that mauered Lo
them.
ht
tp

The wOHI for winter in DE is derived from the same root as water
://

above. It is however because this verb rain may

a
l-m

be used to denote the of snow or or any in

ak

successi(lO. Winter was then the season of

ta

rain. the medial n see

be
h.
co

30
m
 The word for winter in L comes from the RV in CA [hamara] the N
[hamar] means heavy rain. There is no implication of other particles here.
The CA word for winter comes from the V [~atae:] to rain, to become
cold. It does not signify great minfall however like [hamara] or [maTara].
From the above one can perceive the differences in climates.

The comparisons we have given in this chapter all suggest that while
the Germanic tribes have moved to a much colder climate, the Romans
have moved to a slightly colder one and the CA tribes to a warmer one.
One must bear in mind that change of environment can occur in two
ways. The tribes may leave their original home and seek new land, or the
land itself may change climate. We are told the Arab Peninsula had at
some remote period in history green valleys and snow-capped mountains.
Untilltoday one can see the river beds where once flesh waters flowed.

The word for hail, CA [hayl] and thunder CA [8:cJcqah] have proved
to be cognates in CA and Germanic languages. L tonitru is also a cog-
nate of thunder, but not L lll\llS (snow) or OE snaw which arc cognates
of CA [naw] which means dense fog of intermittent occurrence. The ph~­
nomenon we observe here is the same we have observed earlier. IL is the
choice of old words to refer to new phenomena. It suggests that the snow
they found was new to them orlat least different from the ice they had
known. The ~ord for snow in CA is [8a:lg]. It comes from another
RV.

2.27 Referent
Before ending this section there is one point that is important to kccp
in mind. It is tfie difference between the change of referent and the change
of semantic content. A word may change referent without changing se-
mantic content as the example of [samar] above. Similarly the word for
snow in L comes from the V rnaewa;] to alter course, to be on and off. In
CA Arab sailors use it for fog that is now in one place and now another,
in Land OE for snow which suggests that snow wa'\ not always there in
winter but intermittent. The semantic content of 'intermittent' remains.
It is a change of referent, that is a change in the practicle application of
the word rather than its meaning or Ihe meaning of its RV.

31
2 28 The home 01 the IE tribes :
There has been many theories ..."""....,...rn
the home of the IE tribes.
These theories were all of inconclusive evidence. we have more
definite evidence and more conclusive facts, If the and Semitic tribes
were at one time in the same and ."""h""h from their this
must have been a considerable of had the same
home. Most historians agree that the home of the Semitic tribes was the
Arab Peninsula. we this for the IE tribes
in this case we would be able to account for several that
were left unaccounted for the theories.

The first of these is the rca...on the IE lrik.. have left their ",..'.",i ... ",1
home and roamed the earth. It is because their was up.
It was that seck new land and new pasture.

We know from the of the Semitic tribes that such movements

do not occur all the inhabitants at the same time but in waves. Histo-
rians compare the to a reservoir that part of its waters
whenever it is overfilled, Between each wave ,md the onc there
can be several centuries P. Hiui It accounts for the fact
that some IE like Sanskrit arc much older than olhers.

Ir we look at the map of the old world we find Lhe pclum.ula ......,_Ul.....,~
a central between three contincnl... From there one could move
in any direction. This accounts for the of the tribes to different
parts of the earth.

We noLice thal the tribes who have in remote of his-

have differed much from the mother we shall exam-
of his-
ht
tp

errIU!I'atc:a at all
://

have lheir There may be Cl\.I.;I.;IJUlJII:>

a
l-m

factors but on the whole these arc the observable

ak
ta
be
h.
co

32
m
2.29 Clues from the four cardimll points :
If the IE tribes had the Arab Peninsula as their original home, where
to did they emigrate immediately aner it? For we know that tribes do not
go very far from their original home unless they find tribes in the imme-
diate vicinity or unfavourable natural conditions. Let us compare the
names of the four cardinal points in CA and in IE languages to find out
more if possible.

Mod. Eng. CA Meaning of RV in CA

v
cast [esr.llJl sunrise, burst of light
west [Rarb] to go or wander far from home
v
north [sxmx:IJ comprehensive, to hold, contain all
south [ga:noubJ to be on the side, beside

The four cardinal points, with the exception of the cast, which is the
same in CA and IE languages arc not the same in CA and L or DE.
While the east, where the sun rises is an unmistakable orientation to all,
the other three points should reveal significant differences to us. Let us
examine first those of CA. To go west is to go far from home in foreign
lands. the adj from this same V means stranger or foreigner. We know
that many of the early waves went to the west in the direction of Egypt.
This is historically correct (sec appendix). South of CA [gu:noub] de-
notes that besides them, to the soulh a few tribes remained, which is also
historically correct. But 1~u:m<r:11 which means all containing, compre-
hensive denotes that by far the greatest number of of tribes went north-
wards. There is a very old Arabic proverb which says "united them with
their north" [hml]. It implies to unite people who have scattered far, and
were never expected to sec each other again. It suggests that those who
went north were never secn lIgain.

Let us examine the three cardinal points in DE which are not cognates
of their CA counterpart. South or DE SUa, DHG sunb, comes from the
CA V [sadae:J to desert, to forsake. The adj therefore means deserted land.
So to the south was the deserted land.

33
 OE has as ) in Ca which means the
middle. It comes from the same RV as waist. This RV is to be
in the middle or in central So have gone to the cenlral po-
sition of a land. North or OE and
means the word has entered Mod. within the
a second time and is used in .. "',"IV"...,." It is nadir. So
have gone to a land that has a
which seem to have used as marker is in the middle of the
and to the northwest of their horne. That is the reason gave
the word or middle the of west. Now if we look at the
map of the old world we find that the land that fits this t11'.,rr.nll"n is Tur-
It is that is to the northwest of their horne and that
has a natural border northwards. ofEu-
rope which could cross over without any need for for
we assume that moved on to find more fertile for their cattle
and and drove these on before them.

For more on the life of the IE and Semitic tribes sec ....... "'1-'.'''' XVIII.

2.30 The five features of forms :

In the pages we have IXI.(IPOSe(1 certain word and main-
tained that these were no to substantiate
our claim because the was to introduce the
forms however must have five features in common in
order to be ",,,r·t',,,,,,r! as such'
1 must have the same consonants.
2. must carry the same pauern.
3. must corne from the same RV.
4. must have the same rererent.
5. must have the same semantic content.
ht
tp
://

If any of these five criteria is then the two forms may not be
a

ac(:eplteCl as unless the

l-m

Consonants are discussed in patterns are dis-

ak
ta

cussed in "-""'l"'"
be

VII.
h.
co

34
m
 The relationship of a word to the V it is derived from is discussed in
Chapter XVII and causes of change are further discussed in Chapter XII,
XIII, XIV.

Footnotes :
1. L changes III to II/ in certain contexts and changes Izl to Irl so that the
names of the two goddesses became phonetically very close. The result was
a merger producing lares, or household gods.

2. Modem archeology maintains that this part of the world contained the earli-
est civilizations, but not having the linguistic evidence does not maintain
that these are the ancestors of the IE tribes. In the OLD WORLD Dexter
Perkins Jr. and Patricia Daly (p 73) say :
'While perhaps too much emphasis has been placed on the
"Fertile Crescent" and the "Cradle of civilization" the fact re-
mains that the Near East is where it all began, and we all are
the inheritors.'

3S
,.j n)o II
~
•
m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
a l-m
://
tp
ht
 CHAPTER III

AN OUTLINE OF TilE TOPOLOGY OF CA

3.1 The five IHeis :

CA is an huge language, of vast dimensions. This giant language was
not conceived piecemeal, according to immediate needs nor built fortui-
tously. On every level one can perceive very fine and meticulous plan-
ning. It was conceived and built on one master plan, on a grand scale, into
one self- integrating, sclf-mainl.;1ining system. Each of its five levels is
contigent on the one preceding it, while at the same time it regulates and
holds it in check. Its five levels are therefore interdependent and interlock-
ing. These five levels are the semantic, the phonological the morpholoqi-
cal, the synl.;1ctic and the level of sound symbolism.

3.2 Co-ordination of the Ihe Inehi :

What we shall try to do here is to give an outline of how the five lev-
els work together. We shall begin by the smallest significant unit. On
the level of (sound symbolism) SS, the first level on which the other four
are built, the significant unit is not the morpheme but the phoneme. Each
phoneme is a sound hieroglyph of an action or condition. One or more
phonemes denote an action or condition depending on their role in the SS
of the language. Together they give us a root. Roots are always made of
consonants, the vowels are the mobile part of the word and are the markers
of accentuation, elongation or mitigation on the SS level, while at the
same time, they are the markers of tense, number and category on the mor-
phological and synulctic levels. Thcy arc not part of the root. For exam-
ple the CA V lbaeladael (to build) has as root b + I + d. The VI applied
to it after the mot may be deleted, reduced, elongated or changed to a diph-
thong, depending on the categorY,tensc or number of the word desired, and
such application is regulated by the morphological and syntactic rules of
the languagc.

3.3 The Verb:

The most import,tnt f;inglc item aftcr thl: phoneme is the verb. A CA-
verb is like a sun in a solar system arotilld which many planets revolve.
Each RV (root verb) has two (twin verbs) TV, whose sCIll,InLic content

37
 form a three level with it. One TV more seman-
tic content, the other a more one. The patterns which decide
such differences are of SS. The TV may differ

be of hmmonious or uniform
to to make di-
L

intransitive V to trans,
the semantic content. But whatever the or whatever is up-
all these derivations have the same consonants as the RV and arc
commillcd to it.

3.4 The
mOlrpllOI,ol!llCal level there are numerous patterns to
merous nouns, and adverbs or other Each
the category as well as semantic and
root to which it is al!l-'llUU.

each CA word is made of two parts; a constant parl,

and a mobile one. The constant part is made of the consonants of the R V
or a V which it is derived this it its semantic content and
it attached to its RV. The mobile part are the these it its
and pattern in accord with the 10. These patterns
are decided Ibe rule), Thus one can rec-
ht
tp

any of the patterns of the the inflectional

://

us case and
al-m

that is the number of their

with the stress pattern. For stress also -"""o'~~
ak

gory. Tense in V is also indicated

ta

of VI and
be
h.
co

38
m
 Remnants of this system may be found in German umlaut and Mod
Eng. V like sing, sang sung. In consequence there are no suffixes apart
from the inflectional in CA (no-ship, - less, - tion, or abilis, - culus).
What have become suffixes in Land OE are full adjs or particles in CA as
we shall see in due course. Similarly there are no compound nouns in
CA. There is an immense lexicon which affords almost limitless power
of exprestion through its RV, TV, V+ Pref. and verb paradigms.

3.5 V Paradigm :
While each RV controls and regulates its family, it is in tum commit-
ted to a V paradigm. AV paradigm is made of several verbs which are re-
lated to each other on the phonetic level by being minimal pairs, that is
differing by only ones phoneme, and are related to each other on the se-
mantic level by having one or more semantic features in common, that is
having a common denominator. This phenomenon, or V paradigm is due
to the fact that the langauge is constructed on a system of 55. A V para-
digm gives a gradation of meaning, and allows very accurate and fine ex-
presion. So that a V is commillcd horizantally to its family, while verti-
cally it is commilled to the paradigm it belongs to. For example the V
[Ta: lae] (to grow tall) is commitled on the horizantallevelto its two TV
[tal' la] (to protrude, to look out) and [Talae:] to sweep over, hence to
polish, to make bright, together with the rest of their families. Some of
the words that may be derived from the RV are given below:

[Tawil] (tall) adj, [Tawala] V (to lengthen), [Toul] length, [Tael] adj
(having influence or power) [mustatil] a parallelogram [tawl] wcaILh, pow-
er afluence, [taelah] enmity, faTal] (to make long, too long) V+pref.

While the V is commilled to its family and TV as we have shown

above it also belongs to a paradigm of minimal pairs.

Ex [Ta:la] (to grow tall), [Ta:fa:] to go ground, to hover around,

[Ta:ra] to fly around, hover around [Ta:hae] to be lost inside, roam inside
[Ta:3a] to follow [Ta:sae] to step over or above, [Ta:qa] to surround to
have power or control over, to have the capacity for.

We notice that all these V denote movement into space from a particu-
lar objcct or point and in relation to it.

39
3.6 in a CA
Since words do not occur
with a CA dictionaries are not ordered to
of words but of R V. When one desires to look for a
the unmarked form of the nnd under thal one would find all
the of this V. Now nne cannot find the word one is
as one knows the "'lI\antic content of the
this knowkd, with the
its pattern. Let us take any wOld. like I. The RV would
have the consonanLS /g + m + Under this one would find Ule
RV is preUy, all The of the
word we arc for says lhal it is the masc.
that it can be uscd as an Thcrefore we know that whatever it de-
The DE cog is while the Mod Fr. cog
is dialccL'i as it often docs in

would be the
while the one
and the one that is
All of them have the clement of

The is builL in such a way that each level corroborates the

one above it, while it and it althe same time. If a
word a it is liable to be drawn into the of
the next V in the
V has got another word of this paLLern. There is no for it.
Such a word would have to die OUl and tlle it has left would be occu-
a new form thal follows the rules of the So as lhe
R V has not bccn such a occurs
such a word is inLr<xlucc<l.

The native can any word he so as he

knows the paUern, the R V and its semantic content. The paLLerns are the
same for all V of the same or V palLern and in consequence the
ht

the ages.
tp
://
al-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

40
m
3.7 The system of economy in CA :
CA has a huge lexicon, and a vast potential in its morphological and
synLactic rules. While it has this very powerful machinery for expression,
it has an equally powerful system of economy. We cannot go into deLail
here, since it is ouL-;ide the scope of this work, which is a comparative
study, but we can point out the main theory on which such economy is
based. This theory is based on the fact that the significant unit is the pho-
neme. Therefore no phoneme is added or removed without change in the
nature of the morph concerned. In modern languages the significant unit is
the morph, whatever it conLains of phonemes that may not be needed for
expression are a remnant of what has been inherited through generations of
usage. In CA, which is one of the oldest of languages in the world, such
remnants had not yet accumulated, the significant unit is the phoneme, a
cluster would confused the early users of the language.

The second rule of economy in CA, the corollary of the above, is that
the absence of any items is as significant as its presence. In other words
CA makes usc of the negative as well as the positive features of language.
(+ x) has its significance, exactly as (- x) has its significance. The dele-
tion of a V 1 denotes a change of pattern, just as the addition of a V I or
scmi- V I denotes a change of pallern, a change of pauern signifies change
of category. On the syntactic level, the presence of a V in the sentence is
as significant as the absence of a V in the sentence. Every move has its
signilicance. Change of stn.'ss paLlern has its significance on all levels,
that of 55, which dominates the semantic level, and also on the morpho-
logical and syntactic level which are dependent on it. CA is both an ana-
lytic and innectional language and both potentials of the language, the ana-
lytic and the inpectional arc made use of. I

As we proceed with this comparison of CA with Land OE, the rcader

will be able to Iget a glimpcse of how this very o ld language functions, and
see actualized ~efore him the remarks made alxlllt it in this outline.

41
 m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
al-m
://
tp
ht
 Chapter IV
The Consonants of CA

4.1 Form of writing:

The first difficulty that research encounters in a comparative study of
CA, Land OE is that CA has an alphabet differnt from the other two lan-
guages. This ancient scrip was taught by the Nabata:ans to the people of
central Arabia, when their civilization was destroyed and they dispersed
among the northern tribes. Ultimately it is the same script that the Phoeni-
cians had taught to the Greeks, for the Phoenicians, a Semitic, sea-faring
people, taught their script wherever their boats landed for trade. The Greeks
taught their script to the Romans just as the Nabataeans taught theirs to the
people of central Arabia, and each people have altered and adapted it to their
needs, so that it is today two different scripts, as different as L is from CA.

Consequently we still need a practical means of comparing L with OE

and CA. There are two imperfect media before us, the Roman alphabet and
the internaltional phonetic Alphabet. (IPA), neither is the ideal medium,
but IPA would afford greater accuracy, where CA is concerned. Land OE
are written in the same alphabet. with a few exceptions and the exact quality
of their VI is not known.(see next chapter on VI) so that it is beLLer to write
them as we find them, that is in the koman alphabet. But Land OE (Ger-
manic language generally) do not have the same phonemes. Such a medi-
um is liable to mask differences, and make things oversimple. This is a
thing we can do nothing about. but that one must bear in mind. On the
other hand, using the IPA for CA might make the similar appear very dif-
ferent, in other words it might make cognate forms appear to be more differ-
ent than they really are through the difference in the medium of writing.
This also is a point one has to bear in mind.

Let us compare one L and one OE word with their CA cognates to see
low this may occur, and to keep it in mind during future comparisons. The
CA word [Heniyah] means compassion. It comes from the RV [Ha:na.::) to
bend, and it means to bend in compassion, bend tenderly over people. Its L
cog. is \len til (let us put aside the cors of IHI : IV I to be discussed in due
course). The two words do not seem very close. Now supposing we write
the same CA word in Roman alphabet it would come out (btn ta). Here it
appeares much closer. Supposing we write the L word in IPA it would be
approximately Iveniya/. Let us Lake now an OE word and a CA one. CA

43
 from the V I sup and
it may be a maller of difrerence in medium of In
VI often a as we shall have occasion to ob-
serve One must make allowance for such differences of medium
whenever occur. In limes there was no standard and
each scribe wrote as he saw lit.
If the difference of medium serves LO mask resemblace between cognate
forms. Then not use the Roman for CA? use IPA at
all? The reason is that in CA
do as
lar

We have to be able to see how

enable LIS to derive N and other from R V.
While we have laken IPA as we have to add the
nClnes 0 These are alv(~olar and con-
trast with [d t s] which are Illllch morelO the front. We have to add also
It is a sound (hat ex isted in but OE scribes wrote both [
for bOlh. Then we have to introduce the
resonant, amI I its twin a frica-
further back. In CA there arc
far hack in the
which we will use to in mind thal it is not the
same as IE quo There is also a velar slOp. very close to Mod which
we shall usc the We usc because both Land
OE use (! for this that it is the same.
Then we have to use the
demal fricative which contrasts with
lrast with their in CA.

4.2 The consonants of CA :

lllcrc arc t\\ elily seven consonants in
ht

with the ncurest \ollnd to cm::h in Modern

tp

it thm thae is no sound tlml could he

://

moslthe same in Modem A

a
l-m

m<lYbc
ak

would expect a
ta

10
be

have k.llurcs. He has to in order 10 gel thc

h.
co

44
m
definition of a phoneme. Where~ls we in this study have to do the exact op-
posite. We have to take the sounds of three languages which have been
separate channels of communication for over eight thousand years, compare
and connect them. In other words we shall be dealing all the time with ap-
proximations. Sounds which were at some remote period of history the
same, which may be described as h~lving the same phonetic features, which
would sound the same to the untrained car. but which would not be consid-
ered the same by someone studying meticulously their phonetic properties.

The truth of the maller is that sound is vibration carried on air and
with the passage of time change of person and place it has to change a
linIe. That it remains at all recognisahle ~lfter the lapse of thousands of
years is indeed wonderful. To illustrate the point. Let us take the conso-
nam "b". It can be described as a bilabial stop in the three languages under
discussion as well as in Mod Eng. But accurate analysis would reveal dif-
ferences and gradations that exist and are peculiar to each language (see
Gleason 1969, P 268, 2(0) Fortu:mtely such dilTercnces are of no conse-
quence for the purposes of this study which deals with greater and more gen-
eral changes. (for b in Old Saxon, the sister language of OE see Boswroth
1983, P. (4).

Each of the three language under discussion has its own phonemes or
sounds (we use the two words as synonyms in this study) and il<; manner of
pronouncing them. If we take an exalllpIe from CA and Mog Eng. The
Mod Eng word "car" comes ultimately from the CA V Icar'ral. In CA
which is based on SS each sound is clearly and distinctly pronounced. The
final Irl as a GS is pronounced as a trill sustained, then a second trill. It
has to be so pronounced to symbolize the movement of running, going and
coming which is the semamic content of the Irl (see 20.6) on the level of
SS. In Mod Eng one docs not hear the final Irl at all tx~callse M(x\ Eng is
no longer based on SS. In Modern language semantic significance begins
on the morphological level. ,<

45
 Coosonats Name in CA Nearest Word in Mod. Eng.
Ib beh bat

Con in Mod Eng Gra- Phonetic features

CA pheme
in CA
b bat voiced, bilabial, stop
t teeth voiceless, dental stop
e thin voiceless, interdental fricative
g grim t voiced, velar stop
H C. voiced, glottal fricative
x Scotish 'loch C. voiced, velar fricative
d cran .. voiced, dental stop
a that i voiced, interdental fricative
r run .J voiced, alveolar, trill
z zebra j voiced, alveolar fricative
s scene ~ voiceless, sibilant fricative
v
S sheen .;. voiced, groove fricative
S sound? v' voiceless, palatalized, fricative, aspirated
D dire? .; voiced, alveolar, plosive, palatalized
T tall? T voiceless, alveolar, plosive, patalized
3 voiced, pharyngal resonant, nazalized
t
R (Fr - r)? t voiced, alvelar fricative
f f~1C ~ voiceless, labio dental fricative
q Ii voiceless, uvular, st@p, aspirated
c cat .u voiceless, velar SLOp
I lamb J voiced, lateral flap
m meat r voiced, bilabial , nasal
n noon .;, voiced, alveolar nasal
h hair ::; ~
voiceless, glotL.1..I fricative
w woe .J voiced, bilabial semivowel
y yell u voiced, semivowel, resonant
ht
tp
://
a
l-m

The Consonants or CA :
ak

There are twenty seven consonants in CA, which arc given in the
ta

list above together with the nearest sound to each in Mod Eng. Where a
be

dash is placed it implies that there is no sound that may be considered as

h.
co
m

46
 similar in Mod Eng of the CA one. A question mark signifies that the
sound may be accepted as close.

4.3 The order of consonants in the CA alphabet:

In the table opposite we find each two or three phonemes have the
same shape, that is the same grapheme is used for them. They are differen-
tiated from each others by the presence and position of the dots over or be-
low them, or the complete absence of dots. This grouping has proved very
helpful in suggesting how these phonemes must have sounded in earliest
times. The early grammarians did not group them in this manner nor give
them this sequence arbitrarily or by accident We have found in the compar-
ison of Land OE with CA that these pairs correspond with each others in
different environments. If we put aside other diffemces for the moment, dif-
ferences which will be discussed in due course, and look at some of the
fonns having these pairs and trios.
Ex : the first three consonants /b t 91 are placed together as a tio.
Where we find fbI in final position in a CA word we may find /tI
in its OE cognate form.
Ex : CA [Solb] OE style (steel), OE heaort
(heart) CA [qalb] Mod Eng get CA [ga::bre]
In L the sound [9] is missing. Where we have [9] in CA we may
have (t) in L.
Ex : L tegula, CA [9uqalah] (stone, weight, slab) L trio (three) CA
[9a:lre9ah].

Why do we state that we may be gelling such a correspondence and not

that we are sure to get it? The reason is that the kind of correspondence that
occurs depends on a number of factors. One of these is that both Land OE
have been greatly influenced by other languages. A phenomenon to be dis-
cussed in due course.

The next three consonants placed together in the CA alphabet are

[g H x]. We find that in OE/HI written as /hI and /hI as the nearest sound
to it often replace Ig/, and the opposite tendency also exists.

Ex: OE burg, burh, CA [burg] (tower)

OE hreod, gryd, CA [gariyd] (reed, stick)

47
 Thc consonant is in Land
Since /HI is not found in L also its ncarest COlrre!jponal~nt
eOITC5.ponOI::nc:e may be found in OE.
CA OE CA

Where we find in Proto-

in CA we find in OE.

\I
(s s) arc put asa
where it is found in we sometimes come across
in CA. and also Lhe
Ex : OE sunne I

Ex : CA Cllt,

Thc or sounds in this old then arc not nor

LhaL dl~noLc the variations lh<lt could occur in
of dilTerenllribes. One must nOl exclude the
that somc of these sounds werc in olden limes even nearer LO each other
lhan arc

4.4 Sounds not I'ound in Land 0":

The table shows that the sounds arc in
ht

both Land OE Ix z S D T ) R i.lh In addition lo the ahove the follow-

tp

arc found in OE but not in L 0 1·1 In other words there arc nine
://
a

in L. If we consider
l-m

has twenty scven consonants in thcn about 46%

ak

in L ami D% in OE. The loss in OE is a Iiule less grave

ta

because the sounds in OE were

be
h.
co

48
m
 for by a compromise in the form of mergers. In CA It d iJ c I have a rela-
tively front point of articulation in comparison with rr D dh q SI and this
was designed in the SS of the language to express contrasts and antithesis.
OE has taken dental It! and palatalized, alveolar rrl and merged them pro-
ducing an alveolar /t/, and again dental and palatalized alveolar IDI produc-
ing an alveolar Id!. The same thing was done with the other pairs. While
IHI remained until a fairly laIC period (sec Boswroth 1983, p.496).
The result of these mergers were new phonemes that could do double
duty, since they were not very much to the front nor very far back. The so-
lution was an ingenius one, phonetically, but where the SS of the language
is concerned the loss was irreparable. Some of the phonemes have acquired
new correspondences in the process. These will be discussed in due course.

In L only the front six have remained, thus moving the whole articula-
tion of the language to a more front position. This is one of the main dif-
ferences in the Lones and sounds of Land Germaic languages. We shall see
in succeding chapters how L made up for some of this loss.

Since so many consonants have been lost, and the loss of a single
phoneme causes a gap in the language, we may well ask what was the effect
of this heavy loss on Land OE '!

4.5 Three possibilities due to phonemic loss :

Examination of thousands of forms shows thatthrcc things may take
place when a RV or a word derived from it has a phoneme that no longer
exisL" in the language.
I. The word is lost as a whole and replaced by another that has similar
semantic conlCnl.
2. The missing sound is replaced by another, very often its correspon-
dent, or a sound whose presence is dictated by the new rules of the
langwlge.
3. The sound, or the syl containing this sound is deleted.

For the first phenomenon one has to consult a CA dictionary to see

how whole paradigms have disap~Ircd, leaving only a word here and there,
revealing that they once existed.

The second phenolllenon, the replacement of one sound by another, is

the subject of chapters VIII and IX.

49
 the third that can take has become very com-
mon in both L and DE. In fact it may be considered a substantial rule in
also. It is not due to loss of sounds but
",vrll'It'hl' causes, to be discussed in due course.

We below a few of deletion due to the loss of a

neme, and as we we shall find a great many more.

little q
VI stop
humus VI
obsucure dim 3
fin fin z-3
lcoma 3
take force R-S
loaf hlaf R
cow cue q
mud dirt waze x

SLOpS are discussed in the next

4.6 An of
in L or it leaves a gap in the lan-
guage that has to be closed. This gap causes one of the conditions
above. If a word survives after such sometimes it has to go
to conform to the tendencies of the it be-
dissimilation
to remember
detached from
and the system of SS is no there is no reason
a word should nOl whenever the rules of the it be-
ht

to dictate it. Let us take words from the same RV in CA and see
tp
://

how look in L and DE of pat in the DE word see

a
l-m

CA CA
ak

Both the DE and L word come from the V

ta

fall or descend in Its TV means to

be

to collcct in then have descend in

h.
co

so
m
 The cors of the L word is Im/: In/. Iqj:/c/. {f/:/t/
The cors of the OE word is Iq/ : IdI, {fl : Ipl
The strong aspirated {fl is sometimes interpreted as Ipl, when in final-
position in OE and in Gennanic languages generally.

While in a certain group of words CA Iql is interpreted as Idl in OE.

The L word has taken the nearest cors of the sounds of the CA word, but it
begins with the pref Imrel in CA (4.23) which has merged with the root of
the word in L.

The result is that the two words do not appear to be connected at all
inspite of their being of the same root in CA.

In this study we shall come across a great many such cases, that is
words which have one correspondence in L and another in OE. Such cors
we call triangular correspondence or tri-cors.

From the same RV comes L CUptUrn whose CA cog is [qiTrun]. The

L word has interpreted {fl as Ipl as the OE word above and not as It/ as it is
in nectat. The reason is that nectSt was taken from Gr, (it is the drink
of the gods) and therefore has a different cors from that which originally
came from L.

This is apparent also in the cors of Iml : Inl because most words in L
retain Iml if it is found in the CA form. (4.23).

I
4.7 The six contrastive pairs of phonemes
We would like to draw attention here to an interesting phenomenon
concerning the six contrastive pairs of phonemes, which have become sin-
gle in Land OE. Any two verbs which rely on the contrast between one of
those pairs for sFmantic content, and there are thousan as of these in the lan-
guage, become homophones. If Iql and Icl have become one then the verbs
[qalabre] (to tum over) an [crelrebre] (to bind, fetter) have become phoneti-
cally the same, again if [Ta:ra] (to fly) and [t.rerre] (to be lost) have the
same sound It/ in initial position, they also have become homophones in L
and OE. What was the fate of these verbs? How have they fared after the
merger of the phonemes that distinguished them from each others?

Examination of these forms that play the role of anithesis versus affin-
ity in CA has revealed the following four possibilities:

51
 1. hnlmn,nh,,..n,'" IS 11 ..>n ..... '1 from the .... ,,'b u ...!:;•.;;,
the less
2. One of the two V rh<1,n.YI'" its either of conso-
nants or pattern or both.
3. A few remain as hOITlODhIJm:s This is found more often in OE
than in L
4. A merger Lakes where become onc V that carrics the sc-
mantic content of the lWO. This more often when the
two V had similar scmantic fcatures and such a
ncmenon is found more oftcn in L.

worry OE caru
to be durable L durere
to doom.

Of C<lch of the above onc V is found in L and one in and OE.

so that there would be no
Words from the first V ..lppcar in OE with com-
10 be dillcremiated from their homo-
which has the
We contin-
ue in the sm;ccmlllJ.: to ex ..uuine contmstive verhs.

to fall from great

make LO or break down. The sup. is I
We noLice thallhe OE V has thc feature of the
Which is intransilive.
Ito to is not found in L or OE
Lo to hover .. round qu.lrry
ht

to build a wall to protect, to be in control

tp

to
://

of.
a
l-m

The first V is that from which OE hunta

ak

is nm found in OE nor in L hut ils derivative V to

ta

protect, LO surroud in is.

be
h.
co

5
m
 In DE it is concerned with divination hwata (an augur) and hwatung
(divination). In L where CA (H) and (h) orten appe~1t as (c) it is cautio
(wariness) and cautus adj; (carerul, wary, C.1utoUS).
The CA cog adj is [Hawiyt] the difrerence is or pat, to be discussed in
the chapter concerned.

4.8 Tracing a CA V in IE hmguages :

Supposing DE picks out one V and L another, as we have seen above,
and a third language a third V. Let us assume it is the TV or one or them.
What would be the result? The result would be that we would have, or ap-
pear to have three dirrerent languages, although basically they were one lan-
guage. In actual ract this is what has happ~ned in IE languages. Most of
the dirrerences, which arc sometimes allributed to the innuence or roreign
languages are, when Lraced to their origins, the result or the different choice
or verb or TV.

Let us take two CA V and trace their cognates in L and DE. If we take
the contrastive V [cala:ma:1 and [qala:ma] (to speak, say, tel vs to prune)
[ca:liC:ml the N derived from [ca:liCmal means in CA signiricant sounds.
Therefore it can be a word, a sentence or a statement. Its TV !ca:l'liCma]
means to speak up, to proclaim, confer, converse. In L we rind both tIamo
(to declare, shout, proclain) and column is (to charge falsely, slander, gos-
sip) of this rool. The wonl Ica:laml in CA is sometimes used in the sense
or raise speech or wll<lt cannot be verified as the L one. The dirference be-
tween the two is that L uses a fem. pat, while CA uses a neuter one. We
notice that the V dQ"nti.'l do~s not have the semantic content of the R V only
but or the V+pref in CA. In DE what we find is taJcian (to talk) whose
CA cog is [taca:lumanl. It has the semantic content or both the RV and the
V+prcf, the prer is no longer ru:ognized as such but has become part or the
V. That is the reason it is sometimes mistakenly assumed to be the RV
rrom which talc and tell were derived when their RV is lta:la::] to tell, to re-
late a story, to recite.

The constrastive V of [ca:l.I;emalislq<ll.1a:ma]toprune.This V is

missing in both L and DE, but we find a word dervied from it that h~lS en-
tered L through Gr. It is calamus, a cane or reed. The CA cog means any-
thing that has been pruned, hence a stick or pcn. It is something (a branch)
shaped to be long and straight. The V+pref derived rrom this V is
la+qliCma: I to shupe or prune to fit cnvironmcnt. It is not in L or DE but
in DF Fr it is acciimater, (to acciim'ltizc) ,

53
 The eases where such instances oecur are very numerous and account
for much of the between one IE and another more
on Verb and

.9 an OE word in A CA
Now that we have an idea about the nature of contrastive V in
are in a to look up an OE word or L word in a CA u".·uv.,a.o.
der one that the consonants of the RV have not ,..h"nr,,.t'!
OE. Let us take the OE dol it means in OE
heretical. The cons. of the RV should be We know that in CA we
have two consonants and Therefore we have to look under
also under Under which means a
lar of land near the mouth of a river. it is very far from
one we had beuer look under then. we find the V
to go to loose the way, to be
this V comes the which has the same semantic content as the V
and which is the cog ofthe OE

about the oLher form we have found under Has it no IE

COjgnaite'! We find in Gr. the word of the same semantic content, that
is a of alluvial land enclosed two branches at the
mouth of a river. This word is one of the oldest ever wriHen. It is found in
the SinaiLic which was found LO be the link betwen the
and the
the sea, beneath it. In
or and in Phoenician and Gr it is a tri-
as the below shows.

Sinaitic Phoenician Later Gr CA

)1 >

We notice that Gr has an extra consonant. This is not a differ-

ence of RV but of paucrn. A final is the mark of the feminine in CA
ht

well as other Semitic so that the fern of in CA is the

tp

wilh Phoenician and He-

://
al-m

Is this word found in DE ? In OE ths word da:1 exits as it does

ak

in CA. The pat. is the same, the word is a neuler as it is in but the
ta
be

semantic content has Il docs not mean a delta but lowland or

h.
co

54
m
valley, lower part. How has this change come about? Is it a change in se-
mantic content or only a change of referent? One must bear in mind that the
relationship of CA to OE is a much earlier one than that of CA and other
Semitic tongues. In other words the ancestor of OE has been separated
from CA a long time before Semitic tongues have. What then was the ear-
liest use of the word?

There is no reason why OE or any other IE tongue should not derive

meanings from the RV according to iL'l needs, which may not be identical
with those of CA. One has to keep in mind that the language is based on
SS, so that whenever two forms having the same root differ, one should go
back to the RV. The RV found in CA is the V Idre:lre/. It is a typical 2
syl V and it means to stretch below, to fall forwards, to be down below, OE
has used the neuter pat to designate lowland, while the Semitic tongues
have used the Fern pat, which always denotes a special instance or case, that
is not any low land, but lowland at the mouth of the river. Both uses are
correct, and both patterns arc in accord with the morphological rules of CA,
as we shall perceive, when discussing patterns in CA. Whenever one
comes across a difference of semantic content it i always advisable to tum
to the RV for reference.

We know that the connection of L with CA is through the IE lan-

guage or mother tongue of both Land OE, so that if we can produce an OE
word, there is no reason why we should not be able to produce a Latin one,
provided that we observe the rule given above. Let us take a word having
three consonants in L. It should have the same three consonants in CA. If
we take the L adj gdt~-ug (icy frozen, hard) can we find a cognate for it in
CA? If we look in a CA dictinary under g + I + d we should find the V
[grelida:] to become frozen, hard, very cold or icy. From this RV we get
the word [greliyd] it means ice. If it is used as an adj to describe a human
being, it docs not mean icy but hard, hence strong, firm in battle, valiant,
having prowess and solidity. Another N derived from this V is [grelre:d]. It
means a man or soldier who beats up prisoners or kills them. In L the
word appears as gla~tator. It has undergone some changes in pat to be dis-
cussed in due coursc. In L there is the RV together with the whole family
of which we could find more cognates in L, should we desire, since the V as
gtl~ is also found in L, togcthcr with the Nand adj which we have found
to be cognates.

55
,.j n)o II
~
•
m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
a l-m
://
tp
ht
 Chapter V

The Vowels of CA

5.1 The VI or CA :
A discussion of the phonetic qualities of the vowels of CA is outside
the scope of this comparative study, since the exact quality of the vowels of
L and OE is unknown.
We have only the written form which is a casual and inconsistent rep-
resentation. We do have the phonetic quality of the vowels of CA since as
far back as 600 A.D. (before that we have only the written form), but con-
sidering the very great age of the language that is not nemly far enough. On
the bright side we know that CA VI are governed by certain morphological
and syntactic rules. We shall see in due course how many remnants of
these rules remain in Land OE.
Perhaps if we examine the wriLlen language we could judge how far
the VI of CA are rule regulated.

5.2 The written form :

When writing an Arabic text one uses no VI or graphemes but dashes
(something like Fr. accents). A dash above the word is lal a dash below it
is Iii and a dash with a curved head above it is 10/. That gives us three VI.
The system is highly economical and space saving but phonetically it gives
us three VI only, moreover and most of the time, in texL" for grown ups,
these dashes are not used at all. A native speaker of the language ought to
be able to read a CA text without the aid of dashes. In fact all do without
any difficulty, except in the case of forcign words or very rare pallems. How
docs the VI system of CA work?

5.3 The VI system of CA :

In order to underst.and the VI syslcm of CA one must look upon VI as
highly flexible and mobile entities whose job it is to link consonants and
to denote category, case and tense. This system makes the VI the mobile
part of any word and the consonant t.he unchangeable rool.
A CA VI is governed hy three factors:
I. The consonant it follows.
2. The consonant it precedes, if the two helong to the same syllable.
3. By the paLlern it belongs to.

57
 CA consonants may be divided into medial and back
consonants. A CA VI follows the consonant that it and is
influenced that which follows it, iC in the same so that a back con-
sonant takes a back a front consonant a front VI. If a VI is found be-
tween a back and a front consonant merger takes
far back is the back consonant and which one nr~·"",rlP" is al-
ways to that which
While the consonants decide the of VI in the contrast of front-
it is the pattern of the word to which the VI that decides its
in the contrast of open and rounded so that a VI is in the
contrast front back the consonants in whose immediate environment it
while in the contrast of open rouded it is the pattern of
the word it is found in. A CA VI is therefore an flexi-
ble that itselC to its environment. That is the reason
the rcader of a CA text can read withou the aid of markers. The consonants
and decide before hand how he is to pronounce the VI. While there
are three the trained ear can at IcasttweIve for
there is a of for from front to back and the same may
be said of / 0 e i /. The VI of CA never very much to the front nor
very Fr. Cor are not fixed entities but fluc-
contrasts.
the stress

shall observe this same

5.4 VI
and
The diJIerence in the VI of the above verbs first is the root
of proto Ger CA sup the seocnd is the R V of L
is due to the difference in consonants. We nOlice that the VI that comes af-

heard as a shwa or indistinct VI.

ht

When of CA we shall are

tp
://
a
l-m

rules are "'Ullll~~tolil

ak
ta
be
h.
co

58
m
S. S Example of VI quality in patterns :
Ex : [garf] [gurf]
The two nouns above come from the RV [garafa]. Its sup appears in
OE. as grafan, CA sup [garfan). It means to take away earth, to dig out to
erode. The first N has as feaLures + abstract, the second has the features +
concrete + neuter. This shade of difference in the semantic content is decid-
ed by the VI quality. The first means the process of digging or erosion, the
second means a rock or crag that has been croded by the sea.

S.6 VI on the level of SS :

In order to understand the role of VI on the morphological and on the
syntactic level one has to begin by examining their role on the level of SS, the
basis of the language. On the level of SS there are only three VI : a i u.

That is the reason there are only three markers. The gradations of Ial
and the gradations of luI to back 10/, the gradations of IiI to leI, are only
phonetic not phonemic. In other words al\ the Ial sounds from lrel to back
Ial are allophones, and the same be said of the other two.
On the level of SS Ial stands for the static, the passive, the inactive,
the ponderus.

Iii symbolizes movement or extention or going from one point to an-

other. It is an opening or widening of the lips.

lui symbolizes pulling togcther, hence gathering one's strength, ac-

tion, movement or accumulation, convergence. It is a pursing of the lips.

If we now look at their corresponding functions on the syntactic level

which is more clear and unvariable than the very subtle shades of meaning
which are found on the morpholgical level and of which we shall give a few
examples of in due course.

On the syntactic level, when the inflectional ending for a N or adj is de-
sired the following endings arc the usual ones:
1. Ial is the ending of the N or adj in the accusative case. The under-
goer of the action. Something or someone is not doing the action,
but has action done to it. Hence the static ponderous Ial.
2. If the word is the subject of the sentence or the doer of the action
then the ending is lui which symbolizes a gathering of strength in
this case.

S9
 3. If the word is in the daLive, 10caLive or geneLive case, Lhen Lhe
ending is Iii which symbolizes going from one poinL LO anoLher, or
connecLion, one Lhing (possession) with another (owner).
Where verbs are concerned, the pasL Lense which denOles pasL aCLion
and which is the unmarked form of the verb has always an Ia! in the firsL
syl Lo symbolize the sLaLic or whaL is over and pasl. The presenL Lense has
Lhis iniLial VI deleLed. This is the mark LhaL denotes LhaL aCLion has began.
We have menLioned earlier LhaL CA makes usc of Lhis negative aspecL of Lhe
language. h is a feaLure of iLS economy. Removal of SLaLic lal means ae-
Lion has began. The passive tense (there is a special Lense for the passive in
CA a<; in L) has an lui as its mark. h symbolizes aCLion being done to or
execuLed upon anoLher entity by an agenl. lui is a symbol of aecumulalion
or concentraLion, wheLher of sLrengLh or weakness.
Ex : [wazana) (to weigh) sup [waznan 1is the cog of OE wegan. [waza-
na) is the pasL tense of the Lhird pers sing. IL is also the unmarked form of
the V. h means he weighed or he h;'lS weighed. [ya-wzinJ (he is weighing,
he weighs every day).
Once the verb is an aCLion, the ponderous Viol' the unmarked form arc
no longer in usc. The first is delelCd LO mark lhatthis is the pres Lense and
lhe second is quickened into Iii while the Lhird is also delelCd. The iniLial
Iyaj is the pro for Lhird pers sing. [wuzina) pm:L T passive voice. (iL was
weighed) here the iniLial VI has become lui LO mark LhaL Lhis is the passive
where aCLion falls upon ;.moLher, while the final VI, remain open Ia! lo de-
note thaL Lhis is pasL aC Lion. (yu-i'.anj (iL is weighed or being weighed now,
or it is weigh~ in such a manner). This Lense is ofLen used Lo show how
an aCLion is done, the mCLhod of doing Lhings. The iniLial Iyl of the passive
may be observed in OE until Lhc Limc of chaucer in V like ye-c1ept (he is
called) CA cog (yu-calu lahul.
We have g,iven a brief idea, bilL as we proceed the reader will gmdually
perceive how lhis anc ienL syslcm functions.

5.7 VI in Land Ot<: :

ht

In Land OE the level of SS has become obsolele in other words reduc-

tp

lion, elongalion or delelion of VI is no longer significant on lhe morpho-

://

logical or semantic level excepl in a few cases. VI are no longer governed

a
l-m

by S5 bUl by phonetic rules. These rules are themselves subjccL to change,

ak

moreover the exact qualiLY of Land OE VI is unknown. How many chang-

ta

es they have submilled to during the thousands of years of separalion from

be

CA until lhe momenl of comparison is also nol known. In facl we hesitale

h.
co

60
m
 to compare entities which arc so very different. L and OE VI arc of phonet-
ic status, while CA VI are considered morphs (like a in sang which may be
considered a morph equivalent to -ed or an allomorph of the laucr).

All we can do in this chapler is to examine some of these differences

before we tum our atlention to other aspects of language.

5.8 The dirrernences between CA, Land OE VI :

The first difference one encounlCrs is a genemllCndency towards the re-
duction of VI. This lendency is part of a wider tendency, the movement to- .
wards more compact form. CA VI in the unmarked form of most verbs are
Ia!. This is due to the SS of the language. Every change after that in any
patlem is significant. OE docs nOl lise the unmarked form as its basis but
the supine which already has one VI less (6.6) while L uses that pat of the
unmarked form but gives it new and reduced VI.

Ex: CA [b:cn:c: 1 L (X)flere unmarked form for 2 syl V

CA (abni:) L IxmO Irsl pers sing pres tensc.
CA (qadima) sup (quoduman) OE cumman P.cumende

In the above forms (we shall put aside other changes for the moment)
we find that the infinitive in both Land OE has different and more reduced
VI than the CA one. ConSC(luently any form derived from it would have VI
different from the VI of those derived from the CA unmarked fonn, which is
the basis for all forms in CA.

Supposing we do come across 1()fJns which have, or appear to have the

same VI in CA and L, or CA and OE, can we accept them as identical? If
we compare L hasta CA I HaSa:Dah] (weapon, scythe).

1bc VI arc wriuen Ia! in both L and CA. But CA Vi arc governed by
the eonsonanL'i that precede and follow them. The Ia! above arc pronounccG
far back because of the glottal cons IHI thm precedes the first VI. the pala-
talized lSI that precedes the second und the palatalized alveolar IDI that pre.-
cedcs the third. L a is pronounced very muc,," to lhz fr.lnt i!l cO".nparison.
The medial VI fu1S been dcleted to acquire more compact form. This is a sig-
nificant changc of pat in CA. It no longer means what has bt-...cn reaped or
cut by a weopon or bladc. In other words it changes the patlCm from that
of doer of action to undergocr of action. Ie L such dele lion is not signifi·
cant.

61
 the mark of the fern remains in L. It is dictated
rules of the
mr....,lhnln<Jilf"<l1 as it is in CA.
lf we comapere OE also
The word in OE means what carries or what the oar is
CA it should- have the pat the but in OE it has the
denotes what carries. The difference is is used in CA for
the doer of action modem limes for an aircraft There is also re-
duction of VI. Then we cannot be certain that the initial VI is a front or
back since both and were written alike in olden times in OE

5.9 of VI :
uDlJOSIng we forms what look identical like. OE CA

The above forms have consonants that may be as the same

and it is that the VI are also the same, but
one must bear in mind the immense of lime that OE and
and the numerous contacts that OE has had with other ..... b.'''''&'",
dialects. In fact we have found that some consonants go
to their CA after immense
of then its reinstatement as
of CA to then its reinstatement as
OE Mod Ger for German

inchoate and than consonants. It is

that the VI above have turned full
uUliJ'UUQ."". and retu-
rened to their CA Much research needs to be done on the
~_".I~'" to enable us to peer back upon a of thousands of years and
decide whether the thal have taken were the or one
link in a chain.

5.10 VI of CVCC
ht

If we take a pattern very common in Land OE the CVCC

tp

and compare between the CA VI and ilS in L and OE.

://

Ex . CA OE • CA OE hild CA
al-m

CA OE OE folc
ak

... u~.v." .... CA and OE have the same above the VI has in
ta

OE. In CA the VI is decided the as

be

CA but different VI.

h.
co

62
m
 If we look at some CA words and their L cogantes of this same pattern
we find
CA [qam] L com-us, CA [qalb] L cors (heart)
CA [crens] L cinis, CA [IreRw] L logos (unrelaible talk) taken in L
from Gr.
Again the VI are different and in some words the whole pauern has
changed.

5.11 Foreign innuence on Land OE :

Examination of thousands of forms has shown that there is no system-
ic correspondence between CA VI and Land OE ones. There are small
groups of words which have the same correspondence but no overall rules.
One must recall that both Land OE have been influenced by other lan-
guages, so that examination shows the patterns and rules of more than
one language. In fact OE may be considered the language of more than
one tribe while L has been influenced by Umbrian, and is heavily indebted
to Greek. Study of these minor groups could be very helpful in under-
standing the early influences on L and the early and later influences on
OE. We shall refer to such influences briefly whenever necessay.

5.12 Two morphological rules :

There are two correspondences which are fairly consistent however.
They are not due to the phonetic rules of Land OE but to morphological
and syntactic ones. The first pers sing pres takes lui in CA in three syl V
and most 2 syl V. A small group ending in a long VI takes Iii. This rule
has been passed on to L where all V in the first pers sing take o. Even
this small group that takes Iii in CA takes 0 by analogy in L.
The second rule concerns the fern pat of CA. Fern nouns in CA take
lahl as ending (the /hI is often unheard) This lahl correponds with a in L,
where it is the mark of the fern also) (12.1).
In OE there are some words which retain (a) as the mark of the fern
but in the majority of N it has been reduced to e.
Fortunately these radical changes in VI have no bearing on our search
for cognate forms, since VI are no part of the root in CA.
They change frequently in CA through the morphological and syntac-
tic rules of the language, and we expect them to, while the root remains

63
 of VI cannol m,lsk differences or creale if the
consonants of lhe rool have not Once we know the we can
any category dcsired for all are derived the
of the rules of the Lo the R V.

