ADVANCED RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

(BTEEPE405C)
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy is a term used to refer to forms of energy that are naturally
obtained from the environment and from sources that can be replenished naturally. These
include solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, hydropower, and biomass.
Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy are sources that are
continuously replenished by natural processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy,
bio-energy, Geothermal energy, tidal energy etc., are some of the examples of renewable
energy sources
Non-Renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas,

Advantages of Renewable Energy

● Less maintenance cost as most sources entail few or no moving parts, hence, less
mechanical damages.
● They are economical and can cut costs spent on fossil fuel.
● They emit little or no waste in the environment.
● Renewable energy sources do not deplete. Therefore, these have a better prospect for
the future.
Sources of Energy
● Solar energy  − Energy from the Sun is referred to as
solar energy. Solar energy could be used as either active
solar or passive solar. Active solar is directly consumed in
activities such as drying clothes and warming of air.
Technology has provided a number of ways to utilize this
abundant resource.
● Geothermal energy   − This refers to heat energy stored
under the ground for millions of years through the earth
formation. It utilizes a rich storage of unutilized thermal
energy that exists under the earth’s crust.
● Hydro-power  − This is a major renewable energy source
used all over the world today to produce electricity.
● Wind energy  − In ancient times, wind energy was used to
move ships by impacting on the sails.
● Biomass energy  − In energy generation, it refers to waste
plants that are utilized to generate energy by combustion.

VARIOUS ASPECTS OF ENERGY CONVERSION

The different forms of energy are:

1. Mechanical energy (kinetic and potential)
2. Thermal (or) Heat energy
3. Chemical energy
4. Electrical energy
5. Nuclear energy
6. Electromagnetic energy
7. Gravitational energy

ENERGY CONVERSION
Energy conversion, also termed as energy transformation, is the process of changing one form
of energy into another. Energy conversion occurs everywhere and every minute of the day.
There are numerous forms of energy like thermal energy, electrical energy, nuclear energy,
electromagnetic energy, mechanical energy, chemical energy, sound energy, etc

● Light energy can be converted to heat energy.

● Electrical energy can be converted to mechanical energy, light energy, heat energy,
etc.
● Chemical energy can be converted to electrical energy.
● Thermal energy can be converted to heat energy.
● Mechanical energy can be converted to electrical energy, potential energy, etc.
● Nuclear energy can be converted to light energy and heat energy.
● The Solar energy can be converted to heat energy, chemical energy, and electrical
energy.
● The Gravitational potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy.
● Gasoline (chemical) is put into our cars, and with the help of electrical energy from a
battery, provides mechanical (kinetic) energy.
● Similarly, purchased electricity goes into an electric bulb and is converted to visible
light and heat energy.
Examples of energy conversion are:
● A vehicle moving is an example of chemical energy being converted into kinetic
energy.
● Electricity being produced with water is an example of potential energy being
converted into kinetic energy.
● A ball from a height towards the ground is an example of potential energy being
converted into kinetic energy.
● When you boil water using an electric kettle, it’s an example of electric energy being
converted into heat energy.

GRID-SUPPLIED ELECTRICITY

An electrical grid is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers to

consumers. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. It
consists of
● power stations: often located near energy and away from heavily populated areas
● electrical substations to step voltage up or down
● electric power transmission to carry power long distances
● electric power distribution to individual customers, where voltage is stepped down
again to the required service voltage.

The grid consists of countless complex interconnections, however there are three main
sections—electricity generation, transmission and distribution.

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Increased efficiency. Reduced rates. Improved reliability. Diminished emissions.  Distributed

generation is when electricity comes from many small energy sources. Generally, these
sources are local and renewable. They’re all connected to the larger grid but can also
function separately. Distributed generation, also distributed energy, on-site generation 
or district/decentralized energy, is electrical generation and storage performed by a variety of
small, grid-connected or distribution system-connected devices referred to as distributed
energy resources (DER).
Conventional power stations (centralized sources) such as coal, gas, and nuclear
powered plants, as well as hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations are
centralized and often require electric energy to be transmitted over long distances.
Distributed Energy Sources (DER) systems typically use renewable energy sources,
including small hydro, biomass, biogas, solar power, wind power, and geothermal power, fuel
cell and increasingly play an important role for the electric power distribution system. A
grid-connected device for electricity storage can also be classified as a DER system and is
often called a distributed energy.
The operating costs are reduced and savings are achieved with the distributed power
generation system concept. Loss and leakage problems can be eliminated because on-site
generation and on-site consumption. And the system dimensions and renewable energy
technologies, ease of operation and maintenance is provided. Efficient use of renewable
energy resources is ensured. Greenhouse gas emissions are reduced, due to the use
of renewable energy sources. A stable, reliable, and safe energy system is provided with the
distributed power generation system. Fig. shows a distributed generation grid structure.

