RESEARCH METHODS IN

ENVIRONMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT
Feyera Senbeta (PhD),
Ecology and Natural Resource
OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

After completing the course you should able

To define a research problem

To understand various research designs and their main
characteristics

To know the details of several sampling designs and
different measurement and scaling techniques

To understand the different methods of data collection
techniques

To deals with processing and analysis of data including
multivariate techniques

To interprate and write a research report

To develop the most appropriate methodology for their
research studies; and

to make them familiar with the art of using different
research methods and techniques.
Research Methodology –Introduction

UNIT 1
 OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 1

After completing the Unit you should able to

Define what research mean?

Understand the objectives of research

explain the motive of research

Understand the different types of research

Describe the research Approaches

Highlight the significance of Research

Differentiate between Research Methods versus Methodology

Describe the difference between Research and Scientific Method

Understand the research Process
WHAT IS RESEARCH?

It refers to a search for knowledge.

It is a scientific and systematic search for
pertinent information on a specific topic.

It is an art of scientific investigation.

Dictionarydefine as “a careful investigation or

inquiry specially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge.

Some people consider as a movement, a

movement from the known to the unknown.

Understanding of the unknown.

Research is an academic activity

It is defining and redefining problems, formulating

hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organising and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions;

It is testing the conclusions to determine whether

they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation

of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge,
whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory
or in the practice of an art.

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the
existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.

It is the persuit of truth with the help of study,

observation, comparison and experiment.

It is short, the search for knowledge through

objective and systematic method of finding solution
to a problem in search.

The systematic approach concerning generalisation

and the formulation of a theory is also research.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
procedures.

The main aim of research is to find out the truth

which is hidden and which has not been discovered
as yet.

Though each research study has its own specific

purpose, we may think of research objectives as
falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new

insights into it (studies with this object in view are
termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
OBJECTIVES...
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in
view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or

with which it is associated with something else (studies with
this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between

variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).
 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

What makes people to undertake research?

The possible motives for doing research may be:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors

Many more factors such as directives of government,
employment conditions, curiosity about new things, and the
like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to
perform research operations.
TYPES OF RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows:

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds.

- The major purpose of descriptive research is

description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.

- In social science research, we quite often usethe term

Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies.

The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened/happening.

Most ex post facto research projects are used for

descriptive studies to measure such items as, e.g.,
preferences of people, or similar data.

The methods of research used are survey methods of

all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods.

In analytical research, on the other hand, the

researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation
of the material.

(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied
(or action) or fundamental (basic or pure) research.

Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society,

whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.

“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or
‘basic’ research.”

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research.

Research studies, concerning human behaviour, are also
examples of _____________?????.

Research to identify social, economic or political trends that

may affect a particular institution are examples of applied
research.

Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a

solution for some pressing practical problem,

whereas basic research is directed towards finding information

that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount.

It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., involving quality or kind.

E.g., studying human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain
things),

Done using in depth interviews for the purpose.

Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out
how people feel.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or

theory.

It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or

To reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,

often without due regard for system and theory.

It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions

Being verified by observation or experiment.

There is a working hypothesis to prove or disprove the
hypothesis.

Experimental designs can be set to gather information .

Characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables

Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is
today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a
given hypothesis.

(v) Some Other Types of Research:

All other types are variations of one or more of the above
stated approaches,

based on either the purpose of research, or

the time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or

on the basis of some other similar factor.

Form the point of view of time,

either as one-time research or longitudinal research.

Research can be field-setting research or laboratory
research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out.

Research can as well be understood as clinical or

diagnostic research.

Such research follow case-study methods or indepth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations.

The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized.
The objective of exploratory research is the development
of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas
formalized research studies are those with substantial
structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.

Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources

like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of
the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at
any remote point of time.

Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and

decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes.

Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a

decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free
to embark upon research according to his own inclination.
 RESEARCH APPROACHES

The above description of the types of research brings to

light the fact that there are two basic approaches to
research,

viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative
approach.