5.13 The VI
There is a kind of VI in CA Ihal is different from other VI. It has the
features of SLOp. While all lhe other vowels arc voiced
This VI docs not occupy on the level the
and it does not occur as a link belwen consonants on Lhe
bUl it Lhe of a that is in CA
CV. It can occur as a in medial or final In CA it is
differemiated from other VI We shall do the same us-
lhe above it for convenience.

Ex: 18 a;.c'ral, seek

. ) 4 Deletion or VI
When this occurs in a CA what do we have in its in
Land OE ? In other words how is the gap that its absence creates closed?
Examination of such forms shows lhat it can be filled in three ways:
1. Deletion is the most common, when this slOp occurs in final or
initial
2.
3.

In the above forms the VI stop has been deleted in the Land OE cog-
nates.
ht
tp
://

5.15 Cors or VI with consommt

a
l-m

2. Ex: CA OE c()()u
ak

CA OE
ta

CA
be

CA
h.
co

64
m
 In the above fonns it is replaced by a C stop. If the word containing a
VI stop has also an /s/ or an aspirated sound the two together are replaced
by x.
Ex : CA [ra:os] L rex (head, leader) CA [ca:os] L calix (chalice)

5.16 Cors of VI stop with a simple VI :

In the examples below the VI stop has become a resonant in Land
OE. as well as in some old Arabic dialects (l.8).
Ex: 3 CA [aOqala) L ca:::lo (to raise above, in relief)
In the V above VI stop has been removed to medial position in L after
being changed to a resonant.

CA [knaa:on] OE scunian. (to loath, hate). This V, found in CA and

OE, is not found in other Germanic tongues. We do come across such in-
stances in OE. Docs that imply that OE was closer to CA than other
Germanic tongues? No, because the same thing can be said of OHG, OF
or Greek. CA is a language of vast lexicon, so it is not surprising to find
that each language has Laken from it according to its circumstances.

5.17 The sound X in L :

The sound x found in L above is not found in CA, because in CA /s/
alone has symbolic value, and Icl alone has symbolic value. Such a
sound must have started after the SS of the language was no longer signif-
icant. It must have started quiet early however. In the Sinai tic alphabet it
is represented by a fish. The word in Arabic is [samak] PI. [sa:::ma:K) OF
somoun (salmon). IL was chosen as symbol because it has both (s+c).
In the Chalcidian alphabet it appears as ks, and in Greek as (x). L has tak-
en it from Gr. in all probability as it has taken much else (see 9.9).

5.18 Homophones due to VI stop :

If a VI stop can be interpreted as more than one phoneme, and if in
CA each phoneme has significance alone, so that change of the slightest
sound causes change of semantic content, what can happen in L or OE
through the changes we have given above? Let us look at the forms be-
low:

65
 Mod Eng OE CA Semantic content

- fcoh [foyuhJ PI weallh, cattle, booty

fee fca [liye'] gift, extra, recopcnse
- fca [freyre'h] relief, recovery, joy
few fea [fe<e'h] small group

The cause of the homophones in OE is that the cognate V in CA are

phonetically close, they are the V [fre:re'] to give, yield extra and [frere'yaJ
to cleave, break, bring out from, hence relieve. It is possible that the words
were pronounced differently in OE since, as we shall see in the next part of
this chapter, scmi-VI are often written as VI in both and L.

5.19 Long VI and Diphthongs in CA :

The RV is the category from which all other categories are derived.
Most 2 syl. Yin CA have a long VI in the RV. This VI appears as a
diphthong in the derived forms. This diphthong may be made of anyone
of the CA VI together with /y/ or /w/. Some derived forms are made by
the help of a long VI together with a VI stop which has in CA the status
of a CV. Other diphthongs have the function of being markers of catego-
ry or case and number. They are dictated by the morphological rules of
the language or the syntactic ones. We shall have more to say about
them when dealing with verbs. At the moment we are only to observe
how these markers of ca1egQfY and case appear in Land OE, for in many
of them they have become, like VI an integral part of the root or part of
the stem. ,J

5.20 Semi-VI in Land OE :

o
The first dirriculty we encounter is that semi-VI and VI were often not
clearly distinguished in wri ting in both Land OE, moreover in OE one
can enCOUler the same word written in more ways than one.
Ex : nealles, nales, nalas, nalles, nalres, nalla, adv. (not, not at all).
Concerning L J.F. Mountfor says: .(p. 3, 1946).
ht
tp

The letter i and u were used also to represen consonant sounds. The
://
a

Romans themselves made no distinction in writing between ii (pro-

l-m

nounced like y in yet) and vowel i, or between consonant u (pronounced

ak

like English w) and vowel u, but in some Latin books consonantal i is

ta

represented by j, and consonant u is still generally represented by v.

be
h.
co

66
m
 The problem in OE is similar to that of L where semi-VI arc con-
cerned. One may find bryme or breme (great strong, weII hence well
known). CA [3re:rem]. The old scribes wrote subjectively. One replaces
the long VI in the CA adj by (y) and another (possibly at a slighly later
period?) bye. We find both Y and W written sometimes as o. In L W is
often written as 0 as comparison of the forms below reveal.

Ex:

L GR. CA Mod Eng

diota oiwta [RawTah) bag, basket

cannon Kanuwn [qanuwn] law
balua OE balewa [ba:lwah] wild beast in L catas-
trophy trial in CA, the
devil in OE

5.21 CA plural in Land OE :

Some CA N form their plural by a diphthong in the second syl of the
word. How do these plurals appear in Land OE, arc they still considered
plurals, that is, is the diphthong stiII significant in theses languages? Let
us compare the forms below.

Mod Eng CA sing CA pi Sing Sing

dawn [dagan] [dogoun] ONdagan OEdogon

darkness [da:geyah] [dawa:g] OEdcorc
to wrong [Daym] [Doyoun OEd6m
soul [sawala] [sawo:I] Goth:saiwala OE sawol
kind, species [gens] [gonous] Lgens genus

In the above forms we notice that there is a tendency in OE to use the

PI, instead of the sing and to use it as a sing. N. The sing is no longer
found in OE but may be traced in other Germanic tongues. In L we have
the sing and the PI of the same word as two separate lexical items. The
relationship between them as sing and PI no longer exists.

67
 What docs the oh(!nomeillon It that the mark-
in Land OE. But these
markers of number involve the VI of the whole pattern. Are patterns no
in Land OE also? When with CA patterns we
shall go into detail. What we shall do here is to one or two
that would enable us to examine the VI.

5.22 The VI of the CA

Since earliest times CA have each a name
that is of it and is the model or standard for all pats of the kind.
Let us take the This pat denotes the doer of the action. It is
the ancestor of Mod words like baker etc. The is CA .
CEC. Let us compare CA words of this pat with their Land OE cog-
nates.

ME
OE hador
Lncquam
L OEcdel

We notice that the VI which marks the first of this inCA

'''''IJl''-'<UU except in No 2, and that the of the second has
also in some of the words above. In other words that pat can no
be its as it is in CA.
the semantic content we would like to draw attemion to
the word soul. In CA the V but what the
soul nrn ..... n." while it
means in L it is used in a sense. Il
was used for certain who ruled in old Rome. The
RV
ht
tp
://

5.23 VI of the CACIYC in Land OE :

a
l-m

The CA CACIYC denotes the '"",,.,.,,,,,,,,,,,. of the action. Let us

ak

sec if this fares any belLer than the one, where VI are con-
ta

cemed.
be

CA OE h6cor \ u,",,, IJ ""a un.- CA

h.
co

68
m
 Again this pat is no longer significant and the VI have undergone
change. The diphthong in the second syl has become a short VI, as well
as other changes which will be discussed more fully in due course. The
point to bear in mind is that VI have become no longer significant inside
a pat as they are in CA, that is they no longer belong to the morphologi-
cal level but have been degraded to the phonological level. Once a VI is
no longer significant as marker, what is there to prevent it from becoming
shorter or more rounded or to change from a diphthong to a simple VI to
facilate pronunciation? One must bear in mind that there is an overall
movement for the reduction of VI that has started very early indeed as we
shall see below. This movement is itself part of the movement of dele-
tion for the sake of simplification, a process Arab grammarians call
"facilation". when a VI is no longer significnat as marker it is affected by
this movement and gradually alters to more easily pronounced form.

5.24 Cors of Iyl : Igl :

The next chapter we shall examine corespondences between conso-
nants, but we would like to draw attention here to the cors, that may oc-
cur between a consonant and a VI. We shall not comment on such cors,
here, since it is discussed in some detail in the next chapter, suffice it in
this part concerned with VI, to know that such cors exists.
As we have seen above diphthongs in CA are derived by the morpho-
logical rules of the language from 2 syl VI or they belong to the syntactic
rules denoting case and number. A diphthong is made of a VI + a semi
VI, we find that this semi VI is often replaced by consonants in Land
OE.
Ex : CA [a ayl] OE tagl (tail), CA [sa:yl], OE sag I (sail) CA [ha:yl]
OE hagl, (hail) CA [musayterl L magister (teacher, in control of) CA
[raya:n] L irrigare (to water earth).
In the above examples CA /y/ is replaced by /g/ in OE. This cors is
found also in L as well as some old Arab tribes. While sometimes there
is the opposite tendency, that is /g/ is replaced by /y/. This is found in
other tribes (see 5.26 below). After a fantastic period of time Mod Eng
has replaced /g/ by the origninal /y/ as in ihe exampl~s above. How was
that possible and why? This question is discussed in chapter VIII.

5.25 The cors of Iyl : III :

If we compare the forms below:
CA [gareyah] OE girl, CA [fayD] OE Hood (flood)

69
 OE
CA son U<lIIUO"u.;l in
CA
In the above v~~.... ~"...,.,
The Que:suc)O up is that if a consonant is inlIoduced
above then the root is al-
serve as a means of forms. This is
that one has to bear in when forms which are
considered cognates. One has to be well aware of the
in has submitted to before to make
such an

2.26
we shall examine many of the
in Land OE. Before upon this r'nrnn",."t
we would like to draw attention to the factlhat not all the
after the Romance and Germanic lIibes have left
due to the of environment.
Some """U'},"-" arc due to the
some have been corroborated and extended it. but examination of old
Arabic dialects reveal thal many of these had started in the
The Arabs themselves call CA "AI FusHa" clear
it this had their
been as and In facl some of these old Arabic dialects
may be considered an intermediate stage between CA and or CA and
L.
ht
tp

CA
://

CA
a
l-m

The reader wi1\ find more of these common to old Arabic dia-
ak

lects L and OE in the first of this work. more detailed

ta
be

see or
h.
co

70
m
 Chapter VI
The CA Verb

6.1 The CA Verb:

CA verbs are divided by grammarians into two great groups RV.
(Root verbs) that are formed without the aid of an affix or change of pattern
and a second group, the verbs derived from these by the help of a prefix, in-
fix or change of stress pattern.

RV claim our attention first, and in this chapter we shall deal with the
RV of the two main pattern'S in CA, then with verbs and prefixes, some of
the prefixes shared by CA, Land OE.

6.2 The Root in CA :

RV are classified according to two things, the number of consonants
and the kind of vowels. Since there are no clusters in the unmarked form of
2 con and 3 con RV the number of syl always corresponds with the num-
ber of consonants. That is a verb that has two consonants would have two
syl, a verb that has three cons would have three syl. In CA there are 2
cons, 3 cons, 4 cons RV. There are many of the first group, but the largest
group by far is the three cons group. 4 cons verbs are less frequent. They
play an important role in the SS of the language, however (21.3).
I

Ex: Unmarked for1m

2 cons [qa:la]
Supine
[qawlan]
I'"
(to say, call) Proto Ger collojan

3 cons [orerara] ~ [oicran] (to say, men~ion) L cog dicere

4 cons [halwresre] (halwresah) (to hallucinate) L cog hallucinare.

3 syl and 2 syl Verbs, are further subdivided into groups according to
the kind of vowels. These sub-groups need not concern us here since such
fine details no longer exist in L and OE and because this work is an out-
line, where we hope wo show the main lines only. Nevertheless we give
an example of such gradation of VI below to show its significance inside
the verbal frame work.

71
6.3 The stress of two and three V:
The unmarked form of a 2 cons RV has two stresses, a main stress
where the VI or GS occurs and or stress. The un-
marked form of a 3 cons RV has three stresses, main stress on the first
sec:onGm"y stress on the second and no stress or weak stress on the third.
Stress in CA differs from Mod in stress in that the stess is
stress and weak stress are Lherefore closer to it and to each
are in Mod

DE cog drifan would be divided into

three distinct The three stresses arc one each
lower than Lhe one before it so that nol a contrast.

In L and in Mod Fr one comes across this kind of division. It

is a renmant from the IE moLher tongue p. We may
ask the unmarked form of the R V should have this clear-cut
division other forms of the verb? The answer is thal in CA each
consonant has its in the S5 of the Therefore it was
and neeessary thal Lhe RV should have due attention in order to under-
stand its semamic portent. Beneath this division of is the same
that makes us divide the words of a sentence To us it is the
word that is the to ancient it was the consonant that
was the

6 4 Twin verbs
Each 2 cons or 3 cons RV may have two twin verbs These TV
carry the same consonants as the RV but differ from it in stress pattern or
in the introduction of a medial GS. a nuance or shade of mean-
derived from Lhat of the RV. Since the stress of a verb in CA is di-
cidcd the SS of the the stress pal of these verbs on
their semantic content as we shall sec below:

Ex' 1) to run.
(1 2)
ht

to
tp

(l 23)
://
a

(1 2 3)
l-m

(2 + 1 3)
ak
ta
be

the medial
h.
co

72
m
 In the verbs above, as in all CA verbs of such patterns a long initial
VI denotes a mitigation of action, while a medial transition which introduc-
es a second cons denotes an augmentain of action, hence repetition or exag-
geration of action. Pat 1 may be trans or intras, 2 has two agents, and 3 is
always trans.

6.5 Geminette stop :

The medial GS is formed by the repetition of the medial cons together
with a stop or transition between the two consonants. The first consonant
is pronounced, but it never attains its full range. It is stopped at the peak,
then the second consonant begins. A remnant of this is found in words like
"ceco" in L. It is found also in OHG (Lochwood p.14 1965). And there are
numerous examples of it in OE. In CA it affords an important addition to
the semanitc and syntactic powers of the RV and also the nouns derived
from the new verb. In OE we believe that in olden times it was pronounced
as in CA. It is found in such verbs as rn'~~~an CA [Har'rada] (to rid or de-
liver from) and bt'~mman CA [Har'rama] (to deprive, prevent). In the OE
V the GS has been removed to the last cons after the clustering of the sec-
ond cons with the first.
In L this GS is sometimes represenLed, like other stops and aspirations
by an /sc/ that is aspiration then stop. (5.18).
Ex: lfat'tana] fascinare to fascinate
lta:b'bara] tabcscere to strave, to waste away

6.6 The unmarked rorm and the supine

In CA it is the unmarked form of the third person singular that is the
basis of all other parts of the verb and from which all the other categories
are derived. This unmarked form has the pattern CYCYCV in 3 syl Y and
the stress pattern (l 23) given above. There is no infinitive in CA, but a
supine which is sometimes used as a noun but is most of the time used as
an adverb of manner to corroborate the action of the verb and intensify it.
This supine has the pattern CYCCAN.
While OE has taken the pat of the CA supine as its infinitive. L has
taken the unmarked form of the CA RV as its infinitive. In other words-
the L infinitive has the pat CYCYCY, while the OE one has that of
CVCCAN, so that if one wishes to trace the resemblance between a CA
verb and its OE counterpart one has to compare the OE infinitive with the
CA supine but if one wishes to trace the resemblance between a CA verb

73
 and a L one, one has to compare the unmarked form of the CA RV with
the L infinitive because it is this unmarked form that L has taken as its in-
finitive and not the

Let us take a 3 verb to sec how this works out in Let us-
take the verb "to havc" common to the three In L the infinitive
is in OE it is Thc first has the of the unmarkcd
form and the second the of the in CA. This verb has under-
in both Land OE because in CA this verb has
Cl<lldUlldJ and as The pattern is the
samc but thc medial consonant and final consonant are different and
AC. Could it be the CA verb that as since
both Land OE have a medial This is not since the verb be-
I-'''''"''''''l'.'' of and each verb differs from thc onc pre-
it one consonant Let us look at the unmarked form of the
verb in CA. It is In
The OE verb in the third pers. which corso with the unmarked form in
CA is It retains the In fact the diffemce between
thc two forms is thc final fricativc. It was in because
this is the the inflectional of the third pers. ,,, ..,0 ......... in OE.

6.7 Assimilation in the OE info

I[ we compare thc OE infinitive with the CA
with aside the of vowels for thc tTI(1,,,"""'I"""
find that apart from the of to
This is because the stress pattern of the
main stress falls upon thc Main stress in a CA form is rcr're~;entcc.l
a GS in OE. Most of the limc this stop is a
is another SlOp here in medial in OE thcrcfore was
assimilation to the bcforc it. if we compare the su-
we would have
The diflcrence is that has been to
to in when it occurs in mcdial or final
ht

In this case it has become docs not occur

tp

as a medial cluster in so that

://
a

the a sound very

l-m

a main stress.
ak

L has taken the unmarked form of the CA RV as its infinitivc but it

ta
be

has it the -fe. The feason may be that most CA vcrbs havc
h.
co

14
m
 or one of its cors, that is Izl, 131 or Inl as ending so that L made all infini-
tives acquire -re as ending by analogy.

6.8 Changes that have taken place in the L Verb :

In L the two groups of 2 cons and 3 cons verbs of CA have become
indistinguishable as such. The merger is caused mainly by two rules enter-
ing the synatx. The frrst reduces most three syl verbs to 2 syl by regulat-
ing the third syl to the infinitve only, that is making it the infinitive end-
ing -re, if it is not already so. The second is a rule which affixes a third
syl-re to 2syl verbs making them of three syl in the infinitive, while the 3
syl ones become of 2 syl when conjugated, dropping the last syi.

Ex: [arecrera] dicere dic6 (to say mention)

[Radrern] vadere vadO (to leave, go)
[rngre:] rogare rogo (to beg, plead)
[3axI'da] 00dere nD (to add, count, join)
In the examples above one can easily recognize a 2 syl from a 3 syl
verb in CA, but in the L cognates they are no longer recognizable.
Sometimes a 3 syl verb is given a fourth syl in the L infinitive [qara-
Da] corrodere (to corrode) (sec 13.3).
And sometimes a 3 syl verb is reduced through clustering [freracre] fri-
care (to rub), frico 1st person sing.

6.9 Changes that have taken place in the OE V :

In OE many changes have taken place. Each will be discussed in due
course. The main characteristic which we shall give examples of here may
be expressed by one rule. All verbs may be derived or referred not to the
unmarked form, as in CA, but to the infinitive. Since the infinitive is of
two syl having the pattern of the CA supine CVCCAN, then most 3 syl
verbs in CA have become of two syl in OE. When conjugated they be-
come sometimes of one syi. This shortening process is furthered by dele-
tion of one syl or clustering of two cons.
Ex'
CA UNM CA SUP OE INF 1st persin\! Mod En\!
[arerafaJ [arerfrenJ drif,m draf to drive
[wrezrena] [wreznan] wregen wreg to weigh
[srefara] [srefamn] fanm farcp to travel
[qadimre] [qoduman] cuman cumep to come

75
 In 1 the medial cluster of the CA supine has been removed to become,
an initial cluster, by so doing the verb is contractd to one syl in the third
pers sing.
In 3 the initial syl is deleted, so that the verb becomes a 2 syl V.
In 4 it is the medial syl that is deleted to give a 2syl verb.

6.10 The supine of 2 syl V in CA and OE :

While we have given the supine of three syl V above, the supine of 2
syl V is made, like all other categories from 2 syl V by the introduction of
an affix, a semi-VI, /y/ or /w/ to the RV.
Ex:

RV Supine OE inF OE
v
[sa:ta] [sawtan] sceotan adj sceot, (to shooL)
[s<c:la] ls<cylren] scglan segel (to sail, a sail)
[Hre:la] [Hewlan] N hwile (a while)

While in CA the rule that introduces an infix into the supine concerns
2 syl verbs of the pat 1 and 2 above, in OE it is used much more frequent-
ly. The reason, is twofold. First some 2syl verb having a GS which has
a differnt pat for the supine, as we shall see below, has come in OE under
the dominion of this rule. Then some 3 syl verbs in CA have bccn re-
in
duced to 2 syl OE. The result is that their inf is formed by the addition
of an infix. Since the inf is the root of other tenses of the verb, we find it
introduced into these as well.
, II II
~
CA <Sup in CA OE inf OE V Mod Eng
, ,
1. lqata.:la) (qatJan) cwillan cwile kill
2. [qadima] (qoduman) cwomman cwome to come
cuman cumep
ht
tp

3. [drecara] (dicmn} cwidan cwidc quoth, say

://

4. fDal'la] (DalreClan ) lu wellan dwol lost, heretical

a
l-m
ak

Sometimes in OE a verb undergoes metathesis. This is part a wide

ta
be

movement in OE (14.16) and sometimes both the original verb without the
h.

infix added, as well as the new verb or adj exist side by side as in No.2.
co

76
m
6.11 Latin qu :
In L some words contain w or u. This (u) is not an infix apart, but
forms together with Icl a new sound quo This sound has no morphological
status or function as the medial infix in CA has. qu are inseparale. That is
u does not occur after other sounds in L as part of a sound but only as a VI
or semi VI. qu is therefore the result of phonetic merger. Significantly
most of the cognate forms in CA which contain qu in initial position in L
begin by lei. We know that in L Icl has been used to repalce CA Iql a uvu-
lar plosive. This new sound was contrived to replace Icl after the laller has
taken the place of Iq/ in L.

Ex: CA [cressara] (to break, smash), L quassare.

CA [qasrah] (secluded area) L castra (camp) RV [qaSara]

In CA several interrogative adverbs begin by Icl and inconsequence we

find forms like CA [creyll L qualis (how) CA [ca::m] (how much) L quam.

Moreover there is in CA the prefix [cre-] (like, as, as if). It has wide
range and precedes both N and pronouns to give new forms.
Ex: [cre+aa::lic] (like, this, likewise, in this manner). It is a pref+
demo pro. In L it is quoquo; the medial part has been deleted.

When we recall that this prefix has very great potentials and that in L
new forms are often made by analogy with the old, one can understand the
rather large number of such advebials and pronouns in L.

6.12 Results of reduction in Land OE :

Many verbs have been reduced to two syl in L through deletion of the
final syl and its repa1cement by the infinitive ending -re and many verbs
have been reduced in OE through making the two syl supine the infinitive
and further reduced through assimilation of one of the medial consonants to
another as we have shown above. What is the effect of this change on L
andOE?

The result is that there arc three kinds of relationships between a verb
and the nouns and other categories from the same rool.
1. If the verb has not been reduced, then the other categories have the
same kind and the same number of consonants, unless other distru-
bances take place.
2. If the verb has been reduced, then the other categories, derived from
it before reduction have one consonant more.

77
 3.
have been derived from it after then also are re-
if has been added to the like a
in these would asppear in the derived
if it has been derived after this addition but nol otherwise.
These features are clues that denote when a form has been derived.

1. Ex ; Forms derived from unreduced verb.

N CA N
N CA N

2. Ex : Forms derived from reduced verbs

DE bacan Nbrcad CA N
L N capt-us CA l'l"l.U<UJaj N

In the forms above the N has one more cons in L and DE than the
a cons that cars with that of CA. The N has been derived before re-
duction of the V.

3. Ex : Verbs where a cons has been added.

Ex . DE dwell an CA
The dOl which cars with CA I
has been derived before addition while the nfC;Vl(lUS one has
been derived after it.

6.13 The V dicere in the three

If we examine the CA V below:
1. to say. tell
2. to learn
3. to bid.
How docs this V appear in L and DE'!
ht

In L the verb is b when

tp
://
a

content of TV 2 and not the RV which is to say.

l-m

one removed and that of the

ak

itself has taken over the semantic content of TV 3. to

ta

warn. The N has been derived after the V has been "<"nr,,"<'11
be
h.
co

78
m
 syl, and the three verbs have been merged into one. A thing one comes
across quiet ofLen in L.
In OE this V has undergone both deletion and metathesis which brings
lal to final position and deletes the final syl or ora
1. cweaan, to say speak proclaim CA sup [aicran]
2. cyaan, P. ic, he cyaae, to declare, reveal manifest prove.

The first V has had an infix Iwl introduced after the final syJ has been
deleted. because it has come within the power of the rule for two syl V. The
second V which has a OS has not come under the power of this rule because
of the OS. Such verbs in CA also form their N and other categories with-
out the aid of an infix. This second verb has however the semantic content
of no 2 and 3 together.

The N cyaere has been derived from the V before deletion or after it.
while the adj t}!atg has been derived after deletion, because nouns designat-
ing the doer of the action have the suffix ore in OE.

Such deletions were the cause of the separation of many verbs from
their TV and many N and other categories from their RV. Many forms are
found alone without their families. One has to go very far back to CA to
be able to reclaim them.

6.14 Far reaching consequence :

The crucial consequences however is the breakdown of the morpholog-
ical rules of two and three syl verbs. In CA each group of these verbs has
got morphological rules by which nouns, adjectives as well as all other cat-
egories of the language are derived. The merger of two syl and three syl V
groups in Land OE has resulted in the complete breakdown of the rules that
governed each group.

As shown above three syl verbs have a medial infix in OE while pat-
terns became no longer distinguishable in both Land OE as we shall per-
ceive in the coming chapters. This merger had far reaching effects on both
Land OE. and was the calise of many of the differences in pallems between
L and OE and both and CA.

79
 m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
al-m
://
tp
ht
 Chapter VII
Tense in the CA verb

7.1 The tense system of CA :

The CA verb has three persons. First, second and third person. It has
three numbers, the single, the dual and the plural. It has two simple tenses.
The simple present tense and the simple past tense. It has three moods:
1 the indicative mood
2 the imperative mood
3 the subjunctive mood
The best way to understand the tense system of CA is to think of the
two simple tenses as two giant machines on which diffemt spare parts and
regulators may be applied according to the function they arc required to do.
This system gives the two machines great range, allows gradations of
meaning and meticulous precision, when desired. It should not be difficult
for the speaker of Modem English to understand such a system because
Mod Eng is itself a two machine system. There is the simple present tense
and the simple past tense. All the ffiildal verbs and the shades of meaning
they afford may be considered accessories to the two machines, just as in
CA all the modal verbs (and there arc two sets of modals in CA) are acces-
sories to the two basic tenses. While it is not possible here to give in de-
tail the verbal usage of CA, we shall give a few examples and hope that
they would illustrate the remarks we have made.
~

7.2 Tense in Land O E :

Like CA, 9E has also two simple tenses and a ~ umbcr of modals and
auxilliaries. In L there are six tenses. The simple present corresponds
roughly with theCA simple present, the perfcct also has approximaly the
usage of the CA simple past. The remaining tenses, arc due to the L ten-
dency to merge two entities or more together (sec 7.7 below).

7.3 CA V conjugated :
Below we give the different tenses of the CA verb. This verb is the V
[srefara] [to travel], [srefara] is the unmarked form. [sa:faran] is the supine.
It has as congante.oE fat'au. In OE the initial syl has been deleted.

81
 past.
future tense
pres. cont, used as such and as near fu-
ture.
distant future

future

7.4 The future tenses in CA :

From the above we notice that there arc 5""""""V''''
lure in CA. The near future is made the verb to be or
with the of the main verb. It is rather like the present continuous
in Mod and may be used either for a action or an action that
one imends to do in the near future. The future is made
the before the present tense. It is used for the fUlure
whether near or distant. The distant fulure is formed means of the
cle before the present tense, it denotes that an action will
take in due course, or While the V Mod
"can" but its is used as an to form the past
when it is the mark of the

Let us now compare a verb in the tense in CA

and then in CA and L and see where dif-
fer.

in OE and CA
ht

ic
tp

ali drif-e
://
a

he
l-m

we drif-on
ge
ak

drif-on
ta

hie drif-on
be
h.
co

82
m
 If we compare the OE and CA verbs on the phonetic level. On this
level there is the change of CA lal to Idl in OE. In the CA alphabet these
two sounds are placed together as twins, and we know that some of the old
Arab tribes as well as L change lal 10 Id!. In OE we are liable 10 find three
different tendencies. The fIrst is 10 retain la/, the second is 10 change it 10
Id/ as above and the third is to change Idl to la/. The cause of these differ-
ent tendencies will be discussed in due course.

On the morphological level, in the pres tense the root is [ariO in CA

and 1J\'tf in OE.

The difference lies in the fact that OE has removed the inflectional pre-
fIx that denotes tense and number and replaced it by the personal pronouns,
which are not used in CA, for they would be redundant, if placed before the
inflectional prefix, except in special cases (discussed later). That was the
reason OE had to choose between the pronouns or the inflectional prefix.
In the past tense there is the same difference. We notice that in the fIrst,
second pers pi in CA, where there is a nasal, a nasal is found in OE, and in
the third pers where there is a long VI (long VI have AC with semi VI) OE
gives the third pers pi a nasal by analogy with the two other plurals.

If we look at the third pers sing and pi of the CA pres tense, we find
the inflectional pref is (yre). This pref appears in OE participles and infini-
tives as [gel in some verbs. so that OE ge-bredan is in CA [ya-brudu] sup
(bardren) (to file, point) OE ge-bycgan is in CA [ya-biy3] sup [bay3an] (to
buy).

If we compare the CA present tense with the OE tense above, we find

something that no longer exists in Land OE. It is that the inflectional af-
fix changes position. In the present tense, and the present may be used for
the future in certain cases, the action is not yet done, or not yet completed,
so the inflectional affix is before it, in the past tense after the action is
completed, the inflectional ending is after the verb, behind it, something
done and over with. This is due to the underlying SS of the language.

7.6 Comparison or the V rogo in Land CA :

We have compard above between a three syl CA V and its OE cognate,
let us now compare a 2 syl CA V and its L cognate. The V [ragre:] L ro-
gare means to beg, hope for, plead, rcquest,ask.

83
 Present Tense Present Perfect Simple Past
L CA L CA
-
rog? [a-rgu:] rog~vi [ragrew-tu]
ragas (ta-rgu) rog~visti (ragrew-ta)
rog~t [ya-rgu] rog~vit [ragre:]
rag~us (na-rgu] rog~vimus [ragrew-na:]
rogatis [tre-rgu:] rog~vitis [ragrew-tum]
rogant (ya-rgu:] rogaverunt [rregu:]

The first difference is that L uses the VI lui as 101 of the pres. tense
throughout the V, as part of the rool. In CA most two syl V form their
past tense as well as other categories of the language by the aid of a semi-
VI as infix (/yl or Iw/). We find this semi- VI or Iwl in the CA V above,
while in the L perfect it has been replaced by Iv/. This is something one
should expect, since Iwl was a bilabial in L until Cicero's time after which
it was changed to the labio-dental above.

7.7 On L tenses :
The simple present tense has approximately the same range in L and
CA and so the L perfect tense has approximarly the same range as the CA
simple past tense. Where have the four extra tenses that occur in L come
from?
I
Before investigating the maller we shall have to mention a word about
L affixes, whether prefi xes or suffixes. Investigation has shown that these
are not forms created fo rtuitously l)utthey are either ful V, N, adj or adv in
CA or (like L de- and re-) they are based on the ancient SS of the language.
Some of these affixes wi ll be discussed in the chapter concerned.

If we look at the L future perfect and pl uperfect we find they have the
same infix of the perfect followed by -re, Irl in the SS of the language,
when found in final position denotes continuation of movement. In the fu-
ture perfect and the pluperfect there is extention of movement beyond the
ht

perfect and simple future whether in the past or towards the future, hence
tp
://

the addition of /r/ to these tenses (sec Chap on 5S for more on Ir/).
a
l-m

The simple future tense and the imperfect have got the suffix-ba. In
ak

CA this /ba/ is a modal V in iL<; own right. It is the verb Iba:::ta] ( to spend
ta

the night). Like all modals in CA it precedes the main V (cf with Mod
be

Eng). Now there is a tendency in L to delete the final syl of any form N or
h.
co

84
m
 V, that happens to coincide with the inflecLional ending. (cf CA Iqadreml L
ped-em, CA laacara/ L dice-re, dico [bre:ta] happens to have the ending /t/
which coincides with the ending of the third pers sing in L in all tenses. In
consequence it has become --ba. Sometimes we find forms reduced for the
sake of convenience in compounds in both Land OE, though more in OE.
This V as we have mentioned above means to spend the night, to pass a
period of time between two mornings. If this period of time is from today
to tomorrow then it denotes the future, but if this period of times was from
yesterday to today, then it denotes the past, extending into the present or
reaching towards it. In consequence it is used in L for both the future per-
fect and the imperfect.

If we look at the CA future [s<c] and the CA distant future having

[srewfa] before the main V, we notice that [sa!wfa] has Iwl which is sym-
bolic of making way, making an opening (see chap on SS) we find that the
longer (s<cwfa) denotes an opening into future, the extra sounds have given
this semantic content. The L pluperfect has also got an extra syl. This is
nOl conscious usage of the SS of the language at all, but simply an instic-
tive or intuitive repetition of doing things as they had been done, possibly
by analogy. This tendency may be seen in OE as well as Mod Eng, a new
form placed in structure as the old was placed, even after the old has been
lost and become insignificant. (sec 7.13 below).

7.8 The tense VI in CA and OE verbs :

In the CA unmarked form, that is the CA verb in the third pers sing,
past tense the initial VI is always an open VI. In the past tense of three syl
verbs it remains so throughout most verb. The open lal is in the SS of the
language the symbol of the static, hence it bcIongs to the unmarked form
and the verb in the past, after the acLion is done. In the present tense, that
is once the verb is conjugated this VI changes to Iii or luI depending on the
pat of the verb. (this applies to three syl V, two syl V are discussed be-
low). The VI of the passive is closed luI to signify action upon another. So
that there is :

Pres tense past passive

a u

If we look now at Mod Eng V, we find these three VI in verbs like

sing sang sung. The difference is that the VI of the passive has become
that of a participle.

8S
 While all verbs a of VI with the from the un-
marked form of the past to the in this characteristic is retained
group of verbs in OE. Such verbs are called strong while
verbs which do not such are called weak further
discussion of strong verbs see C. Bauch P.

verbs in CA :
verbs the same
in the past tensc. Examination of a two
verb shows:
1 pers 1 pers pI
2 pers 2 pers pi
3 pers 3 pers pi
In this verb the unmarked form of the third pers
third pers retain the open while all other persons have
a of VI. This is a characteristic of two V of the pat CA:CA.

In OE some of the verbs also of VI in the

tense for the first and third pers is not in the
same persons as in CA. This is due to the merger of the two
and three groups in OE. More research is needed to settle the matter.

7 9 The dental suffix in CA and L :

In all CA verbs of whatever the mark of the past tense for the
the second pers and the second pers pI is a dental
with a of VI in the verbs where a of VI occurs in
the past of the two
1 pers tu
2 pers ta
3 pers

This suffix appears in OE as the mark of the past tense in weak verbs
that do not a of VI ) it appears as -ede -ode -and de.
ht
tp

While in CA it is the mark of the three persons above in OE it

://
a

is used the while the pronouns are used to per-

l-m

son and number. In other words it t.1kcs the of the of VI to

ak

mark the diffemce between pasl and in the verbs where no of

ta

VI takes opus
be
h.
co

86
m
 In L this dental of the CA past tense appears as-to in the past partici-
ple, supines and the future participle (see I.F. Mountford 1964 p. 97).

It appears in some OE participles also particularly where no other stop

occurs.
Ex: 1. OE beonde, CA [bentu] (to be)
2. OE cuman part cumende, CA [qadimtu]
3. OE cunnan P cuau, CA [cccnantu]

In no.3 the final dental has been changed to a fricative, a tendency one
encounters somtimes in OE in verbs as well as in the other categories of
the language.

7.10 Negation in CA :
In CA there are several particles with which one can express the nega-
tive. They give a gradation of negative conditions and different nuace.
The choice of such particles is not arbitrary. It is based on the SS of
CA. In the SS of the language nasals are the symbol of negation, ob-
struction, impediment. (the air is not allowed to pass through the
mouth). Both 1m nl are symbolic of negation, but Iml is the more ponder-
ous and is pronounced by the closing of the lips, hence finality, ending
completion of fact, while In! as a negative is less absolute and more nego-
tiable.
Ex : 1. [lrem ara - hu] I have not secn him
2. [lren ara - hu] I shall not see him
3. [Iccn ara - h] I will not see him, I refuse to

1. When the neg ends in Iml it expresses an accomplislt!d fact (I have

not seen him). This is a fact that cannot be changed because time
cannot be turned back. It is followed by the simple pres. tense but
lireml gives the V the sense of the present perfect.

2. In 2 the maller is negotiable, or subject to change because Ilccnl gives

the pres tense a future sense (I think I shall not see him, but 1 may be
wrong).

3. Has a different stress pat the main stress fall on IIccnl so that it signi-
fies greater negation, refusal or denial.. nevertheless it has Inl not Iml
because even though I refuse to sec him, I might be prevailed upon to
do so. It is not yet an accomplished fact.

87
7.11 of sentences in OE and CA
If we compare OE Ne crrewp the hana to
L Non cantabit hodie
CA ya a
Mod the rooster will not crow

In the above sentences the structure is the same in OE and CA

that CA the def art before the N for while OE the to-.
The structure is as adv.

different because L has separated the V from

its discontinuous structures in L sec A. Hill
There is very great freedom in structure in L because in it
the ancient S5 has become obsolete and the inflectional have re-
mained. In CA there is freedom of movement but less than in because
in CA the of a word in structure is on the level of SS
we shall see when Mod is the least flexible of
the four "rII'n~r'rl with most inllectional
and relies of a word in the sentence.

The sentence above may be considered a

ty in OE and CA. In Mod
that what cors with Mod

is the
were the pres One would use "has not" in Mod
in CA /1/ for exlelion into the past, and for ,'nrnnl('1

7.12
is the most
of the nasals and the most low
It is used for absolute and
or denial. one asks someone.
"Did you kill the man?" He would answer in
ht
tp

I did not kill him."

://
a

The docs the work of both "no" and "not" in the

l-m

Modem (I did nOL kill

ak
ta
be
h.
co

88
m
 It is possible that he just hit him [mre] on the other hand denies cate-
goricaIly that he had anything to do with it

How many of the CA negatives remain in Land OE ?

In OE one finds na, no, ne and their compouds. Ina! cors roughly
with CA [mre]. (there is a tendency in OE to change Iml to In). Ne has
approximaely the range of [Iren] and [lrem). It is possible that the initial
/1/ has been deleted by analogy with na, no. In L non has the range of
[lren] [Irem], in fact it is a merger of these two. /1/ was changed to Inl by
EC. There are also nt, n~ and their compounds (like neque and nihil).
There are two things to observe here. First that nasals are no longer sym-
bolically significant as negatives, but the fact that they predominate in
negatives in L and OE is a clue, among numerous others, that these lan-
guages were originaIly based on SS.

7.13 The imperative mood :

In CA there is a special tense for the imperative as there is in L.
There are also several gradations of semantic content in giving commands
from a direct imperative to polite request or suggestion. All is achieved
by means of replacing a particle by a modal or another particle. Let us
now compare the imperative in L, CA and Mod Eng. The V chosen is L
au~tt'¢, which is in CA [reoina] to give ear, to listen. From this V
comes the word for ear, in CA, L and Mod Eng (cf Proto Ger auzon*, CA
[odon]. I
~ I ....-
('
L CA Mod Eng
1 ,
audi, audiLO [a:oin] Hear (IJ1ou)
audito [Ii yO] cain] let him hear
audite, audild.e [a:oinu:] hear (i'e)
audiunto [Ii-ya()inu] let them hear

In the forms above CA differentiates between direct command to a per-

son present, and command to a person who is absent, to be transmiLled
through a third party. For the person present, that is direct address, the im-
perative is used. One V only is required. But for a command to someone
who is not present, the present tense prcceded by [Ii] is used. In the SS of
CA /II is the symbol for extention, reaching oul. It is followed by iii
which denotes in SS going from one point to another hence a command
from one person to another.

89
 Another one notices is that in direct command the V comes be-
fore the pronoun which person and in fact this pronoun is
ellided because the person is before you, he knows whether he
is one or many, who or what he but it is as a pro
after the which is the clement in such a structure.
In indirect command the infectional affix comes before the V to show to
whom such a command should go.

L makes no distinction as we seen above. It does not differentiate be-

tween a command to the person present and a command to the person who
is not We notice two forms of the V for direct the
form in -to is found in documents for use.

The here is that Mod makes the same distinc-

tions that CA makes. It between direct and indirect com-
mand and makes the V and the pronoun is ellided in direct com-
mand. The V let is not the same as the ancient
has been lost and in its the V 'Icl' appears in structure.

7.14 The voice

In CA as in L there is a tense for the
two tenses as there are in the active voice. The tense and
the
In L there are as many tenses
in the as there are in the active that is six tenses.

In CA these two tenses are made to have great range and power of ex-
because of the accessories mentioned and be-
canse of a rule that states that the shall not be used unless the
is not known 01: not mentioned. This rule is based on the SS of the
If the agent is then one uses the active if the
is the act, or that upon which the act
tion is oriented towards the feature. This the pas-
sive for numerous uses and saves the structure from
ht
tp

is often used in sentences like the fol-

://
a
l-m

at a sieve
ak

Ex: mre:c' watcr is

ta
be
h.
co

90
m
 This kind of structure tells the manner of doing things. It is used in
cooking recipes or chemical formulas etc.

[yun3re: a'ragul ] (the man is to be mourned) the implication is that

this is the proper, the nght thing to do. He is worthy of it. Hence what
is feasible, what is right

[yuRlaq reI misraf] (the bank is closed) at such an hour. It states a

fact that takes place customarily, habitually.

Supposing we reverse the order of the sentence placing the subject

first. [al misraf usraq] (the bank is being robbed). This order does not
state what its customary, but that this is something unusual or sensation-
al being done at this moment. The position of SV in CA is significant
on the level of SS and contributes to the semantic content, as in this ex-
ample.

The past tense :

We have given above a few examples of the uses of the present tense,
we shall do the same thing with the past tense order in CA :
[qotila a layS] the lion was killed VS
[a layS qotil]the lion was killed SV

The first sentence gives the facts and no more, the second signifies
that this is something important, admirable unexpected. This effect is
achieved by bringing the undergoer of the action flfst, which in CA would
normally come last.

7.15 Auxiliary and Modal verbs in CA :

There are two large groups of modal verbs in CA, which grammarians
have classified according to their syntactic properties and called [cre:na]
and sisters and [in'na] and sisters. These two groups allow the description
of time and change in it with accuracy. Some of them form the negative
(apart from negative particles like [mre]) and some are used for the sub-
junctive mood. Many of these verbs have been lost in Land OE and
most of the few that survive have become regular verbs or affixes. There-
fore we shall not deal with them in any detail, a few examples suffice in
this outline. Since many of these verbs depict time, they have the seman-
tic power of V+adv, although they are syntactivally verbs that carry tense.
Ex: [bre:ta] to spend the night. This V appears in OE as a regular V,
it is the V bidan (to live in).

91
 to become to tum the next
to be full
to become From this V
comcs the OE word missa
prayers, in CA the more

7.16
which remains as such in CA and IE is "to
groups of auxilliaries.
is a defective verb in the sense that it has no future and no past
tense. In consequence a tense and a future was to it from two
other V in IE appears as the root 'cs' in
Gr. The final the GS of
has been deleted. It appears in the first pers as !I
The past tense is made of a second V. The V was, the V
which means to remain in IE.

This V is The GS is
as in the case
means to be past, to be over, to become the past, to be gone.
fernt shades of past action.

The future which has in OE. The

sup is in CA and the unmarked form It means to ap-
pear, to tum out, to to evolve into. An action or from
the present to a in the future.

7. 17 It is not unusual to find in Land OE two verbs rnp,.,,,,'rI

verb made of two as pres and pasL. The V ga in OE has as
In CA these are two different V from two different roolS and be-
AU"'O,.,o to two different The first is the V the second
ht
tp

is the V
://
a
l-m
ak

7 . 18 The root C- N in DE and L :

ta

In CA there arc four verbs of the root one modal as well as a

be

verb. The three usual twins with the modal verb

h.
co

92
m
l. [creme:] to allude, to imply, to hold inside but refer to only by a char-
acteristic or emblem. Sup [cena:yah].
2. (cre:na) to become laid in a comer, hidden place, hence weak, humble,
powerless, of little consequence
3. [can'na] to have or hold inside, in the heart, to keep protected or hid-
den, to know without revealing.
4. [crenre-h] to understand, to know the core or essence of, to be able to,
to have the power for. Sup [crenrehren]
5. There is also the frequentative [crenrenre] and it means to hold in deep
protection or secrecy.
6. [cre:na] to be, to exist, to become, to be eternal or always, to be ex-
pected, to extend from the past to the future.
This V is the most important verb in CA. It has the range of the verb
to bt in IE languages, and it takes its place both as auxiliary, to form the
continuous tenses, and also as a full verb meaning to be or to exist.
If this verb has such great powers and such wide range, why was it re-
placed by [in'nal or the V. to bt in IE languages?
The answer to this question may be found below.
In OE there are four verbs which have the consonants (C-N)
I. cunnan: to become acquainted with, to know
2. cinnan : to generate, procreate
3. cennen: to beget conceive bring forth
4. cunnian : to prove, try, inquire
If we compare the CA verbs of this root and their OE cognates we
find that CA 4 cors with OE in semantic content. These verbs do not have
idential semantic content but the common denominator in both OE and
CA of something brought from the inside or something internal.
The verb [cre:na] means to be, to exist, to be created. In semantic
content it is rather close to these twins, but in syntactic functions it is a
modal and the head of a very important group of muda!s in CA. In CA it
was possible to retain it together with the other verbs of the same root be-
cause the pattern of each verb differentiates it from the others, in OE the
original patterns have merged, so a verb having different phonetic features
was required. So the head of the second large group of modals [in'nre; took
the place of [cre:na].

If this is the case in OE, why has L not retained [cre:na] nor any of the
verbs of this root? One must bear in mind that there are two contrastive
sounds in CA Iq/ and Ic/. The verb having the root (c-n) has entered into

93
 the language through Greek, and even before that there were other forms
in L which have (c-n) because in L /h x H g/ are sometimes replaced by
Ic/.
Ex L cano (to sing) CA [Ran'na]
L cena (place to eat and drink) CA [Hre:nah]
L canna (reed, small vessel) CA (qanre:h) taken into L from Gr.
One must not forget the extensive use of the prefix con (cum). All
these factors contributed to make it more convenient to use lin'na I of dif-
ferent phonetic features rather than the over-crowded (C-N) rooL
The V tUstusu in OE comes from the same root. It has submitted to
the rule which places an infix in 2 syl V. It is not infrequent that one
comes across the same V once having an infix and once without it in OE
(18.2). Its semantic content is like the first OE V and it has entered the
language through another source as V which have this infix have.
In L the RV does not exist but its TV [cren'nre] appears as n05to.
The medial GS has been interpreted as Iscl as it often is in L (6-5). There
is an earlier gno\lt which suggests that the R V once existed. In Lone
form remains but it carries the semantic content of the three TV.

The V is found in OHG as lmajsn which cors with CA sup (cinaya-

tun). CA Iyl is often interpreted as j in Germanic languages.
Since the phonetic potentials of this root have already been used, the
IE languages have substituted the head of the second largest group of aux-
iliaries to do the work that this root does in CA.

Verb + Prefix
,.,n
7. 19 The prefix a- in L, OE and CA :
Prefixes play an improtant role in CA morphology. They modify and
regulate the meaning on the semantic level. It is n t possible to go into
the details of the use of prefixes in CA, in this work, but we shall discuss
briefly some of the prefixes which where found to have L or OE cognates.
The first prefix we shall discuss is found in all Semitic tongues as
ht

well as all the IE languages we have loohd into (Gr, L, 0 Fr, SKr, OHG
tp

and OE). It appears as a VI that precedes verbs. In CA it is Ia/.

://
al-m

In L, Fr and Gr, it is more often lei and is sometimes found as Ia/.