BENEFITS OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

● Increased electric system reliability
● An emergency supply of power
● Reduction of peak power requirements
● Offsets to investments in generation, transmission, or distribution facilities that would
otherwise be recovered through rates
● Provision of ancillary services, including reactive power
● Improvements in power quality
● Reductions in land-use effects and rights-of-way acquisition costs
● Reduction in vulnerability to terrorism and improvements in infrastructure resilience

RENEWABLE ENERGY ECONOMICS

The world currently gets about 80% of its energy supplies from fossil fuels because
these sources generally provide energy at the lowest cost. However, the cost advantage of
fossil fuels over renewable energy sources has been decreasing in recent years, and certain
renewables can already compete with fossil fuels solely on financial terms. Renewable
energy costs are expected to decline further in the future, while fossil fuel prices will likely
rise. Thus, even without policies to promote a transition toward renewables, economic factors
are currently moving us in that direction.
By country, China was by far the largest contributor to renewables growth, followed
by the ‎US , then Japan, the United Kingdom, India and Germany . Europe, as a region,
‎contributed.‎

 calculated by first taking the net present value of the total cost of building and operating the
power generating asset. This number is then divided by the total electricity generation over its
lifetime. The total costs associated with the project generally will include:

The initial cost of investment expenditures (I)

Maintenance and operations expenditures (M)
Fuel expenditures (if applicable) (F)
The total output of the power-generating asset will include:
The sum of all electricity generated (E)
The last two important factors to be considered in the equation are:
The discount rate of the project (r)
The life of the system (n)

The capital cost includes the cost of the plant, land acquisition (unless a rent is paid, in which
case this is a running cost), grid connection (although in some European states, the utility has
borne the cost), and initial financing costs (not repayment costs).

Operating costs include insurance, rent, and local authority rates, as well as the costs of labor
and materials used for operations and maintenance.

Fuel costs.
Fuel costs for wind, wave, geothermal, and solar installations are zero.

DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT
Demand Side Management is the planning, implementation, and monitoring of utility
activities designed to encourage customers to modify patterns of electricity usage, including
the timing and level of electricity demand. DSM covers the complete range of load-shape
objectives, including strategic conservation and load management, as well as strategic load
growth
Load management is the process of scheduling the loads to reduce the electric energy
consumption and/or the maximum demand…such as load shedding and restoring, load
shifting, installing energy-efficient processes and equipment, energy storage devices,
co-generation and non-conventional sources of energy and reactive power control…Demand
Response is a subset of the broader category of end-use customer energy solutions known as
DSM.
Demand-side management (DSM) refers to technologies, actions and programmes on
the demand-side of energy meters that seek to manage or decrease energy consumption, in
order to reduce total energy system expenditures or contribute to the achievement of policy
objectives such as emissions reduction or balancing supply and demand
 DSM technologies, actions and programmes into four broad categories: energy
efficiency, demand response, distributed generation and distributed storage. Distributed
generation is the localized production of energy from on-site back-up generation units such as
diesel generators and solar panels. It is included for grid balancing purposes only to reduce
the demand for energy from the grid, particularly during times of peak demand. Distributed
storage refers to the storage of energy during off-peak periods, such as through hot water
storage tanks or electric vehicle batteries, which is released during peak periods when prices
are high. Similarly, it is only included for grid balancing purposes, particularly during peak
times. Demand response and energy efficiency are both included in the majority of the
reviewed DSM definitions

Energy demand management, also known as demand-side management (DSM)