The frist generate data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal.

further sub-classified into inferential, experimental
and simulation approaches to research.

The purpose of inferential approach to research is to

form a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population.

This usually means survey research where a sample of

population is studied (questioned or observed) to
determine its characteristics.

Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control
over the research environment and in this case some variables
are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.

Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial

environment within which relevant data can be generated.

This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a

system under controlled conditions.

The term ‘simulation’ in the context of social sciences
applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that
represents the structure of a dynamic process.

Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous

variables, a simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the
process over time.

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective

assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Research in
such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

Increased amounts of research make progress possible.

Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and
it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking
and organisation.

The role of research in several fields of studies has
greatly increased in modern times.

The increasingly complex nature of business and
government has focused attention on the use of
research in solving problems.

Research, has gained added importance, at various levels.

Research provides the basis for nearly all government
policies

E.g., government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis
of the needs and desires of the people

Decision-making may not be a part of research, but
can facilitates the decisions of the policy maker.

The plight of cultivators, working conditions, trade

union activities, and nature of defence services are
matters requiring research.

Research is necessary in collecting information on

the economic and social structure of the nation.

Thus, in the context of government, research as a
tool to economic policy has three distinct phases of
operation, viz.,

(i) investigation of economic structure through continual
compilation of facts;

(ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the
analysis of the forces underlying them; and

(iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future
developments.

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and industry.

All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are
responsible for taking business decisions.

Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a

firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits
of its projected capacity.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social

relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.

It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just

for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social
scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better
or in a more efficient manner.

Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its

own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical
concerns. “
The significance of research can also be understood keeping in view
the following points:

1. To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis,

research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position
in the social structure;
2. To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a
source of livelihood;
3. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for
new ideas and insights;
4. To literary men and women, research may mean the development
of new styles and creative work;
5. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the
generalisations of new theories.

Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of

knowledge and an important source of providing guidelines for
solving different business, governmental and social problems.
RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS
METHODOLOGY

Research methods may be understood as all those
methods/techniques that are used for conduction
of research.

It , thus, refer to the methods the researchers
use in performing research operations.

All methods which are used by the researcher

during the course of studying are termed as
research methods.

To arrive at a solution for a given problem, the

available data and the unknown aspects of the
problem have to be related to each other to make a
solution possible.

Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into
the following three groups:

In the first group we include those methods which are
concerned with the collection of data.

The second group consists of those statistical techniques

which are used for establishing relationships between the
data and the unknowns;

The third group consists of those methods which are used to

evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the
research problem.

It is a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
underlying various techniques.

It is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology
for his problem as the same may differ from problem to
problem.

in research the scientist has to expose the research decisions

to evaluation before they are implemented.

We can say that research methodology has many dimensions

and research methods do constitute a part of the research
methodology.

The scope of research methodology is wider than that of

research methods.

Thus, when we talk of research methodology we are not only talk
of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the
methods we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are
not using others so that research results are capable of being
evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research

problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis
has been formulated, what data have been collected and what
particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of
analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions
are usually answered when we talk of research methodology
concerning a research problem or study.
RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC
METHOD

The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.

Research, as already stated, “an inquiry into the nature of, the
reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set of
circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally
controlled or recorded just as they occur.

On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods

and techniques, although they may vary considerably from one science
to another, is usually given the name of scientific method.

Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical

considerations.

The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.

Scientific metho attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation,

observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a
combination of these three in varying proportions.

All this is done through experimentation and survey investigations

which constitute the integral parts of scientific method.

Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to
discover new relationships.

But the conclusions drawn on the basis of

experimental data are generally criticized for either
faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments,
badly executed experiments or faulty
interpretations.

As such the researcher must pay all possible

attention while developing the experimental design
and must state only probable inferences.