In OE it is more often Ia/ than lei. This difference is part of the general
ak

reduction of VI which we have noted earlier. In order to conceive the

ta
be

function of this pref. one must look upon language as a gradual transition
h.
co

94
m
 from static to less static, to dynamic and more dynamic. This pref raises
the morph it preceeds from less dynamic to more dynamic power.

In CA it makes an intransitive verb take an object, hence becoming a

transitive V, it makes a V that Lakes one object take two objects, and it
changes an adj. from the nom. degree to the comp degree. It can change
the action of a trans V from less active to more active. As the examples
below will show, it has the same capacity in Land OE.

Meaning in Eng RV V +Prcf Modified M Change in syn

properties

I. to become hard solid [gamuda] [agmada] to make hanl intras to trans

2. to prune [qallzm:e) aqlama to acclimatize trans to 2 obj
3. to tell, say [c:el:em:e ] Lacclamo to call, shout greater range
4. to shoot (~lI!:Ta) [:J:e:Ta) to throwaway, far greater power
DE sceOtan
-
a-scrotan

In 1 and 2 the verb has undergone change from intra to trans. While
we find of 2in Fr. acclimater (4.5).
The number of verbs which carry this pref is very great in the three is
languages under discussion Cf CA [wagasa] [awgasa] OE tgt.sa to be af-
raid, to make afraid in this V the original Iwl has been deleted in OE as in
other V also, or [hamaga] [ahmaga] and OE OUngn and aoungtt' (to be
hungry, to make hungry), or CA [sa:ra3re] and [resra3a] L cog accelere (to
hurry and to hurry up) Gr tPott'(Jn and CA [rebrareO] (to bear and to bring
forth issue) this verb is beran and reberan in OE. The number of cog
forms carrying this pref are very many indeed.
As mentioned above this pref changes an adj in the pos. degree to one
in the comp degree in CA.
Ex: [wre:si3] (to be wide) [rewsa3] (wider)
In OE it has the power to change nouns into adverbials of which many
are found in Mod Eng.
Ex : OE cyn and a -cyn, board and aboard (akin)
Mod Eng akimbo. amiss, afloat. awake etc.
In some Semitic tongues this pref is found as /hI or lsI or I~I and was
believed to have been originally an lsI which has changed to Ia! in CA. If
we bear in mind that CA is the oldest of the Semitic tongues and the one
that has changed least. and also that it is a VI in all the IE languages we

95
 have searched and that CA has been from these at a much
earlier date than the of the Semitic tongues from each so
that there are several channels of communication where it is a VI. We can
that it was a VI in the IE and in the
mother of the Semitic tongues that has nol left the ni',runcnl'<>
therefore it is the other Semitic which have it to other
the innuence of non-Semitic The
started so : thal it became an as in Hebrew then
"",,",au,,,,, as we shall see there is AC between
One cors led to but the was an

7.20 A·T :
The next
a tras verb to a
the inital
while the medial denotes that the action is in-
in CA than the

es and metathesis that these

able to be assimilated or deleted.
Ex : The CA verb means to forbid as or It is
the TV of OE ha'i the semantic content of the RV.
In CA the V+ lL means to re-
status, to esteem. It is found in OE as ehtian.
have been delctcd in OE CA is
and final innectional remain. In L
which takes the unmarked form as its the verb appears as
Here the medial has been and not deleted because the
of

furnish the for the infinitive was

the eog of CA and OE is the cog of CA
ht

which are the unmarked form and the of the verb re-
tp
://
a
l-m

7.2 1 The has in CA one usage. When it a verb it adds to it

ak

the semantic content of internal or action reflected on or im-

ta
be

the which is in a sense

h.

no external
co

96
m
 In Land OE this pref is a merger of this CA one with other forms
(adv and pref:) so that it has many uses semantically, in OE and L while
only one in CA. We shall give here examples of this usage only. (For
the other uses the Oxford Dictionary is should be conSUlted).
Ex: CA [in-creb'bre] to fall upon, concentrate on, occupy oneself
with. Its L cog is itt-Cubo.
CA [in -reore] to have hairn reflected on one, to have the result of an
action, a harmful thing fall upon someone.
The OE cog is itt -cobu. The VI stop of CA is interpreted as a con
stop in OE (5.16).

7.22 (est) is a pref that precedes CA verbs. It is highly productive and its se-
mantic content is to seek, to ask for
Ex : [Rafara] (to forgive), [est-aRfara], (to ask forgiveness).
There is evidence to show that it was found in L and in OE but the
medial lsI has been deleted in Mod F it is sometimes merged with the
word stem.
Ex: [Safre:] means pure, or clear, [estafa] means to choose: to pick
the pure or choose from among. Hence OF estoff and Mod Eng, stuff, Fr.
etoffe. (for a L ex of this pref see 2.25).

7.23 The prefix Ibel :

The prefix Ita! in CA gives the verb that it precedes three different
powers:
1. It can have two agents
2. It can portray action and reaction on self.
3. It can depict repetition of action more than once, or several times.
Ex: [trebre3redre] they went away from each others
[trecas'sara] to break by itself, impersonal V
[trena:9ara] to scatter by itself
[treratrebre] arranged in successive stages
[trela~aba] to manouver cunningly, the RV is [lre3iba] or to play.

In OE to-has the same capacity as its ancient cognate, approximately.

Ex : to-atican: to increase.
to-beran : to carry in different directions.
to-burstan : to burst or break in different directions.

97
 to-brecan : to break to
to-drifan : to drive in different directions.
to-hreosan . to fall to
We notice that it retains the idea of two agents in the action in two
different but not as as in CA and also the idea of
tive action that is in and in a few cas-
es the use of ""'., ........!;
CA or OE to is a neat and concise way of PVfU·p.I:".nla
".1','''''''.... action. It is one of the means of economy of the It is
not the same as L de- however with which it is sometimes confused. L
de- is discussed below.

7.24 The re- in L :

In L there are two whose role as is on the semantic
level the same as their role on the level of SS in CA. In other words L
has taken the ancient without
their ,,,,,,"U.',,QJ"",, the same

"'"'u,......'''''J to set back

ward off
or
In all the verbs above part of the
In fact any verb
we examine in CA is found to have semantic conlent
which denotes either of movement or movement done in succes-
sive stages. This is due to the fact that a strong trill in where the
longue is moved and has due to its manner of articu-
lation the in the SS of CA. L uses it in the same

run re-
ht
tp
://

In fact this is in L and one may find numerous

a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

98
m
7.25 The prefix de • in L :
In L the prefix de- has the semantic value of put down, put under, step
on. This is the same semantic value it has as symbol, for in the SS of
CA in the contrast of up and down it has the significane of down opposite
its antihesis /DI which is palatalized and like all the palatalized stops sig-
nifies the higher or the upper.
Ex : de-curra (to run down) de-cidO (to fall down, fall away) de-aesco
(to become less, diminish).
When the verb already has such semantic content its role is rather like
that of an intensifier, when the verb has an opposite semantic content to
the above it acts as a negative.
Ex : from CA : [dre:sa] to step on, upon, over. [drefrena] to bury
[drebaRa] to make flat and soft, [drebregre] to paint or make signs on or
over [drexrela] to go inside, hence in or upon.
While the symbolic significace of Id/ is clear in denoting what is
down, all verbs that contain it in CA do not necessarily mean down, al-
though all have related meanings, partly ~ause Id/ has other roles as
well in the SS of the language opposite /DI (see 20.26) and partly because
the semantic content depends on the other consonants in the verb as well.
While re-always denotes repetition of the action of the consonants after it,
Id/ signifies part of this action so that the action is varied. The same
thing may be said of the L prefixes re- and de. -re as a prefix (when it is
not part of the root) always denotes repetition, but de- as a prefix may de-
note low down or negation or down then up again depending on the se-
mantic conten~ of what comes after it

7.26 The prerlX (M VI) :

In CA Imt. as we have shown previously is tile symbol of impedi-
ment, lack of movement, also ending or accomplisbed fact. In the con-
trast of dynamic vs static, it is the symbol of the static. From its sym-
bolic significance springs its role as prefix. In CN ml together with a VI
changes the dynamic into the static. In other words it changes verbs on
the morphological level into nouns or adjectives, depending on the pattern
acquired and the role the word plays in structure.
The VI that follows Iml decides the case of the form that it precedes.
If it is Ial the most ponderous of the VI, then the N is usually a locative
something tangible or undergoer of action.

99
 screwdriver.

If the VI it is it denotes the doer of the action.

It purses the a movement of concentration or which in
this case denotes concentration of power, hence the doer of the action.
Ex : teacher usurer.
In order to nnl1pr.,rl>r,11 the role this let
us first examine one word that has entered into from
CA within the of The common P.Vf\rvlUl
is in and It materasso, OF materas, Mod Fr matelas.
Mod maUress.
CA "-"--J The RV is the V
In this the /
of the noun and is no as a
pY~lmrllf'<: from L and OE below the same process has taken
Does the RV from which this N comes exist in L and OE?
In OE the inf is , whose CA cog is the sup
U"""""'''', first pers
whose CA cog is
While OE has retained the main semantic content of the
out, L has taken the which is to
back to and hence to argue, to
to detract. In arithmatic in CA it means to subtract. The verb in L
means in consequence to to take to to draw off or off.
above see
The has very great range and is very in CA. In L
ht

and OE it does not exist as a anymore but has become with

tp
://

the words it used to Sometimes we find both forms with

a

and other forms but most of the time there are remnants to
l-m

show that these forms once existed.

ak

Ex :OE CA
ta
be
h.
co

100
m
 OE Mredel, place where justice is executed, assembly, judicial
council.
L mens, CA [mur] (mind)
L memorai (what the mind remembers, memories)
There is a very large number of words in both L and OE which begin
with this pref as part of the root or stem and no longer as a pref. Since
there is a tendency to achieve more compact form much of the form
where,tmal exists is deleted or reduced, particularly if it is to be used in a
compound.
Ex : OE mreg (kinsman) is in CA [muqarab] the RV is [qaruba] (see
12.5)
This word is used in compounds in OE
mreg-burh (kindred family, relatives, tribe)
mreg-cwealm (murder of father or kinsman).

7.27 Gradation and potential in the CA verb :

A CA V is not the same as a V in modern languages. It has grada-
tions and potentials of which its modern descendants retain but a few. Let
us take a 3 cons V and trace its potentials,
The verb [crebara] (to grow) has two TV like all 3 cons V.
1. [cabara] to grow intras V
2. [creb'bara] to make grow, trans, verb
3. [cre:bara] to vie with in biggness, to contend or argue with.
Trans: V having two agents

The three verbs above have open VI. Supposing we reduce the VI,
would that have any significane?
[cabura] to grow great in size, huge of large or big body, intras V
[crebira] to advance in years, grow aged, intrans V.

Supposing we apply some of the prefIXes we have previously exam-

ined.
[a+qbara] to look upon as big or great, hence to revere, esteem trans
V.
[t3!+erebara] to become or grow pround, intrans V
[est-t3!cbara] to seek pride, hence to be haughty, arrogant
[mu-trecaber] adj, proud, haughty.

101
 One may compare a CA V of
to a machine with several spare
will. It is not a fixed semantic
and are far lexeme.

How many words of this and one

may derive from it N or exist in Mod

we have:
..p~,.,.,.r·tivplv
each of these words looks different from the
others because have enterd Mod
and so submitted to different ollloO(>IOJi!;lC;aJ

the '"'''~'''l'.''''' that 1 and 2 have un<lerjgollie see 9.14 for 3 see
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

102
m
 Chapter VIII
Natural Correspondence

8. 1 Natural Correspondence :
A comparative study of over ten thousand cognate fonns has shown
that between one phoneme and other phonemes there are certain relatin-
ships which hold true in all spoken languages, because they do not belong
to one language or even one group of languages, but to the nature of sound
itself. That is the reason we shall call such correspondence natural corre-
spondence (NC). We can distinguish three kinds of NC.
1. Allophonic cors (AIC)
2. Mfinitive cors (AC)
3. Contrastive cors (CC)

8.2 AIC :
AlC is the simplest and very often the most frequent kind. In the two
cog fonns, CA [wara:] and OE,tuSt'S (people, nation) there is AIC between
Iwl and w, and Irl in CA and OE. In other words we may call each pho-
neme the allophone(l) of its cors in the cog fonn. In the CA and L cog
forms gUlfUS'. and [gurf] we have AIC between Ig/ and g IfI and f. But
what is the cors between Irl and /If! For this kind of cors one meets very
often indeed.

8.3 The cors of Iql :

If we lake one phoneme and examine its different cors, we would be
able to see more of this kind of corso Let us take a phoneme that does not
exist in L and OE, so that we do not get cases of AIC. AIC we shall use
only as a starting point, a bridgehead from which to tackle other relation-
ships. If we take the phoneme Iq/, it is a uvular sound pronounced far
back in the throat, a strong plosive. In the old CA alphabet it is one of a
trio. It is placed between IfI and Ic/. In other words between the phoneme
with which it has AC which is Icl and the phoneme with which it has CC
which is /fl. This gives us a clue that Iql has AC with stops generally and
CC with fricatives in general. Let us look at some cors of Iql in Land OE
to see if this clue is relevant in these languages.

103
 Mod Eng OE L CA

heart heart cordis [qalb]

hemp hrenap cannabis [qanab]
hom hom comus [qam]
heOO heafod caput [qobretu]

In the above examples (if we put aside other differences for the mo-
ment, since they are discussed elsewhere in this work) we find /q/ is re-
placed by AC in the L words and by CC in the OE ones. In other words L
has chosen the phoneme that has the closest affinities to it, while OE has
chosen a phoneme that has contrastive qualities with it(2). Does that im-
ply that every time there is /q/ in CA we should expect /hi in OE and /c/ in
L ? Not necessarily. This would not happen unless there were an overall
rule (a rule that dominates the greater part of the language) which decrees
that /q/------> c/ in Land /q/--------> h/ in OE. What we have shown above
are simply cases of triangular correspondence. (2)

q
h~~C
8.4 Triangular eors :
Since each consonant has sounds with which it has affinities and
sounds with which it has contrastive relationships, we meet triangular
cars, (tri cars) rather often in the comparison of L and OE. In fact such tri
cars is responsible for many of the differences between the two languages
as we shall have occasion to observe again. To return to the first tri cars
we have given above, is there a rule in OE that decrees that /q/ should be
interpreted as/h/' every time it occurs or at least in most cases? Let us see.

8.5 Cors of lei in OE :

A statistic sample of OE words beginning with lei and which have CA
ht
tp

cognates (they are about 85% of all OE words beginning with c) gives us
://

the following figures:

al-m

q e x mise sounds
ak
ta

32% 30 18% 20%

be
h.
co

104
m
 The figures above denote that the number of the cors of /q/:/c/ are as
many, in fact a little more than those of /c/:/c/ and that /x/ a sound not
found in OE, constitutes 18% occurs rather frequently (see Bynon for mod-
em examples in Ger.).

8.6 Cors or Ihl in OE :

Let us now take a statistic sample from the cors of/hl in OE, Here we
get the following figures:

H h other rricatives q

60% 22% 14% 4%

The cors /~:/h/ is clearly not an overall rule in OE. If we examine the
forms above beginning with /h/, we find they have certain characteristics
in common. They are all words containing three cons. In OE a great
number of words have undergone deletion to two cons. Why have these
escaped? Then we do not find the RV from which these words were de-
rived. This alone is not extraordinary considering the number of V miss-
ing in OE, but together with the previous datum, that is the lack of dele-
tion it gives a clue that perhaps these words were intoduced through
another Germanic language. Let us take the only word whose RV is found
in OE. The words is heord (herd). Its SKr cog is cardhas, its CA cong is
[qatiy~]. The RV is in CA [qaTa~a] and in OE the inf is cuttan (to cut),
its CA cog is (qaT~an). In this OE info

The cors is the following: /qf:/c/ /T/:/t/ /~/:/t by assimilation to /tI.

The first two cors are cases of AC, the third is assimilation.

The COTSof the N heard are the following: /q/:/h/ by CC /T/:/d/ by

AC/~/:r/ by CC.

The words has undergone metathesis bringing /3/ to medial position.

This suggests strongly that the langauge from which btot'~ came is other
than OE, since its correspondences are different, which denote that the pho-
netic rules of the language are different. Research in Germanic languages
may explain how these words have entered OE (see chap XVIII).

105
8.7 Cors of in Latin :
The cors in L are the umlUWAU'"

above show. The similarities are due to lhe innate features

of the sounds the differences are what makes one
'Q.J'~U"I>" from another. We find Lhat
..... 6 ....~6 ...'''' that is often Such simi-
larities are due to the nature of the between these <>U''''U''',
are nol to L or OE. The ratios of the cors of these sounds are
however characteristics of each Moreover we notice Lhat is
in L. This is because does not exist in L
spI:lrirlgl) indced. Most of Lhe time boLh sounds are ei-
one of their cors as we shall see below. This is
a feature we may call characteristic of L.

The to ask here is wether AC?

Indeed it is not, stops and of
when not in initial We may say however
that is its nearest cors or the most favoured in L and OE.
EX'CA CA OE L
bea

dialect of for is

8.8 Cors of
to consider is that if L uses
CC in L. We find the main
VI are
ht

CC. There are

tp
://
a
l-m
ak

This small number of words in L which have a VI as the CC of

ta
be

that
"""'1;5'"""''' must have entered the some related
h.
co

10~
m
 language, either an Arabic or IE tongue. oltum has entered it through
Greek; and we know that some old Arabic tongues replace Iql by a VI stop.
The difference between a VI stop and a simple VI is not great and we have
seen this cors in L (5.16).

8.9 Cors of Iql in Land Cairene Arabic :

If we compare L with Cairene Arabic (the Arabic of the inhabitants of
Cairo) we find that in Cairene Arabic Iq/ is systematically replaced by a
VI, or more accurately the VI that it dominates takes its place. if such a VI
exists, and it is changed to a VI. if it occurs in a cluster. An Egyptian
never utters back Iq/ unless he is speaking CA. Here the change of Iql to a
VI is an overall rule of the language. It is not in a few words but in all
the words which contain Iq/ in CA.

lf we examine the words: L tdla (room, cell) L o11a (jar), their CA

cognates are [qilalah] and [qollah] respectively. They both come from the
same RV [qal'la] which is found in L together with the pref (a) as trelo,
CA [aqala] (to raise above the ground, to raise in relief. hence sky in L and
clouds in CA). All the words from this RV begin with Icl in L except
oUa. This form must be considered irregular and must have entered the
language through some related language. (CF with Cairene Arabic [ol'lah]
and Upper Egypt Arabic [gol'lah].

8.10 /bI in Latin :

Although /hI is a sound that is often deleted or replaced in L one must
not exclude the possibilty of finding it as a correspondent of Iq/ in this lan-
guage so long as it is the natural correspondent of Iq/ (one must take into
account the possibility of loan words from related dialects) Does such a
cors exist in L?

It is rare, but it does exist in the word ~ab U is whose CA cog is

[qa:bel] (able, capable).

8.11 Cors of /q/ in OE :

Similarly one should expect to find some of the cors of Iql taking its
place in OE. Since the cors of Iql are sometimes the same as those of lei
or Ig/ which are the nearest sounds to it, one should not exclude the possi-
bility of meeting their cors also.

107
 In the old CA ... v', ..."'..... beside as its cors CC.
the two sounds are but what is their "',l.~U<.J"l'.. in OE?
when do take each others and

In order to understand the cause of this cors one has to go way back to
CA. In CA Ie q g h do not take each other's because in CA there
is a fifth level of the level of S5 and on this level each
neme has its Thus the difference in the semantic can lent of
the two words and is that the [Il'st means to go a
up and the second means to go a or down.
the difference between the two verbs above is the difference between
because in the S5 of the
trast means up, but
that denotes one step, one
Words with like up in

Let us now take a word in CA where takes the of

OE form. That is let us compare CA andOE
of little little power to

has the
Lains two consonants.
icance in the S5 of the is
ty the consonants it appears with possess, in other words it is an inlesificr
semantic content of its own the word
alone it is colourless. When it appears
is the weakest sound in the 5S of
The R V means to grow
ate. The two consonants are therefore two weak sounds
the express purpose of extreme weakness.
weakness and its continuation or uUE,""'"
which is and then

In OE this level has been removed. The is no

ht
tp

er its but rules. Therefore if a word

://

contains two weak sounds one of them is counterbalanced a strong one.

al-m

Now let us see if the holds true, that

ak

if when two strong sounds are found to~~eUler in OE one is softened. Such
ta

indeed is the case in the forms below:

be
h.
co

08
m
 Ex : Dohtor Ger tochter, CA [oxtun]
OE riht Ger rischt CA [ru~
OE agan, ahte (I own) and ahsian for acsian

Where a strong sound like IxI is followed by a stop, it is reduced to /hi

in OE, but when Ixl occurs before a VI, a soft sound. it is more often
changed to Icl as in CA Ixunl OE tin (chink).

The same is true of Ig/ and that is the reason it appears as /hi in final
position but is resumed when followed by a Vi. that is a weak sound.
Ex : beah, beages (ringp).

8.12 Counterbalancing
Counterbalancing of strong vs weak sounds is not peculiar to OE but
may be found in other languages where the SS level is no longer operative
for when this level is removed phonetic considerations begin to govern
language. If we compare.

Mod Eng CA L Greek

contusion, bruise [credamah] contund-ere oedema

The CA word is governed by the rules of SS of the language, where

each sound has its significance, tlie L word has mitigated the effect of the
two stops following each other by placing two soft nasals in between,
(whereas in CA it was meant to be so to symbolizd the effect of rough
deep reaching contact) while in G . the initial Icl has been deleted to avoid
the effect of two stops. This V in L is analysed as the pref con+ tundere,
whereas in CN the RV is (c+d+m ~ . This kind of interpretation one meets
often in L and lin a few cases in OE. The reason is that in L many sounds
have been lost and therefore the phonetic range of the language has become
more limited and less able to hold the semantic content. The result was
many prefixes and many mergers as well as cases as the above.

In the cors above we may observe the same tendencies we observed in

L and in Gr in the previous example above (8.8) L retains the stop but
softens the effect by other means, while Gr de;letes the stop and replaces it
by the VI after it

109
8.13 The cors of CA IHI in Land OE :
Let us trun to another CA nh,..n"m"
The pn<meme
sound .
. . "L."'-"". trenchant or a

cors
whose CA cog is
has been introduced in the N
u.J:...... u ..,.s means of
verbs in CA. In OE it has
log'Cln4:r with other such forms as we have shown in
The V means to fall upon in
to awe. From this same V comes CA
OHG mihhil.

In L does not exist but its nearest does. It is used infre-

however and is often deleted or rh!'!,nuE'rl to other fricatives as we
shall see in due course. is in L as in the eX,lmJ>les
below.

Lhasta weap-

AC in the CA appear in OE?

it in CA appear contain-

This cors is rather but it exists.

ht

Ex: but OE hus CA OEhas

tp
://
a

If the cors of AC can be found in does the cors CC also

l-m

we do find such cors, but not very in words like

ak
ta

CA OE
be
h.
co
m

110
 In L we find mainly the cors of /HI by CC, that is Ig/ or Icl in words
like CA [HaSa:] L glarea OE hassuc. /HI also is sometimes replaced in L
by Ig/ particularly in final position in words like.
CA [Hurrah] L virgo, (virgin, freewoman) CA [Harbah] L harpago
(harpoon).

8.14 The cors of IHI by CC :

/HI is a guueral sound pronounced far back in the throat, while Iwl is
a bilabial which has a front point of articulation relative to /HI. It is its
antithesis or CC. Does such cors exist in actual fact? Indeed it does in
both L and OE, in a substantial numbe~ of words.
Ex:
Mod Eng OE L CA

man weI: vir [hurl (cf,OHG her)

woman - virgo [Hur'rah]
wicked wicca - [Hre:qed]
bovine - bovinus [bahiym]
wrong wrong gravis [Harag]
throw prawan tralD [TaraHa]

Just as Iwl takes the place of /HI by CC, so can this sound and its
cors /hI takes its place by the same means. The relationship is reciprocal.
Ex: CA [wera9retul L hereditas (heredity)
CA [wre9ni] OE heM en (heathen)

8.15 Rule of NC :
In the cors above we have seen how sounds which have affinitive or
contrastive connections can lake each others place. Supposing we wish to
fonnulate a rule of thumb Lhat would help us in the search for cognate
forms. How do we express the phenomenon above?
Rule of NC: X and Y are two phonemes. If X can take the place of Y
in certian environments, Y can take the place of X in certain environ-
ments.
This rule is rather vague, and it was meant to be so. Much research
has to be done before we can tell exactly what is the range and

111
 environment of each cors, in a do we restrict the
rule to certain if it is the nature of sound? Because normal-
ly there should be when we find AC Of CC any of the cors dis-
cussed in the it denotes that has taken
and is due to disturbance.

The as two p"'J"~'''''''' have NC

to come across cars between them in
nnt,"pmp. the
of its occurence in a
rules of this ex-
Whether it is made use of or
not on the phc,netic 111InOnl~OP has evolved.

8.16 Intermediate
Sometimes in actual we come across cases of cors of
nemes which do not have NC between them. How can one account for
such cors? Let us compare the ('nCml'lIIP. forms below. The word
whose derivation was above.

CA

The cars between the OHG and the CA word is the

ALC ALC.

Now if we examine the OE we find no direct cors between CA

and OE K is another version of OE c) so that to account
for this cors we have to to then both to
CC. In another words we have to use the cors of the OHG word as an
intermediate level to the or cors of to It is al-
when a cors is not a direct one to compare with more than
in order to find clues to the causes of its existence. It
. that the OE word above has submitted to two
ht

to and the second

tp
://
a
l-m

In the cors of OE above we notice the same we have noticed

ak

earlier 1 to counterbalance a weak a strong sound. This word in

ta

CA and in OHG is made of three of which /h w V

be
h.
co

112
m
 are considered weak sounds in the SS of the language. It is not surprising,
therefore that OE has replaced two of the four semi-VI by two stops.

8.17 Phonetic cycle :

After examining numerous cases of NC, we are in a position to teU
how Mod Eng has been able to retrive Iyl in certain words after OE has
changed it to Ig!. This was possible because of the natural relationship of
Iyl to Ig! by Cc. Similarly German has been able to retrive the original
IfI in some words after it was changed to Ipl because of the AC between
the two sounds.
While in Mod Fr /II has been replaced by a long VI, in certain words.
This /II a long VI in CA was changed to /II in L and then to along VI
again in Mod Fr.
Retrival of these sounds would not have been possible if it were not
for the innate potentials of sound itself. Much research needs to be made
on this phenomenon, on the range, the potentials and the duration of such
cycles.
It is truly amazing that after a period of nearly ten thousand years a
word should be able to retrive a sound it had lost.

8.18 The Cors of / 3/ :

One of the sounds that are difficult to pronounce and difficult to trace
as cors is 13/. It is a pharyngal, nazalised resonant, it is a voiced semi-VI.
Some old grammarians (like Ibn Ahmad) believe it to be the beginning of
the alphabet, possibly the first sound ever uttered. It is an inchoate sound
that has affinities with many others. Among the Arab tribes some have
replaced it by Inl and some have replaced In! by it. Some have replaced it
by /HI and some by Vis. In H a I are its cors by AC. What are its cors
by CC? Its cors by CC are the same cors of VI and /HI by CC, that is
stops generally. Since 131 is a pharyngal pronounced far back, bilabials,
dental and alveolar stops are its natural antithesis, but we do find, in cer-
tain environments Ig/ also Icl take its place. Being an inchoate sound 13/
is highly susceptible to its environment.

In the CA alphabet 131 has a twin of the same shape. It is /RI (rather
like Fr. r only pronounced further back). /RI is a voiced, velar fricative.

113
 The interesting point is that in both Land OE we find that IR/ is some-
times given the same cors that /3/ is given, sometimes by Inc and also be-
cause /R/ shares some of the features of /3/. (Nazalized, far back).

8.19 Cors I 3 I : lal :

The fmt cors for (3) in IE languages is VI. Two VI occur together.
The first is usually /3/, the second is the VI that it dominates.
Ex: [3oqa:b) (eagle), CA [3rem) OE earn (uncle»)
CA [3re:da) OE eode (to return) OF aage CA [30mr) (age)

Later one of these VI..was removed and the second VI was retained to
take the place of both /3/ and the VI dominated.
Ex: CA [3reb'ba) ON ebba (ebb, the RV means to fill up)
CA [3redi) ON eddi (eddy) (RV means to pass over, upon)
CA [3retiyq) L antiqus, CA [3re:m) L anns (a year)
CA [3arabi) Mod Eng Arabic, CA [30mar) Mod Eng Omar.

We notice that in all the words above /3/ occurs in initial position.
What are the cors of /3/ when it occurs in medial position?

8.20 The cors or I 31 : Irl : lr

In medial ~position /3/ is very much influenced Iby its environment,
that is the consonant that precedes and that which succeeds it. It can oc-
cur as a VI, as in initial position, but most of the time it occurs as a
stop or a semi. VI/r n V, depending on the environment it is found in.
Ex: CA [ro3b] L terror (terror)

In this word /3/ is interpreted as /r/ by EC (discussed in the next chap-

ter) while fbI is intepreted as 1tI, and brought to initial postion. (in the
ht

CA alphabet fb 1/ are found as a pair /3/ has acclimatized itself to two

tp
://

conditions in this word. The L preference for the use of /r/ and the L
a

tendency to delete stops or replace them by semi-VI if there is more than

l-m

one in the CA word. (cf L silentum, CA [sre:cet].

ak

In the examples below /3/ appears as /r/ in the L and OE words :

ta
be
h.
co

114
m
 Ex : L serpens CA [8u3bre:n] (here also it has become /r/ because of
the presence of another stop in this word. (it means snake) OE teorian
(to tire) CA sup [tre3rebren] In this OE inf the final stop has been
deleted.

8 .21 / 3/ as a stop :
If we compare the L and OE words below:

L ludo. ludere OE plegan CA [lre3iba] [le3ban]

The above is the V to play. The difference in pat is that OE has that
of the CA sup while L has the pat of the CA unmarked form. The second
difference in sounds is that L has interpreted /3/ as /d!. then deleted the fi-
nal fb/ to introduce the infinitive ending -reo A process we have previous-
ly discussed. while OE has interpreted /3/ as /g/ then brought fb/ as/p/ to
initial position. a process we shall meet again in OE when discussing the
clustering rules of OE. In other words it is a case of tri corso /d! :/3/ : /g/
Similarly /3/ is interpreted as a stop in the forms below:

L grape (grapes) CA [3enreb] here /3/ is immediately followed by /r/

so it had to become a stop by dissimilation.
OE beocgan CA [bay3an] In this sup OE has changed /3/ to Ie/ and /y/
to /g/ by CC.

OE lyftan (to lift) CA [Iref3an) OE has changed /3/ to /1/ by CC.

8.22 The cors of I 31 : Ibl :

In OE /3/ is often interpreted as the stop fbI. particularly if there is an
Ir/ in the same word. Irl as sound is very close to IRI the twin of /3/ so
that this cors may be looked upon as an attempt at dissimilation.
Ex: OE bare. CA [3reri] OE broad. CA [3ariyd] OE ban. CA [3aam]
OE board. CA [3arD] OE bride. CA [3arous].

115
 not so is
even when there is no in the word. This may be due to the ex-
istence which is one of the cors as we have shown above.
DE
The word has metatheisis in DE
If we look at the forms below:

CA

1. bow
2. broad troad
3. bareland bare
4. neck hnecca

In one there are two CA words which are minimal

look very different in L and DE because of the two different
of in DE and as in L. In 2 we have the same
different because DE has

l'h,.nt"1" we
ferent the cors of can be 3. In CA the RV is
from this V come all the forms of no 3, means a
in CA. The difference is the same as that of no 1, it is a case of tri corso
In 4 DE has has a cors that is not very but that
exists in DE as well as some old Arabic Whereas in Fr this
was as a VI then deleted a case that is
no means rare.
ht
tp

a detailed account of the cors of here we

://

have demonstrated that it is a

al-m

versatile and since it is used very often in

causes of difference between L and DE. The we have
ak

above are a fraction of a much corpus.

ta
be
h.
co

116
m
8.23 Deletion of / 3/ :
One must not exclude deletion from the possiblities of the shapes that
words may take where 131 is concerned. Sometimes. rather frequently the
whole syl containing 131 is deleted.
Ex : CA [roq3ah] OE rag (rag). CA [3atam] OE dim (darkness. faint
light) L bellus, CA [badiy3] (lovely, beautiful).

The truth is /31 is responsible for many of the differences found be-
tween one IE language and another. It is a sound used rather frequently in
CA for reasons given in Chap XV. and in consequence its absence in IE
languages has been the cause of many changes. some of which are given
above. while others will be discussed when the clustering rules of L and
OE are being examined.

8.24 The cors of IR/ :

The phoneme!R/ the twin of 131 has got the following cors la g wi.
These are the main cors of /RI in Land OE but one should not exclude. in
a few cases. some more of the cors of 131 through Inc as well as other
kinds of cors to be discussed in the due corso

EX: [Ra:r] OE war (war). CA [Rasrelreh] OE wasian. L lavare

CA [Rredrera] L vadere. (to go, go away) CA [Ragreri]
L vagare(vagrant, and gypsy in CA)

Ex: 1. CA [Rorour] L error (astray, wrong. error).

2. CA [Razw] OE rin (raid)
3. CA [raRay] L garroulous (chattering, talking much)
4. CA [laRw] L logos (unreliable talk. foolish talk) taken from Gr.

1. In 1 L has interpreted /R/ as VI. as 131 often is.

2. In 2 OE has interpreted /RI as Irl by AC.
3. In 3 the word has undergone metathesis to bring /RI to initial position af-
ter interpreting it as Ig!.
4. In 4 the final Iwl is interpreted as a VI I a cors we have met when dealing
with Vis. and 13/: Ig!.
If we compare:
CA /ReI! L bil-us OE gealle (bile. gall)

117
 The difference in the L and OE forms is due to the different
lions of It is a case of tri cors :1

Notes :
1. The word is used here in a rather
ed one. It is used in the sense that these pnl[)ne:mf:S
of we do not maintain
have the same !""",...'.. .., features see 4.2.
2. Grimm's would not be valid in such since it does nol
take into account the existence of and is not based on the facts that
we know about lI4I')!;Uil,l;"
3. The sounds that we NC are in-
some as annnl'''''',,", arnd may be con-
sidered so in words like t"tx. In OE h cl take
as we have shown above. The reason we do not accept
them as is that in CA are not, and in the ancestor of L
and OE were not. These are new in these ..... 0 ...."'6""
and the difference in the features of these sounds have to be taken
into account in order that these may be traced and under-
as in the case of weak vs strong sounds in shown above.

4. It is rather mtlere:surlg to observe how different babies pronounce when

nrst start to Most one or two year olds pronounce it as
but some pronounce it as a fricative.

A twelve year old who but who lives in the

U.S.A. the name of his father's nurse as when it is
the feminine of OE He has the word EC. The
old woman smiled and said that this was progress, his father as a
used to call her He deleted the whole first which contained

Most would pronounce

tnrp",rnf.'r" as writer
ht

has come across a newspaper article

tp
://

as al mustazafin.
a

was
l-m

assimilation to the fricative after it. this " .... Ul~, .. ,<...
ak

extraction.
ta
be
h.
co

118
m
 CHAPTER IX

Favourite Correspondence

9.1 FC:
In the preceding chapter we saw how related sounds took each oth-
ers place when change or disturbance occurs. In this chapter and the
next we shall deal with two kinds of correspondence which do not de-
pend entirely upon the innate properties of sound but on other factors as
well.
1. Favourite correspondence (FC)
2. Echoic correspondence (EC)

As its name suggests favorite cors occurs when a sound becomes a

favourite in a particular language, while Echoic Cors: occurs when this
favourite, or any congenital sound, takes the place of another, so that
the same sound is repeated in the same word, when originally there were
two different phonemes. When favourites and EC begin to appear in a
language this denotes that the underlying SS has been destroyed and su-
perseded by phonetic rules which do not depend on the symbolic signifi-
cance of each sound. In CA there are no favorites. Each sound is used
whenever the semantic content has need of it, and according to its sig-
nificance in the SS of the language. Therefore favourites among pho-
nemes denotes that the SS of the language has become completely ob-
solete. From the number of Iconsonants lost to both L and OE we
know this to be the case in both languages. While NC/cippears to read-
just a word ~ter disturbance, FC occurs under a variety of circumstances
and among sounds which mayor may not be related. A favorite. as we
shall see, ~n sweep all before it It can occur without being triggered
by change or disturbance, but simply by preference.

1. Among favourite sounds we have to distinguish first early favourites

that are found in both Land OE. We may assume that some of these
began as favourites long before the Germanic and Romance languag-
es separated, while others are due to L inffuence on Germanic lan-
guages.

2. Favourites in OE alone, and in L alone. These must have taken

place after the Land OE (Germanic languages) had become separate
and distinctly different. When dealing with cases of FC one must
always ask the question whether this replacement is obligatory, that

119
 is due to loss of some feature of the lau,5u",I'i", or it is due to the
ore:ter'enc::e of one sound to even
li:UI,j!;Uill!;;C. For a favourite may take the

ist and sounds that do no exist in the

9.2

There is a
o with the unlllCa;:ptlllble and
"'"'t;..... " ...

up to the most acc:epltaOle or favourite.

but

the aCOept2lbllllty
entered the no
in it, that it is confmed to the loan words it has entered the lQ.u;;U<'JO;"
with. Its and far below the norm. If we con-
sider the norm 1, then let us consider its as 0.1, that is
PY,lmlnlp of this would be in L. It

but is often
about one third of its
usage in cognate ' .. "6u.'o .... ",
can it a J<.""UU'J<.
ists but is used very most of the time it is re}:llac:eo
We notice that these sounds have NC with it, and that
but so that we can infer that it is itself that is u ..,,,........ "IJ''"''Ul''
and not a new sound that has become a favourite and has swept it

C in the X occurs in accord with

its rate of occurenre on the level of 55 level we can check in
then it has the of the norm. Its
neme C
ht
tp

guage, and if it then we as-

://

sume that it is ""'ronm.n on how far it

a

of sounds with
l-m

takes the
it is a to take the
ak

those with which it has NC and those with which it has

ta

no the most
be
h.
co

120
m
 place in a word it, then it has become the favourite. We shall see that
in L Ipl has attained this position. (for actual percentages see chap.
XV).
The gradations we have given above are only a casual and sketchy
estimate of the actual situation, but we hope the examples given in this
chapter and the actual percentages given in chapter XV will help the
reader gain insight into the different gradations of phonemes in L and
OE.
This phenomenon raises many questions that have yet to be an-
swered, and much research has to be done on the subject, for we do not
know what factors make a phoneme a favourite and what factors cause it
to be deleted from the language or cause it to trail on, even when it is
used seldom.

9.3 L in Land OE :
The phoneme III may be considered as having AIC in L, OE and
CA. It is a voiced lateral, flap. It occurs in initial, medial and final p0-
sition in the three languages.
Ex : CA [lceyen] L lenis (soft, flexible), CA [srelwre'h] L solacium
[solace]
CA [aqalae] L caelo (to raise above, to raise in relief)
CA [laTiyf] OE le6f, (sweet, pleasant) CA (xalq) OE fole (people)
CA [saylan] OE seglan (to sail, great waters in CA)
The OE rune which represents this sound is found in a poem. The
line is lagu byp l~o~Uttt. It has been interpreted as "waters for wan-
deres", but we shall have to discuss this interpretation further after ob-
serving how III is used in Land OE.
Possibly quite early, for the tendency exists in both Land OE, /lI
has become a favourite and got removed to initial position in Land OE.
One has to distinguish between III as a consonant, as it is used in CA,
and III which replaces a CA long VI in L and OE, and which, interest-
ingly, we do not find, except rarely, removed to initial position, but in
medial or final position, or as part of a cluster. Consonantal/II is often
removed to initial position, even when it replaces another semi-VI, like
131 or Iml but the III which replaces a long VI, we come seldom across
in initial position. It is possible that in early times it was something
between III and a long VI, so that the clustering rules of the language
excluded it from initial position.

121
 OEEx: CA OE laedan CA

CA ",,,,,,,a"',al OE lafian L lavo.

In some OE words is deletion of
the initial
Ex:CA
CA
CA
CA f3az'ilem~lel

9.4 The OE rune

leaodum 'water for wanderers'. The word is ml'>rn'rpl~'rI
as water or sea in OE. In CA we find it with its RV
which means to wade in water. The and mean the
the It is used in old texts very often in connec-
tion with the sea, it means turbulent or brimful sea. The word is found
in L as latUS. It means which denotes but not the
that is on the SS of the lan-
guage. The over
while accumulation of waters over
on the SS of the is
how the word is found and used in CA.

is the PL. of The word in CA is It

has both deletion and metathesis. The RV is c--,,_._>
Which means

U"•• UL"'g that it must have started before the

ht

of those two branches. The word CA means man,

tp
://

OE. In CA it means man but a man who has reached the

a

of his powers. Full manhood as to or The V

l-m

or extention in CA as it does in OE. When it is used for

ak

that it has reached the or its full

ta
be
h.
co

122
m
 Now that we have the exact meaning of both lagu and It~um (for
change of fmal Igj to Idl in this word see 18.4) it would be more accu-
rate to interpret this line of poetry as: depth for the men.

It implies that deep waters (whether in a physical or figurative

sense) are not for youth but for men of courage initiative, virility and
strength. All those meanings are found in the word in CA.

This interpretation gives the poem the beauty and significance that
are its due and makes it recapture the spirit of the North men and the
Nordic seas.

We have taken up this old runic line to illustrate a point. A word is

not a dead tool; it is a living entity. It may be very old and have ori-
gins that extend far back into immemorial time. When interpreting an
old line one has to go as far back as he is able to, to the very roots of
each expression in order to understand how it originated. To compre-
hend the associations, connotations implications, reflections and refrac-
tions of each word. By so doing one may perceive the ancient poet's vi-
sion, catch a glimpse of his age, its atmosphere, its occupations,
worries beliefs. It will in tum trace for us moments long forgotten and
make us comprehend what we had felt only dimly, hesitantly.

9.5 F in Land OE :
CA IfI is a voiceless labio-dental fricative. It may be considered an
allophone of both Land OE If/. It is found in cognate forms in initial,
medial and final position in CA and OE.
OE farop Ca [faras] (seahorse in OE, horse in CA)
nafela, [naefelah] (navel in OE, what is in excess in CA)
half [neSf] (half)
L lumen CA [lae :me3] (light in L, bright in CA)
L defendo CA [daefae3a] (to defend, ward off).
while this V is interpreted as de+ fendo, in CA the RV is (d + f + 3)

As the above forms denote it is not difficult to find cognate forms

having IfI in initial position in the three languages, and in medial or fi-
nal position in OE and CA. But the L form having IfI in medial posi-
tion is rare (except for V+pref) and that having IfI in final position is
even more so. In fact it could be non-existent.

123
 Among OE runes the word for IfI is hob. In OE it means cattle,
wealth, riches. In CA the sig. Is [fiyeO) the PI, the cog of the word
above is [foyue°]. Quite possible the OE and the CA word we!~ pro-
nouced rather close. The difference Iy 1:/0 I is partIy due to the different
manner of writing. In CA it means cattle, wealth easily gained, or giv-
en as gift, as booty in war, as extra benefit. The shade of tree is called
[fayaeOn) because it is addition to its fruit.

It appears that If! had at some early date become a favourite in both
L and OE. In a few forms one can perceive the influence of L on OE,
but in most cases the forms concerned are not the same. If we compare
the statistic samples below :

F H Other Fricatives

L· 48% 25% 27%

OE 67% 9% 24%

The above percentages show that while two thirds of aU words be-
ginning with IfI in'()E have cognate forms which begin with IfI in CA,
in L only 48% originally began with IfI, the rest have had other frica-
tives, or IfI in medial or final postion. It was removed to initial posi-
tion through metathesis. This difference is what one should expect,
since the occurence of IfI in L in medial or final position is rare. Then
a
in OE the following, fricatives have not been lost 19 HI while in L
they no longer exist. This accounts for the substantial percentage of
words begipning with /HI or /hI or having them in medial position
which have been changed to IfI then removed to initial position in L
when they are not found there already.

Mod Eng L

1. court, precincts forum [Haram)

2. fate, luck fors [Haz)
ht

3. flame flamma [Ireha!b)

tp

4. end, conclusion finalis [nehayah)

://
a

5. easy facilis [srehl)

l-m
ak

In no and 2/H I has been replaced by IfI in L, and in no. 3-5 it has
ta

been removed to initial position after being changed to IfI.

be
h.
co

124
m
 The same tendency appears in OE. In OE Ifl replaces other fricatives
which exist in the language and plays an important role. Such cors in
OE suggests the influence of other Germanic tongues, where the tenden-
cy prevails and in some cases the influence of L.
If we compare:

Mod Eng L OE CA CA L & OE

female femina femne [un9ah] 19/: IfI

eOO finalis finta [nehaeyah] /hI: If!

In the above forms the OE word is rather close to the L one and has
undergone the same process shown above. There is a difference in the
semantic content; for while fillSltS in L means end as the cog fonn
does in CA, in OE it means tail. We very often come across a general
or abstract term reduced to a particular or concrete thing.

The word for tail in OE is tac:gl, whose CA cog is [deeyl]. Such

changes in old languages one does come across, occasionally This same
word which means tail in OE and CA is found in Gr as TlAOS, and in
Gr it has come to mean "end". It has undergone the opposite process of
making the concrete abstract and general.
If we examine the cognate forms below:

Mod Eng OE CA

Feud, revenge faehp [9ae°r]

ox feorr [9awr]
embrace fadm [BoDo]
flesh flaesc [lceHmah]
people fole [xakD
The fonns above do not come from L and sugge~t the inflcunce of
another Germantic tongue.

9.6 (P) in OE :
According to the statistic sample we h2.ve taken only a% ~f words
beginning with IfI had originally 191 in OE. Furthermore a statistic
sample taken from the phoneole/91 shows that 50% of the words which

125
 There are two tendencies then in
a small group of
a much
in OE which group
we assume to be the innate in while the minor group sug-
"t1rr,"cr11" the influence of another Germanic is a fa-
but the lan~~ua!~e

Let us examine some of these forms with

The forms above come from the R V in CA. It

means to be master to to be
between the CA and the OE form is due to the cors
and deletion of one VL. In OE may be written but
The difference between the CA and the form is due to the cors
The cors of the Rom
form is and a new inflectional as that of L.

and it means the .... ",.in...."

common It is found in OE as here the cors is
consonants have the same cors but it is the semi-VI that serve to
mask the difference between the word derived from the RV and that
derived from its derivative. From this same derived V comes OE
and CA black. Here appears
tno,pthl'r with difference in source
as we have noted can mask resemblances.
ht
tp

If we compare the sup of the V with the

://
a

OE inf p a roof in both and the word roof in

l-m

both in CA and p ata in OE we find the difference is due

ak

to p and deletion of the fmal in OE.

ta
be
h.
co

126
m
 Comparison of CA [Saffaeqa] whose sup is [Safqan] and OE p atdau
(to clap) shows the tendenct in OE, that is the change of lSI to a and dele-
tion of the fricative IfI. The OE inf here has a OS because the RV has a
OS, even though the CA sup does not. In CA there is the V [sae: Hae]
and the V derived from it [saewaehae]. The RV is intransitive and it means
to melt. The derived V is transitive and it means to make melt It is this
derived V that we find in OE as p ato tau having the pat of the CA sup
[saewHan]. In the OE inf/H/ has been deleted. This V also, like the above,
has undergone the change of lsi to a and deletion of one of the three conso-
nants of the RV.
From the V [saen 'na] comes CA [ saen 'natu ] stone for cutting and
[sun'natu] cutom, usage, law. In OE we find both words, the flTSt is stau
(stone) which has undegone deletion of one In! and metathesis of final It/
to form a cluster with the initial lsI. The second is OE p tatoo It has the
same meaning as in CA but it has undergone the change of lsi to 191 and
the cors of Ihl:/wl by CC. The difference between the correspondences of
the two words and the morphological rules they have undergone suggest,
as in the case of p ~ and strnat't above, that each comes from a different
source. Even though they come ultimately from the same RV. In OE one
comes rather often upon such cases. (for the change of It/ in (sUll'naetu) to
(sun'nreh) as it is found in the OE form see 12.1).

9.7 S in Land OE :
There are two voiceless sibilants in CA,/sl and lSI. The difference be-
tween them is that the first is pronouced to the front, while the second is
palatalized. The nearest thing to them in Mod Eng would be a word like
scene, CA [saenae:] and sound, CA [SawTj. Since 151 shares the feature of
palatalization with the other back consonants IT D/. it is sometimes re-
placed by them, and since they do not exist in Land OE by It d/ or the
nearest thing to them by Inc. (cf.OE tun Ger zaun CA [HeSn)).
Most of the time 151 is replaced by lsI, such cors occurs in a few cases
however.
In OE the rune for S means sun. Actually there is more than one word
and they both mean sun.