or demand-side response (DSR).
Demand-Side Management (DSM) produces a more reliable and economical
operation, while maintaining the power system’s operational integrity. Evaluate efficiency
and determine where energy-reducing strategies such as moving on-peak usage into off-peak
periods or shifting from one rate schedule to another could help to improve the bottom line.
Demand-side management (DSM) is a concept in the energy industry. It has become
an increasingly popular way of managing electricity costs in countries with high penetration
of renewable sources and a growing awareness of the impact of the increasing use of
renewable energy sources.
Demand Response (DR) is a type of demand-side management (DSM) reducing
electricity usage during peak hours to keep electricity costs lower for all consumers. DR is
just one type of DSM, and it fosters energy efficiency, direct load control, customer
education, and financial incentives
DSM alters the electricity consumption to yield the desired changes in the load
contour at distribution side. To avoid the peak demand, DSM concentrates on power saving
methodologies, electricity rates, fiscal incentives and user/environment friendly government
policies., Due to increase in electricity demand, system become unstable and to avoid this
instabilities, a worthy goal of demand side management finalized that could be to alter the
configuration of the load curve by lowering and shifting the total load demand at distribution
side during peak load periods in sequence to  reduce the final tariff of electricity. So the
system requires an enlightened coordination between operators and consumers. The load
configurations which show the daily electric demands of residential, commercial and
industrial consumers between peak time and off-peak times can be changed by means of six
broad methods: peak clipping, load shifting, valley filling, load growth, strategic conservation
and flexible load curve. Peak clipping and valley filling methods focused on leveling the
peak and valley load levels to avert the anxiety of insecurity of smart grid. Peak clip method
is a direct load control (DLC) method. Load shifting is globally applied effectively as load
management technique by shifting the loads from peak consumption time to off peak
consumption time. Strategic conservation intends to apply demand curtail methods directly at
customer houses, to achieve load shape optimization. Strategic load growth approximate
equals to valley fill technique but it used in case of large demand to optimizes the daily
response. Flexible load shape is mainly associated to smart grid reliability. Smart grid
management systems (SGMS) find the customers with flexible controlled loads during peak
load in trading for various financial incentives or rewards.
Change of customers’ behavior on energy consumption by demand response program
Smart meters used advanced information technology to measure and potentially control
electricity use inside building. (home and office)
Many pilot programs have been conducted to address the demand cutting effect of providing
consumption data and tariff menus through smart meter.

MODERN ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

Modern Control of Power Electronics Systems deals with control and modulation of
power converters for electrical drives, distributed generation and active power filtering
includes novel kinds of power converters like multi-level converters and matrix converters
and their own specific pulse-width modulation techniques

High-temperature fuel cells

Their durability and reliability need improving

Solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), which operate at temperatures ranging from 700 to 1000°C,
and molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs), which operate at approximately 650°C, are
characterized by their rapid chemical reactions and high generation efficiencies. (Their rapid
chemical reactions remove the need for expensive platinum.) SOFCs and MCFCs can be fed
with various types of fuel. The high-temperature exhaust heat they generate can be used for
various purposes. However, their high operating temperatures prevent the use of a variety of
materials for their components. It also takes a long time to start and stop them. Their
characteristics make them suitable for eventual use in large-scale industrial facilities.

Low-temperature fuel cells

Their durability needs proving.

Polymer-electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) are easy to handle because they operate at
temperatures as low as 80°C. There are increasing expectations for the widespread use of
stationery solid-polymer fuel cells in homes.
Cost and durability are the major challenges to fuel cell commercialization. However,
hurdles vary according to the application in which the technology is employed. Size, weight,
and thermal and water management are barriers to the commercialization of fuel cell
technology. In transportation applications, these technologies face more stringent cost and
durability hurdles. In stationary power applications, where cogeneration of heat and power is
desired, use of PEM fuel cells would benefit from raising operating temperatures to increase
performance. The key challenges include:
Durability and Reliability. The durability of fuel cell systems has not been established.
For transportation applications, fuel cell power systems will be required to achieve the same
level of durability and reliability of current automotive engines [i.e., 5,000-hour lifespan
(150,000 miles)] and the ability to function over the full range of vehicle operating conditions
(40°C to 80°C).
System Size. The size and weight of current fuel cell systems must be further reduced
to meet the packaging requirements for automobiles. This applies not only to the fuel cell
stack, but also to the ancillary components and major subsystems (i.e., fuel processor,
compressor/expander, and sensors) making up the balance of power system.
 Air, Thermal, and Water Management. Air management for fuel cell systems is a
challenge because today's compressor technologies are not suitable for automotive fuel cell
applications. In addition, thermal and water management for fuel cells are issues because the
small difference between the operating and ambient temperatures necessitates large heat
exchangers
The manufacturing cost includes the design, materials, component fabrication and
assembly, labor, and equipment capital, which is required in the overall assembly of custom
fabricated and commercially produced fuel cells.
Improved Heat Recovery Systems. The low operating temperature of PEM fuel cells
limits the amount of heat that can be effectively utilized in combined heat and power (CHP)
applications. Technologies need to be developed that will allow higher operating
temperatures and/or more effective heat recovery systems and improved system designs that
will enable CHP efficiencies exceeding 80%. Technologies that allow cooling to be provided
from the low heat rejected from stationary fuel cell also need to be evaluated.