The purpose of survey investigations may also be to
provide scientifically gathered information to work
as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic
postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;

2. It utilizes relevant concepts;

3. It is committed to only objective considerations;

4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but

making only adequate and correct statements about population
objects;

5. It results into probabilistic predictions;

6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical

scrutiny are for use in testing the conclusions through
replication;

7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be

termed as scientific theories.
 IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING HOW RESEARCH IS
DONE

The study of research methodology gives the student

the necessary training in gathering material and
arranging, participation in the field work when
required, and also training in techniques for the
collection of data appropriate to particular problems,
in the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled
experimentation and in recording evidence, sorting it
out and interpreting it.

In fact, how research is done stems from the following

considerations:

I. For one who is preparing himself for a career of

carrying out research, the importance of knowing
research methodology and research techniques is
obvious since the same constitute the tools of his
trade.
I. It inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence.

II. The satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool

which can become a way of looking at the world

I. In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways

consumers of research results and we can use them
intelligently provided we are able to judge the
adequacy of the methods by which they have been
obtained.
RESEARCH PROCESS

Before embarking on the details of research
methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process.

Research process consists of series of actions or

steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the
desired sequencing of these steps.
 RESEARCH PROCESS IN FLOW CHART

FF

Review concepts
Define research and theories Formulate Design
problem research Collect Analyse data
hypothese data (Test Interpret
Review previous s (including and
(Execution) hypotheses
I research finding sample design
F if any) report

II III VI V F VII
F VI

F
Where F = feed back (Helps in controlling the sub-system
to which it is transmitted)
FF= feed forward (Serves the vital function of The
chart indicates that the
providing criteria for evaluation)
research process consists of a
number of closely related activities,
as shown through I to VII.

The following order concerning various steps
provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the
research process:
1) formulating the research problem;
2) extensive literature survey;
3) developing the hypothesis;
4) preparing the research design;
5) determining sample design;
6) collecting the data;
7) execution of the project;
8) analysis of data;
9) hypothesis testing;
10) generalisations and interpretation, and
11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e.,
formal write-up of conclusions reached.
WHERE DO IDEAS FOR RESEARCH ORIGINATE?

“A research project is the outgrowth of 4

factors:”

The Researcher

The Academic Environment

The Psychology Literature

The Broader Culture
FORMULATING A RESEARCH
QUESTION

The “research question: a very specific,
narrowly focused question, often a piece carved
out of a bigger topic.

How? Consult the “literature” to see what aspects of

the topic have already been researched.

Carefully word the research question to be

precise and concise.

(Note that the title of a journal article often

contains the research question.)
RESEARCH IS EMBEDDED IN
CULTURE

While we like to think of the scientific method as
being beyond cultural bias, research questions,
theories, and even some aspects of method are all
influenced by the culture within which the scientist
lives.
THE PROBLEM OF
ETHNOCENTRISM
(ETHNOCENTRIC BIAS)

Inaccuracy that occurs when we try to understand the

behavior of individuals in a different culture (or
subculture) through the framework or views of the
dominant culture.
ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL FACTORS

What areas are of interest?

Trends, styles, fads

Availability of funding

Controversial Hypotheses

Political Correctness
Extensive literature survey:

Once the problem is formulated,

A brief summary of it should be written down.

This should be followed extensive literature survey.

The abstracting and indexing journals and published

or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to
go to.

Academic journals, conference proceedings,

government reports, books etc..

The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the

study in hand should be carefully studied.

A good library will be a great help to the researcher

at this stage.
THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Definition: an hypothesis is a formal prediction of the

study’s outcome (what will be found).

It is an educated guess, based one or more of the

following:

Psychological theories

Researcher’s observations

Previous published research

Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in
order to draw out and test its logical

Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the

piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.

It is to guide the researcher and to keep him on the

right track.

How does one go about developing working hypotheses?

The answer is by using the following approach:

Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem;

Examination of data and records, if available;

Review of similar studies in the area; and

Exploratory personal investigation about the practical
aspects of the problem.
CHOOSING A RESEARCH
DESIGN
The nature of the research question will
determine the type of research “design” to
use.