OE OE CA CA L
sunna sigel l'Srems-un] [Saqar] sOl

127
 The first word is the cog of the first word for sun in CA. The medial
GS is due to the and the main stress it in the a fea-
ture we shall dicuss in due course. The RV is It means to be

in CA and it means
sun. It cors is all three are cases of
AC.

comes from the same root as this second word. Like many L
words the medial has been deleted and a VI has taken its cf
with Mod Fr where a V 1 sometimes takes the of L consonants.
Price.

The two sounds and have me:rgf~ into one in OE and in L

the front remains.

A taken from the usage of in L and OE the

L 12% 52% 10%

OE 10% 43% 15%

In order to understand the that have taken let us look at

the ratio of usage of in CA. It is 2.6:6. In other words is used over
more than twice as much as In L and in OE this ratio has become
1:4.3 in both many more words where used to oc-
rlr("l,nnl'rI than those where
we come across very often.
Words where sounds that no exist in the have a
of than words which have sounds to the .... ",5""'5".
ht

In L many of this 12% that '"""'U"l,1#U

tp
://

AC. While in OE the words which

a

tion were distributed between and as we have shown above. Then in

l-m

words which contain a favorite sound in OE like the initial

ak

is deleted and appears in initial be-

ta

percentage of the occurence of

be
h.
co

128
m
 than in OE. Actually we do find a strong tendency in both Land OE, but
rather more in OE to bring lsi to the front to form an initial cluster with
other consonante.

Ex: from L:
similis (like, similar) CA [miel) le/:/s
spiritus (spirit, breath) CA [zafiyr] 1z1:/sl
scribO (to write) CA [catacbae] /I/:/s! by-inC
scalp<) (to scratch) CA [xarbasa] Ixl : Icl i¥.1 : Is! Irl : /II

1. lei has been changed to lsi then brought to initial position.

2. Izi has been changed to lsi and clustered with If! after it was
changed to Ipl
3. It! has been changed to lsi in order to form a cluster with Ic/.
4. The cors is the following Ix/:/c/, Ir/:/l/, /b/:/p/.

We find the same metathesis in OE and much more of this same

trend in Mod Eng.
Ex :1. CA [Saraxre] OE scream an (to scream)
2. CA [nresregae] OE spinnan (to spin)
3. CA [saeHala] OE slihtan (to smite, slay)
4. CA [zreHlaqa] OE slipan (to slip, slide, glide)
5. CA [caesulre] OE slacian (slow, lazy)

1. In this example Ixl is clustered with between Is rl after being

changed to lei.
2. A clu,ster is formed with Is g/ after the lalld was changed to Ip/.
The change of a stop to Ipl if found in final position in the CA
V is discussed below.
3. In this V a stop has been added to represent the main stress of the
CA sup. IsaeHlaen/. In CA it falls upon tH!. In OE It! appears
immediately after it to mark this stress, (we shall discuss this
further in due course).
4. In this VIq/:/pl because it is found in final position and !HI has
been deleted.
5. This V has undergone mCLathisis only.

9.8 S in Mod Eng:

Now let us look at how some old CA forms appear in Mod Eng:

129
 for more so that which can form clusters more
than other consonants due to the rules of L and which
will be discussed in due course, was removed to initialll"V'i<"hf'.n
to achieve the desired form.

9.9 P in
The consonant a voiceless SlOp. is a sound very much
used in L. In fact it is used more than any other sound in the ..... l'.u<.l'.".
Its usage in with that of its voiced cars. is in the ratio
of 9: 1. In L it is a master that is used to other
nemes in CA and whether it has NC with them or not. It is the fa-
vouritc.
Search in CA shows no trace of this favourite nn,,",,", On the
level of the basis of the
the least that it ever existed. On the level it does not
to show that it could have existed at any

is very in both initial and final

it occurs in a few words taken
or a
tpnnp,,('v is a Germanic one however not of L influence.

If does nOl exist in CA and shows of a

ic variant in how has it become the dominant sound in L?
ht
tp

If one remembers that L is a '-"b~"I:>~ that has lost over 45% of its
://

consonants and that this loss is in the back consonants so that

al-m

the effect on the was to move its articulation to a more for-

ak

ward effect of front vs back cons

ta

sounds that would

be

of articulation.
h.
co

130
m
 Such a sound was found in Greek. As a matter of fact L has taken
much from Greek and the tendency to make Ipl a master phoneme to
cover all kinds of losses in the language was already found in Greek.
The usage of Ipl and its variants Ips pt pnl have in Greek as high a ratio
in comparison with the rest of the language as they do in L. If we con-
sider that 20% of the words that begin with Ipl in L have come from
Gr. (if we subtract this percentage from the L usage of Ip I we find that
Ipl in Gr has a higher percentage of usage than that of L, 15% to 12%.
This sound may have become a favourite in L through the influence of
Gr upon it. It may have entered the language through the concentration
of its articulation and the tendency may have been corroborated by the
influence of Gr upon L.

But let us look at some example of Ipl in L.

Ex: CA [baeqa:] L pam, CA (remaining motionless, hence in
peace).
CA [breleyah] L palusl (useless land or marsh, wet land)
CA [3relren] L palam (openly, public)
CA [bae:ra] L par (peer, rival, equal).

In the examples above there is a simple cors of fb/:/pl by AC and

13/ : IPI by Cc. CA [nrebae:t] L planta (plant ), CA [fae'l] L parra
(bird of ill omen), CA 13aqdl L pactio ( pact, agreement) L para CA
(HreD'Dara) (to prepare).

In the above words we find the cors fb/:/pl only in the first example,
and that fbI has undergone metathesis, then the cors IfI : Ipl 131 Ipl and
Id/ : Ip/.

Clearly Ipl has become a favourite that replaces a number of sound.

If we compare:
CA [hudhud] L upupa (hoopoe), CA [felfel] L piper (peper)
CA [Iubrebreh] L pulpa (pulp, pith).

The above forms are taken from frequentative verbs in CA, hence
the repetititon.
CA [yaqtiyn] L pampion, (pumkin) CA bardi L papyrus, (paper)
CA [gibilah] L populus, (people)
CA [faeqiyr] L pauper, (poor)

131
 In the above """.m.",,,,
ACor
tenclellCY is found in Gr. In fact 1 and 2 above L has taken from Gr.

r('nll'l('j~.<: more often. as shown above is a fa-

vourite in L and occurs in it far more often than while in the
usage of the two sounds are rather close in the ratio of 9.5: 11. In L
there is the reverse of 1:4.
In other words is used four times as much as the us-
age of has been diminished in favour of While the usage of
has increased a lillie due LO its oLher fricatives as we have
shown earlier.
In Gr we find used very and also. have both
been discarded often in favour of It is from Gr that this t<OUUIJ'"I.-Y
must have In L may have started out as a voiceless allo-
of to be used wiLh voiceless sounds
still is in words like CA
hence
favorite nh,-.nptn'"
If we compare the fonns below:

tax
foot
fish

there is and a tpnrl"",rv

In the above from 1 to 3 are cases of lri corso case 4 can
be considered a case of direct cors The that there is direct
ht

in L and in a very
tp
://

not an overall rule and is in most

a

cases IIi cors .h,.,,,",,,.h prilJm:mc as showr: above.

l-m
ak

Dr. Boswell observes Die p. that the sound.. which

ta

use the same organs of If p b vI take each others in !elated

be
h.
co

132
m
languages. What is the relationship of these sounds to each other? There
is NC between /b pI and between Ip fl and If vI Iv b/. Since such is the
case one would expect to find InC between them also. This is indeed the
case.
I[ we compare the words below all from the same R VI garafa/ in CA
and grsfsn in OHG. CA cog sup. [garfan] (to dig out, away earth) Mod
Eng grave, OE gerefa (a reef), Ger Graben, CA gurf (a reef) Gr golfos (a
gulf).
In the above fonns there is the cors of If/:/h/:/v/:/fl predominates since
it is the original, nevertheless the other related phonemes also appear.
In the above cors the main tendency in OE was to replace /hI t,y If/.
According to our hypothesis, discussed in Chap XIII, of two phonemes if
X can replace y, Y can also replace X. Can we find example in OE
where /hI replace If!!
If we compare:

OE OSp L Gr CA L
braep brisa zaephyrus ~e$vpos [zafiyr] spiritus

The OE form is Mod Eng "breath" and the OSp fonn is Mod Eng
'breeze'. The RV of all the fonns above is in CA [zaefaeara] to exhale,
to draw out a long breath. The freq of this verb is [zrefzrefa] it is used to
describe the movement of the wind rustling in the trees, a soft breeze.
But [aJ zrefzref] is used to describe a strong continuous blowing.
Since the semantic content can afford to describe both the movement
of the wind and the air coming out of the lungs, it was used in OE and
L to describe the human breath, in Gr and OSp to describe the wind,
specially the west wind. While in CA the V is used to produce words
denoting both movements.

The cors among the above is the following according to the order
given above b:b:f:<I>:f:p and e:z:z:~:z:s.

In the above forms OE and OSp replace IfI by /b/. while the word
has entered L twice. The first innate fonn is spiritus from spiro (to
breath) and here L replaces IfI by /PI by AC In ihe second word which
has entered the language through Gr I fl is replaced by pb. It was the
combination used by the Romans tc represent the Gr Letter <1>. In later

133
 Pop L IfI was often substitued for pb. The Romans already had IfI in
their language. Why did they write Gr <p as pb? It is quite possible
that Gr <p was neither a clear [p] or a clear [f] but a combination, which
induced the Romans, when they first heard it to replace it by pb.
In the OE and OSp this word has undergone metathesis to confom'l
to the clustering rules of the language concerned to be dicussed in due
course.

9.10 P in OE :
If there is AC betwen IfI and Ipl can one find a fonn where CA IfI is
replaced by Ipl in OE? In L we know it is the dominant tendency but
in OE it is not. So long as there is NC between two phonemes one
should expect to meet such a cors, even if it occurs in a very few cases.
Ex: CA [crenaf] OE cnapa
This word comes from the RV [caenafa] and it means to take under
one's protection. Hence a client, servant, retainer.
Can one come across CA fbi replaced by Ipl in an OE word as it is
in L? This is a NC therefore it is always possible, but not in the same
numbers as in L. If we compare the forms below:

OE OHG IceI. L CA

cnaep Knoph knappr l caput lAobreh] or [qobretun]

~

The wo(d means top, dome in CA, top, knop In OE and OHG and
head in L. The difference between the OE and the OHG fonn is that OE
has deleted Ithe final !hI while OHG has retained it. (for the GS in lee\.
see 12.2) L has deleted the final -un to give the word a new inflectional
ending. This pattern is dicussed more full y when CA patterns are ex-
amined. We have given this example to show the possibilities of NC.

P in OE : while in L Ipl is the dominant phoneme, the favourite, in

ht

OE it is used sparingly in ini tial position, and mainly in words taken

tp
://

from L. While in final posilion it is used as a voiceless allophone of

a

fbI or a cover term for consonants not found in OE. It appears that there
l-m

is a tendency in OE to soften SLOpS towards the end of words by chang-

ak

ing a voiced sound to a voicelcs one. A back consonant to a more front

ta

one or a stop to a fric. (CF, OE sud and OHG. sund.).

be
h.
co

134
m
 CA Isudae:1 (cf with the Mod Ger tendendy to change Id/:I to /II
when in final position).

Ex: CA [3amiyq] OE deop, CA [saeHiyq] OE steop. (deep, steep)

CA [crerbresre] OE cryspian. (To make crisp, to crush together)
L crispare. OE clyppan, CA [qab'balre] (to kiss, embrace)

9: 11 W In OE :
In OE the sound used more often than any other in initial position
is Iw/. It forms over 16% of all sounds in initial position in this lan-
guage, against only 5% in CA. In L it is non-existent for it is changed
to either Ivl or lui or less often /hI.

Why has this sound attained such great numbers in OE? In order to
understand what has happened in OE, one has to go back to the mor-
phological rules of CA. In CA Iwl has two separate functions, as a
cons and as a semi-VI. As a cons it may occur in initial, medial or fi-
nal position as one of the three cons of a verb., as a semi-VI it occurs
in medial or final position as part of a diphthong by which other cate-
gories are derived from two syl V (see 6.10). Since these V form the
second largest group of verbs in the language, after the three syl group,
we should expect a great many forms to have a medial or final Iw/. In
OE this medial or final Iwl is brought to initial position by metathesis
or deletion of the cons before it.

Ex: CA [maewaga] OE wagian ( to wave), CA [naeHabae] OE wepan

(weep lament /HI: Iw/.
CA [hrewre'] OE wind, CA [9arwaeh] OE wealth.
The second cause is purely phonetic. Iwl has both AC and CC with
other sounds. We have shown when dealing with /HI how often it was
changed to Iwl by Cc. Similarly Iml is also changed to Iwl by AC.
Ex: CA [Haql] OE wic (field), CA [hiylah] OE wil ( wile)
CA [maTar] OE water (rain water in CA, any water in OE).
Since the sound has disappeared in L, profusion in OE forms one of
the basic differences in the sounds of L and DE (ultimately Germantic
languages). The difference can look great indeed. Let us take one word
and compare:
CA [His] L sens-us OE wis

135
 Here we have three words which look
are cognates. The difference is thal L
other in this case and that OE has
CC. It is a case of Tri corso From the RV
which means sense, the rive senses, and from this comes
the L semantic content. But the V has the wider of under-
the senses, "'1"',.,,,,,,,,,," or intuition
them. Hence OE wis and wisdom. the medial in the L word see

9. 12 in L :
was a bilabial semi -V I, as it is in OE and but under
the it became the labio-dental fricative In consequence
the of in one has lO deal wiLh
two kinds of cors, one upon the other. The cors of
like h and the cors of like If R There is as seen
above and the two sounds arc rather neverLheless there arc two
sets of not one.
w
L venia

Ex: CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
CA
In the above and takes over
with some of
the fricatives Lhat do not exist in L
is a sound that docs not exist in CA. How did it If
ht

of what cors with If

tp

we look at the in the Sinai in

://

The word in CA is r the RV is

a

with and ends with then may

l-m

have started out rather like and is a voiced

ak

so had to become voiced also. The result is the sound

ta

we know it in Mod or very close to it.

be
h.
co

136
m
 Intersestingly Ivloccurs in OE as an allophone of IfI in medial and
final position (opus cit p 262). The rune that represents both If vI is
hob. Like the Sinaitic symbol it begins with IfI and ends with !hI
which in OE represents /HI also.

9.13 Hand h in OE :
In OE there are no favourites} in the same sense as there are in L.
No phoneme has taken the place of all others regardless of whether they
are its close correspondents or not, but there are sounds more favoured
than others. !hI is the sound used most often after Isllw/. We would
have attributed such usage to the original existence of !hI and /HI in
great numbers in CA, had it not taken the place of other fricatives and
been removed to initial position through metathesis. !hI has become a
favourite in OE, but within the limited and moderate movements of
OE. Actually there were two tendencies. The first, shared by L, was to
delete !hI and replace it by other fricatives, mainly IfI. Then a second
movement, which replaces If/ as well as other fricatives by !hI. This
second movement is not found in L, and has compensated the language
for much of what it had lost of the usage of !hI through the earlier ten-
dency. We assume that this movement was after separation of the Ro-
mance and the Germanic branches.
In CA there are two !hI sounds, a gutteral voiced fricative and a
voiceless aspirated one. IHI and Ih/. In OE both sounds exist but not
in writing, for the old scribes did not differentiate between them in writ-
ing. In consequence the letter Ihl is used very often in OE, since it rep-
resents two sounds. It is used almost as much as /hI a spirant, and /HI
the voiced gutteral are used together in CA. In CA there are two dis-
tinct sounds and two distinct graphemes. Together their usage exceeds a
little the usage of OE !hI, however this recovery is not in the original
forms but in new ones.
The name of the anglo-Saxon runic letter is haegl (hail) or CA
[haeyIJ. The graphemes that represenL<; it are thrcc. One is rather close
to L capital H, the second to Phoenician H and the third to Si'laitic H.
This is not extraordinary, since we do come across such resemblances
betwee these old runes and other old scripts.

N
OE
Phoenician
Sinaitic
*X
#

137
 Since both and are found in OE and

to alpllab;ellcal so that words of the San1C

are wide apart and the connection between them is not
traced. Then the V I are often to the usage
of different so that one cannot trace the connection between
forms of the same RV unless one knows their cors in CA.
Ex: CA OE haefene bank in
CA OE
CA OE

The root of the forms above is the to be on

the to to When used for
the when used in the contrast of sea land it
denotes a when used in the sense of to I"n('rn"rh
to go as it is used also in the is derived
from it.
Ex: CA OE hcin
CA

The first comes from the V to be little or of no conse-

quence, humble. The second comes from the V derived from it, the V
to make humble of no consequence. The first can be
and in some cases The second is al-
ways transitive.

After has become a favourite in OE it to take the of

other fricatives as well as sounds nol found in OE.

Ex: CA
CA
CA

this new favorite in tendencies exist in

ht

Land OE. In OE to and in L to delete

tp

or it other fricatives as we have shown earlier. The result is

://

cors like those below :

al-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

138
m
 1. Here OE has brought 18 I to initial position after changing it to /hI
while L has changed it to It!, this is a case of tri corso /h/:/1/./81
2. OE changed final stop to Id!, while L has deleted /hI and brought fbI
to initial position, both have changed Irl to 11/ by AC.

9. 14 Ibl in OE :
After /HI lsI and /hI, fbI comes as the fourth sound used most in OE.
It is a bilabial stop and may be considered approximately the same in the
three languages. The cors of IfI has shown that IfI in OE has taken over
many of the words beginning with fbI in OE. How then has fbI become
the fourth sound in the language? The reason is that fbI has taken over
many of the words beninning with 13/. 13/ is a sound used vcry much in
CA. In OE it is very often replaced by fbI in words containing /rIas de-
picted and also words containg other cors of 13/, mainly stops. Then many
of the words containing in CA fbI in medial position have undergone me-
tathesis to bring it to initial position, the mark of the favourite. In a few
cases it takes the place of other sounds with which it has NC.
Is it possible that this tendency to make fbi a favourite started out in
both Land OE simultaneously, so that many words began with fbI, then
in a second stage L has changed these to /p/ as a new cors? This must
have happened in a few cases, but on the whole the words chosen by OE
and those of L are not the same. Had most of these forms been the same,
we could have assumed that this was probably the case, but since OE has
totally different words from L, we have to assume that these were two sep-
arate movements. Then L was very much innuenccd by Gr, while OE was
not.
The OE rune which stands for :.his letter is otOt't, in L o~tufa and in
CA [baetulah] (birch). The OE rune looks exactly like the old Gr B, and
the drawing in the Sinaitic alphabet is that of a house, rathcr like a square.
The word for house in CA is [baeytl, the \ctLer came to be called in Gr
OttS. It comes from the V [bae:lalto remain, spend the night, dwell. Its
OE cog is btbsn. From the same V comes the V [baeyaeta] to plot
against, to plan by night, hence secretly, lay a snare. It is found in OE as
bitan (to bait).
Sinaitic South Aratic CA Phoenician Later Gr OE

ol!lm n L...J
•~ •~. . B B
for more on SmUltlc sec 1.1

139
 There are many words which have retained their
like grove, low CA and barda ,~ __ ._._
that has from the same RV comes OE
in CA and beard in

While other words used to have other but were drawn into the
group.

Ex: DE be6r in what is effervecent in

OE is

CA DE beorma
can ferment in
CA DE ban

Some words have nrl'>r"""p metathesis to to initial

and some have nri;'r(u,np. both metathesis and deletion.

Ex:CA
CA
CA

The result is that many words look different in DE and CA.

terror terror
bread bread cibus

1.
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.

140
co
m
 While cibus and cibarius mean coarse bread in L and food also, as
they do in CA, (a metonymy referring to all foods by one) L panis
could have been a special kind of bread which is in OHG tam is (and in
Saudi Arabia today [taemiyz].

Notes : We do not consider /w/ a favourite in the same sense as /p/ in

L because it already existed in great numbers in CA and is
dictated by the morphological rules of the language as shown
in (6.10).

141
 m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
al-m
://
tp
ht
 Chapter X
ECHOIC CORRESPONDENCE

10. 1 Echoic correspondence in Land OE

In CA the phoneme, or the same phoneme and its nearest correspon-
dent, do not occur in the same word, unless it is significant in the SS of
CA and dictated by the semantic requirements that the word fulfills. In L
and OE we find a new kind of cors that dictates a new morphological pat-
tern produced for phonetic considerations and dictated by the phonetic rules
of the language. It has no connection with the SS of the language which
no longer exists, nor with the semantic content. It is a purely phonetic
phenomenon. It is that one of two sounds in some words is removed and
replaced by another sound, either one in the same word or one that is close-
ly connected with it by AC, in order to give a sort of echoic effect. The
phenomenon exists in both Land OE. While it depends mostly on the
original sounds of each word, it occurs more often in sounds that have be-
come favorites as other correspondences do. We have given (9.9) some ex-
amples of such cors in Ipl in L and of /hI in OE.

Ex: In OE dc3:l (deed) CA [daehac:] ceOC (cheek) [faec] (jaw in CA)

coq (rooster) CA [diyk], OE dag, CA [DoHa:]

Ex in L : raTUS (rare) CA [nacderJ. L caccus CA [re'crem] (blind,

dark) OF barricr (barrier) CA lbarzax] L sensus (scnse) CA
[His] L cacumen, CA [qemah]

If we compare the forms bclow we would be able to see the role that
EC plays in changing the sound of words.

Mod Eng OJ<: L CA

1- pure toht PUfUS [Tohr]

2- beard Ix'ard barba [bardah]
3- drink drincan bibcre [~reribae]
4- crab cmbba cancer [caboriyah)
5- dead d:al mortus [Mreyet], [mrewt]

143
 1- OE has changed final Irl to It! by EC, while L has changed {fl to Ipl
FC.

2- L has changed final Idl to fbi by EC (the word in CA means pointed,

filed) it has the same RV as the OE word barda, which means beaked
ship. The RV in CA is [breradaeJ to give a point, to file.

3- OE has changed initial lsi to Idl by FC, and final/hl to Icl by EC.
(18.5 for d) while L has deleted initial I~I a sound not found in the
language, then changed Irl to fbi by EC.

4- OE retains the original sounds but has changed the pattern (see 12.4)
L has changed /hI to lei by EC.

5- In this last Ex. L has changed Iwl to Irl by FC. In order to under-
stand how the OE word came to look so different let us compare the
Ger adj tOt. and CA Imaeyet!. Ger has replaced initial Iml by It! by
EC, then changed the VI nucleus to a long VI. OE has changed both
It! and It! to Id/ by FC but retained theV 1 nucleus, Iyl is written as
Ia! in many OE words. The word must have been pronounced Ideye:d/
Cf. with ON deyja. IL is a case of Inc.

The tendency is not peculicr to Land Gcrmanic languages alone in fact

it prevailes in Gr and has entered L through Gr paniclarly where the cars of
Ip/, the favourite and /hI its voiccd cors are concerned.

Ex : Gr I3oAl3os, CA [baSalJ (bulb), Gr BiBAiov, CA (citae:b) (book)

OE cogb6c.
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

144
m
 CHAPTER XI
CA NOMINAM AND ADJECTIVAL PATTERNS

11. 1 Usage in CA :
In Chapter Six we have examined some of the 2syl. and 3syl. V
groups which are the most numerous in the language. In this chapLer we
shall examine the main pat. derived from 2syl and 3 syl V groups. The
pattern of aN, adj or adv is always contigent on the RV from which it is
derived. The word pattern is used here as a cover term to include, the
stress pat, the number of syl and the V 1 shape. All these together form
the pattern of a word in CA. This pat decides its category and gender, be-
sides giving other information about it as we shall see below. These pat-
terns are highly productive and, given the RV, the native speaker can pro-
duce whatever category he desires at will.

As we have mentioned all categories are derived from the RV. Now
let us see how this is done. If we take a Lypical 3 syl V like [qaTa3a] (to
cut) OE cuttan. [qaTa3a] is the unmarked form. Its VI are in a latent
state. But they are the mobile part of the V, while the cons. are the im-
mobile or permanent part. The VI may be reduced, changed, lengthened,
made diphthongs or deleted, the cons may not. Therefore the root of the
V is (q T 3) let us examine some of the categories that may be derived
from this root.

[qaTa3a] the unmarked [arm, 3rd pers sing

[qaHan] the supine
[qaH] cutting
[qa:Te3] adj, denoting doer of action, he or what cuts.
[qawate3] flockes of birds leaving the land
[qaTa:3] a deserter, rejecter, faithless.
(qaTTa3a] V derived from RV, to cut to pieces, to cut violently.
[inqaTa3a] to stop, cease, ref 1. V by means of pref lin-I
[taqaTAa3a] to cut in pieces, or to cUL itself. V + pref Ita-I
[aqTa3a] become ripe to cut pref la-I
[qil3ah] a piece of, L cog cantle

145
 someonse stranded in a land
mained in V+
severe cholic V +
the model after which are cut
a the branch of a tree
each other in war
a cut of meat, or the way matrial is cut.
~~fl I~"fl of
•• V+ to form N
the used.
paper or wood. ma-

hence a
Skr cog cardhas

11.2 of VI in CA
We notice in the above how the VI arc
the ned to new and new semantic content.
mobile and do the work of suffixes and olher affixes in modern
One often hears of the archaic VI of old From the above it
becomes clears that these great VI arc a very economical and efficient
method of new forms. The semantic content of each V is al-
lowed maximum range. What we have done with the V above
may be done with almost any 3 V. In CA modal V have a more
limited bUlthen have other functions as well.

11.3CVCC:
The first pat. we shall examine is a nominal pat. If the V has the pat
CVCVCV this pat is CVCC. The medial and final VI arc deleted. It is
ht

also common in L and some of the words which

tp
://

carried this pat have these will be dicussed in

a

due course.
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

146
m
 Mod Eng OE or L CA RV in CA Sem cont.oF RV

tower OE burg [burg] [breragre] to protrude

throat OHG hals [Halq] [Hrelaqa] to circulate, fly over
death, killin! Lnecs [naHr] [nreHara] to cut throat, slay
gulf Gr golf-os [gur f] [grerafa] to dig out,
copper L cupr-um [qcTr] [qaTIara] to make descend in drops
hom Lcorn-us [qarn] [qarana] to hold together
bottom OE bolm [baTn] [baTuna] to be below, hidden
heart Lcors [qalb] [qala:ba] see ]7.10
purity OE toht [Tohr] [Tahar.l] to purify
shield OE large [terse] [ta!rasre] to make a barrier

Comparison of the above forms shows that this pat exist in both Land
OE. It is found also in Gr and in Ger words as shown above.

11.4 CVCVC :
The next pat. is also a nom pat and is used for the inanimate or animal
more than the human, nevenheless we find it sometimes used for the hu-
man in L or OE but not in CA,where it is used for the inanimate or animal
only. It is less frequent than the previous pat in all the three languages.

Mod Eng OE or L CA RV in CA

dawn ONdagan [d<£gacn] [drega:na] faint light

coffin Kofinos Gr. [cdren] [crefa:na] to cover dead
mass, pile L cumul-us [ga:maIJ [a camel] to amass, to collect
curb, iron camus [qarnas] to cut, restrict
instument

The above examples show that this pat also is found in OE and in L as
well as Gr although many of the words which carried this pat in CA have
undergone methathesis and other changes in both Land OE, while some
which do not carry this pat in CA have acquired it in Land OE. These are
dicusscd in due course.

147
11.S CVCV:C :
The next
one except for the
n ..<'v"",,,,,
L and DE but one can that at one time it was the same, and that
these VI are reduction of VI which we have ob-
served earlier.

__ '1' ____ ' to pursue, to race

fellow to till the soil
slave famul-us to carry, to brcar
vaqour vapour orodU(;e vapour

Pattern
and also exist in L and DE. While
the ftrst as doer of the the second as un-
and the lhird as such and an
in L and DE have lost these distictions. These
may be used as and arc so used in in Land OE also.

1.6 CV:CEC :
is CV:CEC. This pat denotes the doer of the action final
and it is the same as the Mod N in -er, bak-
In L this pal is oflcn mixed with the one ,,,,,,,I.A<'U"'.!'.
mfllf'r,;uv',. of the nevertheless it still exists

hoof
noble edeI
ht
tp
://
a
l-m

11.7 The Pat CVCI and CVCVCI :

The next pattern can be neuler or masc. It denotes a charecteristic.
ak

an what it to. It is found

ta
be

some remnants are found in Mod the pattern

h.
co

148
m
 can be produced from both 3 syl or 2 syl verbs and in consequence may be
either CVCI, for adj derived from 2 syl Vor CVCVCI for adj derived from
three syl V.
Ex: L vagari, CA [Raegari], Mod Eng chilly, CA [qa:ri]
Mod ENG adj like friendly, homely, manly etc are made after the same
pattern.
When dealing with change of patterns we shall see how many of the ad-
jectives of this pat have changed in both Land OE.

11.8 CVCIYC :
The next pattern may be used as an adj or N depending on its position
in the sentence. It is found in both Land OE. It is the pat CVCIYC

Mod Eng OE or L CA RV in CA Semantic Content

fish fisc [fisiyxl [fresaxa] to slit open

Kiln cam in [cacmiyn] [cremama] to be inside, deep in
grass, herb mugiJ [nregiylJ [nrega:lae] to sprout, produce leaf
equal equal-is [Jaqiyl] [Ja:qala:] to put or equate with
antique antiqus [Jatiyq] [Jretaeqa] to grow very old.

11.9 The Feminine Patterns :

All the patterns given above, wether nominal or adjcctival, or patterns
that may be used for either, depending on their role in the sentence, (for
CA, as we shall note when we come to examine its structure, is both in-
flectional and analytic), were either masculine sing. or neuter sing. In or-
der to convert any of these pat to the feminine we have to add lat! to the
pat, if the pat comes from a 3 syl V and a semi-VI as infix, thenlal/, if the
pat comes from a 2 syl V. Therefore lal/ is the hall mark of the fern. sing
in CA. But this final 11/ is very often written as/hl and in speech not pro-
nounced at all. That is the reason grammarians call it restricted 11/. It is a
a latent It! which is pronouced as lal/, if it is followed by an inflectional
VI, but as /hI, if it is not followed by an inflectional VI. In consequence,
in L where /hI is deleted most of the time, Ia! alone remains as the mark of
the feminine. In OE there are many word that reveal that Ia! was the mark

149
 times but that it was to in
movement for reduction of VI. Then the mascu-
in OE. The result is that while words end-
in L are very common, since are the coun-
of all the masculine we have above as well as other
patterns we have not, in OE repre-
sent onc of the

Let us now take a few of the pallerns them to

the
Ex: 1. Fern

2.
or
3. V of pal CV:CV Fern

The final above is called "tanwin". is discussed in

11.10 Let us see how the fern appears in Land OE

Ex:

LO stress
to grow less
to cut out
hover around
to be extra
a lie to tell falsehoods.

The first two are from the third is found in L but taken
ht

from while the last three are from OE. In OE one onen comes
tp

across words in-a which are marked as rnase, with

://
a

the new pat, but which are fern in above. In OE it

l-m

means while in CA it has a wider it is that is

ak

in excess. The imbiblical chord is in excess, hence the OE usage.

ta

Some words of this retain the fern like . which means

be
h.
co

150
m
 oar-loop in OE but anything one can hang or attach something else to
in CA. Again we notices the wider meaning in accord with the RV and
the more restricted semantic content in OE. This is the natural conse-
quence of the loss of the R V in this language. Sometimes the differ-
ence between the masc and fem of certain forms in OE is affected by
this change of pat.
If we compare CA [3rem] masc. sing, and [3rematu] fem sing, with
their counter parts

(uncle and aunt). In OE we find the masc tam, while the fem is a
totally new form derived from father. It is fredu. (2.6).

11.11 Usage of the Fern pat in CA :

When is the feminine pattern used in CA? Does it have the same
uses as in IE languages? The feminine pattern has the folowing uses in
CA:

I. To denote the feminin sex, Ex : [greriyah] (girl) OE girl (Jl/:/yl by

CC) CA [lrebuaeO] L lupa (she-lion in CA, she-wolf in L).

2. Abstract N.L rhapsodia, CA [RabTah] has entered L through Gr.

(great joy}

3. The individual, the single instance against the general, the common
or the substance. It we compare ON sItn and L p~tt'a, taken from
Gr. we find that the difference bctwee them in CA is between the
masc pat and the fem. They are [Saxr] and [Saxratu] (rock). ON has
changed Ix/: Icl by CC, and removed it to form a cluster with lsi,
while L has deleted it completely and brought finallt/ to medial po-
sition. lSI: Ipl by Fe. The difference in semantic content in CA
is that the masc means the substance, rock (like sand or gravel) but
the fem always means a particular rock, a certain geographical enti-
ty. It is significant that the Greeks called the ancient Arab city of
Tadmir 'Petra' because its inhabitants carved houses out of the rocky
mountains. They have used the word as it is used in CA, a particu-
lar entity.

4. The fem. may be used for the masc. if the latter is something ex-
traordinary, a genius, a monster, a rare phenomenon. L bdua
(monster, wild beast) OE bal~tna (the devil) and CA [baelwreh]

151
 are all masculine entities for which the
are forms from the RV
tempt, tribulation upon. The
mase is in CA OE balu. In the three in this
it is not the mase but the fern that is used for the extraor-

5. If it is an

The word for CA are a but the

in CA is a mase the earth is 'she', because it is
a rare In OE and L the has been to the fern
to go with its but in CA the usc of this for the fern it
of the noble and sublime. usage is still found in Mod Fr. cr. Ie
In OE there are two words and it means native
and and it means the earth. OE has in this case the
of 3 above. The word is a mirror of its CA
cors AC. The is to have a GS because it is a
fern in L see 12.2.

11. 2 Patterns of the two Verbs :

In the pages we have the main patterns derived
from 3 V. below the main patterns of the forms de-

N
I CVCV: CVCVW CVCV: E' CVCV:
CV'CV CVWC CV: EC CVYVC
3- CVC'CV CVCVC CIC CAC

11.13 Nominal and

It is
ht

an infix y or VI and
tp
://

a if the VI is found in the last of the V. In other words

a

the affix added is where the VI is in the V from which the form is
l-m

so that one may look upon this VI as a

ak

or a VI stop, on the pal concerned. There are numer-

ta

ous forms that denote that these V exitsed in L and and many of
be
h.
co

152
m
 them have not even changed, since lhey are already of two syl. In such
V change occurs when there are cons that are not found in L or OE, or
by analogy to acquire newer patterns, but not by deletion of one syl like
three syl V.

11.14 Pat 1 V CVCV

V N N adj Semantic Content

[saemae:] [saemaeO] [sumuw] [sae:mi] high elevated, above

[Safae:] [SafaeO] [Safwan] [Sa:fi] pure, clear,

From the first V above comes L gamt taken from Gr. From the
second V [Safae:] comes L estivare (sec 2.25) and OF estoff (stuff, ma-
terial chosen) both are pref + V ( sec 7.22).

11.15 Pat 2

V N adj or N adj or N Semantic Content

[Ta:lae] [Tuwl] [Tawiyl] [Ta: eOI] to grow tall

[qa:le] [qawl] [qiyl] [qa:el] say, call
[Hae:la] [Hawl] [Hiyl-ah] [Hae:e I] to occur, tum round

From the first V comes OE ge-tacl, CA cog [yaTiyl] to, make

longer [Tuwl] (tall), from the second Proto-Ger collojan, CA cog [qaw-
Ian] also L cal6 and from the third comes OE hwile (a while), CA cog
[Hawl]. (2.23) and L hora taken from Gr wp a.

11.16 Pat three CVC'CV :

The third pat having a GS forms its N and adj without the aid of an
affix. Ex:

V N fern N adj

[Dar'ra] [Darar] lDa: rah] [Da: r]

[Dal'lae] [Dalal] [Dalalah] [Da: I]
[Lreg'ga] [Iuga:g] [lugah] [lugey]

153
 From the first V comes OE adj bat'u, CA cog [Da : r - u] (harmful)
from the second comes OE b'ol and bttJol, CA cog [DA:l]. The adj has
acquired two forms in OE, one having no medial Iwl, like the original
CAone, and one according to the tendency in OE to place Iwl as infix
in forms derived from 2 syl V. It is not infrequent that one comes
across two forms of the same adj in OE.

From this V comes the word lagu in OE and lacu in L, for more
see (9.4).

11.17 Inflectional endings in CA :

There are five cases in CA whose infectional endings are the fol-
lowing:

The nominative ending is u [burg] or [burgu]

The vocative ending is u
The accusative ending is a [burga:]
The genetive ending is [burgi]
The dative ending is [burgi]

The inflectional VI have changed, as all VI have, in L and OE nev-

ertheless we can understand some of these changes by examining the
CA ones, as we shall see presently. The endings given above belong to
all N in CA, with the exception of some N in the dual number and
some plurals hich need not concern us here.

The dative in CA includes the instrumental and locative in L. OE,

like CA, has the locative and instrumental merged with the dative (see
Bauch 1968 P. 65).
The first thing one notices is that L like CA gives the vocative the
same ending as the nominative. Because the vocative and the nomina-
tive have the same ending in the IE mother tongue, OE has merged
ht

them into one case. In CA the vocative is always preceded by the parti-
tp

cle [yae] in the second pers sing and second P,9rs PI. In OE this [yael
://

appears as the pronoun( ge) and it is used for the second pers PI. It has
a
l-m

been replaced in Mod Eng by (you) which is used for both sing. and pI.
ak

as the old CA form.

ta
be
h.
co

154
m
11.18 The definite article in CA :
In CA the def art is lal/. It turns a common N into a proper N.
lall is uninflectionable. It belongs to a class of words, mainly prepos-
tions and particles as well as some adverbs which are called 'the unin-
flectionables' in CA. CA is a language that has been conceived with
surprising economy and forethought, so that whenever inflection is not
necessary (as in the case of nouns above) it may be discarded or picked
up again according to the will of the speaker. In the parts of speech
where it is redundant as in the case of laV because the N that follows it
gives the required information concerning case, number and gender, it is
non-existenL

Are there any remnants of lall in Land OE? Occasionally, one

comes across lall in both languages as in OE el-boga (the bend). Here
it is used to denote that this is not any bend, but the bend of the human
ann or elbow. In Mod Eng it has become one word. (for a similar case
in L see 15.23).

In L lall does not occur as art except in a very few remnants. It has
become the demostrative 'ille' and gets inflected for case and number.
Since the CA demonstratives beginning with /hal where also retained in
L, we find more than one set of demostratives in this language.
In Romance languages lall appears as el (as in Italian) while in
Mod Fr it appears as Ie. This /leI is not an innovation, it appeared
quite early among some of the old Semitic tongues (see 1.4).

A phonetic rule in CA decrees that before the phonemes It 9 d t r z

1dS s~ S D T dh nl the def art shall be pronounced Ia! that is the /II
is dropped. This may be the reason why it did not survive in most IE
Languages.
Ex : [al f1yl], [al ayl] (an elephant, an elk)
bm J 9u3bae:nl [azarafaehl (a snake, a giraft)

11.20 The indefinite art in CA :

In CA any N that is not preceded by lall is considered a common N,
unless it is prcceded or followed by one of the other entities that change
a common N into a proper N, such as a demostrative. In other words
CA makes use of he negative as well as the positive aspects of the lan-
guage. A lack of art means the indef art.

ISS
 The indef art in Land OE :
Since L use the def art as a demostrative and thcre was no
indef art, as we have seen in CA it follows that there are no arti-
cles in L.

In OE the def art is p c. It is an abbreviated form of CA It

has not been abbreviated OE but much earlier. We find it
in some Scmitic tongues (I as well as some old Arab ones. The
must have laken before the tribes left the p" ..... ,>u"".
£IPlmn~h·,>t",P is inflccted for case and number in
live is also inflected for case and number in
as the def art.
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

156
m
 CHAPTER XII
SIX CAUSES OF CHANGE

In the preceding chapters we have dealt with the main causes of phonetic and
morphological change in Land OE. In this chapter we shall deal with six fea-
tures of CA that are a cause of change, only in the words where they occur, and
not main tendencies. These features of CA are not new, we have met most of
them before, but not as a cause of phonetic or morphological change. We have
not investigated how a Land OE word can differ from its CA cognate, when one
of these features appears. The six features are :
1. Final /t/ in the fern pattern.
2. In GS pat in L and OE.
3. VI stops.
4. Geminette stops (GS).
5. Final Inl or 'txnwiyn'.
6. Frequentative verbs.

12. 1 Final T :
While examining CA fern patterns we have seen that the final ending
can be I-ahf (the /hI is very often not pronounced) or I-atl. This final con-
sonant is often deleted in L and OE. But what can occur, if it is not delet-
ed ? Three things can take place:

It can remain as /II or a cars. of /II usually Idl or it can remain as /hI
or a cars of /hI, either Ig/ by CC, or If! by AC. But the fern ending has
become Ia! in L and leI or an older from Ia! in OE. Therefore II/ cannot re-
main as ending, if the N is to remain a fern N. The result is that this final
consonant is removed to initial position to form a clu~ter with the initial
consonant or to medial position becoming part of the stem. Occasionaly it
remains in final position, giving the word a non -feill pat.

In the examples below we find the final /hI replaced by Ig/ by CC, re-
maining in final position:

OE secg, (way), CA [sec'cah], L virgo, (virgin in L, free woman in

CA) CA [Hur'rah]. In OE creaft, (power, skill force) CA [qodrah]. In this
example the final /hI is removed to medial position and appears as IfI. Thl!
word has obtained a typical pal. (14.16) possibly because of the existence
of Iq/.

157
 In the pY~lmrll"'~ below final is removed to initial or medial
tion.

Ex : L castra, OE
OE strica CC
OE stream., small
Indo Eur root srou*, CA RV
from GrCA
OE stofen l""'''laLUIlI In the OE word CC.

12 2 The GS in Land OE :
If we compare the CA with the Land OE forms below'
CA OE CA OE CA
knot and gnal resne(~t1v

OE
L vacca, CA in CA she

we have a GS in OE rather
and in L less this pattern which is derived from
verbs which have a medial GS in CA become the of the
feminine paLtem in Land OE? One must bear in mind that
we are here with the wrillen
well as written. If we pronounce the CA and OE
answer. The two of the
very much the same effect because the aSfnrated
of the GS appears at the end as the final of the fern form.
femece is that the form the GS is shorter and more rn.TI"<1I,..f
that falls in very well with the towards more com-
pact forms in and to a lesser in L. How did this pat
It is not a new patlern but the fern pat of verbs
CfL CA It was
ht
tp
://
a
l-m

2.3 VI
ak

with we have met a kind of VI which is found

ta

in CA but not in L or OE. This VI is the VI stop which is

be

cons stops in Land OE. Since GS are also a kind of there is AC

h.
co

158
m
 between VI stops, GS and cons stops. In the examples below we show
this reciprocal relationship, that is how VI stops in CA may be replaced
by GS in L or OE, and how the latter may be replaced by cons stops.
Ex : OE mann, CA [mare'], OE bcginnan, CA [badre'n] OE missa,
CA [misae']
(a man, to begin and evening prayers in OE, but evening time in
CAl
In the example above OE has replaced the VI stop by a GS. The V to
be is sometimes considered as pre+ V, by analogy with other V in OE
which begin by the pref "be", but in CA it is an intergral part of the V
which belongs to a long paradigm having fb/ as initial cons. When we
come to study the SS of CA, we shall see why this has to be so. In the
examples above we have shown how a VI stop can be represented by a GS,
below we shall give some examples of GS replaced by a cons stop.

12.4 GS replaced by consonantal stop :

If we compare:
fader, pater, [ab'bunl mater, [om'mun]
We find that the difference between the CA and the Land OE forms is,
apart from the tri cors of fb/ : Ip/ : /fI, the change of the GS of CA to a
cons stop in L and OE.
Again if we compare:
L luxus OE lust, CA [Irea'areh].
L sex OE six and CA [set'tah].
The difference between the CA and the Land OE forms is the change
of the GS to a cons stop. It has been changed to (cs) in L because of the
presence of /s/ in this word (for more on this word see 17.12, and for more
on X see 5.18).
The semantic content of L lu.~ is partly riotus living, extravagance,
profusion, as well as luxury, the OE one is pleasure delight as well as sin-
ful pleasure, the CA one means pleasure, delight as well as sensous pleas-
ure.

12.5 Final-n in CA (Tanwiyn) :

When discussing the inflectional ending in CA, we have seen how a
final In/ may be attached to nouns. Since it is optional in most cases, (it
may not be used in the genetive case) it mayor may not occur in a CA
159
 word. In CA it is used is in formal address or in if the
it.

If we examine the forms aside for the momenlthe dif-

ference in cons, and the difference in

OF

while the CA one

has none, in fact the CA words are of and derived from 3
verbs. How did the medial get into the Land OE The
medial as the third column shows was the which
was removed to medial metathesis so that the OE and L cog.
came to have a medial infix. This is part of a much wider move-
ment which the final cons or in a word to initial or medial
lion and that we shall meet in due course. We have seen how the
nal or in the fern pat was removed to medial

This is of the same movement. Sometimes a V is derived in L or

OE from a N and not from the R V. If the N contains this medial the
verb derived from it will also contain this medial
CfL break

Sometimes the medial is to if we examine some of

these forms we may find out the reason.

L
ht
tp

sadness Fr
://
al-m
ak

lamb lembur
ta
be
h.
co

160
m
 In the cases above we notice that there is already a nasal in the word,
so that the change of /nIlO /rI has taken place through dissimilation. In L
Irl is a favourite and such change may occur by analogy or through FC.
Sometimes Ir/ in initial position docs not signify an original /nI but an
original long VI. It dcpendes on the morphological sturcture of the CA
word in question.

"The three forms below give us three different stages of how a word ar-
rives at its final shape. The new pattern is found in OE.

CA [qa:reb-lDl] L carina DE coear (boat, small ship)

The CA word gives the original form, in the L word one C has been
deleted and the fmal /nI has taken its place, becoming part of the stem. The
OE word has had the same C deleted bot has undergone melahtesis to bring
the final /nI to initial position to form a cluster with lei and give the typi-
cal pat discussed in 14.16.

The RV is [qarabre] it means to come ncar, 10 approach, its first TV is

[qar'ra~] to bring two entities close to each other in time, space or rela-
tionship. The second TV is [qa:rabreJ. It means to make two entities or
points come closer to each olhcr relative to what they were before. It is
from this last TV that the N above is derived because a boat brings two
distant shores within reach of each other.

We notice how lhe TV give wider range to the semantic content, as

well as greater syntactic capacity, for the original V is an intras V, lhe pat-
tern having a GS is always a lrans V and the third pattern gives a mitigat-
ed, relatively softer action.

From this same RV there is the word t\'ebtt' in L (close together,

frequent, numerous). TIle cons /bl has not been deleted here but the final
/nI has been changed to /rl by EC.
From lhis RV in OE comes tUco\,es (a generation, posterity, race
tribe). The word has undergone the same metalhesis as tUta\, above. In
CA the V with its TV give bolh the L semantic content of closeness in
space and lime, and also lhe DE semantic content of closeness in blood,
family relations, hence tribe, kin, relatives.

The ON word (near) 'nest" comes also from lhe same root. Here lhe
initial leI of tutat' has been deleted. If we compare it with DE neah, we
find the difference is that this Icl has been changed to /hI in DE and given
final position. Now if we compare:

161
 CA L OE cnear and ON near we would
of how words evolve unlil arrive at their Mod

verbs :
Discussion of CA verbs is outside this limited
nevertheless we have to say a few words about them in order to show how
the forms derived from them have evolved. CA verbs are de-
V In the SS of the

or "over and over

Ex lcaocaeDaeJ to

While such V are very "Yl~""'~"

them like and
conform to the new tenaellcy for
.... n'mn<>rt forms. The flfst appears in L as as
the second appears in OE as

While the to make words more was in L

we find many of these forms derived from CA fre-
... u,~.. ""u .," V in compact form. Dictionaries menlion lhallhese are derived
from V but sometimes the wrong RV is as source.
need to be traced and sorted out.

CA

1. dazzle
2. flutter
3. scatter
ht
tp

4. drizzle
://

5. friuer
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

162
m
 CHAPTER XIII
MEGER AND HOMEPHONES
IN LAND OE

13.1 CA V Paradigms:
CA verbs do not occur singly but in paradigms of six. seven up to fif-
teen verbs or more. The difference between each V and the one preceding
it is one consonant, so that we may find six or seven V with only the last
consonant to mark the phonetic difference between them, and only one
shade of meaning to mark the semantic one.