Fuel Cell Consist of:--

Anode
The electrode at which oxidation (a loss of electrons) takes place. For fuel cells and
other galvanic cells, the anode is the negative terminal; for electrolytic cells (where
electrolysis occurs), the anode is the positive terminal.
Catalyst
A chemical substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed;
after the reaction, it can potentially be recovered from the reaction mixture and is chemically
unchanged. The catalyst lowers the activation energy required, allowing the reaction to
proceed more quickly or at a lower temperature. In a fuel cell, the catalyst facilitates the
reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated
onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum surface area of
the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the
catalyst faces the membrane in the fuel cell.
Cathode
The electrode at which reduction (a gain of electrons) occurs. For fuel cells and other
galvanic cells, the cathode is the positive terminal; for electrolytic cells (where electrolysis
occurs), the cathode is the negative terminal.
Electrolyte
A substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell,
battery, or electrolyzer.
Fuel cell stack
Individual fuel cells connected in a series. Fuel cells are stacked to increase voltage.
Membrane
The separating layer in a fuel cell that acts as electrolyte (an ion-exchanger) as well as
a barrier film separating the gases in the anode and cathode compartments of the fuel cell.

CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as polymer electrolyte

membrane (PEM) fuel cells, are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport
applications, as well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable fuel-cell
applications. Their distinguishing features include lower temperature/pressure ranges (50 to
100 °C) and a special proton-conducting polymer electrolyte membrane. PEMFCs generate
electricity and operate on the opposite principle to PEM electrolysis, which consumes
electricity.

PEMFCs are built out of membrane electrode assemblies (MEA) which include the
electrodes, electrolyte, catalyst, and gas diffusion layers. An ink of catalyst, carbon, and
electrode are sprayed or painted onto the solid electrolyte and carbon paper is hot pressed on
either side to protect the inside of the cell and also act as electrodes.

proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is an electrochemical energy conversion

device. It converts chemical energy stored in a fuel to electrical energy. Typically, hydrogen
is used as a fuel in a low temperature fuel cell. Fuel cells are designed for continuous
replenishment of the fuel consumed, so fuel cells differ from batteries in that way. This type
of fuel cell is currently being developed intensively; fields of application are for
transportation, back-up power, portable power and small distributed generation

A fuel cell consists of two electrodes, an anode to which the fuel and a cathode to
which the oxidant are supplied externally, and the electrolyte which separates the two
electrodes and allows the ions to flow across it (Figure 1). In practice, a fuel cell consists of a
thin composite structure of anode, cathode and electrolyte. Good electrochemical
performance of the cell requires effective electrocatalysts.

the physical structure of a PEMFC consists the following components: gas distribution
channels, gas diffusion layers, the catalytic layers in the anode and the cathode, and the
polymer membrane. The PEMFC combines in a very compact unit the electrodes and the
electrolyte. This structure, well known as membrane electrode assembly (MEA), is not
thicker than a few hundred microns. It is the heart of the fuel cell and is fed with hydrogen
and oxygen.

The PEMFC fuel cell is also sometimes called a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell.
Hydrogen fuel is processed at the anode where electrons are separated from protons on the
surface of a platinum based catalyst. The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode
side of the cell while the electrons travel in an external circuit generating the electrical output
of the cell On the cathode side another precious metal electrode combines the protons and
electrons with oxygen to produce water which is expelled as the only waste product oxygen
can be provided in a purified form or extracted at the electrode directly from the air.

FUEL CELL
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts a source fuel into an electric current. It
generates electricity inside a cell through reactions between a fuel and an oxidant, triggered
in the presence of an electrolyte. Fuel cells can operate continuously as long as the necessary
reactant and oxidant flows are maintained. Therefore, these cells can constantly generate
electricity until the supply of fuel and oxygen is cut off. A fuel cell is similar
to electrochemical cells, which consists of a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte. In these
cells, the electrolyte enables the movement of the protons.

Fuel cell benefits

1. No harmful emission
2. High efficiency than traditional engines
3. Wide range of application
4. Can be scaled to many sizes
5. No moving parts
6. Need infrequent maintenance
7. Continuous power supply

Working of Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is composed of an anode, cathode, and an electrolyte membrane namely,

an anode and cathode separated by an electrolyte membrane. A typical fuel cell works by
passing hydrogen through the anode of a fuel cell and oxygen through the cathode. At the
anode site, a catalyst splits the hydrogen molecules into electrons and protons. The protons
pass through the porous electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are forced through a
circuit, generating an electric current and excess heat. At the cathode, the protons, electrons,
and oxygen combine to produce water molecules. As there are no moving parts, fuel cells
operate silently and with extremely high reliability.
Due to their chemistry, fuel cells are very clean. Fuel cells that use pure hydrogen fuel
are completely carbon-free, with their only byproducts being electricity, heat, and water.
Some types of fuel cell systems are capable of using hydrocarbon fuels like natural gas,
biogas, methanol, and others. Because fuel cells generate electricity through chemistry rather
than combustion, they can achieve much higher efficiencies than traditional energy
production methods such as steam turbines and internal combustion engines. To push the
efficiency even higher, a fuel cell can be coupled with a combined heat and power system
that uses the cell’s waste heat for heating or cooling applications.