A research “design” is a plan for answering a

research question.
The preparation of the research design, involves usually
the consideration of the following:

(i) the means of obtaining the information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his

staff (if any);

(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of

obtaining information will be organised;

(iv) the time available for research; and

(v) the cost factor relating to research,
4 TYPES OF DESIGNS ARE AVAILABLE TO
ANSWER 4 BASIC TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Observational designs: What does this behavior look

like? How often does the behavior occur? Under what
circumstances?

Correlational designs: Is one type of behavior

associated with another? Is there a relationship between
variables?

Experimental designs: Exposing the underlying causes of

behavior: Does x cause y?

Quasi-experimental designs: Tries to expose causal

factors when variable cannot be manipulated.
FOUR GOALS OF
RESEARCH/FOUR RESEARCH
DESIGNS

1. Describe 1. Observational
2. Predict 2. Correlational
3. Understand 3. Experimental
4. Create Change 4. Quasi-
experimental
The preparation of the research design, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and

his staff (if any);

(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means

of obtaining information will be organized;

(iv) the time available for research; and

(v) the cost factor relating to research.

Determining sample design:

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.

A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.

But in practice this may not be true.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting

a sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design.

A sample design is a definite plan determined

before any data are actually collected for
obtaining a sample from a given population.

A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows

Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-
probability sampling.

Simple random sampling: a chance sampling or probability
sampling-chance based selection.

Systematic sampling: selecting every 15th name on a list, every
10th house on one side of a street and so on.

Stratified sampling: when the population heterogonous, then
stratified sampling technique is applied.

Quota sampling: simply given quota to be filled from different
strata.

Cluster sampling : involves grouping the population and then
selecting the groups

Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea

of cluster sampling.

The first stage may be to select large primary sampling units

such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain
families within towns.
Collecting the data:

There are several ways of collecting data

in context of money costs, time and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or
through survey.

Survey data can be collected by any one or more of the
following ways:

By observation

Through personal interview

Through telephone interviews

By mailing of questionnaires

Through schedules
Execution of the project:

Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process.

The data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.

The researcher should see that the project is executed in a

systematic manner and in time.

If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured

questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed.

In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers

may be coded.

If the data are to be collected through interviewers,

arrangements should be made for proper selection and training
of the interviewers.

Analysis of data:

Once data is collected, analysing them is important.

To analysis the data coding, tabulation and then drawing

statistical inferences.

Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the

categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted.

Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data

for coding.

Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the

classified data are put in the form of tables.

Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study
large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

Hypothesis-testing:

Once the data is analyzed, the researcher is in a position
to test the hypotheses, if any.

Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be

contrary?

This is the usual question which should be answered while

testing hypotheses.

Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have

been developed by statisticians for the purpose.

Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the

hypothesis or in rejecting it.

If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,

generalisations established on the basis of data may be
stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.

Generalizations and interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation,
i.e., to build a theory.

As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its

ability to arrive at certain generalisations.

If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he

might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory.

It is known as interpretation.

The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off

new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.
Preparation of the report or the thesis:

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report.

Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in
view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:

(i) the preliminary pages;

(ii) the main text, and

(iii) the end matter.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in

simple language avoiding vague expression.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only

if they present the information more clearly and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the

various constraints experienced in conducting research
operations may as well be stated.
 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
1. The research should be clearly defined and common concepts be
used.

2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient

detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for
further advancement.

3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned

to yield results that are as objective as possible.

4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in

procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its

significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.

6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of

the research and limited to those for which the data provide
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENT
1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.
2. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern
times.
3. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.
4. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointout the difference
between an experiment and a survey.

5. Write short notes on:

(1) Design of the research project;
(2) Ex post facto research;
(3) Motivation in research;
(4) Objectives of research;
(5) Criteria of good research;
(7) Research and scientific method.

6. “Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and

evaluation.” Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support
of your answer.