In L it is this final consonant that marks the difference, that is deleted

and replaced by the inflectional ending. -re The result is that many V have
disappeared in L, or merged together to produce a semantic content that
may serve as a cover term for more than one V.

In OE the same thing has happened, except that the deleted syl may be
any of the three syl. that is the first, second or third. If we add to this that
the OE infinitive has the pat of the CA supine which gets reduced to two
syl, and that in OE one cons of the two is assimilated to the one it is
clustered with. in many cases, it becomes apparent that many 3 syl V
have been reduced to two syl and become as a result homophones of two
syl V.

If we recall further the loss of all the back cons which contrast with
the front ones in CA. one realizes that it is not strange to find that of each
CA paradigm only one or two V remain in L or OE. The V that survives
is the V that is used more often. those that do not survive are the ones not
used in everyday actions.

Another phenomenon which is characteristic of both L and OE is the

appearance of a lone form to denote that at some early date the V and its
family may have existed. This phenomenon we shall didcuss in Chapter
XVII, while in this chapter some cases of merger and homophones are dis-
cussed.

13.2 On CA verb paradigms :

Ex : If we take the CA V paradigm [qaTaJre], [qaTabre), [qaTara)
[qaTanre), (qaTafrel. [qaTamrel

163
 Allthesc denote different ways of cutting or dividing by breaking or
cutting. Due to the SS of the language most V of cuLLing begin with
uvular back Iq/. How many of this paradigm have survived? We find in
OE [qaTala] as cuttan, CA sup. [qaT3an] and CA [qaTara] have survived.
The lauer has undergone the metathesis which V of such pat often under-
go (14.16) and become drop ian or droppian. The geminette there is to
mark the main GS in the CA TV which is [qaTTara] (to drop and to make
into drops or vapour).

In L all we find is one word from the V IqaTarul/ it is catena (chain)

(to cut in divisions, from the same source Mod Eng cotton) and another
from [qaTara] (see 4.6).

Whatever paradigm one examines, there are several verbs that have dis-
appeared or been merged. A few paradigms which have undergone metath-
esis and ocher changes have managed to survive almost Whole, but most
paradigms have been broken into single V, partly by the disappearance of
the rest of the paradigm and partly by the phonetic changes that one mem-
ber of a paradigm may undergo while another may not, as the case of drop
and cut above (see XVIII).

13.3 Merger in L and OE :

Ex : In CA Ihc V [qatrela) (to kill) OE cog cwillan, and the V [qad'doc]
to cul harshly, violently, break abrubtJy arc two different V belonging to
two different paradigms. In L after [qatcla] has been reduced to 2 syl and
the initial/q/ Ic hanged to lei. It became IcaW. N cors with Id! by AC,
therefore the two Vbecame merged inlO one, ta~ ! The semantic con-
tent of this V hdwever can mean kill, massacre or break violently, break
to pieces, abruptly etc. There is in CA also [in-QilD'Oa), pre+ V which
means to leap upon, 10 prey, to assault abruptly, to savage. All this en-
ters into the making of the LV. This last V belongs 10 a different para-
digm and has in CA pIosive IDI ootId! but the two have been merg~ in
L, so that the merger here is on more lhan one level.
ht
tp
://

13.4 [Hamzl and ~2:nal iD L :

a

The CA V [Hzmae:J means to hcat.l.he CA V lhz:oal JIleaRS

l-m

to be slight, easy, of no consequeace, (a +haenal means to Iwmiliafe, to

ak

beliUlc.1O insult. The V [Itamt'nut~J mear.s to ncglea. 10 take no ~

ta

lice of. These dtrte V, bclon8ing to thu:e diffuent prndigms in CA,

be
h.
co

.64
m
 appear as one in L. In L bumUS' is a cog ofCA [HremreO] which means
heated or fermented mud, hence clay. The CA. V [hae:na] has undergone
the change of the long VI to III in L so has [Hamre:]. In consequence
they have become phonetically closer to [hacm'mrelre] which already car-
ries part of the semantic componenL'i of [hre:na), but L bum us also de-
notes figuratively lowly, of humble origin, so that the L adj bumUis has
the meanings of low, lowly, slight and also base. humble insignificant,
negligible, abject, mean.

I3.S The verbs [hae:na) and [Haemae:) in 01'.: :

As we have stated above the L adj bumiHs comes from three different
verbs whose phonetic shape and semantic content were rather similar. Of
these three verbs how many exist in OE?

In OE only one V, the V [hrem'mrelal a three syl V is completely

losL There is no trace of its having ever existed, partly because it is of
three syl, and these often get reduced, or lost, and partly because its pho-
netic shape has been given to anothe V (sec 9.15).

The next two verbs [hae:na ] and [Hacmae:] fare bcucr. [hre:nz] ap-
pears as hynan, P henan, and from this V are found one N and two adj in
OE, b(~'-ll, CA cog [hayen] (notice how the VI nucleus /aye! is inlrepreted
as (ea) in OE, a thing one comes across in L also) the second is fJtuoll, its
CA cog is [huwn] (notice how the final diphthong in CA belonging to
this pal has been changed into an initial cluster). T1te V means to humili-
ate. beliule insult, oonsider of no consequence in both languages. The adj
[haycn) or bt41l means abject, low humble, the adj [huwn] means liule,
few of weak poor ability.

While we do not find the V [Hamae:] in OE nor its TV (Ham'ma)

from which the L word bumUS' is derived. we find the N bam (for deriva-
tion sec 2.19) and also Ihe V fJamcttauto provide with a home. This V
is derived from lbe N 1)a1ll (home). It is not derived from the original V
[Haernae:) which means 10 protect and from which bam is derived.

From the TV [Hrem'ma] to heat, to rerment, comes the N [Humait) in

CA which appears in OE as refer and in L as febris (fHI: Iff by AC, /ttl
IbI by CC). It is quite possible that this word has entered into OE
through anoIher language, possibly L and IbI has beat changed 10 /f/ as it
ofren is in OE by AC. We lind no other word from this V in OE and Ihe

t65
 where the

The verbs chosen in the above are of the tendencies

of each OE either retains a V or looses it. but L takes the
netic of one V and upon it the semantic content of two or
more V which were close to it. It is not that no mergers take
in but are far less than those found in and the
verbs or nouns are retained more often than in L.

13 6 Verb and
"""U'U"'. in consequence it
its One of these are the
the semantic content of verbs. These 1.""11"'_'"

adverbs or verbs thal have been abbreviat-

"""""'I';"U to like pre-, which is in CA the adv
In L the initial has been deleted and to
AC.

Most L as we have have been reduced LO two

is added the V becomes a three V. This new
or three V may have the sounds of an old CA one, but it
should have different semantic conlent since it has been
cOlrnpose:d of a we come sometimes across such
and the same semantic content as old CA ones. How

bitan
gnagan
ht

In the frrst V above we have a case of tri corso L has the cors
tp

while OE has Both L and OE have lost the

://
a

one
l-m

In the second V L has the cors whileOE has and

ak
ta

EC.
be
h.
co

166
m
 The first V means to bite in both CA and OE, the second means to
gnaw, to corrode,to waste gradually in both OE and CA. In L both rOd),
and corr&> have the semantic content of to gnaw to corrode, to waste or eat
gradually. Moreover tOttOW" is analysed as com+ rom. If t~had
originally the same semantic cotent as tom + tO~, of what use is the pre-
fix? Then how can a new composite V have exactly the same semantic
content and shape as an old one dependent on SS? What happened is that
there were two V, not one, and that the semantic content of tOW" was 'to
bite', as it is in OE and CA, but that with the prevelance of verbs begin-
ning with com-, tOttObO began to be analysed as tom-tobO and in conse-
quence rOd> lost its individual indentity and became merged with it, ac-
quiring the same semantic content.
Similarly the V ~d(n~o is sometimes analysed as hftn~o and some-
times analysed as ~(-f(n~o·. When it has the same semantic content as
CA [dae:fre3a] (long V changed to VI +n and /3/ to /d/ by EC. (to defend,
to ward off to, push back).
When two V have the same semantic content and the same phonetic
shape, one hesitates very much to attribute this to chance because CA
verbs are made by careful choice on the level of SS, and that a new com-
position made by means of a prefix should acquire this very careful selec-
tion by mere accident is most unlikely. That is the reason that tracing
such verbs proves them to be originals that have been interpreted as a new
creation by analogy.

13.7 [bredzl] and [ba:Tel] merger in 01<: :

Just as we come across mergers in L, we come across such mergers in
OE. Quite a few Mod Eng V are the result of mergers. While we cannot
go into all the cases of merger here, we shall give a few examples of
some of the more important ones.
The CA V [baTula] means to become bad, foul, to cease to be effec-
tive, to be wrong, false, erroneous. The CA V [bredaela} means to
change, its TV [bred' daela] means to change for the worse, to alter, to
barter, or exchange the beuer for the worse.
In OE we find bab~(l, which means hermaphrodite. We come rather
often in OE on words which have a CA cog; but used in a particular
sense, not in the general sense which is the sense of the V from which
they are derived.

167
 This is and it should be .." ........ '1 ..'" We notice that the
difference between the two CA RV is the medial consonant which is
and These are oCten .. ",·h",nnt·" in OE AC. If we the
mediaJ the V would be the same, if we add to Ihis the semantic
whicb is rather close to the one in we know how
came to die semantic content of which is the
in CA. A merger has laken which the form the more use-
ful and semantic content of the RV in
ph(metic ch:arectcristics of the TV in

13.8 in OE :
Saxon Dr. Bothworth says. "lwO
~""T'_'~"" distinct seem to coalesce under this form." The form is
advice. In CA there arc two V bc-

the first means to

the second means to see.
U)'I.....''''. to to 10 have such a vision of ""'.I..... LJ.....,r,;.
CA VI is a cons stop in OE so that the final
is in the second while the VI stop in medial vu~"""",
the first V is assimilated 10 d. If we add to this the "'m.'I"'Fil
content we the two verbs have coalesced.

In OE we find variations of semantic content. three different kinds of

words derived from the merger of these two words from the first
like hence and the final cors
VI Crom the
second.
either.

13.9 The
The mergers above were mergers that involved Y--'---"O Ihe se-
mantic content of two or more forms in the of one. The mergers
ht
tp

we shall examine below arc mergers that make Ihe and the com-
://

atllcclllVC:S from two different roots.

a
l-m

The CA verb may used in two senses. It can mean to be

ak

or it can mean to be generous

ta

ficient. In this second sense it is followed the "",.'1.rll..

be
h.
co

168
m
 In Consequence three adjectives have been derived from this verb, the adj
[greyed) (good, flne) the adj [grewae:d) (generous, munificient) and the adj
[gae:d] (great, grand, glorious).

In L this last adj appears as gt'au~-us. Its CA cog when the inflec-
tional ending is applied is [gae:dun) L has changed the long VI to Irl by
dissimilation to 10/, then brought the final In! to medial position, and
gave the adj the inflectional ending typical of L N and Adj.

In OE we do not find any of these adj but we do rind the N [guwd]

from this V. In OE it is go~, and like many OE forms it is used as both
N and adj. Since it is originally a Nit has no comparative. In conse-
quence it was given a comparative from another root. The comparative of
OE comes from the V [baTira ) in CA. The V means to desire more than
good, to beliule what is good and seek morc. The N is [baTar). It is this
N as btttt'a) which appears as the compardtivc of gO~ in OE. Scmanti-
cally it is a degree or morc above good, but in CA it has acquired a pejora-
tive connotation, for to desire morc than good is to be arrogant or too
covetous.

13.10 The Comparative or Bad :

We have given (13.6 above) thc dcrivation of OE ba~~d (Mod Eng
bad) as we have shown is a N in CA. Moreovcr, it is a merger in OE,
so that it has no comparativc. Likc good, its comparative is derived
from anothcr V. The V [sae:acoJ in CA means to be bad, evil, of poor
quality. Thc~diffcrcncc between it and [baTulaJ is that thc Iaucr implies
somcthing that was good but has been spoiled or bcl:ome uselcss or bad,
while (sre:reo, and [saeyccO) the adj, mcan something or someonc who is
bad by natulie. Scmantically it may be considered a dcgre or degrees
worse, since its very essence is bad.

From thc V [sre:reoJ comes thc derived V [sacwaacO) (to makc what is
already bad worse) and from this V comcs OE WrrSt. The adv has un-
dergone metathesis to bring Iwl to initial position. (9.11).

13.11 Bonus and - melior :

The L adj bonus has as cog in CA the adj [ba:rJ or [ba:runJ. The me-
dial Irl has been deleted and replaced by the final In/. This adj means in
CA bencvolent, kind, benign, munificienL In L it has acquired some of

169
 the semantic content of with its semantic
content, which appears in some of the forms derived from it like
'benevolent' and 'beneficienl'.

it has a in
derived from another rool, from the V
excellent to be excellence or fine
It may be considered <:,prn!UUIr'~

13.12 Malus and Peior

In CA the V means to lean on one hence to be
whose cog is L means to lean on one
U:>l:;lI.;;;;';;'. of poor or weak condition, In

as well as some of the

Its comes from another RV. It comes from the V

of poor waste. In CA it is
The L comp has taken on some of the semantic content of
so that it has the of worse or less effective.

From this same V comes OF which appears in Mod as

'barren',
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

170
m
 CHAPTER XIV

ON CLUSTERS IN L, CA AND OE

14.1 Clusters in CA :
There are absolutely no initial clusters in CA, neither in the unmarked
form of the RV nor in any of the forms derived from it. The reason is
that CA is based on SS where each sound has its significance apart, and
in consequence the first sound, the most impolUnt one in any word, that
first item of communication, is allowed free and unequivocal contours.
(for the cause of this in comunication theory see Gleason 1969).

14.2 Clusters in Land OE:

The fact that there are no initial clusters in CA implies that these clus-
ters have been created in Land OE at a later date, at a subsequent stage of
the language after the SS that it was built on had become no longer sig-
nificant. Initial clusters in L or OE are not random creations however,
but are strictly rule governed, as we shall see below. Any word in L or
OE is governed by two contending overall rules. The first demands that
the word retain as much as possible its shape in order to retain its identi-
ty and not to become submerged, while the second demands that it con-
form to the rules of the language to which it belongs. Whether a word
changes or not and how far depends on its original shape and the new
rules of the language it belongs to. Why words change and how far
within a certain period of time is a most interesting study, but we cannot
deal with it in any detail in this limited outline. In this chapter we give
some of the rules that govern and restrict clusters as well as a few exam-
ples in order to perceive the overall movement of consonants in Land
OE which we shall discuss in the next chapter.

The table opposite shows that there arc far more clusters in OE than in
L, and that favourite sounds arc used more in clusters than less congeni-
tal ones. We notice for example thut there are many clusters having /hI
in OE, where /hI is a favourite sound, and none at all in L. And that !pI,
a sound that has been introduced later in OE has no clusters with Iwl as
the original sounds of the language have, because such clusters were pro-
duced by the morphological rules of the language before the introduction
of fp/.

171
 The semi-VI /I m 0 rl do oot occur as initial sounds in a cluster in ei-
ther LorOE

The Ic g p t/ do not occur as second sound in a cluster unless the

first is while does not occur as second sound even if the first is
The fricatives 9 f sl do nOL occur as second sound in a cluster.

Table of OE and L clusters in initial p05:iti(Jlo

bl bl gn gn so
1:11' br gr gr sp sp
cl cl hI st st
en hn str str
cr cr hr sw
dr hw tm
dw pI pi tr tr
0 0 pc pc Or
Ii Ii sl sl Ow
gl gl sm wi
cw wr

occurs in L in the N
rived from it It docs not conform with the main lCn(JCI1CY
the to cluster stops with sounds. is rather nn",..c>·r_
ous sound to pconouce and does not cluster with softer sounds like
and The word must have come from Gr where and
common, it is not recorded as such.
ht

In OE there are the clusters yl ypp ys yt

tp
://
a
l-m

Since is often written in of or in OE we have con-

ak

sidered it as a VI or semi-VI here also. As thc above clusters reveal its

ta

habits arc closer LO lhose of VI than of consonants.

be
h.
co

172
m
 Let us take one word here however and see whether this /yl was origi-
nally of consonantal status. The word is l!lp and it means elephant, L
dtpbnatus. In CA the word is [fiyl] it comes from the 2 syl V ]fae: la]
which means to grown of huge or grcat sizc. It is often preceded by the
def. art to show that it is a particular being that has grown huge. It is
[al fiylu]. L has merged this def art with the N, then changed the final
/II to In! by dissimilation with the initial one. The L word has the fern
pat ending in (at) in CA then given the L noun ending-us.
OE has simply rotated the sounds of this word bringing Iyl to initial
position and IfI to fina] position. Once in final position IfI was changed
to Ipl as it sometimes is in OE. Now in the original N this /YI was part
of a diphthong it was not of consonantal status.
OE cw is not the same as L qu (see for qu 6.11 for cw 6.10) we have
omitted from the table opposite loan words from Gr that have entered
into L, since the clusters they contain do not belong It) the language.

14.3 Clusters in L. OE and Gr. :

From the above table we notice an interesting fact. It is that although
Land Gr are considered closer to each other than L and Germanic lan-
guages, the restrictions upon clusters we have given above are shared by
L and OE but not by L and Gr. Where clusters arc concerned L is closer
to Germanic languages than to Gr, although some of the clusters allowed
in OE are allowed in Gr but not in L, like (sm). On the whole OE
shares many of he restrictions found in L as we have shown above,
while in Gr numerous clusters arc allowed that arc not allowed in either
L orOE.

If initial clusters are governed by the rules which select their quality lO
a considerable extent, and if there is an overall rule, we have met more
than once before, that decrees that language should be more compact,
this rule is in fact one of the main reasons for the movements of cluster-
ing, how can a word conform to this rule and yet maintain its identity?
In other words how docs an OE or L word look after undergoing cluster-
ing?

14.4 The V [qab'bala] :

Let us take a practical example. The CA V [qabba:la] (to kiss, or em-
brace). Given the clustering rules memioned above, how would it look
in OE?

173
 The first thing one should expect is the change of Iq/ by either Icl or
/hI. Since Icl is the more frequent, let us assume that Iq/ will become
Ic/. Icl is a stop and so is fbi. Both would not occur as the second
sound in a cluster in OE, so we should try to cluster lei with the final 11/
. Very well then, we have Icl/. After clustering Icli there remains fbi in
final position. fbi in final position is often changed to Ipl in OE, and
the OE infinitive has the shape of the CA supine. What we are looking
for is then c1ipan* but the V has a GS in CA, now let us add this GS.
The V becoms c1ippan*.

The V we have in OE is c1yppan, because in OE Iii is often written

Iy/. It means in DE to kiss or embrace as it does in CA.

14.5 [Burhreh):
Let us take a CA word and sec if we can recognise it in L. The N
[burhreh] (a short period of time). There arc two /hi sounds in this word,
an inflectional /hI which L often deletes and another medial one. Since
there are two /hI sounds, we shall assume that L has deleted the final /hI,
the medial one is often changed to Iwl by CC. But Mod L has changed
Iwl tolvl so that if we are dealing with Mod L we look for lvi, if we are
dealing with Old L we look for Iw/. fbI can form a cluster with Irl after
it, so it is most probable that it becomes fbr vi. In fact we do find an
adv bt'ftlt in L and it does mean a liLLie while. We find also an adj bt'f-
1.l tif in L, and it means any small or little thing. Has it been derived
from bt't1.lt? In CA there is the1word [barwah] which comes from the V
[bara:] to sh&pen. It means little bits left over, splinters, or shrapnels,
hence any litlle thing. j

Since L has changed the medial /hI in Iburhah] to Iwl, the two words
have become phonetioally very c1osc. Since they were already semanti-
cally close, a merger has laken place. (in Mod Eng the word is brief).

14.6 The V [bar' Ta 3a] :

ht
tp

Let us take a slightly more difricult case. How would the V

://

[bar'Ta3a] look in Mod Eng. The difficulty here is that the verb has four
a
l-m

consonants, two of which are not found in OE, moreover the main stress
ak

falls upon the last cons of the first syl. It is a rather strong stress, since
ta

this is a 4 cons V. (20.3).

be
h.
co

174
m
 Let us deal with the more diflicult 131 first (1). In final position it is
either deleted or removed to initial position and changed into a cons stop.
We may expect two forms then if the word exists. It is either [barTa*],
or assuming that the cons stop is favourite in such constructions in OE,
a form having Ig/+ [barTa]* . We do not find the first form and Igj
would not cluster with /hI so we regulate /hI to final position and see
what we can do with the medial cluster. There is a main stress upon the
Irl so it is unlikely to be deleted. In OE such a cluster is usually turned
into a geminette by the assimilation of one sound to the other as in (6-7)
ITI is not found in OE and the main stress is found on the Irl, so we
would expectlrl to remain as a geminette. A geminette having Irl in
medial position is a rare thing in OE, in fact N is the usual cars in such
cases. What we should expect is a form having IlU in medial position,
Ig/ in initial position and /hI possibly changed to Ipl in final position.
The V is to gallop. In fact this is what we have been looking for. It
has the semantic content as well as the phonetic cars of the CA form.
The word has not enterd into Mod Eng through OE, as we assumed
above, but through OF, but because it is of Germanic origin the rules
we have used to diseover it still applied. Moreover the Mod Eng form
has double 1111 which is whal we should expect, while in OF there is
only Ill. This phenomenon is really worth investigating. It is a phe-
nomenon one comes across again and again. We find the Mod Eng form
often closer to the ancient CA one than the source from which the word
has arrived. It is a phenomenon that requires and deserves much more at-
tention than the present work can encompass.

14.7 Tracing /ri 3~: 3/ in Modern English:

Let us take a word that looks diflicult and sec if it is in fact untracable.
Let we take word [ri 3ae: 31. We shall give the reader the semantic con-
tent from the beginning, so that he joins in the search. It means mob,
ruffians, a gathering of disorderly lower class people. It comes from the
V [1'33' 3a]. How would it look like in Mod Eng?

We know that 131 in the vicinity of Irl is changed to /hI by dissimila-

tion (8.20). So we should expect something like [ribae:b*]. But Mod
Eng has acquired a compact form, so that the two /hI will become a
gemineue [ribbae:]* it will have to be. But again a long final VI in
Mod Eng is a rare thing, it is usually changed to III as it often is in L
and OE. Do we have "ribble"* in Mod Eng? We do not, but have

175
 "rabble". The initial VI is which denotes that the word has been de-

when in CA it ........u ..,"" 10 a

V .....'.....1;..".

14.8 division in CA :
In order 10 understand the division and the clusters that occur in
CA one has to remember that this is a based on SS. Each
neme has its IItl(~:e on this level and therefore the whole langwige
is oriented 10 the maximum of

There are no initial clusters in CA. Each consonant prerooos a VI and

If two consonants occur in medial po:sltlOn,
are the stress and the
consonant between two VI forms part of the
Ex : is divided mu-han-di-soun ''''''lio''''''''''''}

If this word were in it would be divided in the same manner, for

has division and Mod Fr has taken it from L.
G. p.

14.9 Final Clusters in CA :

In CA there is onc pat that has tinal clusters. It is palone,
CVCC. We nOlice thal il is very compact and that it cannol be-
come more so. Since it is the of this form in it is eas-
ISllnll:llIS11OO from other pauerns and the nativc is aware of
of this final cluster. As mentioned earlier it is the pat-
tern that has been most in L and OE because it fits in with the
new rules of these 11.3 for If'y<.mrllp.:

While most of the time the of the consonants is """""rvpn

metathesis in both OE and
.nft,f'rn...",."

This metathesis turns the final cluster inlo an

ht

initial onc.
tp

Ex: CA Lereber
://
a
l-m

Since the is compact, lhis of a final cluster 10 an

initial one, then the formation of many new initial
ak

that initial clusters have become more ravoured in OE.

ta
be
h.
co

176
m
14.10 Medial Consonants in CA :
In CA there are no medial clusters. [n a two syl word. if two cons
occur together in medial position. then they are separated by the stress
pat which regulates each lO a different syl. and places a transition in be-
tween. not quiet as marked as that between words, but clear enough just
same.
Ex : [bercaeh I has the stress pal 12) + 2/

The main stress falls upon the last cons of the first syl. How does
this wonllook. in Mod Eng?

CA Wes Ger. OE Mod Eng

[bercaeh] br6ka* br6c brook

If we compare the forms above, we get a paradigm of the passage of

the word through time.

In L and in Mod Fr the same syl division given above occurs quiet
freqeuntly and stress falls upon the first syl in a two syl word as in CA.

Ex: CA [burcae:n], L tlultal1 (volcano). In this cog form the syl di-
vision and the stress pat is I.he same. Similarly in Mod Fr. S'tt"p(ll1,
CA [qulbae:n] there is the same syl division and stress pat. The differ-
ence is that the final long VI in CA, which is the mark of this pat. has
been shortened in L and Mod Fr.

Supposing we take a word that has a final cluster and give it one
more syl, an innectional ending (which is unpronounced very often in
CA) and see where the stress falls. Without the innectional ending the
stress falls upon the initial cons in this pal
Ex: CA [burg) [bur-gon] OE burgon (lOwer)

When the inllectional ending is added, the word is divided inlO two syl
and the final cluster, becoming a medial one is divided as seen above.
When an Arab wants to stress a word or emphasize a point. he uses the
full form having the innectional ending. The native speaker does it in-
sticLively, but we can sec that this gives each consonant clear and separ-
ate pronunciation.

In L this word, would be pronouccd in the same manner where syl di-
vision is concerned, and so would most medial clusters. The exception
is when a stop occurs followed by Irl or /II, in such cases they are pro-

177
 nouced as a cluster. This diversion from the rule may have started be-
cause of the reliance of L on When an initial cluster is
it becomes a medial cluster.

Initial as we have noted before are made of a or fricative

followed a semi-VI.
Ex: declinare comscribO

Such words relain their and others may have fol-

lowed In OE it is not easy to tell where the division
but we assume that in earliest times it must have been like that of
L and so that or must have been nr/'"" ..r' .. n

14.11 Final clusters in and OE :

In L final clusters are very few in rn.cnn<lrti"""n with those found in
moreover L has the same rule of
so that when the inflectional is added the final consonants are di-
vided.
In OE very can occur in final but we hesi-
late to many of these clusters for a number of reasons.

A word may be in more than one way and written in more

than one, so that what appears as a cluster may be an omission a
scribe.
Ex: magep, magp CA in woman in cors
/:
It is most that such words are prclIloun<:cd with a VI between
and even if it is sometimes omilted.
which havc mvlr ...)"n",,,, both mClathe-
sis and the final cluster may have been divided into
Iables as in L and CA once the inflectional so that
it would be n"l'ln",•• n,r-rIl
ht
tp
://

It comes from the

a

may have been

l-m

When the inflectional -es is

ak

or most nr".h"lhlv as in CA
ta
be
h.
co

178
m
 The second thing one notices is that the main tendency of final clus-
ters in both L and DE is the reverse of that found in initial clusters.
While initial clusters begin by a stop or a fricative followed by a semi-
VI, final clusters begin by a semi-VI followed by a stop or a fricative.
In L this heavy clustering is avoided by recourse to deletion whenever
necessary. In DE the pat C semi-VI V semi-VIC has become very com-
mon indeed.
It depends to a great extent on the original consonants the word had,
for the new shape of any word is a compromise between its original
shape and the new pauern of clustering of DE.
While DE clusters and in some cases deletes severely, L very often re-
tains the patterns of CA but gives them new semantic content, that is
the reason it is sometimes more difficult to trace a word in L than in
DE.

14.12 L Circa :
What cognate should it have in CA? If the word were an DE word,
we would say it could be [caracahl (jar, pot). In fact in DE the word
crocca is the cog of CA [caracahJ which has undergone the change dis-
cussed in (12.2). L circa means circle, but if it is pronounced clearly be-
fore an Arab, he would believe that it could mean pot or jar. How did it
come to have that form? if we compare :
L circa CA [Halqah] DE hlenca
I
What has happened is that L has ch~mged the initial /HI to Icl by CC
and final Iql to Icl by AC, while retaining the same pattern in more
compact form. The pat belongs to all fern N in CA but the phonemes
have been changed, thus regulating the word to another R V, hence new
semantic content. The DE form, as we sec above, is much closer to the
CA one as sbund, while L is closer as pallern. Iri order to preserve the
original sounds, as much as possible, together with more compact form,
DE has had to cluster many together. In order to preserve the original
pallerns together with more compact form L has had to delete. This is
the main tendency in each language but we do find clusters in L and we
find much deletion in DE partic ularly where sounds not found in the lan-
guage occur. L may also change the category. The word above is an
adv (16.10).
The R V is [Halaqa] to tum round in a circle, to adhere to in circular
manner, hence to connect the parts of a circle together. From this
comes the semantic content of DE hlcnca (linc).

179
 And from the same RV comes OHG
has retained the ancient order of the CA to
EC. And also OE in in Its
This word has both initial and final clusters in
above. In l there are nwnerous words from this RV
but not one of them has such

14 13 The that a word has to tbe

CCVCC
If the rules of the dccree certain what
are the effccts of these restrictions on OE words. We have seen above
that the CCVCC or sometimes CCVC has becomes a common pat-
tern in OE it docs not exist in CA. What does a CA
Challges a CA

op~ralLiOlls that a word has to un-

I. Some words have to go very little indeed because

close to the new one.
CA OEscar
metathesis of a VI rrom sec-

2. Not all words so littJe however. If we examine the

below:
Ex : l4dJ''''''''''J Lqlans:acn OE cnyssan hit squeeze,

Here the is also metathesis of a VI to third

with the of the medial stres..<; in the CA word to GS.

3.
CAsup
ht

the OE infinitive which is the cog of the CA

tp

mdlerJl;lonc metathesis to the final cons to medial

://
a

cluster with the scmi-VI which was in medial pmilU(ID

l-m

or in initial in N of No.
ak

4. If we examine the fonns ,.. .."r"".nn we would find most interest-

ta
be
h.
co

180
m
Ex: 1. [qara3a] OE cnucian CA sup [qar3an}(to knock)
2. [3reqada] OE cnillan CA sup [3aqdaen] (to knot, or knit)
3. [3a:laqa] OE clingan CA sup [3alaqan] (to cling, or hang to)
4. [3a:gana] OE cneadan CA sup [3agnan] (to knead dough)

The OE forms above have the same pat beginning with a stop fol-
lowed by a semi-VL. In CA this is not the order. Each of the above
forms has DOl undergone the same metathesis as the one preceding it but
the changes that enable it to obtain this pattern.

1. In 1 131 has become leI by CC in order to achieve EC with leI be-

cause there is already another semi- VI in this word.
2. In 2 131 has become Inl by AC since there are two SlOpS in this
word.

3. In 3131 has become leI to achieve EC with the finai/g/ which is leV
in CA.
4. In 4 /31 has become Idl by CC and has undergone metathesis to ap-
pear in medial position in order to allow Ig/ as leI to appear in initial
position and achieve this pattern.
What happens in a word that has two semi-VI?
CA [Iremre3re:n] L lumen OE glcaman [Irem3ren)

All the forms above come from the same RV [Iama3a) (to gleam,
glitter) L has deleted the final/)I and has kept only a final In!, the Inl
that follows inflection in CA.

The OE infinitive, the cognate of the CA sup has undergone metathe-

sis to bring 131 after changing it to Ig/ to initial position to achieve this
pattern, thus counterbalancing the scmi-VI by a stop:

Again if we compare:
CA [q03barah] OE clympre L glaeba (clod, piece of earth)

181
 This word has both and
then the word has unlleg~~nc
in Proto Ger as to medial in order to counterbalance
the initial and fmal clusters. What form has taken in this word? In
this word has become an as, we have seen it do in

In L its IIv,.."h ..." has be-

come a VI as it often does in in words where there is a1-
and AC has been removed to initial

This which must have been the sounds not found in

OE has become a in fact we do find it in words where all the
sounds exist in less often.
Ex.CA OE broth OF soup

La initial FC and as p LO final po-

OF has followed the rules of L
VI or
semi- VI /I r/ to
UVI""~'''''' l"nl1pl~('V to the Land OE one

to meet such cors in cognate

ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

182
m
 CHAPTER XV
Topology of the movement of
Consonants in the three languages

15.1 The position of Cons in CA :

In this chapter we shall examine the different percentages of the occur-
ence of each consonant in the three languages in initial position. The per-
centages given in the table opposite represent the occurence of each of the
consonants approximately, separately and in initial position only, ner-
vetheless they help us in tracing the movement of these consonants in
each language and of comparing between the increase, decrease, stability
or disappearance of each consonant in the three languages. They afford a
more clear overall picture. This chapter is not meant to go into detail on
the movement of any single phoneme, nor in detail about its correspon-
dences, a thing that we have been doing in the preceding chapters, here we
shall step back in order to view the movement of all the phonemes in re-
lation to each other and to trace in outline these movements.

In CA consonants have remained static. They have remained station-

ary because they are committed to the level of SS and are held in para-
digms by the verb paradigms on the morphological level. No altering of
phonemes and no metathesis can occur in CA, except in a very few cases
for the sake of facilation of pronunciation but the original form is always
prescnt and retrivable, so they need nm concern us here. On the level of
SS the position of a phoneme in a word is relevant to the semantic con-
tent just as the position of a word in a sentence in Mod Eng is relevant to
the semantic content

In this chapter we shall show some of the functions of cerLain sounds

on the level of SS to show why Lhey occur frequently or moderately. But
each of these phonemes is dealt with more fully in the chapter on SS.

15.2 The importance of initial position :

Initial position is of supreme imporLance. That is the reason we are
concentrating on initial position here. But one must not forget that most
words are made of two or more consonants and that each contributes to the
general meaning. So that a word may begin by a strong sound and end by
a weak one, if the semanitc content requires it. Let us take one word as
example. The V [Da-ou-IaJ.

183
 Table Showing The Occurence or Phonemes in
Percentages (to the first decimal approximately)

CA OF. L

1 n 7.5 w 16.4 P 14.5

2 r 7.1 s 14.8 c 11.4
3 36.6 h 10.5 s 11.2
4 H6.6 b 6.2 t 8.8
5 q 6.1 P 6.1 m 8.7
6 S 6. f 6.1 v 7.3
7 w 5.9 c 5.5 f 7.2
8 x 5.5 m 5.1 d6.4
9 g 4.2 15. I 6.2
10 b 4.1 t 5 n4.3
11 m 4.0 g 4.6 r 4.1
12 I 4.0 d 3.5 q4
13 d 3.8 ~ 3.2 h 2.7
14 f 3.8 r 2.9 g 2.1
15 c 3.5 n 2.5 b .9
~ 3.5 I
, 16 Y 1.6

I~
17
18
h 3.4
s 3.1
p.9
n
19 R 2.5 0
~
I ~ 20 T2.5
~ 21 D 1.5
I~~
~

22 t 1.2 ~
23 z 1.0
0.9
ht

24
I
tp

25 9.9
://

--=-
y.5
a

26
l-m

27 oh.3
ak
ta
be
h.
co

184
m
 It is a three syl. V. The initial sound /01 is one of &he strongest in
the language and has a weaker antithesis Id!. Such sounds. that is strong
sounds that have an antithesis, are used by the SS of the language to sym-
bolize contrast. or to give two degrees, a weak and a strong of the same
action. The next syl is occupied by a diphthong. The diphthong takes
the place of a COllS+ VI. And on the level of SS as weD as the morpho-
logical level it is considered as such because of the position it occupies.
100/ is a pursing of the lips, symbolic of diminishing. shrinking, grow-
ing smaDer. The final cons is III a flap, a stretching of the tongue. There-
fore it is symbolic of extending, stretching, elongation. If we put the se-
mantic significance of the three sounds together we undcrSlaDd that
something was strong or big but that has grown sma1ler or less gradually
in an extended period of time. Therefore something wasted or something
that pines away. The OE cog of this V is ~tuillall, and in Mod Eng it is
(to dwindle).

15.3 Cons groups in CA :

There are 27 cons and one VI Slop in CA which form 28 sounds of
consonanal status. Each has particular significance, and each group of
sounds that have similar phonetic features have similar (never identical)
symbolic singificance. In this chapter we shall divide the sounds of CA
according to their general significance as groups, denoting occasionally
the symbolic value, when required lO show why certain sounds are used
more than others.

Group one : The static, the slow, the negative, the soft and luxuri-
ous, in this group there are only three sounds In :3 m/
Group two : Strong, powerful, dramatic, dominant, violent action.
This group contains /q T D S H dh RI each of these
sounds has an antithesis for softer, normal action.
Group three: This group has intelligent. conscious, moderate, clever
temperate, normal everyday actions. It contains Id t h b
r w g I f s ~ zed y c x I and VI slOps.

15.4 The static, the dynamic the moderate :

If we look at the table opposite we find that the sound which has high-
est frequency is Inf, and that the sound which occupies third position and
has very high frequency in CA is 1"3/. Why is this so'! These two sounds

185
 with fonn the first group. Of the three sounds In are nasals while
is nasalized. In such the air passage to the mouth is ObStruCl-
the nose. On the level of SS this

condition. The three sounds have to do

fies dramatic action and the group that
movement or these are fricatives. That is the reason
are used far more often than other sounds. While the
two other groups have or in unision.

one 18% Static

two 21.5 % very or violent
three 59.5% moderate

The above percentages reveal that sounds which moderate ac-

tions fonn the group; while the very strong and the static
are rather close to each others. Is this a of CA or is this a
renection of actions in real life? Let us lake a from the other
."~u,,,,~ under Our
of a hundred verbs from each
and tenuous as PVI,riPlnrp

one 2% 4% 9% 2%
two 18% 31% 16% 19%
three 80% 65% 75% 79%

One must take into account that this is of verbs while the CA
above is of sounds and each sound is combined with others
as shown Nevertheless the tendencies of langmlge
The moderate group fonns far the group in all four .<.1I1l:!iWl!;"'::S.

It is that Land CA are very close to each other in these

ht

percentages of the very differences that have taken in L

tp

and that OE has a far of verbs of strong or violent action.

://
a

Could it be that the led a life than other OOJOIICS!

l-m

Modem has a number of static verbs than any of the older

ak

Could it be that lead a more sedate life in modem

ta
be

this is the case, but much more research has to be

h.
co

186
m
 on many languages of different origins, whose peoples have different
habits before such questions could be decisively answered.

The point that we desire to demostrate here is that static sounds are
used more in CA because they are fewer in numbers, not because there are
more static verbs.

15.5 InJ in CA, Land OE :

While Inl occupies first position in CA, for the reasons given above,
its position in Land OE is much lower. This is due to the clustering
rules of Land OE. In these languages Inl and semi-VI generally cannot
occur as initial sound in a cluster.
In consequence we find Inl very often as second sound in an initial
cluster, or in medial position carrying the main stress, or in final position
(in L and sometimes in OE) or as first sound in a final cluster. It occurs
quite often in fact, since iL is a soft sound that is used LO facilate pronunci-
ation, and also because of other morphological changes (see 12.5) but not
in initial position.

15.6 I 31 and its correspondents :

131 is a sound Lhat depicts soft, rounded contours, since it is inchoate
and has no sharp, distinct features. It is the second of the three in CA.
but has disappeared from L and OE. In these languages it is replaced by a
variety of sounds Ic n g t h d b V as well as VI. It depends on the word in
which it occurs and the paLtem the word has to conform to. as well as the
environment of 131 inside this word (see 8.18).

15.7/ml :
The last of the three is produced by closure of the lips. in consequence
it is often used to symbolize finality. ending. close. We notice that in
CA it has usage very close to that of fbI which stands for beginning
(opening of lips) and rather close to If! which stands for opening. making
way.
In Land OE it occupies a higher position than that it occupies in CA.
This should be expected. since many of the words which were preceded by
Ima-I as a prefix in CA have merged it with the stem in L and OE. In

187
 consequence it occurs often in initial pas,ilion, as it occurs very fre-
as a in in initial "'"',....'u... in the fonns of
these words.

15.8 Irl :
After comes This procedlen(:e of in CA is due to its
value as the trill in CA
er than Mod in its pr0-
duction is therefore the When it is the first cons in
a this denotes that the action is ........."'101'."" or continuous.

In L and OE it appears in initial DO~;llI(m far less than it appears in

CA because of the habits of these cannot appear
as the first sound in a cluster.

In a few cases, in L it is removed to initial pa~;iticm

tathesis when it is not in a clusler. When it appears in initial VUo..... ~".
and not in a cluster it can still its ancient functioo of
'<D'!!iu.iSSo.;;~. 1bere are many such words in

15.9 Cons lID and IhI :

The lhat fourth in CA after I n r is
is the of frictioo in the
throat and is therefore the the trenchant. In
coosequence it is used very often 10 denote an action and
movement thatlcave a scar. Its nearest cors is the fricative the sym-
bol of the the the is used very often in initial
.......,.......... in CA since it marks boundaries. While
which weakness occurs far more often in final POS:ilIOn.

In OE both sounds are written as has the

count of both (t a in OE than
ht

in CA because it is a merger the 1\1110 sounds and because it has IJe..

tp
://

""\Jnolll'll"'I'C[J>lacing 0Iber fricativcs. Words COI'Illailllg

a

lJO!i;itiom in CA untlel}l:o metathesis in OE 10

l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

III
m
 In L !hi occurs only 1.2% in initial position partly because it in often
deleted. and part1y because it is often changed 10 other fricatives. while /HI
is changed frequently 10 /wI (which was in tum changed 10 V) or other fri-
catives and sometimes it is replaccd by leI by cc.

IS.10 COM Iql :

The phoneme leV occupies fifth position in CA. It is the symbol of
strong. dramatic action vs soClei'. finer. less violent leI. Since it is pr0-
nounced far back in the throat (a uvular sound) and produces a rounded
movement against the throat. it is often the symbol of the rounded. or
the rising as a dome. or round object. against the nat movementlhat leI
sometines symbolizes.

1bere are over twenty verbs which dcnoIc cuoing in SIrong and vigor-
ous ways. all these begin with leV.
leV does not ex.ist in Lor OE. In L it is replaced by its nearest cors leI
and 181 and in OE it is replaced by some of its corespondents mainly Ie d
g hi.
Its antithesis lei occurs very often in L and ~upies a high positioo in
OE not only because it replaces IqI but because it is a cover tenn in
these language (or a nwnber of missing phonemes. .

In L it is a cover term for Iq h H II )1 and in OE it takes the place of

Iq :l "an in a few cases Itt HI also.

15.11 Iii ••d lSI :

In CA Ihue are two sibilants. 15/ which may he considered jUI allo-
phone of OE and L lsi. and lSI whida is pa.Iatalized. and does not exist in
L and OE. 1st is the symbol of smooch. sk4 8\OV~. whde lSI is
Ibe symbol of strong. SIaJk. stem. a.aes. Tbe 1wo ~ have mersed
ill L aDd OE. that is ~ reason they bltve f!~ghcr posiJioo dtan CA lsI.
BM! if we add lsi + lSI in CA we would gel a ~gc Jdmost as high
I i that of L and 00.

The seCDDd reaotiII why it occupies a higbee position in L and OE b

abe cJusUing rules of the language. lsi is ah only phoneme that can oc·
cupf initial position in clusters p( dvce ~s.RJOCeover we rand ..,..y
words where Is! occurs in mcdi.aJ or liJlal position in CA having lsi in

.19
 initial nnc"hl'.n metathesis. In L other fircatives I~ 9
since the flISt two have been lost and the last is

15.12 Iwl :
The semi VI when used as a consonant in initial
of the first ten. This is because in the SS of the ..... jI; .....& ....
the

Ex:

When it occurs as of a nnl'nnl1'O it does not. In OE it is used

very in fact it has become the first sound in initial for
reasons in I ).
In L it has been to in Cicero's time. But is a
cover term for as well as other fricatives f

15.13
In CA is a the after It expresses
strong vibration on the level of S5. BUl since the sound comes from the
back of the throat outwards and is nasalized it express
or ruined. Until the native uses it alone as
an exclamation

It has been lost in Land OE and is very often U;;~U<1l\;CU its corre-
sponcJe:nlS Ih in L and Ie d h fl in OE.

15.14 Tbe eODS

can express
ht

The second after in CA is While

tp

dramatic sudden action is of more even nature. It expresses

://

strong but more moderate and deliberate action. It is the of

a
l-m

two or more hence mallang a

mass. It occurs among the first ten in while in L it is used very
ak

because it is often replaC(:(J While a much

ta
be

VU~UI\J"I in L than in OC(:unles a much

h.
co

190
m
 lower position. So that while words which denote collection begin by
Ig/ in both CA and OE, like [gremre3a] OE cog gatr,niau (to gather)
in L they often begin with leI like L cumulus, CA [gamal] a great
mass together. The N [gamal] means camcl in CA, while its cog cu-
mulus means great mass in L, hence mountain, hill.
In OE Ig/ has approximately the same percentage as CA. This is be-
cause we have not counted a large number of verbs that begin with ge-in
OE. These are not counted because they belong to the morphological
level. (They have undergone the change of /Yal to Igel see 7.5).

The phonemes /h m df cl occupy medial position and have approxi-

mately the same percentage in CA. Iml and /hI are each others antithe-
sis, and If dl are also each others antithesis in certain respects.

15.15 The cons Ibl :

/hI is a stop, it is produced by opening of the lips and is therefore the
symbol of beginning in the SS of CA. While Iml is produced by clos-
ing the lips, it is the symbol of closure or finality in CA. Both occupy
a medial position in the Iangauge.

In OE /hI occurs far more often than in CA because it replaces other

sounds line 13/, because it is oftcn removed from final to initial posi-
tion, and because some words which originally has bi- as a prefix have
merged it with the stem.

In L to the contrary it is used very sparingly because Ipl has taken its
place in many words.

1m! has a higher percentage in both OE and L than in CA because in

both L and OE the prefix Imal has merged with many word and become
the initial sound instead of a prefix. In L there is another reason also. It
is that /hI is sometimes replaced by Iml in L and sometimes Inl also is
preplaced by 1m!. In OE Iml is often deleted in medial or final position,
but rarely if it occurs in initial position. (see 1.Bosworth 1983 p.652).

15.16 ID/ and Idl :

In CA there are two Idl sounds, a dental stop and an alveolar, palatal-
ized plosive. In the SS of the language they represent contrast and

191
 the denial one remains and in OE a merger bas tak-
prodlK:lng an alveoh.. stop. of a favourite in ini-
pa!I:ili«l1D in OE in cenain group 0( words it is used rather less than
in CA because it is often While is used very soannll!;-
inCA.

In L is used rather lIIOfe than in CA because it replxles other

sounds mi~!>ing in L lite S9

Onemusl in mind that there two OIJIlKJSing

the flll'Sl reptilCeS and and the secood repl:llCes
and sometimes even

IS.) 7 Jr/:
of
",vlntwflJl or way or
breakirll!! U1IJ'01J£h (symboli<~cd or a passage for
_,rinD
itself between the lower and upper II is used m«lderl1111
CA. Jts occurcnce or 3.8% is almost the same as thaI of
Which is the of up.

In L and OE it is used far more than in CA because it bas the

fricatives hOI in many iDSIaJICes.

In OE there are two tendencies. A IC'niIPrV'v

which is the dominant and a tendeilCY
certain words. 1ben there is a tendellcy
to initial in word which have it in medial pa!lalJclO
01 which have the fricative it has in medial pos,ition.

15.18 Tbe cons

is of vibmtion or wavy movements
numerous passages, the It nn&"II",'""
ht

bOvl/cvler if such vibration is rnrn"", ....rl

tp
://

In OE it is sometimes and sometimes is repl3C(:Q

a
l-m

it. The movement is Its occurcnce in OE is mther close to

ak

its occurence in, CA. Because the movement between it and

ta

comes out almost even. In L it does not exists and is most

be
h.
co

192
m
 of the time by lsi which accounts for the very high ocurence of Is! in L,
together with the fact that lSI is also replaced by Is! in L.

15.19 The cons IRI :

This cons, the twin of 131 in the CA alphabet, has got nearly the same
cors of 131, that is Inl stops and VI. Particularly fbi in L. In L words
taken from Gr it is found as Ig/.
In OE it is sometimes found as a fricative, mainly !hI which is also a
cors of 131 or a stop and it is sometimes deleted.

15.20 The CODS ITI and It I :

There are in CA /tI a dental stop and /fl an alveolar, palatalized plo-
sive. In the SS of the language they represent two degrees of the same
quality. A strong dominating, overpowering movement and a weaker
one parallel to it, but lower and less strong. In the dimension up-down
there is contrast between them, but the above is the main characteristic.
Both sounds are not used very often in CA.
In L where dental /tI has taken the place of both as wen as some of the
uses of Iqllal and lah! /tI is used much more often than in CA.
In OE there is an alveolar /tI a merger of the two, and in consequence
it is used more than in CA, then there is a tendency to replace Id/ in cer-
tain words by It! and also palatalized lSI. While ffl has been merged
with /tI its nearest cors in OE, it is often replaced by ss in OHG. (cf
water, [maTar] wasser, hetera, [baTar] besser, etan [aT3ama] essen.).