Fuel cell systems vary greatly in size and power, from combustion engine
replacements for electric vehicles to large-scale, multi-megawatt installations providing
electricity directly to the utility grid.
 A fuel cell (actually a group of cells) has essentially the same kinds of components as
a battery. As in the latter, each cell of a fuel cell system has a matching pair of electrodes.
These are the anode, which supplies electrons, and the cathode, which absorbs electrons.
Both electrodes must be immersed in and separated by an electrolyte, which may be a liquid
or a solid but which must in either case conduct ions between the electrodes in order to
complete the chemistry of the system. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is supplied to the anode,
where it is oxidized, producing hydrogen ions and electrons. An oxidizer, such as oxygen, is
supplied to the cathode, where the hydrogen ions from the anode absorb electrons from the
latter and react with the oxygen to produce water. The difference between the respective
energy levels at the electrodes (electromotive force) is the voltage per unit cell. The amount
of electric current available to the external circuit depends on the chemical activity and
amount of the substances supplied as fuels. The current-producing process continues for as
long as there is a supply of reactants, for the electrodes and electrolyte of a fuel cell, unlike
those in a regular battery, are designed to remain unchanged by chemical reaction.

Application of Fuel cell

Transportation
Fuel cells are widely used in transportation vehicles such as buses, trucks, cars, etc. This is
because fuel cells do not release toxic gases; therefore, these are cleaner alternatives to power
vehicles.
Material Handling Equipment:-
Fuel cells are prominently employed in material handling equipment to ease the process of
transporting heavy goods from one place to another.
Electronic Gadgets:-
Hydrogen fuel cells provide a versatile option to power various electronic gadgets and
communication devices such as mobile phones, laptops, etc
Spacecrafts:-
Fuel cells are often used to power rockets and space shuttles as they do not release much
toxic waste into the environment.
Backup Power Generation:-
A number of backup power generation systems make use of fuel cells for their operation.
Stationary fuel cells are a crucial element of the uninterrupted power supply devices installed
in hospitals, residential buildings, industries, offices, etc.
TYPES OF FUEL CELL
1. Alkali fuel cells
Alkali fuel cells operate on compressed hydrogen and oxygen. They generally use a solution
of potassium hydroxide (chemically, KOH) in water as their electrolyte. Efficiency is about
70 percent, and operating temperature is 150 to 200 degrees C, (about 300 to 400 degrees F).
Cell output ranges from 300 watts (W) to 5 kilowatts (kW). Alkali cells were used in Apollo
spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water. They require pure hydrogen fuel,
however, and their platinum electrode catalysts are expensive. And like any container filled
with liquid, they can leak.
2. Molten Carbonate fuel cells
Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use high-temperature compounds of salt (like sodium or
magnesium) carbonates (chemically, CO3) as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80
percent, and operating temperature is about 650 degrees C (1,200 degrees F). Units with
output up to 2 megawatts (MW) have been constructed, and designs exist for units up to 100
MW. The high temperature limits damage from carbon monoxide "poisoning" of the cell and
waste heat can be recycled to make additional electricity. Their nickel electrode-catalysts are
inexpensive compared to the platinum used in other cells. But the high temperature also
limits the materials and safe uses of MCFCs–they would probably be too hot for home use.
Also, carbonate ions from the electrolyte are used up in the reactions, making it necessary to
inject carbon dioxide to compensate.

3. Phosphoric Acid fuel cells

Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges
from 40 to 80 percent, and operating temperature is between 150 to 200 degrees C (about 300
to 400 degrees F). Existing phosphoric acid cells have outputs up to 200 kW, and 11 MW
units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent,
which broadens the choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be
removed. Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal parts must be able to
withstand the corrosive acid.

4. Proton Exchange Membrane 

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells work with a polymer electrolyte in the form of
a thin, permeable sheet. Efficiency is about 40 to 50 percent, and operating temperature is
about 80 degrees C (about 175 degrees F). Cell outputs generally range from 50 to 250 kW.
The solid, flexible electrolyte will not leak or crack, and these cells operate at a low enough
temperature to make them suitable for homes and cars. But their fuels must be purified, and a

platinum catalyst is used on both sides of the membrane, raising costs.

5. Solid Oxide fuel cells

Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic compound of metal (like calcium or
zirconium) oxides (chemically, O2) as electrolyte. Efficiency is about 60 percent, and
operating temperatures are about 1,000 degrees C (about 1,800 degrees F). Cells output is up
to 100 kW. At such high temperatures a reformer is not required to extract hydrogen from the
fuel, and waste heat can be recycled to make additional electricity. However, the high
temperature limits applications of SOFC units and they tend to be rather large. While solid
electrolytes cannot leak, they can crack.
More detailed information about each fuel cell type, including histories and current
applications, can be found on their specific parts of this site. We have also provided a
glossary of technical terms–a link is provided at the top of each technology page.

ASPECTS OF HYDROGEN AS FUEL

Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonpoisonous gas under normal
conditions on Earth Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, produces
only water. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of domestic resources, such as natural
gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind. These qualities make
it an attractive fuel option for transportation and electricity generation applications. It can be
used in cars, in houses, for portable power, and in many more applications.
Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used to store, move, and deliver energy produced
from other sources.
Today, hydrogen fuel can be produced through several methods. The most common
methods today are natural gas reforming (a thermal process), and electrolysis. Other methods
include solar-driven and biological processes.
 Hydrogen (H2) is an alternative fuel that can be produced from diverse domestic
resources. Although the market for hydrogen as a transportation fuel is in its infancy,
government and industry are working toward clean, economical, and safe hydrogen
production and distribution for widespread use in fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs).
Light-duty FCEVs are now available in limited quantities to the consumer market in localized
regions domestically and around the world. The market is also developing for buses, material
handling equipment (such as forklifts), ground support equipment, medium- and heavy-duty
trucks, marine vessels, and stationary application
Hydrogen is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The
interest in hydrogen as an alternative transportation fuel stems from its ability to power fuel
cells in zero-emission vehicles, its potential for domestic production, and the fuel cell's fast
filling time and high efficiency. In fact, a fuel cell coupled with an electric motor is two to
three times more efficient than an internal combustion engine running on gasoline. Hydrogen
can also serve as fuel for internal combustion engines. 
Fuel cell technology has high value and opportunity  to help meet the projected
increase in demand and need for new generation capacity with clean and high efficiency
generation located directly at the customer’s site.  Distributed generation (DG) and energy
storage will increase efficiency, improve end user reliability, and reduce emissions.  This
technology can also provide opportunities to maximize the efficiency and cost effectiveness
of fuel cells with combined heat and power (CHP) applications. The use of CHP helps
increase the efficiency of on-site energy use by recycling waste thermal energy  for many end
use applications, including hot or chilled water, space conditioning, and process heat. There is
also an opportunity for tri-generation to simultaneously produce heat, power, and hydrogen
for storage and/or transportation
 UNIT-II
WIND POWER PLANTS

Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air and together with ocean

circulation The Earth's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year atmospheric
circulation, any atmospheric flow used to refer to the general circulation of the Earth and
regional movements of air around areas of high and low pressure. 

Wind is defined as the movement of air in any direction.

Factors Affecting Wind Motion:
Pressure Gradient Force
● The differences in atmospheric pressure produces pressure gradient force.
● The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
● Pressure Gradient Force operates from the high pressure area to a low pressure area
and causes wind movement.
● The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak
where the isobars are apart.
● Since a closely spaced gradient implies a steep pressure change, it also indicates a
strong wind speed.

Coriolis Force:
● The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is
called the Coriolis force. It has great impact on the direction of wind movement.
● Due to the earth’s rotation, winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the
pressure gradient force directs, but get deflected from their original path.
● This deviation is the result of the earth’s rotation and is called the Coriolis effect or
Coriolis force.
● Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get deflected to the right of their
path and those in the southern hemisphere to their left, following Farrell’s Law (the
law that wind is deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere, derived from the application of the Coriolis effect to air
masses).
● This deflection force does not seem to exist until the air is set in motion and increases
with wind velocity, air mass and an increase in latitude.
● The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force (pressure gradient
force is perpendicular to an isobar)
● As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the
low-pressure areas the wind blows around it (cyclonic conditions).

Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal force increases air speed and influences the direction of wind flowing
around the center of the circulation. This acceleration creates a force at right angles to the
flow of the wind and inward toward the center of the rotation, such as low and high pressure
systems. The winds in a low pressure system, called cyclones, blow in a counterclockwise
and inward direction in the Northern Hemisphere. Winds in high pressure systems, known as
anticyclones, blow in a clockwise and outward direction in the Northern Hemisphere.