15.21 The fricatives la e ahl :

Are used very sparingly in CA and not at all in L. In OE p is a f~
vourite. It has taken over much of the usage of lsi and in a few cases it
is replaced by Is! (9.6).

15.22 The cons Izl :

Is used sparingly in CA and in words that designate a buzzing sound.
Many of the words containing Izl in CA are anomatopoeic. In OE it
does not exist except in loan words and in L it is found in words taken
from Gr.

193
15.23 The semi VI Y :
Iyl is used very little as a cons in CA because its main role is on the
morphological level to produce the different categories from two syl V.
On the synatctic level it has other used also. In OE it is used little, but
more than in CA, while in L it exists in diphthongs as it does in CA
even when the diphthong is written as re or re (see J. Mountfort P. 4) it
is pronounced layl or loy/.

15.24 The new role of VI in Land OE :

If we look at the table. We find that 75.3% of L consonants have a
front point of articulation (bilabials, labiodental, dentals). In OE the
percentage is 55.4% and in CA it is 30.1 % Docs that mean that the Ro-
mans used only their lips and teeth to speak?
In order to understand what has taken place let us consult an Arabic
speaker innocent of linguistics. If an Arab is asked to identify the initial
cons in the Mod Eng V "tell" and the adj "tall" whose CA cognates are
[t<Clre:] and [Ta: Ire] respectively, he would say that the first is It! and
the second in ITI. Similarly he would identify the initial cons in 'sound',
CA cog [SawT] as lSI while that of 'seen' CA cog [srenre:] as lsi.
The difference in the Mod Eng words above is not in the cons but in
the VI quality. What has taken place in LanOE is that due to the loss
of cons, the VI have taken over the function of achieving contrast of
back vs front articulation, the function which is performed by the cons
in CA. That was an ingenius solution and the closest possible to the
original. By so doing VI have become independentlof the cons they fol-
low, to a cerain extent, and have undergone several changes (see Byon
1983) since they have become the significant factor in deciding the differ-
ences between words whose consonants have been erged.
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

194
m
 CHAPTER XVI
The New and The Old

16.1 Summary or previous findings :

In the preceding chapters we have shown the causes of change. that we
enumerate below in order to start showning the ways of change after
that.
1. Loss of SS
2. Loss of the significance of VI
3. Loss of the six back cons. (And 13 rxl as well)
4. Merger of 3 syl and 2 syl verbs
s. Loss of patterns
6. Loss of verb paradigms
7. Loss of most verb families

We can say briefly that the loss of significance on the level of SS has
made the six back cons redundant. so that they became merged with the
front ones producing new phonemes in OE. while only the front ones re-
main in L. This loss has in tum brought about the loss of V paradigms.
which has triggered together with the loss of consonants the loss of V
families.

The loss of significance between three and two syl Von the morpho-
logical level together with the loss of consonants has resulted in the
merger of these two groups. This merger has in tum confused and de-
stroyed the rules for deriving other categories from these two groups (as
well as the V of 4 syl also. these undergo more deletions) such mergers
have resulted in the disconnection of verbs and their families.

After all these losses it was naturral that each language should try to
discard what had become insignificant or redundant. In fact a major rule
governs both Land OE which demands more compact forms. The re-
sults of this rule are :
I. Deletions
2. Clustering
3. Reduction of VI
4. Reduclion of diphthongs
s. Metathesis
6. Loss of longer patterns in favour of the shorter ones

195
 We have many of deletion in the " •...,...,........
One cannot overestimate its role in the and differences that exist
between the three l<U'~U"I">O;:;"'.

16.2 Pat that do not exist in CA :

is for many of the new forms. One of the most
effective ways of more form is deletion of VI which pro-
duces with metathesis consonantal clusters.

1. All forms which have initial clusters are new V"LL...,"'" that do not ex-
ist in CA.
2. All forms medial clusters are new which do not exist
in CA.
3. All forms final clusters of more than two consonants are new
n<lllp"", which do not exist in CA.

~""~'J'~"~. and the re-

terns and see whether we can

These new may be considered as an to make up for the
losses that have taken and to meet demands on the for
and the rich semantic content that the losses have ae])lel:ea.
A statistic taken from L shows that 35% of the old
terns while 65% are new creations. A similar taken from
OE shows that ony 33% of the old exist and 67% are new
terns.

16.3 Patterns that exist in the three

The most common in CA exist in Land OE such as the fol-
ht

form in
tp

These we have of in ""I'''PI''I1.

://
al-m

Now let us take some of the that do not exist in CA and show
do not exist We shall nol go in detail in the
ak

to show what is meant new

ta
be
h.
co

196
m
16.4 Comparison of L curro and CA [car'ra] :
If we take the LV eut't'o as our first example. Its CA cog is [car'ra].
The first pers sing in CA is [a-cur'ro]. It is very close to the first pers
sing in L given above. But what are the fonns derived from this V in L?
They are cursito (to run about), curriculum (a small car) cursim (quickly,
swiftly) cursus (course, way, track).
All these fonns do not exist in CA because they are made by the intro-
duction of suffixes, which in CA would make them belong to another V.

16.5 Comparison of OE haerfest and the CA /HarS/ + /faraH/ :

If we take the OE word haerfeast (harvest). There is no such word in
CA, but the root (hard)* has a CA cog [HarS]. It comes from the RV
[HaraSa] to till the earth and [HarS] means crop. The word faest is
[faraH] in CA (joy or feast). The two together do not exist in CA but
each exists separately. The word probably meant in olden times crop-
feast.

16.6 Difference in pat of OE Caru and CA [carb] :

If we take OE eat'u, etat'o and compare it with its CA cog [carb]
(care, worry, disaster anxiety) in the OE [arm the final fbI had been delet-
ed, because fbI in final position is often changed to It! or Ipl or deleted.
The word became a two syl V and the N derived from it a two cons N de-
rived in accord with the rules for two syl V in CA. It has the typical pat
of a N derived from two syl V in CA, but it is not to be found in this
shape in CA, because in CA it comes from a three syl V [caerabae] and
has accordingly the typical pat of such nouns CVCC.

16.7 Comparison of L lenis and CA [Iayen] :

If we take the L adj Itl1 is (soft, pliable). Its comes from the V
[lae:na] in CA, and it means to become pliable, flexible, soft The adj is
not ItlliS however, although the pat CVCI does exist in CA and it is an
adjectival pat, because each pat has significance in CA. The significance
of [Iayen] means something having this quality, softness, its characteris-
tic or essence is softness, but the pat CVCI gives the meaning belong-
ing to connected with, pertaining to. Wii.h this semantic content
[Ireyen] is the appropriate adj, because 'belonging to softness' would not
make sense. In L the innate significance of patterns has been lost. (we

197
 have seen how is used as doer of the action instead of unc:1er.g()(~r
the action nn/~"",n this pat in CA of the
the ShOft CVCI instead of CVYVC since
and the shorter one is more in ac-

16.8 The CVCI in Land OE :

Docs the pat CVeI exist in OE? There are remnants to show that it
does but from these remnants it has to CVCIG because fi-
rh<l,n"",rr to in OE. In Mod the descendant
two sources,
OE there are remnants like
because when the in-
is added it becomes

It is the same the same except that the inflectional and

final has been added. In CA it is used often for
that is to such a nation or
guages. L has both versions of the but docs not
the same pat.

16.9 of the form in OE and CA :

Let us now take one form from each ..... b'...b'"' and trace its rool and
some of its Let us take
L falx OE CA

The RV in CA is to set Therefore the

N in CA means a part of the what has been cleft. In OE it
of the circumference of a in L it means a blade
ht

1I"V\~~II.. lv because a cleaves or a is part of a circle.

tp

N of the which is common in the three

://

The L form however has got instead of in CA and its

a
l-m

cars AC in OE. This we shall discuss below. The pat may still
be considered intact since is considered one cons in L. So far the
ak

cors is
ta

the differences are not Now let us take the verbs of

be

the same root as the N above.

h.
co

198
m
 L flecto, flexi OE cle6fan CA [frelreqa]

The OE form has undergone metathesis, like other fonns of similar

pat bringing Iql as Icl to initial position.

We perceive that some OE words undergo changes which the verbs

have not undergone, the opposite is also true. This is due to the fact that
OE has taken words from different sources and that the language belongs
to more than one tribe. (see Bauch p. 58 1968).

As a result there is this difference or disconnection between some V

and the N derived from them. It is something that accounts for some of
the differences found between CA and OE, and Land OE.

In L we have the old problem of L usage, that is the semantic content

of two or more verbs is placed upon the fonn of one and this fonn is
used to carry the semantic load of the three.

In CA there is the V [frelqasa] and [fae: raqa] to bend breaking, to

curve and to separate from, to leave, pass by. All these are found in the
semantic content of flttw. It is the four syl CA Vending in Iq sl above
that accounts for the final Ixl in the L Nand V.

16.10 New adjectival pattern in OE :

In OE we find a new pat that is not found in CA, and yet it is rather
familiar. If we compare: deap [3remiyiq] stoop [sreHiyq] sc6c [sreqiym].

We notice that the medial cons has been deleted in one and two and
that the final Iml has been deleted in three (lml is liable to be deleted un-
der certain circumstances in OE (see Bothworth P. 652). The result is a
new pat that has a short initial VI and a long final VI or diphthong as
the older one, but without the medial consonant. It is made of two syl
like the older one also. It appears that this pat which originally be-
longed to three syl V has become a favourite in OE and we find it replac-
ing other adjectival patterns, which belong to two syl V, as in the exam-
ple below:
Ex : CA [Da:ri] L dims OE door (wild, fierce)

We notice that L has removed the final Ii! of this pat to initial posi-
tion then gives it the ending -us. Thus producting a pat that is used for

199
 N derived from V of the CVC'CV in but not the CVCV:
which is the is derived. It is the V
savage, fierce.

16. 11 of in Land OE :
One of the basic differences between CA on the one and L and
OE on the is that in CA each has

word. In L and OE there is no such in the v".uo.. ",

ferent The same may be used for both N and V or N
a maUer of the merger of the of two
but it is a of the system that dis-
its
Ex : In L the pat CVCI is very common but It IS an adl,ecll-
val shown it is used for both N and in
L but CA is a never-

The in -a marks the fern in both CA and al-

this final a is the mark of the fern in both we
find L adverbs this final a.
Ex' frostra

The above forms are both adverbs of the fact that the pat is pre-
" ' - " - " J that of the fern

In OE we find this same disconnection between and their

patterns. The CVVC is an pat in OE as shown
but we do find N and even verbs this pat .
Ex: CA
see) CA ,__ ,.. __ .

It is this disconnection of and that made it neces-

sary to each category a suffix in order to differentiate it from other
ht
tp

The suffixes in tum have made Land OE patterns differ fur-

://

ther from CA and from each others.

al-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

200
m
 CHAPTER XVII

VERBS AND DERIVATIVES

17.1 The origin of Nouns :

Since earliest times man has tried to discover what makes a group of
sounds, a word mean a particular object or thing. A great many theories
have been suggested throughout the different epochs of history. One of
the earliest among them is Plato's theroy of ideas (B. Russell 1945
p.142). In answer to the question of why such and such an object is
called a book, table, box, or why such and such an animal should be
called cat, horse, dog, he offered the theroy of universals, that is, that
there is an ideal cat or book or box in heaven and that what is found on
earth is only a replica of this ideal creature, whose name it has acquired.
The theory is interesting in the realm of thought for it marks one of the
earliest attempts to explain that man knows things he has not seen a prio-
ri, and has the mental ability to regulate them into classes, that give uni-
versals, so that he does not have to be told each time that this is a cat or a
book.

In the realm of linguistics it gives more practical information. It in-

forms us that as early as the third century B.C. the Greeks had already lost
touch with the origins of their language. Nouns had already been detached
from their root verbs so that they appear mysterious entities of mystical
connections, that seem to have come from an unknown source. An Arab
of the same period, that would be in the later Arab civilizations of Hamiyr
in the south and Petra in the north of the peninsula, would give the sim-
ple straight forward answer that all nouns arc derived from root verbs and
that such and such an animal or object is so called because it has such and
such a characteristic, the characteristic that the RV designates.

In this chapter we shall trace the names of some familiar object, and
animals and show how they are derived from RV. We shall choose words
which have cognate forms in L or bE preferring words that have cog
forms in both, to show how each changes in accord with the tendencies of
the language it belongs to.

Before starting out is is better not to be over optimistic and to point

out that the samples we shall give are only a drop in an ocean of cognate
forms and a far greater one of CA forms.

201
 the ancient Arabs were who knew the value of the su-
mechanism had in and in consequence loved it, che-
rished it, it most and transmitted it 10 us with
the rules that make it function inlact.

17 2 Statistic estimate or number of verbs in

We
since all nouns are derived from verbs in
and would allow the reader to conceive the size and
These verbs are the centre of families made of all the other r<>lpm"lr,,'"
as well as derived verbs.

Verbs 778 2140

Pref+V 2240 1990

We
number of Pref+V. These numbers are but a
casual idea of the size and tendencies of each CA is many times
the size of either L or DE. In fact CA is a colossus among
When we come to the 55 of the we shall discover
this is so and it has the several limes more or
ad infinitum. In L and DE we have those that arc or
except RV and their TV
the rules of
"~'~''''b of the
if are at all. But we have seen how an
infix one may derive new V from the RV other than the TV. This would
add about 30% more to the number of V above.

we have in L and DE. We

notice that L has a very number of in relation to the number
ht

of V. This is the reader in L notices and it is due to

tp
://

as well as the merger of verbs that the lan-

a
l-m
ak

In CA we have a very conservmive estimate of the number of

ta

which occur in actual fact. There are numerous in

be

anyone of these may be used with any so that in order to

h.
co

202
m
 obtain the number of pref+V we would have to multiply the number
above by ten or more. In practice the semantic content of the V and the
contribution the pref offers decide which pref to use with what V. These
prefixes may be altered, or remove according to the wish of the speaker.
Since they continue to be detachable and productive, they enable each V
the maximum of range and the variations in semantic content that its po-
tential allows.

17.3 Compounds in OE :
While there are not very many prefixes in OE in relation to the num-
ber of V there are a great may compounds which we have not counted in
the above figures since they are made of nouns and not verbs. They ena-
ble OE rich and varied semantic content. Nouns that enter in compounds
in OE are often severely abbreviated for the purpose.
Ex : Nid (need) CA [naqS] mad (mad) CA [magnoun), OE moo
(mood) CA lmaza:g].

If we examine how they operate in compouds

moo lufu (heart's love) I CA [ma:za::g] [waliyfj
moo-cearu (sorrow, anxiety) CA [ma:za::g) [carb]
moo-leaf (charming, dear to the heart) CA [ma:za::g] [laTiyf]
mod-hwa:t (strong of soul, couragoues ) CA [ma:za::g] [Hawiyt]

While the above compounds are found in CA, they are not used as
such in the language. The last two of which the second part is an adj may
be used in CA, not as compounds but as a N+adj.

Let us now suppose that there are three languages, language A, lan-
guage B and language C. Language A ha<; taken one third of the lexicon of
CA, language B another third and language C the third third. The three
languages would be fairly large and the three would be of the same source,
yet they would not have a single word in common.

17.4 Cog in Land OE :

Now let us return to Land OE. How much do they have in common?
A sample taken from OE and CA cognate forms shows that 44% of OE
words have L cognates, a similar sample taken from L shows that 39%
of L forms have OE cognates and 61 % do nol.

203
 When reading a L or OE text one docs not feel that there are so many
forms in common (apart from forms which have entered into OE directly
from L and which are not included in the sample above).

Why is this so? The reason is that a L or OE text would be made of

words that have new suffixes and prefixes and compound nouns as well
as other variations which make the two languages seem more different
than they actually are. We have obtained a relatively high percentage be-
cause we have counted roots. Perhaps an example of how we count
words will illustrate the point.

17 _5 Comparison of L iam and OE gear :

If we take the adv tam in L and the N gtat' in OE. They have noth-
ing to suggest that they could be cognates. But we know that in CA. L
tam is [ayre:m) and OE g~at' is [yawm-un). The first is the plural of
the second. Obviously they come from the same root.

The reasons they look different are the following:

L has the cors Iyl :/i! and OE has the cors Iyl :/gl a tri-cors. As we
have had occasion to note often before it is the cause of many of the dif-
[emces between Land OE. L has retained the final/m/. while OE has
changed the final Im/. This example reveals that the tendency for the
deletion of final/m/. and sometimes medial Iml in OE has taken place
after the rule for the change of In/to Irl when there is another nasal in
the word (12.$). Another difference is that L has the pI pattern while OE
has the singu1ar. I
Concerning the semantic content of the word. in old CA texts the sing
of this N is used to mean a period of time. it can be twenty four hours or
twenty thousand years. In Mod Arabic it is used in the limited sense of
24 hours. (cf with Mod Fr jour. which is a cognate). Land CA usc the
pI of this N as an adv to denote an epoch. in the sense of 'during that era'
or 'in the days of' at that time etc.
ht

OE and Ger use the sing not to denote twenty four hours but one year.
tp

There is no reason why this shoulO not be so since the basic sense is a
://

period of time.
a
l-m

When counting words shared by Land OE we count the above as 1.

ak

since the root is the same.

ta
be
h.
co

204
m
17.6 The names of animals of the IE tribes:
Few people, unless they study in CA, realize that the names of ani-
mals, in fact all N are derived from RV, or the TV derived from RV, or
the TV derived from them. The animal, or human being is called so or
so because of some characteristic that it possesses found in the V. We
shall give below some of the names of animals and human beings and
show how they are derived from RV.

Let us begin with the word animal itself. L animalis is in CA

[an3a:m). It is derived from the RV [na3ima) to become rich, to gain a
blessing, to live in easy circumstances. Animals, particularly cattle
were considered a source of wealth or ease and symbol of opUlence. The
OE cog is niten. The difference between the OE and the L word is that
the L has deleted 131 and the long VI after ir remains as IiI in all proba-
bility it started out as a long Ii! which was reduced with the general ten-
dency for VI reduction. The L word is a PI, as its CA cog, but the word
we find in OE from the same root is the fern, sing in CA [ni3mretin). It
appears in OE as nieten, nreten, and also niten. /31 has been changed to
a VI,Ia! or IiI and the Iml has been deleted as it often is in OE. The dif-
ference between L and OE here is also a difference of pattern, the pI neu-
ter, vs the fern, sing in CA.

The next word OE beot'~, CA [caTiy3) and Skr tat'~fJa (which means
herd) comes from the RV (qaTa3a) a part of the whole (see ll.l).

After that we have the word mount, which means anything one rides.
In CA it is [maTeyah). It comes from the RV [maTa:) to ride, to get
on. It has entered into Mod Eng through OE munt (for medial n see
12.5) and happens to be close phonetically to L mons, so that it is con-
fused with it. It is assumed that they are from the same root, when they
are not. L mons, monten, which means mountain is the eog of CA
[mawmatu) which has undergone metathesis bringing Iml in final posi-
tion for inflectional purposes in L. In CA it means great open space or
deserted land. In L as so often happens, a merger has taken place, so that
they appear of the same root. .

There are numerous names for horses in CA of which we can recog-

nise four in Land OE. Horses it seems were very important to the IE
peoples and that is the reason we find names that distinguish between the

20S
 different kinds. There are of the Ancient '-'",unll • .,.,,, chari-
ots but we must remember that the IE were rather earli·
er. or more.

The first name for horse we find in CA and in DHG. In CA it is

in DHG it is or It comes from the RV
which means to savage, prey, and the which has become the
name of the we find from the
same RV. the and it is connected with the as its CA cog
is connected with the lion in but while a name for the horse has
been derived from the RV in CA and DHG it remained
Within the of when Arab steads were
rope, were the name in which was
also. This is the first noun that refers to a
we can infer that the first horses the IE knew were wild ones.

The next name for horse is found in DE

inCA It

horse becomes more

used for the female horse not its
can be traced back to the
shows that horses have become tame.

The next word is found in both L and DE. In it is in DE it

is while in CA it is The L an the DE words have been
very much reduced. In DE this often when the word is used as a
In L is often deleted or as in the case
occurs often as an inOctional so that it was removed to
The has been deleted. The initial VI is the
the V more powers It has been reduced to
as it often is in L and DE.

The word comes from the TV which means to

The word Gr or DE tun means a fortified balliement or
ht

for in olden times cities had walls which

tp

A horse used to defend such a From

://

trained
a
l-m

horses [or war purposes.

ak

The next word is found in in CA it is

ta

The cors is
be
h.
co

206
m
 The word in CA is a collective noun and means figuratively cavalry
corpse, or a great army of horsemen. In L it is used with the same se-
mantic content.

One can disem that they had groups of horsemen, of cavalry as the
term denotes. The word comes from the V [xare:lre] to become proud, to
become a good horseman, to become vain, to become chivalrous.

17.7 Sea Life The IE tribes knew :

Did the IE have access to the sea, or were they a people who lived in
the central plains of Asia, as some theories maintain? We find the names
of sea life generally having cognate forms in CA and L or CA and OE.
While we cannot go into detail here, we shall give a few examples be-
low.
In CA the word [hUWL] is morphologically the cog of OE btnad, and
ON bush'. In CA it means fish, particularly a big fish, while in OE it
means whale. It comes from the RV [H:c:tre] which means to hunt
prey, to comer prey, to hover around quarry. From the same root comes
OE bunta (hunter). A whale is a fish that does not hunt its prey, so
that most probably in olden times it simply meant big fish. (although
today in Mod Arabic it means whale, but can mean fish, any fish as
well).

If we look at L balena, it comes from the same root as CA [bre:l]. In

both languages the word means whale. The diffemce is that L uses the
fern pat, while CA uses the neuter. The RV is [bre:lre] which means to
grow of huge, very great or extraordinary dimensions. One can see that
the word has always meant a whale. From the same RV comes OHG
ball (bale). CA [bre:lah].

The word [srem:ccJ, PI [somouc] AF sat1moun, ME salmon, means

fish, any kind of !ish in CA. The RV is [s:cmreca] which means to be
thich, to have thickness, the third dimension after length and breadth. It
must have meant a fat fish, or a fish that has thickness. In IE languages
it has become the name of a particular fish, the salmon whereas original-
ly it was not.

The word fiSt in OE, (fish), ftstoe in Porto Ger an [fisiyx] in CA.
comes from the RV [fasaxa] (sec 2.13).

207
 The word OE L and CA all mean sea
turtle. The RV from which the word is derived means to take be-
ta take as fort or shield. From the same V comes OE and
its CA cog which was a round shield. The turtle was so
called because it has a shield upon its back.

L
and corne from the RV IUj;1~Aj;1I:SdJ
words like L cancel', OE
corne from the same roOL,
is a mirror of its ancient cog to
break crunch or with the teeth. This V shows that the word has
not .... w ..l".~,u semantic content.
The few above show that were a who had
access to the sea. Not a little but an open sea where fish like
sharks and whales could be found.

17.8 The names of of the I E tribes :

Did make use of the sea, or were content to sit upon its
shore? The CA word is a cog of Gr schiff. The R V is
It is used for the wind when it rises A is some-
the wind. the word 'raft' comes from ON
IL is deri ved from the R V

whose CA
cog is the water.

The L word OE ental', CA arc also cognates

and OE is the cog of CA
means the frame or
ht

17 9 Numbers rrom One to Ten :

tp
://

We tend to think of numbers as entities apart, disconnected from other

a

as if sprang from nowhere.

l-m
ak

We shall trace below the RV from which each number sprang and
ta

show how it for all the RV from which numbers sprang,

be

whether those of CA or L or OE arc found in CA.

h.
co

08
m
The number one: In CA is [wa:Hed], it means one, a unified,
whole entity. It comes from the V [wreH'lliedre] to be one, to unify, to
make whole. From the same RV comes [aHad] which means single, in-
dividual, sole. It has a cog in OE bab'. The initial VI has been deleted in
th OE cog, but its effect remains in the longer medial VI. When the
word is used alone it means a single person, a man in both OE and CA.
While [wa:Hed] means number one or one person.

The number one: Is in OE an, Proto-Ger otnos, L uns Goth

tins. It comes from the RV [anisre]. In CA it is [ens] and it means
one person. The R V means to find comfort in, to feel secure with, to
like, to feel less afraid. It seems in olden times a person or [ens] was a
rare thing and was something desirable to have around. We notice that
in both CA and the IE languages the first single entity ever counted was
a human being. [ens] is a masc, but it may be used for women and chil-
dren also, for any single person of the human species. This is how it
carne to represent the number one.

The number two : In CA is [c8naynJ. It comes form the RV

[8anre:]. It means to fold something into two parts, to bend something
so as to have two equal parts, hence two entities. The L word for two is
~uo, the OE word is tfua. They do not come from the same RV as the
CA word but from the V [Tawa:]. It means to bring the two edges of
something together, to fold it in two, to cover up one part with the oth-
er. It appears in L as tutat't (to cover, not the same as Fr tuer which
means to kill and is in CA, [Ta:Ha] (to kill, destroy).

The number three: Comes from the same RV in the three languag-
es compared. Il is the TV [8al'la8a]. It is used for fruit when one third
approximately is ripe but not all, less than half, then for a chord to be
divided to braid in three parts. L tria, OE p rio, have undergone deletion
of the last syl and clustering of the first and second III : Irl by AC.

The number four: The number four comes from a different V in

each of the three languages. In CA it comes from the V [rab'bre3re] the
TV of [rabre3:c]to be square, firm, solid, the TV means to sit firmly, to
form a square figure on the ground, to sit cross-legged, to be in full con-
trol of. Four is [arbre~ah] in CA.

209
 In L the number four comes from theY the TV of
in three dimensions. The TV means to

the same V comes L

and retained the semantic content found in CA.

The number comes from the RV

to cuL in many In OE it means Lo cut in four
hence the number four. The word occurs with two
There is and The first is the older and in accord with the
the second is a case of words derived from V which have lost
one and then submitted to rule of 2 V.

in CA means to make a small

.." .... ".,., .. j

of or a hollow inside a
frame. Thus it came to mean one oul of and the number
five. L and Skr. panta come from the same RV as the
CA word. Cors in L : /n
Inc. The Skr word has metathesis.

The word for five in OE is It comes from a different RV than

CA. It comes from the V to make a circle round.
The CA cognate form is It means a group, a Since a cir-
cle can be made of it came to mean five in OE. The OE word has
onrll",."",,.,,, deletion of the first

The number six : The word for the number six is the same in CA
L and other IE It is six in OE sex in Land

It means to be not in the front rows, not

of the first numbers nor of

The number seven: Comes from the same RV in and

ht

Skr as well as other IE The R V is Il means to de-

tp

young, about a week old. One of the names of the lion

://

from the same RV. It also means to birth in the

al-m

seventh at the but a Ii ttIe less.

ak
ta
be
h.
co

210
m
 The cognate forms in L is Stptum, Skr sapta OE StO£Ol1 and CA
[sreb3ren] the difference between the Land Skr form is that L uses a
masc pat while Skr has a fern pat ending in Ial. Both have interpreted
CA 131 as Itl. OE has the mase pat like L but the difference between it
and L is that in OE /31 is interpreted as /01 and fbI : IfI by AC. cases of
tri corso

The number eight: Comes in CA from theTV [9rem'mrenre] to

value to estimate, to assess, of high price (if an object). Among the
numbers from one to nine, eight holds a high position, hence this inter-
pretation and choice of verb.

The verb from which L Otto and OE tabta come as well as Skr. ash-
tau is the CA V [aHaTa]. It isa V+pref, and it means to surround fully,
to be in full control of. Eight can surround completely. This is the
cause of this choice.

The number nine: Comes in CA from the RV [sre:3a] to be able

to hold, to have space, capacity. The immediate V from which nine
comes is [et.asre3a] a pre+ V and it means to grow wider of greater capaci-
ty. Nine is the biggest of the one digit numbers. From this same RV
comes the number ten in Land OE as well as other IE languages.

If we compare Proto Ger ttXJn* and CA [tes3an] we find that the dif-
ference is that Proto Ger interpreted 131 as Icl, a NC which we have met
before in both Land OE.

The number nine: In L and OE is nouum and ntg-on respectively.

The cognate form in CA is [nayf] it comes from the RV [nre:fre]. It
does not mean nine, but to be over, above, Lo exceed, to be a large num-
ber. The difference between the L and the OE form is that OE has
changed the medial Iyl in the CA word to Igl by CC, while L has
changed the whole diphthong to a VI, and IfI to Iv/. OE has deleted the
final IfI.

The number ten : Comes in CA from the RV [3a:sara] to live with

for a long Lime, ten months or ten years, hence ten is the biggest num-
ber or the number of two cligitals.

211
17.10 The numbers one Hundred and one Thousand :
From the RV comes the word in CA and
in OE. CA has the fern. pat, which in-
stance. a case, and OE has The
semantic content of the R V is to to flow out, to
hence to be of number. In CA the word
dred. The Fern is used to denote that this is a
not an unknown one. While in DE the word
retains the of the that is an indefinite number.
The word for a hundred in
come from the same RV as the word
has this come about? The RV means to a a limit.
CA an boundaries means it apart as one unified en-
hence the number one. but L and OE have used the sense of
the that is to or limit. The number 100 is the bounda-
ry between numbers of two zeros and one zero.

While L has taken the word for one thousand from the V OE
as well as other IE ......6 ..."'6~"" have taken the N thousand from the same
that is the V and the derived V is
+V.

If the RV means to grow the derived V

al infix have this to ex-
to to extend.

The word in DE is p
The DE word has the

The word for a thousand comes in CA from the V

to make a group or
number as the name denotes and the semantic content of the RV
nates.
ht

In L the word for thousand is It comes from the V

tp
://

in which means to to lean towards hence extenLion. Words

a

from this V are used in CA Lo describe distances or of

l-m

.... "" ..'''. and also the N which was in olden times a
ak

far apart distances for travellers. It was

ta

distances upon sea and land. The Hashimite

be
h.
co

212
m
 [ma:yl] was 4000 cubits. L has used the same V to produce a word de-
noting great numbers. millUS' can mean one thousand and also an infi-
nite number in L.

From the TV of this V, the V [mal'la] comes the L word tn iUia

which is in CA [mil'lah] and it means a group of people of the same race
or creed who occupy a large area, approximately a mile. The Roman
mile was 1000 paces or 1618 yards, approximately.

17.11 Proper Names :

A proper name is a noun like any other, but a noun that has acquired
special significance. A proper N found in boLh Land CA or OE and CA
is a N that has lived Lhrough thousands of years and entered into many a
fable. It is also a N like all oLhers that conforms to the rules of the lan-
guage it belongs to, though perhaps a little less so, since distinction
from other forms, special significance is its hall mark. After examining
some of the rules that govern CA, Land OE, we are in a position to
trace some of these proper nouns.
The first N to examine is the word Latin or lAtinUS'. Its cog in CA
is [waTan]. It means native land, homeland, land of origin. It comes
from the RV [waTina] to settle, to live in, to make one's home. The ini-
tial/w/ : /1/ in L by FC.
The next proper N to examine is the N Greek. Its cog in CA is [eR-
riyq]. (the Greeks). It comes from the RV [Rariqa] which means to
drown, to go in the deep, to be immersed in deep water. The OE V
bt'OtIm ian is its cognate. cors /q/ : /d/ by FC, /R/ deleted. The V has
become a 2 syl V and acquired /w/ in consequence.
To return to the word "Greek". Why should the Greeks be called
"those immersed in the deep"? Man Lhinks relatively and to the Arabs
who have one great stretch of land, the Greeks who lived in little islands
seen immersed in the deep. Similarly the Greeks called the old Arab civ-
ilization of Tadmir, Petra, (the Rock) because its inhabitants carved
houses out of the mountains.
The Fr. port of Marsaille has as cog form in CA [mrersa::]. It means
port, harbour, place to anchor. The RV is (ra:sre:] to stop movement, to
lay anchor. Its OE cog is t'uttan (to rest). The word is made of the
pref [ma+ra:sre:] the final long VI is changed to "ille" in Fr, by AC.

213
 Are proper names of individuals also derived from RV? Let us see.
In CA a large number, in fact all proper names may be Lraced to their
RV. Thus [nabiJ] means noble and has as cog in L nobtHs, while
[la:del] means just, noble and has as cog in OE and in Mod Ger tbd.
Similarly the famous Greek name Herculis comes in CA from the RV.
[harcrela] to grow of great size, of superhuman propotions. While "ul-
tan, the blacksmith of the gods, comes fron the RV [breraca] the N is
[burca:n] (volcano). It seems the movements of volcanos was attributed
to the diligence of this smith. Similarly the L N monette, the godless
of the mint has as cog in CA [mx:I] and it means money. Monette is-
the Fe~ pat having tt in L, in CA it would be [mrelatu].

The proper name America is derived from that of Amerigo Vespucci,

one of the first to sail to the New world. The word is in CA, [xmiyr].
It comes fron the RV [amara] and it means to command, to rule, hence
[amiyr] is a commander, ruler, prince. The Sp word has undergone the
cors of /y/ : /g/ by Cc. It means prince, and America, the fern pat
means princess. It is not an IE word however but has been taken in Sp
directly from CA, as a great many words have, during the seven centuries
the Arabs lived in Spain.

Sometimes old words particularly proper names which manage to sur-

vive long after their practicle significance is gone, are interpreted rather
differently by succeeding generations. In CA we have the original se-
mantic content of the R V .
I
Ex : The town of Bamborough has in DE the name btbbtn-but'b.
This name in CA is made ot t 0 words as it is in DE [bebre:n] means
doors. It is the pi : of [bx:b] which means door, and bUd) CA [burg]
means fortified city, citadel, tower. The whole would mean city or cita-
del of the doors. The context in which the word occurs also suggests
this: "Ida began to reign from whom arose the noble race of the North-
ambians and reigned twelve years. He built Bambourough which was at
frrst enclosed by a hedge, and afterwards by a wall" (A.D. 547).
ht

The connection of building suggests that the word does have the se-
tp

mantic content given above, since such walled cities had gates which
://

were opened or closed by the inhabitants at will.

al-m

Later generations however (731) suggest that the city was called Jltb-
ak

ban -but'b after the name of a queen called il~blla. It is suggested that
ta
be
h.
co

214
m
King Aedelfrid, the grandson of king Ada gave it this name (see Bos-
worth p. 73).

We tend to believe that bebban means doors and that the final/a:nl
would not be given to a proper name but to a common one, in accord
with the rules of syntax of CA which were maintained in early OE, to a
considerable extent

If we take another example from ON but'gon bat'~olmt'. Il has been

interpreted as Isalnd of the Burgandians. Now if we interpret it in accord
with its semantic value in CA it is three words not one.

Burgon : as we have seen above means citadel or fortifies city in CA

as well as most Gennanic Languages.

While in olden times the tribes who lived in these citadels were recog-
nised by their homes and called "those of the towers" the new interpreta-
tion reverses the sense, making the towers recognized by them.

Idarl is in CA [da:r] it means house or home. In L the word has

become bomUS'. The inflectional ending of [da:r-un] has been changed to
Iml and Irl has been deleted. The more ponderous Iml has taken the
place of both In rl as well as the long VI.

In consequence it has become attached to the V bomino in L which is

[Da:mreJ in CA. A different root from that of [da:rJ even though the se-
mantic content of to take a home and to dominate, rule, subjugate are
not close. It is the phonetic shape together with the idea of taming,
making domestic, subjugating to one's will that caused the attachement

In OE [Da:mre] which means to judge wrongly in CA is b6m (doom)

and CA [da:r] is b6t' (door). In OE the whole has come to mean the part.
Home has come to mean door, a metonymy.

Even so, one can use the one for the other in certain idiomatic phrases.
One can say "He came to my door" or "at my door" and mean my house
in Mod Eng, possibly because of this underlying metonymy. ~olmt': is
in CA Ihrem-in/. It means protected place, home, protected precincts.
OE bam comes form the same root. The RV [hremre:l means to pro-
tect. [dar Hremi-nl would mean a place or precincts that protects "house
of protection", a sheltering home. (see B. Lockwood p. 3 1965). The
whole would be tower-house of protection. The changes that the word
~olmt' has undergone are the following. The long VI has been changed

215
 to as it is in and OE in many the final is ...... ," .. ~;"u to
dissimilation to

to the porper name "Gudihari"

of the

is the same as CA and it means soldier.

unclefJ~ol1le deletion of final The R V is
and from this V comes the L taken from Gr
CA cog To retrun to the name
the whole in CA means "soldier of war".

uPl)Osing we take a familiar proper name like "the Thames". Does it

in CA? OE L gen Tamisre has in CA a
more it is It comes from the R V
to sweep over, to flow over, to cover. It can re a river
land or the clouds over the stars. We notice it is
inite art to denote that it is a instance.

17.12
There are two in British called Alfred. the
wise 685-750 and the Great 849.

In OE the name has reen or peace. Does it have

any inCA?

In order to understand what it

in OE after the RV was

The
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak

and in L ton-
ta

In CA it is called in OE the V is
be

notat'e many LV it is an authentic V which has been as

h.
co

216
m
 pref+v by merger with another). In olden times great men were distin-
guished by their tribes or people by such adjectives preceded by laV ing
CA, and when the took the place of lall by "the" in OE. In all proba-
bility the name [al fariyd] or Aelfred was used as a connotation the first
time, then when it became a proper name, and laV had lost its signific-
nace, other such attributes had to be used after it so that there is Aelferd
the wise and Aelfred the Great. Search in early Brithish histroy might
reveal who was the first [al fariyd] or the unparalleled one.

17.13 Skills or the IE :

In the preceding chapters we have seen how very well planned and con-
structed the language of the IE was on all five levels. Such a language
does not belong to a primitive people.

In this chapter we have seen that the names of things are not arbitrari-
ly chosen but depend on the characteristics of the thing so called.
Through what the IE call things one sometimes gets a glimpse of
knowledge one docs not expect people in an early stage of civilization to
have. If we look at the word for heart, CA [qalb] L cors, OE heart.

It is a cognate in all three (8.3). It comes form the RV [qalreba]

whose TV is [qal'laba] the RV means to turn, to turn over, and the TV
means to keep turning over and over again. The heart is so called be-
cause it turns the blood into the body. The circulation of the blood in
the body was discovered by Harvy in the eighteenth century, and yet this
word denotes unmistakably that the IE knew the role the heart plays.
Otherwise they would have called it "what throbs", or "what ticks".

Similarly the process of breathing is called [~ahiyq] and [zafiyr] to in-

hale or get air into the lungs and to exhale or get air out of the lungs.

If we examine the word [qalaq]. It comes form the RV [qalreqa] 10 dis-

turb, to stir, to make anxious or worried. [qalaq] means anxiety. If we
study this word on the level of SS we find that it has the same cons Iql
at the beginning and the end of the word, while the centre is occupied by
Ill. In the SS of the language Iql is one of the strongest sounds, and it
stands for cavity, dome, hence a depth or captivating area, while III
which stands for extention or leaning toward is a weak sound because its
quality and direction are not independent but decided by the cons before
and after it. The two cons in this word are .the same hence of equal
strength, so that we have two strong pulls in opposite directions and a

217
 weak central force that cannot setLle the matter or lean in either direction.
It is that modern was able to define as
a conflict between two

lead one to conclude that these

standard of civilization before
"'1'S,'<""'1-> and to start anew.

1 7 .14 'LUI~'''''''::: and Rderent :

In the pages we have traced many words to their R V. In
fact all whether common or proper nouns, may be traced back to
the verb were derived from. In ) we have seen how the native
"""""Jr",. of CA does not have to know the of words
but the RV and the
of the word or coin new words that other would
understand because also are aware of the
to the

In olden times different who used the same before the

loss of SS and the loss of the rule words could and did coin
whatever words needed from RV.

In consequence we come sometimes across the same form from the

same RV the same and the same semantic content but a
different referent

a circle or "'UII,,-,~ . .a

In CA it the words which means disc or round

ht

is used for the disc of the sun, and which means

tp
://
a
l-m

From this comes the semantic content of to hurt or

with the The PI is a kind of round cake.
ak
ta
be
h.
co

218
m
 In GR the word t~Ot'US' is derived form this V and it meant originally
to dance in a ring or circle, to twirle. In OE we find the word tut'St
(curse) to injure with the tongue as in CA.

In AE (Ancient Egyptian) we find the N ut'aeUS' which was a circular

band with a snake at its head, worn by the ancient Egyptian deities. (for
more on the cars lui: Iql by CC (see 8.8)
(for more on AE see appendix).

While in L tot'US' whose CA cognate is [qa:res] is used as the name of

the biting northwest wind. Not one of the languages above has diverged
from the basic meaning of the RV. Yet each has used it differently.
Such forms we may call cognates because as far as the language is con-
cerned they are the same, but they are not absolute cognates so we may
call them MC or morphological cognates. These MC are able to give us
clues to what forms have been derived before separation of the tribes and
what have not. MC are words that must have been coined after separa-
tion of the tribes and absolute cognates before it. MC are few in com-
parison with words that are absolute cognates in OE and a little less so
in L because of the necessity of coinging new words.

219
 m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
al-m
://
tp
ht
 CHAPTER XVIII
DIFFERENT TENDENCIES IN OE

18 . 1 The four dialects :

Old England was divided into four major districts, where four different
dialects were spoken. The Northumbian, the Mercian, the West Saxon
and the Kentish. The West Saxon dialect has prevailed over the other
three and most manuscripts were written in this dialect. (for a more de-
tailed account see Bauch 1968 P. 60).
In consequemce we have treated OE as one language, but one must be
aware that it is a language which was subjected to numerous influences
and that numerous Germanic tribes have settled successively as well as co-
existed in Great Britain. One must not exclude the influences over the
language that may be due to contact with other tribes in their original
home on the continent. Luckily these tribes were all IE tribes and all the
words we have found have their cors and their cognates in CA.
In OE there are major tendencies which we assume to belong to the
West Saxon dialect, and minor tendencies very different from it, some-
times the exact antithesis, which must have entered the language through
neighbouring dialects. A study of the different tendencies in OE and their
comparison with other Germanic tongues, to sort out which influences
come from the continent and which were originally upon the island,
would form a most interesting research that would decide how much of
Celtic or other influences there exist in OE. This research has to be a
work apart. if it is to be given its due. In this comparative study all we
can do is to digress a little to point out briefly some of the more salient
features of the different dialects of which OE is formed.

Study of the language shows that unlike Latin or other dialects, OE

does nol have a few major rules and numerous word that have submitted
to other phonetic and morphological rules and may be safely considered
loan words, but that the exceptions in OE are nearly a.!, numerO:Js a.: the
main rules, so that a study of the language reveals that it is more than one
language, more than one dialect but two or three which were able to
merge because they were originally from the same mother tongue.

221
18.2 tendencies :
Let us look first at some of the m(JlrpllO(,OIt!;ICal tendencies in OE and
ones. In OE there are two oPIJOsing
dencies. A Ipnrll'"rv 10 delete three words to one
form.

A word that has Un(lerlgoflle severe deletion can

and a word that has been reduced 10 more compact form
VI and of consonants no further deletions. The two
tendencies exclude each other.

We find many words in OE reduced to the exists

in CA and in OE for words derived from two but we find it used in
OE for words from three V which have un(lerJ~ol1le severe deletion.

Ex:

The ......6 .....6 .... were taken has a rule

that deletes one of words where a that is not found in it oc-
curs. We do find such deletions in words where all the are
found in OE like'
Ex: lufu wag mad

It is JA''''''IU''' that deletions started in words where ph(Jnc;m(~s not found

in OE occur and then in words where no such analo-
gy.
The second is LO cluster words
ph4JnC;~m(!s
that do not occur in the them 10 other
- ...... 0 ... 0

Slaps or fircatives that and obtain the CCVC or CCVCC

cussed in 14.

Since the two tendencies contrast we may come across words n ... "nn<>1
Iy from the same root rather different.
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

222
m
 Ex:

Mod Eng OE N N in CA OE V RV in CA

1. gallows 1. galga [3oIre:qah] clingan [lrel'lreqa]

2. light 2. Leoma [Iamlan] gleaman [lamala]
3. part of 3. felg [frelq] cleofan [faIaqa]

1. The N has submitted to a deletion rule while the V has submitted to a

clustering rule, the cors of the N is Iql : Ig/ by AC and III :/g/ by Ee.
The V has the cors Iq/ : Icl and Ill: Ig/ by assimilation to the Inl be-
fore to. In OE semi-VI after Ig/ or before it are othen changed to Inl
while stops before or after Inl are often changed to Ig/.

(cf CA [qaraDa] L corrodere but OE gnagan. The mediallrl in

this example was changed to In! by EC with the final Inl of the su-
pine.

Then the initial/q/ was changed to Ig/ because of the presence of

In/. We notice that the V in 1 has an additional/n/. This is a feature
of the language that clusters. It occurs where the main stress occurs in
the CA cognate form, possibily to balance the two clusters, the initial
and the final, and it is usually a nasal 1m lor In/.
Ex: [qalbarah] c1ympre (see 14.16)

2. In this example the N has undergone deletion while the V has under-
gone clustering which brings the final III to initial position as Ig/ be-
cause of the presence of Iml in this word.
3. Here the N has retained the original pattern while the V has undergone
clustering and the cors of Iq/ : Ic/. while the N has the cors Iql : Ig/ a
cors that often occurs when Iql is in final position.

In the examples given above the V has undergone clustering and the N
has not. Could this be a tendency in OE? Observation of such forms re-
veals that there are many N also which have undergone heavy clustering.
The examples above were chosen in order to illustrate the difference be-
tween the two tendencies, but one can give examples of verbs which have
undergone deletions and N which have undergone clustering like:

223
 Ex: [qannah] cruma, (bite fragment) [qambarah] crumb (bent, crouch-
ing) cuman [qadi rna] (to come). Here the V has one syl deleted
and the N have been clustered.

18.3 Phonetic tendencies :

We shall now examine some of the differences in phonetic corso Dif-
ferences we have noted before are :

1. The change of /hi to IfI (9.5)

2. The change of IfI 191 and other fricatives to /hI (9.13)

These two tendencies oppose each other. /hI is a favourite in DE

and the tendency to change other fricatives to /hi is the dominant ten-
dency, nevertheless in some fonns /hI is changed to IfI. IfI is often
brought to initial position in words where it occurs. This is the mark
of a favourite. In one of the dialtecLS of DE IfI is a favourite, though
not in the main dialect.

3. We have given examples of the change of lsi and other fricative to 191
in DE. This is a main tendency, but along side of this tendency, we
find that lsi is also a favourite and just as some words beginning with
lsi have changed to 191 others bcgining with 191 have been changed to
lsi or have retained the original lsi.
In conseqJence words of the same root may begin with either 191 or lsi
as shown in (9.6). j

v
18.4 (s) and (s) :
Similarly lsi and I~I replace each other in DE, so that some words be-
ginning with lsi in CA have I~I in DE. The opposite tendency also exists
together with words from the same root retaining the original sounds.
ht

v v
tp

Ex : CA [srems) DE sunn (sun) lsi: lsi

://

CA [safinah] DE scip (ship) lsi : I~I

a
l-m

CA [e9m] DE sin (sin) 191 : lsi

ak
ta
be
h.
co

224
m
18. S Idl as favourite :
Although Id/ is not a favourite in OE we find a group of words where
Id/ replaces other stops and is removed to initial position. In this group
Id/ is clearly a favourite.
Ex: dOOp [3amiyq] (deep), deaf [Tara~] (deaf), door [3aziyz] (dear)
dumb [bucm] dagger [xingar] (dagger) drnca [taniyn] dead (dead)
(see 10.2) drownian [Rariqa] (see 17.11).

Sometimes there are versions of the same word one beginning with Id/
and another retaining the original stop.

Ex : dolh gore CA [garH] (wound).

The fust N has the cors Id/ : Ig/ the second retains Ig/ but has deleted
the final /HI.

18.6 Medial infix :

A group of OE words, afler reducing three syl words to have two con-
sonants, introduces Iwl submitting to the rule for two syl verbs, then
moves it to form a cluster with the first consonant according to the clus-
tering rules developed later. It is a fairly large group and in consequence
we may have two versions of the same word like:
Ex: d61 and dwol (dull) CA (Da:I), cuman and cwomon (to come) CA
[qadima] sup [qoduman).

In (8.3) we have shown that a group of words has the cors /hI : Iql
contrary to the main tendency which is Icl : Iql in OE. There is also a
minor tendency to replace /hI by /g/ and in a few words (possibly loan
words) Ig/ by /hi.
Ex: gad (point) CA (Had), gast, CA (Ha~d) (L hostis)

One may come across the same word having both phonemes : Like
hre6d gryd CA [gariyd] (reed)
It is the same word coming from two different sources. The first has
changed the medial diphthong to leal while the second has changed it to
Iyl which was probably pronounced as a long /il or possibly a diphthong.

us
18.7 Vs OE:
is a favourite in OE but in one dialect is the T<1I'U'n..." ....

and words as well as other sounds are change:<i to

ECL

p.lC'~m'nIP in

Sometimes a word which llIl".,ni ...." an initial

in OE to achieve the pat
Ex: CA OE cn6sl {nHF"'.u.... '"

It apppears that it is the favours that

favoures because in it in such
clusters. More research needs to be done on the for sometimes the
occurs with other as initial sound like CA

While in OE one is aware of the differnt currents

the has submitted to. It is lnIe are Germanic ten-
dencies and may be traced in other Germanic as which
....""1'>""'..,. that these differences had taken before the Germanic
tribes settled in Great Britain. It also
lived all the but may have been for
of to cause their to differ. That would
count for the cross currents found in Germanic Such research
would throw the very the Gremanic and
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

226
m
 CHAPTER XIX
ON STRUCTURE IN CA

19.1 Parts of speech in CA :

Since earliest times Arab grammarians have divided CA fonns into
three broad categories. The noun, the verb and the particle. Each of these
categories has numerous subcategories, whose features have been meticu-
lously studies and recorded since the seventh century. Such details need
not concern us here. But we shall try to give an outline or brief sketch of
the language in order to compare it with other related languages.

1. The noun : The noun is defined as any form that is inflected for
case or number. This category includes nouns proper, bi-
functional forms that act as both nouns or adjectives, depending on
their role in the sentence and adjectives. It includes also aU pro-
nouns as a sub class, that is personal pronouns, demonstrative pro-
nouns, relative pronouns and reflexisive pronouns.

19.2 Bi-functional forms :

The bi-functional forms are of special interest because each of them
may be considered a whole sentence in deep structure and carries the se-
mantic content of a sentence. The information"it gives depends on its pat-
tern. Let us look at the nouns first. .

Ex : From the V [qatrela] one may derive the following nouns:

1. [qatl] killing, an abstract N
2" [qatIah] fern N, a particular way of killing
3. [maqtal] a particular killing, or crime

Bifunctional forms:
1. [qa:tel) person who has killed (killer)
2. [qatiyl) person who has been killed
3. [maqtuwl] person,killed. The orientation here is on the condi-
tion of the killing, whereas in the preceding form the emphasis
was on the person
4. [qata!:l) something whose main function is killing, or for whom
it is the distinctive feature. It is used for a shark, poison, an ep-
idemic etc.

Such forms can give much information in compact form. It is one of

the features of economy found in CA. We notice that pattern 4 has a long

227
 final VI which denoted in the SS of the .....l5u'./S.... ..,,, ........,.v..
wi(Ies)rel:td or """,'hir." ouL

19.3
Aalecuvc:S can occur as attribute or as "'.................. in CA. An ""',..rt, ...,,"
takes the same inflection as the noun it u,uUU,'''''''.
does not if it is a predIcate.

As attribute it denotes that the characteristic is

denotes that the characteristic does not have to be
cary. sugl~este:cl.
Ex: It is a fact or in-
nate characteristic.
It 'U'."'''''. I find her

The distinction is no so clear in Mod but in Mod Fr much

of this usage old usage is retained. forms above are in CA
artdMod

An may take the of a noun, if it does not a

the definite article. Such found also
the In CA almost any may be
so used.
An may be used in apPosiltion
article. This feature is found in many IE I"",,,,,,,,,,,",, ,,,,,,,UU'''/S
Ex : Abou Bakr A'Sedik The
Soliman Al Hakim

19.4 The verb:

When disc:uS!l:ing
tent may be used to a tnulsil.Uve, intransitive
al verb. A V may have two or have two One may attenu-
ht

ate or or the semantic content. All this ''''II!'.UlA'L.tUlI

tp

the verb may be of

://
a

This the verb very

l-m
ak

Much of this usage of verbs as well as much of the functions of bi-

ta

functionai forms have been lost in modern langwlges.

be
h.
co

228
m
19.5 The verb to be :
The verb to be is called [in'nre] in CA. It is the RV from which the
present of the V be ~n Mod Eng is derived (see 7.16). But in CA it is
used only when emphasis or other stylistic effects are desired. As a copu-
la it is elided. In other words, CA makes use of the negative as well as
the positive features of language (in several ways) so that the absence of
verb in a sentence denotes that the V is copula in the present and that it
has been elided. In L we come across such structure occasionally (see be-
low 7.16).

While the V be is elided in CA most of the time, it still takes as pred-

icate the same categories of the language that it takes as predicate in Mod
Eng.
Ex : [huwa Tawiyl] (he is tall) adj as pred to V be
[huwa fil qu'nah] (he is in the garden) adverbial phrase as pred.
[huwa sabre:H] (he is a swimmer) pred nominal

The structures above are the same in CA and Mod Eng except that the
V be is elided in CA. All the forms are also cognates except the prep 1fI/
and 'in'. In CA lfil denotes entry inU> since IfI is the symbol of opening.
making way and Iii of going from one point to another. linl was origi-
nally a prefix and is still so in CA (7.21) For laV and Ithe! (see 11.19).

19.6 Particles :
Under the heading "particltl:S" come all the forms that may not be in-
flected for case and number, and all that may not take tense. It includes as
sub-categories, prepositions, conjunctions, particles that pertain to verbs
(as in German) aIild also some adverbs of place. All these are called in CA
"the uninflecti nables". It is a feature of economy of the language.
Where inflection is unnecessary it is not allowed. It is not a feature pecu-
liar to CA however, but to all Semitic tongues, and it may be found in L
and OE also. ~t is uue that some forms that are uninflectionable in CA
have become inflectionable in Land OE due to a change of category, but
on the whole the ancient rules concerning irlflection still apply.
Ex:

I~
CA •• OE

[hunrecre] heonan

219
 The above adverbs are uninflectionable in the three .....cu••c"".,.
are also forms. L has deleted the medial and final VI but retained
the consonants, while OE has it a final EC.

9.7 in CA :
Arab have been very much concerned with the of
....... KW.K'" since the six cent A.D. In fact there are very volumes
where such is and where each and sut)-altel2:0IV
each item is set down and described in detail. If one looks
at the of CA one very different from and OE.
If one looks at the itself one finds remarkable similarities. To
the of syntax in CA is outside the scope of this and it
is as well for very much on individual vision of lan-
guage, and on the norm among each group of For
us it is much more to the to compare some CA with some Land
OE structures. To illustrate the let us this sentence.

This sentence is made of a and verb. How is it to be

or a sentence'! Transformational grammar
would consider this a sentence, what is called a
kernel sentence. But an Arabic grammar teaCher would never allow a stu-
dent who sentence to pass his exam. In order to
the

tense whose is on the lower

level the pronoun toJ];etlleI with its act as
v ..........."''''' to the proper N

The reason the student has to this

80S consider ,the natural order of sentences to be
gra.mnlari,ans consider it to be SVO.
ht
tp

The sentence is the same but we have two different two dif-
://
a

ferent ways of at To the reader unfamiliar with the

l-m

methods of CA granlmer. of sentences on two levels may come

ak

"nrnri,,,, but as as the seventh we find Arab gra.ml1narian

ta

on two levels. This is because CA is a of

be
h.
co

230
m
 great economy, and therefore much ellipsis is allowed in certain
structures. In consequence analysis on a deep and a surface structure began
very early.

19.8 CA VSO or SVO language:

Let us return to the question which the analysis above has introduced.
IS CA a VSO or a SVO language. A statistic count of a CA passage has
given the raito of 7:8 and a statistic count of an OE passage has given the
ration of 5:8. In OE we find a stronger tendency to use the order SVO,
while in CA a stronger tendency to use VSO, but in both language either
kind of sentence is perfectly grammatical and correct

Is it a matter of style then? CA is an inflectional language and much

is allowed for the sake of style, but what concerns us here is the norm,
the common usage of the language. In order to understand the motivation
behind sentence structure one has to bear in mind that CA is a language
based on SS. Sentence order is significant on this level as on the other
levels. Supposing we analyses a S like [nusre3iducre] (we shall help you)
whose order is fixed and obligatory.
Inul : personal pronoun first pers. pI. (we, L nos)
[sre3idu] :V in the simple present tense.
[ere] pers pro, objective case, second pers sing.

In the above sentence the order is SVO. Now let us look at this same
sentence in the past tense. [sre3rednacre] (we have helped you).
the order is V+S+O.

This is the norm, because according to the SS of the language the

present action (and the present may be used for the near future also in CA
as in Mod Eng) the verb is yet to come, the action is not done or finished
yet, but in a past action the V comes before because relati~ to the subject
it is after the subject, behind it, something already accomplished. Let us
take another example:
[zayd fi I gun'nah] (zayd is in the garden)

Here the sentence is SVO, but [haHam zayd re+sreyf] (zayd smashed
the sword).

231
 The order here is vas. The reason is that in the second sentence the
V is a transitive V. The action is the whereas in the frrst
sentence the V is of no consequence and is elided in CA.
ask: who smashed the sword? The answer would be
If we asks what was smashed? We would the answer
or 7.14 for

In this second answer there is no mention of at ail. We notice

that the sentence order caters to the semantic content This is of the
of SS which underlies CA structures.

19.9 CA and Modern

r'''.... n''' ... ,''nn of some CA and Mod sentences

Here is the book

adv+be+NP

We notice that the sentence order is the same except that the V be is
elided in CA. The order is the common usage in CA and in Mod be-
an adv of with which is the
in

this is the usual order it is not vu,,,,,,,uv. in either 1411~U'~~l;;

and one may say :
The book is here

But a different orientation in CA and is

in answer to the "What is here?" rather than "Where is the
book?" The stress is on 'book' and therefore it comes frrst. Is this the
structure where there is resemblance in CA and Mod Let us see:
ht

CA
tp
://

1. Who has the book?

al-m

2. Give me the book

ak

3. Will you
ta
be
h.
co

232
m
The three sentences have the same structure in CA and Mod Eng.
1. In the first sentence the int pro comes first because it is the regulator,
or the most important single item that sets the tone of the whole sen-
tence, therefore it has to come first, in accord with the rules of SS.
One cannot say in Mod Eng anymore than one can say in CA.
Has the book who* [hafazal cita.!b ma:n]*.

This is forbidden by the SS of the language.

2. The second sentence is an imperative, a direct command and in both
languages the V has to come first, and in both languages the pronoun
of the second pers is elided (7.13) unless special orientation is desired.

If we say:
Give me you the book [re)Tini renta rei cita.!:b]

It is an acceptable sentence in both language but it has a special stress

pattern and intonation to denotes that I ask it of you not him. Supposing
we change the sentence order to bring the pronoun to initial position.
You give me the book [renta a)Tini+rel citre:b]

This sentence also has a different intonation having the main stress
upon the pronoun "you" or [anta]. In Mod Eng it may be even more ac-
ceptable than the one before it. In CA it acquires a new shade of mean-
ing. It is more emphatic than the one before it. (the first item is always
the most important) and it is more of a command, a reprimand than the
one preceding it. By contrast with the common order having the verb
first, it suggests that it is your duty, a duty that you have not accom-
plished so far.

3. Sentence three has a direct object and an indirect object. In both Mod
Eng and CA the indirect object Inil in CA (me in Mod Eng) comes
first. Although the particle la-I which is here an interrogative has
been lost in Mod Eng, it is replaced by the aux will, and this aux
comes first exactly as the ancient particle that it has replaced comes
first. We know that interrogative particles or pronouns come first as
regulators in CA; (see above) and in Mod Eng. Supposing we change
the sentence to have a phrase instead of the indirect objcct.
"Will you give the book to me?" [a+ Ta3ti: acitre:b ilaya?]

In this sentence the proposition and its object come last in both Mod
Eng and CA and the direct object precedes them. In CA this change of
structure has a corresponding change in semantic content. The

233
 implication is "Will you give the book to me and not to him"? In Mod
Eng it mayor may not have this implication for the correspondence be-
tween structure and semanitc content is not a one to one relationship as it
is in CA. Nevertheless the change in position takes place, a phenomenon
one comes across rather often. (see below).

We have given examples above of some simple sentences. Let us try

one having an objective complement.
Ex : I found him mad [wagad + tu + hu magnoun]
S+ V+O+Obj C comp V+S+O+Obj C

The difference is that in CA the verb comes first because the subject is
a pro-form that is attached to the V and in the past tense it comes after the
V for reasons given above.

We know that OE has replaced these pro-forms found in CA and in L

by the personal pronouns. Can we not use the presonal pronoun in CA
before the V as it is used in OE and Mod Eng?

We can in CA, but that would give a new orientation to the sentence.
Ex : [rena wregatuhu magnoun] (I found him mad). Now the order is
the same in both CA and Mod Eng.

The presence of the personal pro here emphasises the fact that it was I
and no one else who found him mad. Other people may find him sane. In
Mod Eng one would say, "For my part" or "It was I who" in the place of
the pers pro iJ the CA sentence. \J

19.10 Comparison of O E, CA and Mod Eng :

If we com~ between the sentence order in the Mod Eng and OE sen-
tence below ,:
OE cwom Maria in dag-red Maria came in the dawn (red of day)
CA [qadi mat mariya fit fregr] [maria qadi mat fit fregr]
ht

OE has the order VS pred. and the ¥od Eng sentence has the order SV
tp

pred. Which order shall we use in CA.? rn CA one may use either order.
://
a

both sentence~ are grammatically correct. but if one is relating a story,

l-m

and in a story the action is the most important thing. one would introduce
ak

the verb first to connect the sentence semantically with the action in the
ta

sentence before it, but if one wishes to dramatize the entrance of Maria or
be
h.
co

234
m
if one is not relating a strory but answering the question who came in the
dawn? One would place the noun first

Let us take another simple sentence:

He ge-sloh XXX dragona (the words of this S are cogantes in the)
he slew XXX dragons three languages

1. [sreHala XXX treniyn]

2. [huwa sreHala XXX treniyn]
3. [saHala huwa XXX t.reniyn]

One may give the facts of the sentence above with three different or-
ientations in CA. If no pronoun is used, then it is stating a common oc-
curence, one does not wish to dramatize anything. If the pers pro is
placed frrst then it is to draw attention to the fact that it is he who slew
the dragons, he himself. It concentrates aLtention on him. The third sen-
tence has an order that is different from the norm, for the two preceding
ones are more common. In the SS of the language this can denote con-
trast or negation. Here it can come in answer to the question asking if it
was someone else.
Let us compare the sentences below in OE, CA and Mod Eng:
pe frysa hine gewrap
The Frisians bound him
[reI farsiyin rabatu+hu]
In the sentence above OE places the object before the V. CA and Mod
Eng do not. In CA one may bring the verb first if one desires to give the
sentence a different orientation but the object does not come before the
verb in such a strucuture. Mod Eng observes this rule which is not ob-
served in either OE or L.

Mec seo fripe mreg fedde obj + adj + S + V

The kind woman fed me adj + S + V + obj
(reI marre"h a+ Tayebah aT3amal+ni) S + adj + V + obj

In the sentence above the pers pro in the objective case comes at the
begining of the sentence in OE. In CA and in Mod Eng it does not come
at the beginning of the sentence but has to come after the V. The differ-
ence between CA on the one hand and Mod Eng and OE on the other is
that in CA an adj has to come after the N it modifies, except for rare sty-
listic effects. This is dictated by the SS bf the languages since the N is

235
 iml'11nl1'lInt than the which comes as an ~
g .... ..... 'v. modification or

We notice that many of the rules that govern CA structure govern

Mod also. Had these rules been in OE we would have found the mat-
had been found in L we should have decided that it
is exist in neither L or OE.

19.11 of sentence order in CA and Mod

After some of the structures of OE and
ine some of the structures of CA and '''''''''''-''''. compar-
them with those of Mod
The first and ;:,uull,m;;;;:'l
EO dux
I am a leader

The sentence above may be said in two different ways in CA and Mod
and in one way in L. For the more accurate that def
art affords in CA and Mod L has to use more elaborate means.
If we take another structure.
e6 R6man I go to Rome lI'::win ila

In the L structure the N Rome is the of in CA and Mod

it is the of the In CA one may not use such a
structure because the semantic content relics on the SS. In
the SS of the a difference is made in structure between action
and from one to another. The prep
which in the SS of CA marks from one
That is the reason the
to. Its
semantic content is In cer-
lain structures L ""1-"""'''';;''' in
the cog of L e6 is an intransitive here but in cases as the above L
merges as we have seen verbs in the
ht
tp
://
a

19.12 of sentence order in Land CA :

l-m

What are the sentence orders allowed in L? L is an inflectional lan-

ak

guage whose SS has been so that there 'are almost no restric-

ta

tions on sentence order. A sentence like matt'em

be
h.
co

236
m
 loves the mother) may have the following order: SVO VSO OVS VOS
OSV VOS.

CA is also an inflectionallangauge but it is governed by an underly-

ing system of SS which imposes restrictions upon it. In CA we have
the orders :

1. SVO 2-VSO 3-VOS

In the orders above it is always the V or the subject that occupy
the crucial initial position, never the object. For stylistic purposes
the object may precede the subject as in 3, but not the V, which as a
trans V has precedence over the whole sentance. (for L sent see A.
Hill P. 467, 1958).

Let us compare a few more Land CA sentences.

Haec studia adulescentiam alunt, senectutem oblectant. (cicero)

These studies nurture youth and delight old age.

[tilcre a+derasa : t tufi:d a+ kbre: b wre tos3ed a ~yux)

In the above structure L places the V after the object. while CA and
Mod Eng place it before the object. The difference between CA and Mod
Eng in the above structure is that CA uses the def art to give the a general
and universal quality, while in Mod Eng the def. art was originally a de-
mostrative, so that it cannot be used here for it would give the particular
and not the general.
If we compare a V that takes two objects in Land CA
Racillius primum me sententiam rogavit (cicero)
Racilius asked me my opinion first
[racilan srea'la + ni rae'iyawalan)

Again L places the adv first, the V last and the direct and indirect ob-
jects after each other, while CA and Mod Eng place V immediately after
NP and the indirect object first. then the direct object and the adv. last.
We have the same order of sentence in Mod Eng and CA, and the same
trans V [srea'la). The VI stop in the CA V is interpreted as Icl in Mod
Eng. [OE ascian).

In L the V is t'Ogo, CA cog [raga:] it means to hope, plead for, to beg.

and it takes an objective complement and not two objects, in CA.

237
 of time between CA and L one should

19.13 Conclusion :
The brief sketch we have with
and Mod has revealed rather It reveals that
as structure it is not L or OE that are close to CA but Mod
"irl,~n",a that Mod is the furtherest from
and submitted to

ten thousand years and revive the "'15 .. u ........I......'"

tures that were lost to its immediate ancestors? It seems
it is a fact that the researcher has to face and if account for.

The clue we have is that as we have often out, is a lan-

guage based on SS. When Mod discarded inflectional it be-
came that it find another means of out the relation-
of one word to so it had to fall back on the ancient
of to obtain such coherence. While it has not Laken the finer details
of the SS of it has Laken the characteristics. And much of
the broad outline.

Such an <l">~'UU'.I-""U" answers our immediate Mod

but it does not answer the OUI~SUlon
was revived. Does man have a
ri '''''15U''15'' that enables him to choose the structure,
even when it has not been for centuries? Much research needs
to be done on the we have a wealth of data to research
upon.

We notice that this pneO()ml~n(m is not restricted to structure

does appear on the phClDelJC
in this work .
.-n<l"a"i1 it back to and ModFr
ht
tp
://

We believe that research on the may throw on un-

a

IA'."'....<U" of the human mind.

l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co

238
m
 CHAPTER XX
SOUND SYMBOLISM IN CA

20.1 Sound Symbolism :

One of the main characteristics that distinguish human beings is that
they are able to use the vocal chords at will to produce significant sounds
which we call speech. Numerous theories have been forwarded as explana·
tion of this phenomenon but none of them has given an adequate answer.
At last the key to the mystery was found in the SS (sound symbolism) of
CA. Here we are able to lay our hands on the foundations of speech, the
very beginnings of language. CA is one of the oldest, quite possibly the
oldest language in the world. In it one can see sounds, each in its prime-
val role, and trace step by step the process of word formation, group for-
mations and how the rules of word and sentence formation began to func-
tion then finally the colossal structure that has the ability to produce an
infinite number of new words and new sentences.

20.2 The sound hieroglyph :

The sound hiegroglyph is a symbolic representation of an action or
condition through sound. Just as written language began as picture or
visual hieroglyphes so has spoken language began as sound hieroglyphes.
CA has retained these sound hieroglyphes intact. Each VI, each conso-
nant, each pattern, each string has its significance on the level of SS.
While this system is the first means of human speech, surprisingly it is
the most economic and most highly productive. It contains many advan-
tages that its offsprings do not possess.
In the succeeding pages we shall give the dominant or most importan.t
role of each VI and cons as well as some of the roles of patterns. In this
outline we cannot go into the very subtle and fine functions that emanate
from this basic role, but we hope that this dominant feature will enable
the reader to understand how man first began to make coherent, singificant
sounds.

20.3 The role of VI on the level of SS :

On the level of SS VI, semi-VI, long VI and diphthongs are the regu-
lators of quantity and quality of number, size, increase or diminishing as
well as other spatial qualities. This is done by means of symbolic repre-
sentation as well as contrast between them.

239
 Short VI. In CA on the level of SS there are
The of VI that one can hear on the "n,",",'""
aII()phom~s of one of these three. have no phlom~mllc

the

~",,~u'~I... isPy,~p~~Prl
mark of the uncler.gOl~r of the action or

I,.V'''IJ''I,.U'''''''. of concen-

1. In this sentence the word walWUIUf ends in U because he is the

of the sentence, while the pre:po:SlU10I to express the re-
The
has an initial and
because it is the or location he went to.

2. In this second sentence the word I has because he is the

doer of the while the tense marker in the verb comes before the
verb not after it to denote that this is the an action that is not
yet or that is done now, in process.
ht

3. In sentence three the final IS to out the first pers,

tp
://

,,"',....."" .. "n hence concentration on self. Had it been the

a

would have saw the

l-m

hence a different person. The word

ak

is the of the action here.

ta
be
h.
co

240
m
 4. In sentence four [citae:b] begins by an initiallif because it is a means
to reading or writing (instrumental) luI in final position denotes that
this is the subject of the string, while the word Iwaladi/ has a finallif
because the book belongs to him, one entity to another. (genitive
case).

In the usage of the prefIX MY-these connections are even more clear.
MV is a prefix made of M which is the most ponderous of the static cons
and a VI. Being ponderous and having an articulation that symbolizes
closure, finality (closing of lips) Iml as a prefix has the power to change
the dynamic into the static, that is a verb into a N or adj. The quality of
this N or adj is dependent on the VI that comes after it. Ial gives (as
shown above) the undergoer of the action or the static, hence a particular
place or location, something that does not move.

lif .gives the instrumental, something that enables one to do some-

thing, connects one entity with other. lui signifies the doer of the action,
a concentration of power or energy.
Ex : [Sarafae] to spend RV
[maSraf] bank, place where, a static entity hence Ial
[masrouf] what was spent, undergoer of action Ial
[mutaSarif] in control, ruling, doer of action hence lui
[miSraf] canal, means of distributing water, hence lif instrumental.

From the above example we perceive that each change of VI gives new
semantic content, because each VI has its individual role in the system of
SS.

Long VI : While short VI are symbolilc of basic actions, long VI

are symbolic of increase, augmentation, extention of these basic condi-
tions. In consequence most CA N take a long VI in the second syl in the
pI.
Ex : [walad] pI [awlae:d), [gan'nah] [ganae:yen] also [ganae:t]

This second N has two pI each has its special significance in the lan-
guage. The word is a fern N, but il has a fern pI and another pI. The fern
pI speaks of particular gardens not any gardens, the fern, whether sing or "
pI, always denotes an individual instance in contrast to the masc which al-
ways speaks of the general, the universal, the common. The pI that does
not have the final -t, the mark of the fern, speaks ofgardens as a class or
. as a quality (like sand, bUlter). Both plurals have a long VI added to de-
note the increase.

241
 Let us now take one word and trace what a of VI nuclues can
denote. The word is It means house in CA but has come to mean
door in OE. It is a to the whole the part.

is the It means a number of houses

but to denote con-

The next PI is this word has an followed hence ex-

many houses in an
....,.. uuln. or refers to
the houses of a clan or not several houses in a limited area

not mean many houses it

is introduced as infix in a N or
as the movement of the
when prOIOOIJDcmg
above are found in j"'-fn<lnir ''''''I5UQI5'-'' as Gothic
ON Skr CA
that the difference in VI nucleus
mean door because the of SS has become Obl§ol,ete in these lan-
guages, but it is these ancient features that are cause of the difference
between one Germanic and another in cases as the above.

if we compare :
1. 2. 3. 4. [3

All the words above come from the RV [3 to to be

aware of. All the four N have the features + masc + human.

1. VI because an initial
It is someone who is
denotes the doer of the
action.

2. The second has denotes action upon

ht

cormectillg the external with the reflexive action. The

tp

in CA reflexive action inside self. In consequence this

://
a

denotes internal action and action or the whole be-

l-m

He who has imbued much to the extent that he is an

ak
ta
be
h.
co

242
m
 3. This pattern having a long final VI, and the long VI an Ia! denotes a
permanent quality of learning or knowledge, hence a past master of an
art or science. Whatever entity carries this pat is usually extraordinary
liko [burkae:n] (volcano). [fayd] means flood but [fayada:n] means a
deluge; complete over flooding.

4. When the fern ending is given to this pat it means someone of very
great incomparable knowledge. Unique, unparalleled. It is this word
that one finds in Old Icelandic ~ oUStnal), it retains its original mean-
ing and the cors I~I : 10/. We notice it has a medial GS which corro-
borates the effect of very great ability or knowledge.

From the examples above we can discern that a long VI means in-
crease but a diphthong or an extra syl can mean very great or extraordinary
increase. While we cannot go into greater detail here the point to remem-
ber is that there is a gradation beginning with short VI for the singular
and then increase to long VI then diphthongs then an extra syl depending
on the semantic content required.

SS of Verb patterns: In CA there are two, three and four conso-

nantal verbs each of these groups has its stress patterns, and each of these
patterns has its significance on the level of SS.

20.5 Two syl V:

Two syl V may have the pat CV : CV, CVCV : and CVC'CV The
pat CV:CV has a long VI in the first syI. In this pat the main stress
falls on the first syl and it denotes action, growth, expantion or move-
ment in place. The opposite pat CVCV: denoLes action, movement or ex-
pantion towards an exernal object or away from the internal, past the in-
ternal towards outside space. The ending, a long VI signifies lack of
boundary, hence away from indefinitely.

The third pat CVC'CV having a GS denotes the doubling or augmen-

tation of whatever action the other two may symbolize. It is usually
transitive, whether the other TV are trans or intras V.

Ex : [nae:mae) (to sleep) [naemre:] (to grow) [naem'mae] to make grow

[Ta:lae] (to grow taIl) [Talae:] (to sweep past over) [Tal'lae] to pr(}-
trude, to jut out.
[sae:lae] (to spread) [saelae:] to be bored with, to desert, [srel'lre] to
draw to pull out sword or knife.

243
 [qa:la] (to say) [qal1ae] to grow less, [qalre:] to shun, desert
[Ta:fre] (to go round), [Tafae:] to flow over beyond,
[Taffre] (to over flow, to spring or fall over).
In the verbs above we notice that the change in the position of the
long VI brings about change in the semantic content even though the con-
sonants remain the same. While a GS always denotes intensification or
augmentation of action.
We are told that 2 syl V are some of the oldest in the language. The
simple, smooth flowing stress pattern is symbolic in these verbs of sim-
ple, spontaneous, instictive actions that do not require much thought or
planning. While 3 cons V of even pattern and systematic gradation denote
action that involves a certain degree of skill or thought, as we shall see
below

20.6 W as infix:
In the SS of CA Iwl because of its manner of articulation (widening
of the lips) is the symbol of more space, hence wider range for whatever
action the V or N it occurs in signifies.
Ex : [qa:mae] (to stand up) [qa:wamae] (to resist, to stand up against)
[daemae] (to last, to be durable) [dre:waema] to persevere a long
while, to be diligent in persevering

20.7 Three cons V :

These V have a stress pat of II 2 31 which gives an orderly systematic
gradation. In consequence they are symbolic of deliberate, conscious,
skillful, orderly actions.
Ex : [daerasae] (to study) [xrebrezre] (to bake) [laegana] (to knead dough)
[wazaena] (to weigh) [falaqa] (to cleave) [qaraaeO] (to read)
[faHara] (to carve) [cataebae] (to write) [rasaema] (to draw pictures)
As we have shown earlier (6.3) the GS pat means augmentation of
whatever quality the RV has and the long initial VI means reciprocal ac-
ht

tion or action by two agents, extention of action. Sometimes such exten-

tp

lion means a softening of action since a long 'viI is softer, less abrupt
://

than a short one.

a
l-m

Ex : [Haraba] (to pierce with a harpoon) [Hae:raba] (to fight)

ak

[salima] (to be safe) [sae:lamae] (to live in peace with, a reciprocal

ta

action) [saeJ1amae] (to submit to, to surrender)

be
h.
co

244
m
20 . 8 The pattern or rour cons V :
These verbs have the sress pat /3 1 2 3/. In comparison with the
smooth movement of 2 cons V and the systematic gradation of 3 cons V,
these V sound rather jerky, ungainly graceless, unbalanced. In the SS of
the language this pat denotes what is not normal, beyond or below the
norm, the moderate, the even, usually the unbalaced, the graceless the
abrupt or ugly.
Ex : [caerbasae] (to fall head over heels) [halwasae] (to hallucinate)
[xatrafa] (to be delirioius) [hancar] (to hobble about aimlessly)
[carcaeba] (to upset things and make them untidy)
[cae3bara]to have a clod-like ungainly shape [qanbara] (to sit cramped
up)
[haerwaela] (to walk in long trailing robe with uneven step)
[harbaeda] (to tear in uneven tufts) [qarTama] to cut with the teeth,
gnaw in disorderly bites.

20.9 Frequentative Verbs:

Frequentative verbs may be derived from two syl V by the repetition
of one syl. On the level of SS they are symbolic of repetitive action or
action done in phases or commenced again.

Ex : [caeb'ba] (to pour) [cabcaebae] to pour little by little, to spill or

splash while moving liquid
[car'ra] to run or go or ride around, to turn round
[carcara] to go on and on in circles. It is used figuratively for speech
on and on to chatter. (OE ceorian is its cog), or it is used when a
knitting is undone
[trem'ma] to finish, end, complete
[tremt.remre] to keep repealing the same thing again, to grumble in-
audiably. Its Mod Eng cog is to mutter (for change of pat see 12.6).

Consonants in SS: While VI and patterns are symbolic of the

general tendencies of the language, the traits that may be common to the
semantic content of thousands of verbs. the consonants to the contrary are
symbolic of particular and distinctive actions. Each group of consonants
has its role and each consonant has its role inside its group. The cons of
CA may be divided into three basic groups on the level of SS. The mod-
erate, the static and the strong or violent (see 19.3).

245
20.10 as
The frrst consonant we shall deal with as is Our choice of
because it is the most familiar to the modem mind
l""'UUl.'''' role. We use it all the time in Mod without
value. In the SS of CA is the of repe-
if it appears in initial It was chosen as the
"'V'~u ••u" because it is a trill. The moves and

is the frrst rll'l1OPtil'ivl" action that man has observed? It is the ac-
tion of rain. Rain does not fall in one short movement but
on and on, in waves and each wave is made of millions of
we fmd numerous words "''''''''','''''5 with
Ex:

three different kinds of rain.

The frrst in initial and

Moreover the
a nn'"m'nr",,.

waves. The next has a fricative also

fricative that does not come from far back in the throat like
... nl"~uv it is at the of the contact of with
upper teeth. It is a much sound. And the word denotes rain.

The fourth V means also to but the fricative used has a

It means the rain that makes a sound while The
or We notice that in the three verbs the last
",,",u y.;:;:" that is because fricatives are of
wavelike movements. While the is that of GS because
rain is made of more than one movement. It is movement,
hence the double consonants.
The third V has also got a and it means to spray with
ht
tp

water the sound of water "nr"uP'n

://
a
l-m

The next V has as initial sound to denote but the next

ak

sound is not a fricative but the semi-VI In the SS of the 14111':11.1"",

ta

stands for after closure. If we examine the movement of the

be
h.
co

246
m
lips while pronoucing Iw/, the reason becomes apparent. The lips are
closed, then opened in a longtitudinal movement. This is the reason it
is used as an infix on the morphological level to denote extention or
augmentation of movement.
Ex : [dre:ra] to turn round J (L rondus is a Ml of this)
[drewara] to maneuver, to turn in circles

If we retllll! to the V [rawre:] we notice that after Irl which stands for
repetitive movement, and Iwl which stands for opening after closure,
there is a long VI, which denotes away from, extention from source. It
means movement or opening of water from source. This verb is rather
interesting because ifhas three different meanings, one in CA, one in L
and one in OE. The three however are congruous with the semantic con-
tent of the verb. The difference is due to the different environments they
have gone to.

In CA the verb means to have enough water to drink, to have enough

to give o~'s cattle and also to give plants to drink. In L where the envi-
ronment is not the desert environment of scarce water, so that enough to
drink can mean opening of water, but where there is enough rain and
where there are rivers, the verb means to channel water, to open it so as
to give the land to drink, hence to irrigate. (the Ig/ in the L V is due to
Iyl in the CA supine [rayan] Iy/: Ig/ by CC).
In the language of the Saxons, who had great nordic seas to contend
with, an opening of water meant open sea, hence OE rowian means to
row, to sail, go upon water. Not one of the three languages has changed
the basic semantic content, but each pictures it relative to the environ-
ment it is found in.

When Irl is found in medial or final position it means constant or con-

tinuous movement, such as the movement of rivers and streams. Many
Mod Eng nouns have this feature due to the SS of the language. We
shall give a few examples of Mod Eng words and their CA cognates:
river [nahr], water [maTar] stream[ sarayatu] rippler rabraba] brook
[berqah]. The word for sea in L, CA and OHG are the cognate forms L
marus, OHG bire, CA [baHr]. Im/:/bl by AC.
In its capacity as prefix Irl retains its significance as symbol, for L
prefixes, like Ire-I and Ide-I, have retaind their significance. (see 7.24).

247
20.11 as a
The second consonant we shall examine as is It is the
first sound in the after and the sound that uses the first
is a bilabial Since it uses the first
after stands
......... ..,ev... invention.

Ex: L----

CA mean

this V comes the N brook

to start barein Mod

20.12
Let us now take the two consonants whose value as we know
a little about and see what we

stands for or continuous movement, for a

movement that starts, with it is a movement that starts over and over
The verbs means to up. to rear, to take care of as I!'.u,;uu• .w.
or To up a or live is a process that
starts anew with the dawn of every mom. It is not that is
done once and the GS stresses the fact.

stands for start, for rey:letlUOlrl.

comes it is the central
", ..,C,UL'''''' process was the central or movement. This
verb means to create, to to mould. to carve out. crea-
tion come but the process of birth or creation is an act done de-
ht

movement. This
tp
://

The final sound is a

a

or '''''",U'''''''' one of its uses is as the an-

l-m

tithesis of ( as we shall see

ak

It means low down as

ta
be
h.
co

248
m
 symbol. Hence the earth or ground. It appears after fb r/. in this verb
because at the end a new and separate entity appears on the ground

Supposing we change the position of the cons placing lreol in medial

position. The verb is [bare Ora] fbI stands for start, initiation lreol for low
down upon the ground and /rI for a repetitive process. A repetitive pro-
cess upon the ground is started. It means to make a pit, hole or well
into the ground CA [beer] is the cog of L putus (jeo/: /t/ in L) and OE
bton (depression grove) is the cog of CA [hue°rah].

20.13 1m n 3/:
In CA there are two nasals,ln! and ImI, and one nasalized sound 13/.
A nasal or a nasalized sound is a sound where the air passage is obstruct-
ed and has to go through the nose. It is therefore symbolic of obstruc-
tion, hence impediment, forbidding, negation, prevention or opposition,
or slow, even movement Each of these sounds has its symbolic signifi-
cance in the language and the three are used together as the antithesis of
the fricatives and stops, for fricatives on the whole symbolize a tremu-
lous or vibrating movement, while stops on the whole symbolize single
action which may be quick or abrupt.

20.14/ml :
Let us begin with Iml in initial position. It is the most ponderous
and heavy of,the three. In this position it dominates the word and stands
for lack of movement, stop of movement, a settling down, or slow,
smooth movement, depending on what co es after it.
Ex: [mreca9a] to remain [mre9relre] to settle [mre:la] to remain in
one's place but to sway to one side. Notice the long initial VI in
this verb which often means movement or ~owth in place.

In final position Iml is a sound that closes the lips, in fact it is the an-
tithesis of /hI (stop vs nasal, opening of lips vs close of lips) and is the
symbol for closing, ending, fmishing, final condition.
Ex: [Irem'ma] to put back in place afte spl"eading, [ram'ma] to put
back together broken things [tam'ma] to end, complete [~m'ma]
to spread completely everywhere [zam'ma] to pull shut.

249
20 15
for ne-

is IOrD1(llru~lg
or done in more
than one way it becomes or rebuke. (I forbid you to do so, but
you were wrong to, in the future I forbid it

20.16
Since both and stand for lack
that contains both mean? In CA there is the V
to
movement, then a
ment, then the more n.nl~ri ....n .. cOlnpl!ete rest or a
or stillness.

m have also the

unhurried
SW4::eDlD2 sound of nasals.
""' ...... '" like frrcatives.
to in root in
but not L mUllWJ which is sometimes con-
fused with it and is in CA +

rn"'!!lIi,n;Y... the three means to live in in

easy circ:um!~tanlc:es, means soft.

20 7 I
ht
tp

The third of this trio is an inchoate which some Arab

://

believe to be the flrst sound uttered. Since it has no

a
l-m

besides the of the ..,.".i",,,",

ak

or movement it por-
ta
be
h.
co

250
m
 [3re:ma] to float or drift upon, [mre:3a] to be indefinite, mixed, uncer-
tain, shifting.

It occurs with In! in the V [nre3 re:]. (to mourn for) it symbolizes the
movement of slow sadness that remains with loss. (L lUlcuta funeral
song) comes from this root, and so does OE mou-ru tau which is
[man3a:] funeral rites in CA. It is a pre+V.
Whereas [3anre:] means to meet obstruction or difficulty, hence a diffi-
cult or heavy duty or task (L onus comes from this root).

[mrenre3re] is a verb tharbegins with the ponderous 1m!, then fol-

lowed by In 3/. What is its semantic value? Iml stands for settling,
heavy rest, In! for opposition and 131 completes the picture by symboliz-
ing obstruction. The V means to prevent, hence a deterrent, a fence,
wall obstacle or fort for defence.

To prevent here is used in both senses that is to deprive or to defend

and protect. Thus [mre:ne3] is a barrage, barrier or wall (L moenia
comes from this V).

Since 1m n! are of the sounds favoured in L, we find quite a few of

these verbs, either alone or in mergers, just as we find many cognate
forms beginning with /hi in OE. The favourite sounds help to make the
words carrying them survive and the opposite is also true.

20.18 If! as symbol:

IfI is the next sound whose significance as symbol we shall examine.
IfI is a labio-dental. The air has to make way for itself between the low-
er lip and the upper front teeth. It is therefore the symbol of opening,
making way, cutting a way out, making a slit, fissure, or opening where
there was none before, an opening forced or inaugurated, a breakthrough.
Ex : [fretreHre] to open, [faSalre] to separate, [faraqa] to divide, [fag'ga]
to make a way. The N Ifag! has as cog in OE tDCg and in L uta and it
means road, wide passage. [fresrexa] to slit open, [fagara] to burst open,
[fresaqa] to go out of or form [fasala] to spring from.

If we look at the verb [far'ra] (Mod Eng cog to flee) /f/ stands for mak-
ing a way for one's self, and the Irl in the GS pattern denotes that run-
ning or galloping away is not a single action but the repetitive motion

251
 of movement of feet or horse. The double in the GS have a
....""'hlr.v.. sound this action.

There exists in CA the N What does it mean? stands for

opeDlnll:. and in fmal stands for close.
opens and closes? It is the human mouth
and of the OE is a Ml of this word

There is another word for mouth in CA it is for start the

and a uvular sound stands for hollow
or While this word also means
it means the mouth as start to the uvula. L cog

20.19 as
is a It is pt'(mouDI:::ed
roof of the mouth or alveola:. It is therefore the
1"""'....111...11> out from a n,.,,,,r'">IT

......... v,... slretchilng out or out.

the semantic content of the word it '-"01'",,,1'.'"
on the other consonants in the word.
Let us compare between two words as initial sound like
and stands for reaJ:mlllg out in both cases but
contrast. The first is the or the
second is of or closure.
to make or start the same movement and
is a the semantic content of
but since it is followed
GS this movement is started over and over In CA to
and or to be and it means to make
hence

When
stands for end and conllplc~tiOin.
ht

to what was scattered back in

tp
://

Since the
a

rellelilive movement Extention of hand to collect

l-m

to"etltK'l' in a mass As we have mentioned before

ak

ous sound and is often ofa

ta

etc.
be
h.
co

252
m
 Let us now compare betwen rra:la/ (to grow tall) and /tz:lre/. Both
verbs have III in final position. The difference is between rrl a strong
aspirated palatalized plosive and It! a dental stop.

In producing rrl the tongue has to touch the back of the palate in a
strong movement, since it is a plosive. It symbolizes rising above,
over, towering above. Rising + exlention can mean only to grow tall.

It! its antithesis means to be low down, to flow, not to be in control,

not to have the upper hand. With III such a movement of perplexity
comes from outside, form an external factor, hence it means to bewilder
through magic.

Its TV [trelre:] means to be low down and to follow. We notice that

the long VI in the second syl, corroborates the effect of extention of III
so it does not mean to extent towards only, but to pursue or followed,
figuratively it means to relate, to read or recite to pursue story hence to
tell (OE tdlall is the cog of CA [telrewatun], from the same V comes
OE talu (tale).

20.20 Ixl :
The consonant /xl is a phoneme pronounced far back in the throat It
is a fricative, but the heaviest of the fricatives and the one furtherest
back. It has the same movement in the throat as saliva or matter com-
ing out of the throat or nose. In consequence, it is very often used to de-
note that something has gone wrong, materially morally or figuratively.
A statistic count shows that fifty percent of the words beginning with
this sound are of perjorative semantic content, against only 12% for Ig/
and 8% for /HI. In CA (until today) if this sound is used alone it is an
ejaculation denoting, disgust or revulsion.

Ex : [XlCS'sa] to grow less, become mean or poultry, [xa:b3.'9re] to be-

come cunning, mean of poor quality. [xasara] to become foul, ruined,
degenerate [xaraba] to become a ruin, a waste, desolation. [xa;bre] to be-
come helpless, dull, shiftless (L cog hebes), [xreraSa] to tell lies.
(xredre3re] to cheat, deceive. [xa:breta] to become low means servile.
[xaDa3a] to submit, become servile.

In final position it can mean much sound,.which need not be pejora-

tive. [rax'xa] to rain heavily, [brex'xa} to spray with much water O[
again and again -[Saraxa} (to scream) OE Sn-tS1D.all.

253
20.21 Igl :
IgJ is a voiced stop. It is as sound half way between Icl a voiceless
velar stop and Iqj a strong uvular voiceless plosive. It is heavier than leI
and less strong than Iqj. It represents· strength, but strength of even,
steady character.
Ex: [ga:da:] to be generous, noble, good. The N is (guwd), OE cog go
~ (good). The adj derived from it is [gre:d] (which means grand,
great. L cog gt"aulJ'us. [gabila] to become great or of gigantic
propositions. OE btt"g (mountain). is a cog of CA [gabal]. In L
we find the word people, whose cog in CA is [gibilah] which
means people of big stature. fbI : /PI by AE,/g/ : Ipl by EC.

IgJ has another symbolic value, it denotes accumulation, putting to-

gether, gathereing. This second symbolic value is the source of the first.

Ex: [gremre33!] to gather, OE cog, gatf:Jt"Ulu, [gabeya] to gather from

here and everywhere. From this V comes CA [gabeyah] (tax) its L
cog is gabulutll, OE gafol, Mod Fr. gabdlt. Gr. gtbUf [gre:ba]
Mod Eng cog to get fbI : It! by AC.

If we look at the verb [baraga] (to produce) and its TV [bar'raga] (to
build a tower) OE and CA [burg]. The fITSt sound fbI stands for start,
the second Irl stands for repetitive movement of placing stone over
stone. The GS pattern augments the effect, and IgJ stands for the accu-
mulated mass, the final result, tile tower or citadel.
~

Each of th~ four fricatives: 19/, I~/, /R/ and IzI is Isymbolic of a partic-
ular kind of vibtation, or wave-like movement depending on its phonetic
feallJl'es.

21.22/9/:
191 is a dental fricative. It is a 'slight, delicate sound and it represents
ht

therefore imperceptible, or very slight tremulous movement, hence in-

tp

side feelings or emotion, fetrilentaion festering, slow, fine, small move-

://

ment, or emotion that may be strong but that is worked up internally.

a
l-m

[9re33!bre] to sneak in a wave like movement [9u3bre:n] or (snake) L

ak

cog serpens, is derived from this verb.

ta

[9rebara] to become wasted or die, annihilated slowly.

be
h.
co

254
m
 [9a:na::) means to bend and to ptie or twist in two.
[9a::ra) to become angry, furious, hence to rebel, L tUtts. OE peON.
are the cog of CA [9a:warh) and mean fury. rebellion.

Supposing we compare this verb with [9a:a:ora). In the second V there

is a medial VI SlOp. What does it imply? This VI stop symbolizes deep
down, or deep inside. The V means to avenge. seek revenge or vendetta.
The difference between it and [9a::ra) is that while [9a::ra) denotes open
fury. [9a:a:ora) denoted fury kept in the heart then acted upon, it is not a
spontaneous movement but a movement retained deep inside then
brought out.
[9a::la:) means to loose mental balance or sanity.
[9a:rada) means to cut little pieces of bread to into broth.
[9a:r9ara) a frequentative verb means to chatter. to keep speaking on and
on, saying nothing in particular. making small talk. We notice that
both the V pattern and the repetition of Irl help to give this eff~L

20.23 /zl :
The next fricative /z/ is a voiced dental soWld. that has a buzzing effect
and a quick repetitive movement. It is therefore symbolic of two things.
Buzzing noises. and this symbolic value is to a great extent onomatopeic
and also increase, flourishing. or quich, brisk walking or running. This
later symbolic value is due to the quich buzzing effect of the sound;
Ex: [zaa:ora) (to roar OE \'8ttau is its cognate) [za::ma) to below or
roar in subdued menacing tones. Its cognate is L t~mo. [zaHara)
to groan. [zaga:la) to sing or say doggerel. [zren'na) to, buzz.
[zarada:) to increase, grow plentiful, [zaxarre) to become full and
overflowing. used usually for rivers. We notice the /r/ in those
two verbs. [zanefa) to grow plentiful, [zac'ca:) to grow finer or bet-
ter. [zar'ral to glitter and to grow.

The frequentative V [zalzala) is used for quick abrupt movement, to

shake, or quack., 17/ for the shaking, away movement N for extending
back retmn to previous position. then back again and so forth [zaha:~)
to unsettle. /z/ stands for the movement away. while 13/ standS for the
movement of settling, so that the effect is of something that would
settle down but is being rem,oved from its place. which is the semantic
content of this verb, since it means to unsettle. to uproot to shake from
the roots.

255
20.24 /R/ :
R is a sound very close to French rolled It is nasalized
and has a of articulation further back. One must bear in mind that
the whole articulation of Romance forward the
loss of the six back consonants.
near the nose it has become the
upon. From this basic others have been I1Pl"1V,'11
over means to sceem. to
hence to deceive to
Ex:

ter. to dive to be coverd.

Since or is the obscure of the

used rather often to express "::"cl<n .. ",,
ent and moments of different hours of the

ft4""""'1<1J to be in the

someone in the dark is to deceive hence to

to
lA'>..........u"'J to the better to deceive in divi-

If we look at the verb to be deceived to be conceited or in

error about The N is W' nr,nnr I L cog ettot.

over. hence limit or out of the

way. and repetit.ion of this act. further on. It means error in
I~~'"'''_''' or becoming conceited.