Frictional Force
The irregularities of the earth’s surface offer resistance to the wind motion in the form
of friction. This force determines the angle at which air will flow across the isobars, as well
as the speed at which it will move. It may also alter wind direction. Over the relatively
smooth ocean surface, the friction is minimum, so the air moves at low angles to the isobars
and at a greater speed. Over uneven terrain, however, due to high friction, the wind direction
makes high angles with, isobars and the speed gets retarded

Classification of Winds:
The wind is the movement of air caused by differences in pressure in the atmosphere.
In order to balance the differences in air pressure, wind flows from the high to the low air
pressure region. In addition, the greater the pressure difference, the faster the wind flows.
Generally, there are three types of winds on earth:
● Primary Wind
● Secondary Wind
● Tertiary Wind
Periodicity and location of occurrence are factors considered in this classification.

Primary Wind or Planetary Wind

Throughout the year, certain winds continuously blow in a particular direction. Prevailing
winds and planetary winds are also referred to as primary winds. A trade wind, westerly
wind, and easterly wind are three types of primary winds.

Trade Winds
Trade winds are also known as tropical easterlies and blow from the right in the
Northern hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere due to Coriolis effect and
Ferrel’s law. They start blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure areas towards the
equatorial low-pressure belt. In the Northern hemisphere, they blow as northeastern trades,
and in the Southern hemisphere, they blow as southeastern trades.

Westerlies –
These are prevailing winds that flow from the west towards the east. It flows in the
Earth’s middle latitudes between 30- and 60-degrees latitude. Also called as anti-trades, these
winds originate from the high-pressure areas in the horse latitudes and trend towards the
poles and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner.

Polar Easterlies

The Polar easterlies are cold, dry permanent winds that blow from north-east to south-west
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and south-east to the north-west in the Southern
Hemisphere. Easterlies blow from the high-pressure polar areas of the subpolar lows
 
Secondary Wind or Periodic Wind
A secondary wind changes direction according to the season. Other names for
secondary winds include seasonal winds and periodic winds. This phenomenon occurs in
many different places around the world. Based on the particular geographical location, a
secondary wind is generated and the physical forces driving it. A monsoon wind is
recognizable as one of the secondary winds.
examples of periodic winds include land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze,
cyclones and anticyclones, and air masses.

Monsoon Winds
During low-latitude climates, monsoons are wind patterns that frequently change
directions between summer and winter. A monsoon normally occurs in winter when moisture
flows from the land to the sea and in summer when water flows from the sea to the land,
resulting in a drastic change in the climate and precipitation patterns in the monsoon-affected
areas. In the Indian subcontinent, the monsoon is caused by variations
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
Land Breeze is a local wind system that is characterized by winds that blow from land
to sea, carrying no moisture. On the contrary, sea breezes are winds that blow from sea to
land, bringing some moisture. Land Breezes are dry and warm
During the day, the slopes get warmed up in mountainous regions, and air flows upslope to
fill the resulting gap. This wind is known as the valley breeze. During the night, the slopes
get cooled, and the dense air descends into the valley as a mountain breeze.

Tertiary Wind or Local Wind

There is only one Tertiary wind in a small area for a particular part of the day or year.
Different temperatures and air pressure at different locations lead to these winds. There are
different types of wind based on local characteristics, such as hot, cold, ice-filled, dust-filled,
etc. A Loo is a hot and dry wind found primarily in the northern plains of India. In addition to
Mistral and Foehn, other local winds include Bora, Foehn, and others.

WIND SHEAR

Wind shear can be defined as a sudden change in wind velocity and/or direction over a short
distance. It can occur in all directions, but for convenience, it is considered along vertical and
horizontal axis, thus introducing the concepts of vertical and horizontal wind shear:

● Vertical wind shear consists of wind variations along the vertical axis of typically 20 to 30
knots per 1000 ft. The change in velocity or direction can drastically alter the aircraft lift,
indicated airspeed, and thrust requirements when climbing or descending through the wind
shear layers.
● Horizontal wind shear consists of variations in the wind component along the horizontal axis
– e.g. decreasing headwind or increasing tailwind, or a shift from a headwind to a tailwind –
of up to 100 knots per nautical mile. (fig.1) shows how a penetration would appear as an
aircraft crosses a cold front.

TURBULENCE
Turbulence is one of the most unpredictable of all the weather phenomena that are of
significance to pilots. Turbulence is an irregular motion of the air resulting from eddies and
vertical currents. It may be as insignificant as a few annoying bumps or severe enough to
momentarily throw an airplane out of control or to cause structural damage. Turbulence is
associated with fronts, wind shear, thunderstorms, etc.
Usually the system has an anemometer and a wind vane. The anemometer measures wind
velocity, while the wind vane registers direction. Both instruments should be mounted on
a wind pole or tower that is as close as possible to the height at which your wind machine
will be mounted.