20.25 /
The fricative is voiced and the air has to pass divided between the
so it has become the of from the
ht

or
tp

Since human emotions are not one but many and varied it is often used
://

to express emotion.
a
l-m

Ex: for division in branches

ak

tog,eUli;lf in a netlike movement. a

ta

cog is scatter. to become full up.

be
h.
co

256
m
 (an act that is performed gradually) [~arSra] to cut so that an edge or
hem has many teeth, a freq. V [~a:H'Ha:] to recede. [~rexara] is to
snore. This V is ononmatopocic as well as symbolic. lsI here de-
notes the noise done by the sleeper Ixl also shows that it is an
ugly noise coming from the back of the palate and Irl shows that it
is repeated. (Mod Eng has replaced Ixl by the final Inl found in the
supine).

We find the following verbs express emotion:

[~rehre:] to wish for, to desire, [~re:qa] to long to go to, to miss
[~regaba] to become unhappy and pineaway, [~regana] to be unhappy
miserable (Mod Fr. N chagrin) CA sup [saganun] [~aqiya] to become
miserable and face hardships. [~agu)a] to become bold, couragous
[~regre:] to be sad. The V [~a!)rera] means to feel, but not with the
senses, with the heart, mind and whole being. The N [su) uwr] means
feeling. Someone who feels, or is sensitive in this manner is [sa:3cr].
Its OE cog is S'COp (see 1.7).

20.26 Contrastive pairs

There are six pairs of contrastive sounds in CA. That is consonants
that occur in pairs, where there is a more fronted and a back variety of a
sound which can be recognised as the same, except for such contrasts
(front back, or voiced, voiceless, Slap, plosive) Iq cl /H hI rr t/ IS sl
la ahl IdD/.
We shall deal with these sounds here opposite each others, which is
their salient feature, not forgeLling that they have other roles as well in
the SS of the language, just as we have dealt with the salient feature of
each of the prcceding sounds, pUlling aside the finer details of their roles
as symboles in this outline.

The contrastive sounds serve to give more accuracy and wider range by
giving antithetical semantic content. The more back of the two sounds
represents, stronger, more dramatic, or violent action, dominance, op-
pression, as well as other contrasts like high up and down below, light
and dark, black and while which we shall examine in each pair. General-
ly the more front sound represents more clever, more discreet, more ad-
roit and thoughtful action, while the back ones represent the opposite

257
 coarse or

20.27
is a uvular
the air is released after
of
two a
movement of or a
the of articulation far back near the uvula. There are over twenty
in different ways in CA all of which with
to cut, break back of. a] to cut in two. It's OE

upon,
to cut, strike with iron bar.

We no lice that most of such verbs have another of the back conso-
nants .v"'............ ways.
It is found in
verbs like
this V come L caput, and Fr
means to be at the the N Its Mod
cog acme is taken from Gr.
means to rise but to cut on one
if used for hair. From this verb comes the N in CA which means
cat in Mod and is found in other IE
and actions of

to write
ht
tp

Let us compare between some of the verbs and

://

those with minimal

al-m

is 10 rise in circular manner as we have shown but

ak

is to pour upon the a hence

ta

was a solid flal.

be

means to press or close so that does not flow.

h.
co

258
m
 [qaTama] is to break harshly, unevenly.
[cadrera) to pour water, to have water change purity, grow murky.
[qadira) to have power or dominion or control over. The N [qodrah]
is found in Ger as tt'aft.
[cred'dasa] to collect. amass together, press on each other, press
down.
[qad'dasre] to hold high, hence sacred, holy.
[qadimre] to come forward, OE cuman.
[credama] to hurt bruise, Mod Eng contusion has as cog in CA
[cadremah] it is derived from L. a pressing or internal bruise.
We notice from the above thalthese verbs are sometimes contrastive
and sometimes not exact contrasts but certainly different. This is due to
the fact that we have chose minimal pairs, where the rest of the sounds
in the word do not change, so change takes place only where the contrast
between lei and Iql exists, nevertheless the element of contrast is clearly
apparent

20.28/T/vs/tl :
The next pair of sounds are {fl, an alveolar palatalized plosive and It!,
a dental stop. These two sounds are rather close and are not used for con-
trast but for expresing two levels of the same thing. The stronger sound
gives the higher, sironger level and front dentallt/ ihe lower, weaker, or
less flourishing one. In the dimesion of up vs down they do contrast
however. I
Ex : I~:ra/ to flow, to sneak or run, (fa:ral to fly up
I~:qa/ 10 wish for, long for, [Ta:qa) to have the ability or power
to do [~bre )a ) to follow, to trace, [Taba)a] to stamp, portray,
type. [tre:ba] to return penitant, [Ta: bre] to become well, to
flourist!, [tre:sa] to become like a bull in fatness, [Ta:sa) to become
like the moon in beauty.
[trerafre] to have enough water, hence opulence, luxuray, [Tarafa] to
be on the edge, above, hence of the select, the best The N [tarf]
means tee, OE cog to~).

20.29 D/vs/d :
The next pair are IDI a strong alveolar palatized plosive and Idl a dental
stop. These two are often used to express contrast. IDI stands for oppres-
sive, violent, wrong or dramatic action, while Idl often represents, dis-
creet, clever, intelligent, dextrous, action.

259
 Ex' TheCA from this V is

Py"r""r,,,,,,('p in.
The

comes fonn
this V.

If we look at the verb What semanlic content docs the two

It means to oppose, to be to, the of.
and the N
guage.

is orten used to express the difference betwen

has a small while the of
There are several such verbs in CA which on this
contrast to denote but in IE where and
have become one, this contrast is lost
Ex : OE is in it means of dark colour. OE dcorc
comes from the R V the N is the pi is
It is this pi that we find in OE as The Mod
N dawn comes from ON which is L-~'b~'j
from the R V to be faint
overclouced

Mod comes from an old V which is

in CA and means the broad of or full sun.

While L
rived from it in CA are

The Sicr to to suffer from

great heat. The Mod to
ht

or hue. OE
tp
://
a
l-m

20.30 lSI vs lsi

ak

The next of consonant<: to he

ta

p ..... '""'u"~.,,
be

and is a
h.
co

260
m
 smooth, sleek, easy, flowing movement, while lSI symbolizes strong,
stem, deliberate, finn, determined action. It is a symbol of strength.

[sre:ra] to go, walk, [srerre:] to go or travel by night. [sre:mre] to go

where one desires, [sre:la] spreading or opening of waters. In CA it
means rain water upon the ground or in a river bed. In OE it means to
sail upon waters, OE S'~gl~n. The difference is due to environment as
we have seen in the case of [rawre:] above (to row).

lSI to the contrary singifies steely strength. [Salibre] to become hard

and strong, [Solb] means steel, it has as cog in OE style. (lb/: It! by
AC). [Salidre] to become strong and compact. The adj [Salid] has as
cog in L S41t~US', Mod Eng solid. While the adj [Sa:rem] has as cong
in Mod Eng stem.

[srecreta] (to be silent) L S'tltntum has as cog in CA [sre:cet] while

[Saraxre] has as cog in Mod Eng to scream [srecrena] is to be still, while
[SaHre] is to wake up, and [SaH'Hre) is to become strong and flourish-
ing. [srehula] means to be easy, the adj is [sahl]. Its L cog fattlfS' has
undergone metathesis (see 9.5). While [Sa3ubre] means to be hard, diffi-
cult.

The Mod Eng adj easy is in CA [ya,>iyr] with medialis! and smooth
Iy/. From the above examples we scc some of the uses of lsi and lSI.
These two symbolize the opposition of quiet vs strong movement, ease
vs difficulty, great sound vs silence, and they have other contrastive val-
ues as well.

20.30 IHI vs Ihl :

/hi and /HI are two sounds which have both contrastive and a few af-
finitive values. Both are gutteral but /HI is voiced and pronounced fur-
ther back, while /hi is voiceless. /HI makes a sharp sound in the throat,
a sound of the friction or making strong contact of two objects. In con-
sequence it is the symbol for the kccn, sharp, trenchent and clear cut
things.
[Had'da] to give a boundary, edge lHregaza] to place behing a hedge OE
baga. [Ha:Sara] to besiege, [Hasrera] to squeeze. It is used figuratively
to mean bitter feelings or regret. [HaS'Sana] to fortify by a wall or fort
[Hres'sa] to sense. L S'tnS'~S' (comes from this RV). OE tntS' (/HI : Is!
by EC) [Hresreda] to envy. [reHana]. Gep abn (grudge, bitter feelings).

261
 We notice that it is used for both material and as well as emotional se-
mantic content. Whatever is keen.
sound in CA is uscd for the in-
a weak sound the semantic content of the word is
what comes after. to be of little easy to
of no consequence. The is another
from the same verb found in OE is ab-
humble of little resistance.
Since it is a weak the semantic content of the unless it
of weakness is decided the sounds that come after
that is it has less influence over the sounds that come after it than a
sound would. Form this emanated its role as to
what comes after it. All demonstratives in CA with
means to start up in or in LO someone. Its Mod
Here the semantic content is lhat of to start and of lhe
a or movement. is here to
usher in or draw attention to the Slart or after it. Sometimes it ne-
gates rather vitiates the semantic conlent of what comes after like
and lhe latter means to run, but means to desert
or leave. A weaker slower movement. There are numerous verbs
wilh which describe movement like
to walk and means to become weak and inconse-
wilh a final VI which

20.32 vs lahl :
and are two sounds used very in CA. in
lar. Both sounds are interdental the difference is that
IS D is This latter sound is used for and oppres-
sive movement, while to the contrary is used for the
movement.
ht

Ex : to wrong. to upon. the V

tp

meant to one's claw or nail then it came to mean to

://

upon. L cog is taken from Gr.

a
l-m

Now let us look at how is used. Alone it is the

ak

small movement or vibration. The cons after it decides the

ta

extent and other details.

be
h.
co

262
m
 Ex : [aab'ba] lal for movement or vibration, /hI is the symbol for
starting. Moreover the V has the GS pat so it means to start over
and over again. The V means to go here and there, start out in
different directions, to move about.

The frequentative of this V is raabaaba]. It means to create waves or

to vibrate. The pat signifies repetition, because waves or vibrations are
a repetitive movement that starts over and over again, hence the cons /hI
for start and tal for tremulous movement.

laal'la/ here also lal stands for weak shaky movement, and III is the
symbol for extention, hence it is extended, remains for a certain duration.
The pat is a as pat, it signifies the constant or repetitive nature of the
movement. It means to grow weaker and weaker, hence to be adject,
grow humble, weak, poor and lowly.

20.33 Conclusion :
The brief survey given above of the role of the diffemt consonants on
the level of SS in CA is only an oulline, moreover it does not compre-
hend the finer shades of the roles of each cons in the SS of he language,
nevertheless it answers some of the questions that the previous chapters
have brought to mind. It explaines why CA verbs are constructed in par-
adigms of minimal pairs. They were so constructed because each sound
has its significance in SS of the language, so that to change the seman-
tic content one has to change only one consonant. It answers the related
question of why these verbs are semantically close to each others, why
they share certain semantic features. This is because they share the same
symbols. They are constructed according to the same principle that un-
derlies sentences in modem languages.
Ex : The boy eats (an apple, a biscuit, steak, rice etc).
Every time the semantic content changes in accord with the change
that takes place in one item. Similarly in the case of V paradigms,
change takes place in accord with the change that takes place in one con-
sonant.
Ex : The girl eats an apple.

Here the contrast is of the same quality as we have in the contrast of Id

DI and Is S/. Th first item changes giving new semantic content even
~hough the rest of the sentence remains the same, or in the case of a CA
V the rest of the V remains the same.

263
 Now we know why CA is a language of vast propotions. It is because
its verb system is constructed upon the same principles that sentences
are constructed upon and modern linguistics staleS that languages is infi-
nite (see Chomsky 1965). Every time one can produce new semanitc
content by changing one item (a cons, a VI, a pat etc.).

The level of SS in CA is still intact and operative. Time has not al-
tered or made obsolele its significance. In other words the rules of the
SS underlying the language have not been changed and are still produc-
tive. The native speaker can change the semantic con lent of the word he
is using or give a different shade to it by a change of pat even though he
may not be fully aware of the underlying theory.

Since CA has not changed thoughout time and has the same origin as
L and OE-a fact that the preceding chapters have proved for languages
that share on this scale and on all levels (excluding that of SS which has
been accounted for) have to come from the same source, then CA is ulti-
mately the ancestor of Land OE.

This hypothesis explains to us a number of phenomena that we could

not account for without it. It explains why we find cognate forms of
CA in any IE language we look into. It explains why it is relatively
easy for the researcher to trace a word in CA and in another IE language,
but more difficult to trrace a word in two IE languages of different
branches. Because when Lracing a word in CA and OE, for example, one
has to study one set of rules, the rules OE has submitted to, but when
tracing two words o f two different branches one has to study the rules
that the first~branch has submitted to, then the rulys the second branch
has submitted to, then try to reconstruct the original form, a process
which is very often inaccurate. There are three operations involved.
When dealing with CA only one operation is inv@lved, granted that we
already know the rules of CA. If we do not then two operations instead
of three arc linvolved. One ha~ to bear in mind that the reconstructed
form may not be identical with the original, for old languages have
sounds (like /3/ and /dhl) which arc not found in modem languages so
ht

that the whole process becomes doubly difficult. It also answers the
tp

question why CA is so systematic and olear -cut, while other languages

://

reflect only a part of this ancient plan on which it was built.

a
l-m

We may ask what is the relationship of CA to other Semitic tongues?

ak

Linguists have all agrccd that these arc sister languages, but examination
ta

of other Semitic tongues shows that they have all undergone loss of
be
h.
co

264
m
 phonemes and certain patterns. The loss of phonemes alone denotes that
the underlying system of SS is no longer operative. The only excep-
tions are south Arabic and Abyssinian. But these have undergone chang-
es of pattern as well as some phonetic alterations. CA is the only Se-
mitic tongue that has not changed. We notice that the two Semitic
tongues that are closest to it geographically are the ones who have re-
tained most of their phonemes. Isolated in the heart of the desert CA has
remained unlouched.(l) It is not the siSler language of Semitic tongues,
it is the mother language of Semitic tongues. All the people who have
immigrated and mixed with other peoples have had their tongue altered to
a certain extent. While CA has retained its purity. Now we know why
the old tribes of Arabia have named CA (AI FusHah).

1) For comparison of CA with an ancient Senitic tongue see appendix.

265
 m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
al-m
://
tp
ht
 APPENDIX
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AND
CLASSIC ARABIC

The language of the Ancient Egyptians has been deciphered in the last
century and studied from different orientations. In this appendix we propose to
examine it simply as language. Its position in relation to CA. Its immense
importance from the historical, social, religious and evolutionary angles are
outside the scope of this work, except where they explain to us a linguistic
phenomenon. That is the reason we shall have to give a brief note on the
history of this language. (for more detailed accounts see works given as refer-
ence).

1. Note on the history of AE :

According to Egyptologists the aboriginal inhabitants of Egypt had a
primitive existence, they knew no means of writing language and buried
their dead in pieces, in graves that contained no drawings, no engravings or
decoration. Later a few Germanic tribes came and settled beside these early
peoples then gradually merged with them after seuling beside them for
sometime. Then there came from the north around 4000 B.C. an Asiatic
people of far more advanced culture. They seulcd first in the north of the
country, then gradually spread southwards, their language, their writing and
their customs spreading with them. Their religion which they brought
from their original home had very great and elaborate rituals and it began to
take hold of the natives hearts. We arc told that the religion of ancient
Egypt became a merger of that of the early peoples together with or domi-
nated by the religion of these Asiastic ones. The results was very lofty and
noble ideals together with some curious superslilions.

2. Examination of AE :
The first thing the linguist notices after examining the language is
that he has to deal with two distinct sets of phonetic and morphological
rules, together with scores of words of Germanic origin. Fortunately the
three languages have CA as ancestor, so that we can eslimate to a conside-
rale extent what rules each language has submiud to. One must bear in
mind however the impact of the three languages upon each other, the

267
 influence that their or merger is to
we have the Hook or the Dead which thc Asiatic
their home of so that we can tell to a considerable extent what their
..... bu'.bv was like before contact with the of the inhabi-
tants of the land.

We shall first the overall rules that the

losses. We record the ones below.

1. Loss of SS

2. Loss of the a
D d g I dh z :;) R No distiction is
made between consonantal and so it is difficult
to tell wether the Ancient between them
or not. no distinction is made between VI and
It is

proper names of

3. Loss of distinction between 2 cons, 3 cons, 4 cons that is the

merger of the three groups.

4. that the rules thm govern the formation of

from V have also been in facl most of
them no operate.

5. The natural result of this is the loss of the

or most of them and the loss of their
Needless to say that the above losses are very grave indeed and that
have been the cause of further losses in the lexicon of the
..b'.... b"" in its <lnd rules .

This is a fraction of the mother Just as other

which have lost the system of 5S have been very
ht

,",Ul''',",'U, so has this very old

tp
://

After this brief cnumaralioJl of losses it is lime to examine words

al-m

from the three thal have The of the

inhabitant" or the land we shall call AE 1, the Germanic element
ak
ta

we shall call AEG and the of the Asiatic sculers we shall call
be

AE2.
h.
co

268
m
3. AEl:
Examination of this language shows two salient features. It is a
language derived from CA that has separated from it at a very remote period
in pre-historic times, so that it has undergone very drastic changes.

The overall rule that this language has submitted to is a deletion rule
that deletes words of two or three syl to one syl. The main patterns of this
language are in consequence CV and CVe. These two patterns exist in CA
but in a very limited number of words. The first belongs to particles and
prepositions while the second may be used for words derived from 2 syl V
of the pat CVC'CV.

Words that already have this pattern in CA have not changed in AE

Ex: AE 1 hes CA [hes] (sound, voice, hence singing in AE)
AEI sa CA [sx] (causative part in AE, and future particle CA)
AE 1 sah CA [~ah] (ewe, cf with Ger schaf which is a cog)

Words from three syl V in CA have undergone severe deletion and

even words from 2 cons V have also undergone some deletion as the exam-
ples below reveal.

Ex : Words from 3 cons V :

AEI hru CA [n<eha:r] (daytime), AEI heq CA [H<e:cem] ruler
AEI ncr CA [nesr] (vulture) AEI sab CA r9<e3labl Uackal)
AEI bu CA [bawre,a:O] (to liv ,dwell, OE boa)

Ex Words from 2 cons V in CA :

AEI mu CA [miyrehl (water), AEI hap, CA [hebreh] (donation,
gift)
AEI hai CA [hayl] (hail, OE cog ha:gl)
AEI xu CA [mux] (brain, spirit) AE sa, CA [s<e:qa] (to drive, lead)

In this ancient tongue the VI /a/ is used very oflCn in initial position.
Egyptologists differentiate between three different symbols for /a/ in AE.
These do not correspond with any phoneme we know systematically in CA
but the three are used instead of the missing sounds in this language. Thus
/q 3 T R ah / as well as other sounds arc replaced by a VI. The replacement
of /3/ by /a/ is a cors one comes across quite often in both IE languages and
in some Semitic tongues as well, but the replacement of the other cons by
a VI is rare except in this language.

269
 Ex: AEI urCA CA
AEI aaCA
AEI aah CA The two last words are from the
same
RV ,_~"...~'_.

found in all Semitic as well as IE ones, is found in

also but because of the deletion rule the has
c"""",,... llv reduced.

AEI aq CA

AEI am CA

4. AE 2 :
This also is derived from CA. It is much closer to the laller
than AE 1 because it has not submittcd to the deletion rule of AE 1. Here
we find words form 3 cons RV and 2 cons RV which have not
deletion. We find reduction of a feature that all which have
lost the system of SS go
since the Ancient
VI and sometimes did not write them at the consonants. The
VI are to facilalc

Also there is no difference in

difference in between and
such differences did exist.

Ex : Words from 3 cons R V

AE2 CA 1"""''''''''''''1
ht
tp

AE2 hetem CA
://
a
l-m

AE2 nelem CA
ak

AE2 CA what is burnt in

ta

AE2 CA AE2 hchs CA

be
h.
co

270
m
 We notice that in this language 131 is replaced by a stop in medial
position as it is in IE lagnuages (cf no.4 above with OE niten from the
same R V) and that /II is replaced by /hI 9t:.deleted. This phonetic rule was
taken in all probability from AE 1. Actually there are phonemes in the
names of the early dynasties that no longer appear in the language (see
below) as a whole. This language retains Iql and does not replace it by a VI
like AEl.
Ex : AE2 qema CA (qemah) (top completion) (cf with Gr acme)
AE qert CA [qart] (part)

Distinction is made in writing between it and Icl in most cases. There

are three symbols which signify a Ikl sound in AE.

One of them probably is a homophone having no difference in

phonetic qualities.
Ex: AE2 qebh CA [cab'bah] (a cool drink)

Sometimes words which have Ig/ in CA are found having Iql in AE2.
This is possibly due to the fact that AE I has no Ig/ so that after merger;
after loosing Ig/ AE2 replaced it by Iql in certain words (cf with Land OE
where the opposite tendency exists) and by another stop in others.
Ex : AE2 qenb, CA [ganb] (side) AE2 tcnh, CA IganaH] (wing)

5. Verbs In AE :
Due to the changes the language has undergone the AE2 verb no
longer has the clear divisions into 2, 3 and 4 cons V and the morphological
rules that govern each group arc no longer separate and distinctive. In struc-
ture AE verb is closer to the CA one than L and OE. It occurs more often
before the subject if it is a trans V, a<; it docs in CA.
Ex:
AE2 xepcr metet nebt Tern
CA [xuliqat calima:t nabctah min tam]
Mod Eng created words sprang from Tern

xepcr : is the V [xalaqa] in CA and it means to creaLC to bring int9

being to give life, here it is in the passive voice.

metet : or [calima:t] in CA is the pI of [calimah] it has undergone

deletion because of the none existence of III in AE then EC. (This V
is clarno in L) in CA [c<cl::cma]

271
 to
to emanate. In CA it is a in this sturclure, in AE it
is most the same hul since the of a word docs
not decide its category it is difficult to leU for certain.

min: is a thaL connects the

it is found in CA and Mod but not in AE which dlslpenlSCs
with such In

Tern: is the name of an AE In CA it is from the verb

to make The N would mean the one, the

While CA has a tense for the AE does not morc-

over the N and V may have the same

The V xeper or in CA docs not exist in DE but a N

that it once existed is found. It is folk or CA It means crea-
men, women, children. In AE this word is xeperu. The cors is
DE has the initial fricative to because
docs not exist in DE and is a favourite. a rather different inter-
of this sentence see Sir E.A. Wallis P.

6. Pronouns in AE :
As we have seen from the above this U'''bU''oV retains many
of the 2
pronouns

anuk ana::
entek anl:C you
enteten antuma ye two
ht

entusen anLum ye
tp
://
al-m

AE2 has devised from the above to accomadaLC the other

ak

and I I DE
ta

persons CA These
be

are not found in CA or in IE the pro-

h.
co

272
m
 forms the endings -k and -l. These arc found as separate pro-forms in CA
and usually come after nouns as suffixes in both languages.
Ex: AE2 anxui-k, CA [uounay-Kre] (your two ears)

In this language Ik/ comes after nouns to denote possession for the
second pers sing as it docs in CA.

An interesting feature is the formation of the reflexive pronouns in

this language. In CA the reflexive-pronouns arc formed by the addition of
the possessive pro to the N [nrefs] OE fna:st. OE is one of the very few
Germanic langagues where the reflexive pro arc formed in the same way. In
AE there is the same manner of forming the reflexive pronouns.
Ex:

AE CA Mod Eng

tcs-a nafs-y myself

tes-k nafsa-ka yourself

The N [nrefs] and AE tes arc cog forms. This N has undergone dele-
tion in accord with the rule of AE I. OE sdfa is the cog of CA [sa::lcf]
and comes from another RV. It is almost a synonym however, since in CA
it means previous life, previous self or ancestors.

In the three languages the process is the same. Other IE languages,

like Fr and Ger. have separate forms to form the reflexive pro. In L the
word self or t'Pg~, (the cog of sell) is used to form the intensive pronouns.

7. Numerals:
When dealing with numerals in OE and L we have seen how the same
word or two words form the same RV can mean two numbers semantically,
when the RV allows such usage. There arc cognates which are the same on
both the morphological and the semantic level, and there are morphological
cogantes which have slightly different meanings or mean two different
numbers on the semantic level. We shall call the first cognates and the
second morphological cognates or Me. These have a different referent in
the two languages compared.

273
 Mod Eng AE CA cogantes MC

one ua [waHcd]
two sen [cOnayn]
three xemet (xamsatu) (five in CA)
four fro OE fcower
five tua twa (two in OE)
six sas [set'tab]
seven sefex [sab3an]
eight xemennu [9amaniyah]
nine pest (basT) (extention in CA)
ten met [3kah] [ma:a:h] 100 in CA
v
hundred saa [~arah] 10 in CA
thousand hefennu [alfun]

In the numers above the numbers 1 2 6 7 8 are cognates both morpho-

logically and semantically. The No.3 means five in CA while five means
two in OE. No.4 is a cogante of OE feower but not CA [arba3a:h] which
comes from a differnt rool. No.9 means a spreading or extention in CA.
There has been a criss-cross movement between no 10 and no 100. What
means ten in CA has come to mean 100 in AE and vice versa. Such move-
ments one comes across accasionally in related languages. The number
1000 is a full cognate in the two languages. We notice that the number 4
is a cog of OE and not CA, the number 5 is a morphological cog of OE and
not CA and the n mber 7 has a pattern closer to that of OE than CA even
though it is a cogante in the three languages. ffhis phenomenon is
discussed furthe>belo~. ~
ht

8. AE and Cairene Arabic :

tp

Cairene Arabic ·s very close to CA . A person who speaks it can

://

understand CA without any difficulty. Nevertheless we find some traces in

al-m

its phonetic rules and in some words from AE.

ak
ta
be
h.

274
co
m
 Ex:
Mod Eng AE Cairene A CA

bag, flusk arp erab [qirab]

heart ab alb [qalb]
with me maia ma~dya [mre3i:]
Yesterday, previoulsy embah embareh [al bareHah]
lady, woman set set [sreyeructu]

In the first two words the cors Ia! : Iq/ is shared by AE and Caire
Arabic. Instead of CA Iql a VI is used in both languages. In No. 3 the
final long VI of CA which is symbolic on the level of SS with a longtitu-
dinal movement of going along with or following, is replaced in both
languages by Ia! which on the level of SS is symbolic of the static.

In No.4 the word means yesterday and may be used to mean figura-
tively in the past. Here the IV of th def art of CA is replaced by Im/. This
is a tendency found in AE, Cairene Arabic. It is found also in some old
Arabic tongues.

Cairene Arabic is much closer to CA than AE. These are only traces
of an older phonetic system found until today among the inhabitants of the
country.

9. AE Land OE :
CA is a huge language, so that only a fraction of it would suffice to
form a new language. It is possible to have two or more languages derived
from it which have nothing in common. In actual fact one usually finds
cognate forms in languages from the same origin. The quesLion one would
like to ask here is how much does L and AE have in common? And how
much does AE and OE have in common? A sample taken from one hundred
CA and AE words which are cognales give the following percentages:

CA L

100 28

275
 that our of one hundred words is 100% and this is a
,.... "'1-"". we find that while 41 of OE words have AE
28% of L ones do. Let us examine some of these eo~:nallcs.

10. Germanic

common is not strange since come from the same sourcc.

What we shall in this section is AE words that have submitted
to 1wo sets of the first Germanic and the second the rules of deletion
of AEI
Ex.

1. heart hcort hat

2. mother modor
3. top top
4. shirl scyrlC
S. four fcower fru
6. cow cue cawt
7. hall ha:I ha
8. Sir Sc6d aSi
9. flamc bal bes
10. same ON same sma

1. This AE word has the cors and which are

Germanic. It has further deletion in accord with the rulcs
of AE 1. In AE 1 is deleted and to
Moreover there is the same word in AE 1
cors of AE 1 it is abo
ht

the eors of Germanic then

tp

to in accord with the rule of AEl.

://

which docs not cOllle form a Germanic source is

a
l-m

and remains abu in AE.

ak

3. This word has the same cors as Gcnnanic than the rcduc-
ta
be

tion of VI.
h.
co

276
m
 4. No.4 has undergone the Germanic cors then the change of Irl : Inl
in accord with the rules of clustering of AE.

5.6. 7. 8. have also undergone first the Germanie then the AEI rules
of corso (see 9.6 for more on No.8)

9. This word appears inOE as swa a reI pro. In CA it is an adjectival

and it comes from the RV [sa;:waILO make equal, like or the same.
We notice that OE is closer to CA while AE is closer to ON in
this word having changed Iwl to Im/.

This kind of correspondence is not very frequent it occurs in abom

10% of AE words, nevertheless it has to be accounted for. Can history
offer an explanation?

According to history Thotmosc III fought the Libyans routed them and
drove them out of Egypt. These Libyans were fair haired blue-eyed invaders
from the north. We are told further that the rulers of the Egyptian oasis
used to hide treasures in secret places for fear of raids from the Vandals (sce
reference).

If some Germanic tribes have come and settled in Egypt. When did
this take place? The linguistic evidence we have got points out that this
must have been in between the first and the second great immigrations.
That is after the people who spoke AE I, so that their language has
submitted to the rules of this language, but before AE2, because words
from AE2 have not submitted to the rules of AE 1. They came after these
rules were no longer operative, while the words from Germanic languages
came during the dominance of AEl, that is when its rules were operative.

11. Overall movement of phonemes in AE :

In the table below we give the different percenUlgesof the occurence of
each of the phonemes of AE as a whole in initial position. These percent-
ages are approximate nevertheless they allow a glimpse inLO the changes
that have taken place in this language after the merger of its three compo-
nents.

277
 l. A
2. S
,3. h
4. m
5. x
6.
7. n
8. s
9. u

in this '-"b~'~b'~'
which appears in the rest of the after merger
to a certain extent in AE2 and AEG. The
nh,rmr'mf'" above all others is a charecteristic
which have lostlhe system of SS.

2. Next comes In this it is used very often in

initial because it is a merger of Lwo CA sounds
and then it is a favourite in initial in AEG and
occurs rather often in initial in CA so that we should
expect it to do so in AE2 which is rather close to CA. If we
add Lo this the facL that it takes the of fricatives
like /za, s/
and sometimes 18 even exist in
the we arc able to understand the cause of its

3. H is used rather less than the two

sounds because it is a merger of two sounds in CA
and because in AEG it while in AE2 it
after the laLter was lost from this due to the
ht

influence of AE 1.
tp
://

4. is used often in initial

a l-m

deleted when found in medial or final a Germanic

ma- of CA which V into
ak

with the stem of

ta
be
h.

27·8
co
m
 the word becoming an integral part of it and no longer separ-
able. In consequences it is found rather often in initial posi-
tion.

5. Ixl is a sound used often in AE though in CA it is the symbol

of the ruined, the disgusting, the mean or corrupt. In both CA
and AE when Ixl is used alone it is an exclamation denoting
disgust or indignation. We assume that it has taken the place
of sounds like Iq e g/ in AEI long after the SS of the language
has become obsolete and its connotation no longer significant

While /hI replaces Ix! in AEG, the opposite tendency exists in

AEI and AE2 where it has become a favourite.

6. The phoneme Itl is used rather often it takes the place of other
stops like Id D TI and sometimes Ig!, since these sounds exist
no longer in AE.

7. N is well accepted in the three languages merged, it is used

rather often in CA, so one should expect this percentage for it.

8. AlLhough lsI is sometimes replaced by lsI it replace it in

certain words and is acceplable in the language as a whole.

9. luI occurs rather often in initial position because AE did not

differentiate between the VI luI and the semi-VI Iwl in writing.

10. fbI is acceptable in the three languages although it is used a

lillie less than it is used in CA.

11. Irl is used rather sparingly in initial position, although it

occurs more often in medial and final position due to the
patterns of AE.

12. 13. AE differentiates between Iql and /k/. Both sounds exists in
the language. /k/ belongs mainly to AE I, while Iql belongs
mainly to AE2 since AE I changes it to Ia! and AEG changes
it sometimes to /hI.

14. In AE Ipl has been introcuded although it does not exist in

CA. It Lakes the place of both fbI and /f/ in certain words but
it takes the place of /f/ more often when the lalter occurs in
second position or in a cluster like: Ex : sper, CA [sref<cra]
(to travel) OE cog fat'an sept CA lkfcctu] (lip).

279
 15. that this sound is used at all is due to the
innuence of AE2. h docs not seem to have existed in AE 1 and
used in

17. and is -~-."-,, I due to the influence

were often
or we find these very small

From the table above it is evident tJlat there is a definite correla-

tion betwen the loss of certain sounds and the increase in the use
but loss of
"v .... u". as we have mentioned
in the size of the lexicon in
that words which contain favouriLe sounds tend to remain while
words which contain sounds that have been lost tend to be
t1 ..I1,nnr·t1 from the .aIlI:;U<I'l:;""

12. The names of the 01' the or the Old

When proper names' in Land OE we found that proper

names are the nouns that moreover arc nOl fortiutous
creations but have Below we shall
the names of the
in CA.

The first Herodotus.

The CA cog is and it mean the the generous, the
bountiful. The word was a final-s hccausc this is the Greek way of
nouns. was the founder of Ihe first his
which cors with CA
ht

every year the same root

tp

to he needed more space,

://
a

then he wanted a nearer LO the center of his new for he had

l-m

uniled upper and lower of

ak

the two lands. Thc N

ta

space, an an ouLicl.
be
h.
co

280
m
 The names of some of the kings who came immediately after him are:
Djcr : CA [ga:rJ it means the neighbour literally, but figuratively in
CA it means protector, patron
Djet : CA [ga::d] it means the grand, the great
Den : CA [Da:em] the ruler, the judge (cf with OE dema)
Adjib : CA [3a:giyb] the marvellous, the extraordinary, the wonderous

In the nouns above we notice that CA /g/ cors with /dj/ in this
language. In AE I there was no /j/, but in many Arabic dialects /dj/ and /g/
are considered allophones. In the lands of the fertile crescent /dj/ replaces
CA /g/ which is the older sound of the SS. It is quite possible that these
Asiatic people came from that direction(l). These names show that
originally AE2 had the sound /dj/. It replaced /g/ of CA. When the two
languages AEI and AE2 merged, we find neither /dj/ or /g/. /dj/ had
already replaced /g/ in their home of origin, and after merger with AEI /dj/
also was dropped.

13. The names of the Ancient Egyptian deities :

In the names of the deities of Ancient Egypt the same tendencies in
the language as a whole may be observed. The name of each deity is
pronounced in three or four different ways depending on where it is
pronounced, in Memphis or Thebes, in Ihe south or North and by whom.
Ex'
CA Gr AE2 AEG AEI

1. [xonfis] cnouphis cncph Hncf Hnouf NefNouf

2. [a:9iyr] ather Athyr Hathor Alar
3. [bahcy] Poiih Pooh Ooh.
4. [bahrecO]

1. The first is the name of the one of the deities of Ancient Egypt,
which has the head of a scrabe. The word in CA is [xonfis]. The
Greeks, and there was a very large Greek colony in Ancient Egypt,
have made it tnoupf)is, it was abbreviated in AE2 after contact
with AEI to cneph, and in AEG the initial /c/ or /x/ was changed
to /hi. BOlh sounds arc changed to /h/ this language. Finally the
people of AE 1 call this deity lhf or ]!lout. They have reduced the
word to one syl. The word scrabe is found in the language, in all

281
 as In OE it is
It exists side
taken from an older version of the closer to the CA
form.

2. This word means the air or

IIll;illll.1I1'; in Land Gr. The Ancient made it the name of
the J',vuu'~,,,,, of the third month of the Ancient
year, of the weather at that time. In
AE2the word retains its IU"..... i:lllIUII. but AEG an
before it. AEI
fricative to an a cors one comes across
rather often in AEI and that exists in Cairene Arabic until

3. This is the name of the moon )!.UlllU'O''''. The word does not mean

moon in CA but it is an oflen connected with the moon. It

brilliant In AE the initial
was to in AE2 and AEG while it was
deleted in AEI. There is an older version of the word it is
which with CA if we recall that AEl '-""'''J','-''
to a VI and deletes This version of the word
comes from AE 1.
Pantheon 1.MJ.F

14. The book of the Dead :

The book of the dead is a very old writ that the of Ancient
used to the dead a safe in the other world. Some of its
texts were very old and are believed to have come from the
of the of AE2. In the book the Sir Wallis
says:
and the mistakes which occur in prove that the were
with texts that were at that remote time so old as to be unintelli-
in many passages, and that many of them without under-
them. P.xxix.
ht

In consequence we find some and some words left

tp
://

untranslated. These are to us the most for

a

to be very close to CA.

l-m
ak

I. was a that lived upon the limbs of the dead The

ta

word in CA means hawk or so It IS under-

be

standable that should have such fear of it for their dead.

h.
co

282
m
 The N .sa~ua is not translated. In CA it is [SaHwreh] it comes
from the V [SaHre:] to rise, to wake up. It means rise or resur-
rection of the dead or his double or lta CA [qariyn) (comple-
ment).
2. The Bennu bird: comes from CA [ba:r-un] good, benevolent. It
is the bird of good or happiness (cf L cog bene).
3. The deceased was given bdtau to say in order to have his wishes
and needs supplied. The word is translated as "words of power",
which it is. In CA the V [Hacre: 1 means to relate, to argue, to
tell stories. From this verb comes [Hecayah] (a story). (CA Iyl
is often found as lui in AE).
4. Aten : is the sun god in AE. In CA it means great pit of fire of
intense heat and the word is [retoun].
5. Amen is another AE god. The adj [re:men] in CA mean secure
safe in peace or peace giving.
6. maat : the N is in CA [mre3re:dl and it means promise, appoint-
ment. Thus an expression like U$\' maat-lta-mn-i ~mtn.
means the vow of the appointment of Ra beloved of Amen.
7. Usr : is [uSr] and it comes from the V laSara] to make a firm
knot and it means figuratively vow or oath of great power.
maat : is given above
Ra: is a highly abrreviatcd form of CA [zorour] L cog aUt'ot'a it
means early morning light or rays. It is the name of the sun
god.
Meri : is the adj [mura:d] in CA and it means, the chosen, the
beloved. It is made of the verb [radre] preceded by the pref [mae-].
This epithet is still found as a proper name in Egypt, but it has
not entered the language through AE but directly through CA.
8. Samaaxeru: is [sremreoaxerah) in CA and means eternal sky the
word (sarnreo -un) occurs in OE as .sammanum (See Bosworth
P. 873). The difference between the CA and AE word is the
difference of the masc sig, vs the fern in CA.
9. The expression maa k~n'u has been subject to many
interpretations it was interpreted as "victorious". "veridique".
"machtig der Rede" and "he whose words are right and true". This
expression means in CA "with the good". It is [rna3a I xayr].

283
 [ma3a] is a preposition which means with (cf with Ger cog
mit) [xayr] means good. When the definite art is added it becomes
with the good. It appears that those who were good on earth went
with the good.

We are told that the recital of a certain chapter (see Budge p.

cxxix) gives the dead the power to risc like the HenmemeL The
word in CA is [Hremremretu] and it means dove or pigeon.

9. bent ein9 rest: is in CA [bent 3ayn rusd] and it means daughter

of the eye of wisdom. Each one of these words has a cog or a
word from the same root in IE languages.
. Bent: is the fern of ebn whose morphological cog is brother (see
2.6) ein91 is [3ayn-un] in CA. Proto-Ger augotl* (eye).

The root V [reJada] means to attain full metal powers. In conse-

quence it is used to mean maturity. wisdom or right The struc-
~.ure of this language is closer to CA than any of the languages
we have previously examined.

1. In this 5 AE has the srune structure as CA. The nouns in the

genitive case are placed in the same order to denote possession as
in CA without any intervening particle. This juxtaposition is
• of the genitive case. The differen'je between it and CA
the mark
is that in CA one may use inllection or one may mot. while this
language has no inflection except in a few remnants.
8. In this example of N+adj the N precedes as in CA. As we have
seen reviously (19.10) this is due to the underlying 55 of the
language and in AE it has been rel<lincd.
9. A preposition preceding its object. an order one finds in CA. AE
as well as IE languages.
ht
tp

10. Three nouns in the genetive case. Each N precedes the one it
://

belongs to without any intefveing particle. The order is typical

al-m

of CA, and is the same as N°.6 above.

ak
ta
be
h.
co

284
m
15. Conclusion :
In the pages above we have given a brief picture of AE. Our examina-
tion of the language has been skelChy but il has revealed the main charac-
teristics of the language and proved that AE, like other Semitic tongues,
has been derived from CA. This language is immensely old, the language
of the oldest civilization in the world, moreover examination of this
language has shown that AEI must have been derived from CA at a very
early period in the history or rather the existence of mankind. If we add to
this the infonnation that CA is the only language we know of based on
SS, the only language were individual sounds have significance, then we
can grasp how immeasurably old CA is. It is undoubtedly the mother
language of Semitic as well as IE tongues and we believe that should
research on the lines of the research upon which this book is based is
undertaken, we would be able to acertain that olher languages also were
ultimately derived from CA. in all probability alilhe different tongues of
the world.

1. For further proof concerning the origin of these Asiatic people see
W. A. Budge 1985 P. XXXI.

285
 Albert C : A of the JCU,!;U~'" """gllJd);,IV r.,uuU<.;\JI!IJ &
Paul London 1968.
Bosworth : An press
1983.
Theodora: Historical press 1983,
Neom : fi:>I~1,l; of the M.I.T press 1969.
'U"""""'~, .. H A : An introduction to ripc'l'nnl .... l~U."'U~.'" Holt Rinehart and
Winston 1969.
Hill Archibald : .......,~UI"'U... Brace and World 1958.
Hitti I-li"tnl"" of the Arabs Macmillan & co L TO 1956.
Lockwood W B : An informal of the German ........ b ..."''''''' Weffel and
sons 1965 .
John: Introduction Lo theoretical
press 1969.
John: New Horizons in Pelican Books 1972.
Price Glaville : The French UB.~;ua~;" Edward Arnold 1971.
Modern and Medieval

:steph(:D: The in the Modem French novel Basil Blackwell

1956.
R: The Old World Thames and Hudson 1974.

Wallis E.A : The 1i:U1~;Ud~;1J Arkana 1985.

ht
tp

The Book of the Dead . London and Paul 1966.

://
a
l-m

J.F : Pantheon Persea 1986.

ak

A brief of Ancient
ta
be

IskandarZ. . Cairo. 1954.

h.
co

286
m
 Arabic References

d.I~ VoII ~ ~ ~..".JI ~I.,.A11 -

« ~ ~ lJi » ~..".J I llIJI ~ I"';

c.~I.J~ -

~)I~I -

",.rJ1 y~"il ~.Jl1 -

«~ui~ o~ »~~I.,raall -

« r.J~1 ~J ~I ~ » ~I)I ~I -

« ~~ .J~I ~ ~ » #.oHIJ
0 r"wl W ~..".JI -

c ~I.lI.J I.?? » ~..".JI WJI ~.Jl1 -

« V" ~ I ~j » U"..".J I fi:.AJ I t! I".;

« ~Li...ll ~."..- V"~ » i"l.!JlllIJl -

 At Al'bnillm f"no.ss. K~ NIl
ht
tp
://
a l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co
m
 ~)'v-)'~'~
~~,~~

Classic Arabic as the Ancestor of

Indo-Europian Langauages out Origin ofSpeach
..~••'il.tt
ti.a o~.tl olilJ/.i
.,J.......... , U ... faill ti.a-tJ
••'..r"

f"~I~t,
~L.......I ~)all ¥ ~ .~I ~.::..aU d,,:...... ~ J.>U-I ~ ~ ~ ,:,~I IlA
1.lfJ t.~1 ~ ~ ~ ~4- c,; '+-.)~ ..:.>!S c,;J1 ~h i~1 UJJI ~I,,; "Oft 0ft; i,J
~L.~I4.iJJI,.,.., ~" ....~.....1I,J ~I ~.ii.:.liJ ~ ~ ~.)WI J"iZ:! ,:,~I,J. ~I
.~.:.l.vJa.. ~ ~I ~ JAU. ~I ~,.,.JI.UJJI..J ~..t..:J1 ~h i~1 ~ ~ ~I

-: ~ ~vA4..La

&e ~~I UJJI JWI """ IV0,J I.T.~ J-I """ ~"...&.JI UJJI JWI v- IA. Ut : ~,Jl
~ ~ ~I.:.~I ul 1ll4,J I.T.~ J-I

Anglo-Saxon ..r...)A Latin ..r...)A

wara (S.JJ reg(> .p.-)
hean ~ curro fit
hwon UJ.A dicere ,fij
wyrt .l.JJ eO ~t
darn .)l...i. cavus ....ap
hryre corns
hocor
.
~jA

cinis
O-.)U

he
~
captus
.~
",.
~
heo vA amita ~
hem ,... necesse v-ii
:~~-.
~ -t........tl+/.~.
~I ~. ~L.i
,lot ~L.~I~Li1I~i
_ • ' • '1~
~I.J

Woden ••
1.l,J Manon • LA..
 '..u
1.1.

.
,":,.1

.
'.11'1

y't. A•• • (I

''I.. '1"1'£. £•
ht
tp
://
a
l-m
ak
ta
be
h.
co
m
 • ·lil.·l_jL
I.JJ-' ~.>- f'""(')..J
u .,ra IT.'It.KIl·l
.,ra IT1.i11 ~
.- ~ ·li~..:.~
'-.I.JJ-'. ·-oW't:...'

.[by dissimilation] t.KIl ~ ~ ~j ..J.,ra ~ Ij! [r] ..J.,ra j! (w)..J,.,.. ~ we

J t.....!J1 j.ald.·.......... I.. I·' __ ~·I t....Ji
~~-..:'~ _ J,:..L...JI cs-(:.,..JJ:" ... u...... ,~L·.,
1- - •.• 11 ............... ~u
.~ u'.J
.~

. _~I j! uL.J1 .ui' ..:.IJll. ~j ~ (The Vikings)

wi ~ ~ (levels) ..:.~ ~ y.k ~ ~I ~ ~.,.JI UJI V>~ V"J~ ~
'11
»--j' ~ - ~I tu-II
_.'.}'W
UJI u.~ . J..ii..:.L~
- t....JI cs-
I.. ~
-. r-IWI ..:.W ~

..:...w ~'il ..:.liJJl ~ I ~ ~I ~ SS (sound symbolism) ~"....JI

. ~I ~,.~ ISjJl w-'-ll 1.lA

V. ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~."... j.J Vc- iJ4c- ~.,.JI WI ~ ..J.,ra ~ wi ~ d/jJ

. wW~IIS.:."...JI..:.I..)J1

j.J;! d/4J [trill] rll' Ji,1..I ~~ d~ wWI wi ~ ~ [r] ,,')'..J.,ra \l...,J..I Ij!
i.....:;• I.Jo"'o
L I
• J i iJ~~1
I• .ll.J:i U-
~ cs- • J i J I<'~II
~ cs-
I.. J.u IT"
-::11 tu-II <'~II IT.
••'.}'W UJlI Jt....iU J I~ 'I
·t..lJ 4J ~J ("..IJ ..J..IJ f:=!"J: J~..uIjI..J~
.•~~.,ra ~'i .~I ~~ ~J u~ ~ ul ~

~J IS.J.J
, . .
..:.jJ d-J tJ: ~
~·.I-
_~'~I ~I •
~IT ItJL.'.J U._:.>-
Lli " ~~I ~
~._ . ~_ ..J-11 . I .~
'..>- 1.lA U '.J

return, repeat, repeal, reject : ~ ~ Y:i..!J1

~ u i ~ ~ SS ~.~ ~ j.J ~~I WI ~..J.,ra.$ w!J j.J _I)I..J,.,.. u! ~J

j.....J' •.lA ,:,~I J.,lW..J SS ~ ~ ~ ~ ~."..JI ~ _L.....'iIJJt....i'i1 wi:"'! V. WJ
·~4
~I~ j! ~."..JI UJlI ~ ~ Jl..:J1 ~ .~ ~i,JA (phoneme) ..J~I wi Lu..J
. uW~1 ~ Jl.W L.. J.,I u+i ~I
Sanskirt ~JiII ~~I Ji ~JiII ~U'il Ji ~";~I ~ UJ lSi ~ ~ ~ dljJ

~.)&-..:.l..JS: ~

Gr. : qualamus r-1i S. Kr: Sapta ~: ~

o H G : burg ~~ Mihhil JJi..

.L.~

t...s::
ennu
m
co
h.
be
ta
ak
al-m
://
tp
ht