Different sensors are used in turbines for monitoring. They are as listed below:

1. Anemometer - to measure the wind speed.

2. Wind Vane - to sense the wind direction.
3. Tacho rotor sensor - to measure the rotor RPM.
4. Tacho gen. sensor - to measure the generator RPM.
5. Yaw sensor - to measure the yawing angle of the nacelle.
6. Vibration sensor - to sense the vibration of the tower.
7. Temperature sensors - to measure the temperature of main bearing, gear oil, generation
winding etc. Temperature sensors are also used in locations where increases in temperature
are indicative of the overheating of some type of component of subsystem. TE Connectivity's
PTF Platinum temperature sensors measure from -200°C to +600°C and have temperature
detectors that use thin-film resistors as the sensing element. They are very small and
lightweight, drift little over time, and have a low time constant for rapid feedback.

Accelerometers
Accelerometers, which measure changes in velocity or speed, are used in wind
turbines to detect and monitor vibration within main, yaw, and slew bearings, as well as other
rotating components such as the main generator output shafts. The collected vibration data
can be used to monitor changes over time and predict impending failures.
Wind Sensors
Wind sensors are mounted on the top of the nacelle and are either mechanical or
ultrasonic. Because ultrasonic types do not need recalibration, they are increasingly used in
areas where maintenance is difficult to perform. Ultrasonic sensors measure the distance to an
object by using sound waves, sending out a very-low-frequency sound wave and detecting the
wave after it has been reflected by the target object. By recording the elapsed time between
generation of the sound and its return, it is possible to calculate the distance between the
sensor and the object.

TOPOGRAPHY

Topography is the study of the land surface. In particular, it lays the underlying
foundation of a landscape. Topography is the study of the forms and features of land
surfaces. For example, topography refers to mountains, valleys, rivers, or craters on the
surface. The origin of topography comes from “topo” for “place” and “graphia” for “writing”
Latitudes, longitudes, landforms, and elevations are the four main topographical features.
Latitudes are the north and south positions with respect to the Equator. In contrast, longitude
is the east and west position with respect to the Prime meridian.

There are two methods to gather information:

Direct survey
Indirect survey
Direct survey – Direct survey uses equipment like clinometers, levels, and theodolites. These
equipment work to determine the location of land and surveys.
Indirect survey – Satellite pictures, radar, images are taken from the plane and sonar come
under indirect survey.

⮚ Classification of Wind Turbine Rotors

Wind turbines are usually classified into two categories, according to the orientation
of the axis of rotation with respect to the direction of wind.
1. Vertical-axis turbines
2. Horizontal-axis turbines
1. VERTICAL-AXIS WIND TURBINE (VAWT)
The first wind mills were built based on vertical-axis structure. This type has only
been incorporated in small-scale installations. The two types of vertical-axis wind turbines
are the Darrieus wind turbine, which turns a shaft using lift forces, and the Savonius wind
turbine, whose cups are pushed by direct wind forces. Typical VAWTs include the Darrius
rotor, as shown in Fig.1. The Vertical-axis wind turbine of generator and gearbox to be
located close to the ground, facilitating service and repair. Vertical-axis wind turbines were
tested and used more extensively in the 1980s and 1990s because they were quieter and could
operate without requiring yaw controls, regardless of the wind’s direction. The vertical axis
wind turbine has turbine blade designs either vertical or in the shape of an egg beater. There
is a supporting wire to withstand the rotor as well as wind kinetic energy.
Vertical-axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically as the plane
of rotation is vertical. Blades are also vertical in this arrangement. The biggest advantage of
VAWTs is they don't require a yaw control mechanism to be pointed into the wind.
Thus these are useful in sites where wind direction is random or there is presence of
large obstacles like trees, houses etc. Also VAWTs' don't require a tower structure and can be
placed nearby a ground enabling access to electrical components. Some drawbacks are the
low efficiency of wind production and the fact that large drag is created for rotating the
blades in a vertical axis.

Figure1: Darrieus Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine

A problem with the Darrieus wind turbine is that it is not self-starting, so it uses its
generator as a motor to get the rotor started. As the wind increases the blade speed, the power
to the motor is turned off and it begins working as a generator.
Darrieus wind turbines were installed on early wind farms, but most of them have been taken
out of use in commercial applications because they are not as efficient as HAWTs and they
require constant maintenance.
 Figure: Savonius Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine
The Savonius vertical-axis wind turbine uses cups, called scoops, instead of blades to
capture wind power. When the wind blows, it creates a positive force in the scoop and a
negative force on the back side of the scoop. This difference in force pushes the turbine
around.
Advantages
• Easy maintenance for ground mounted generator and gearbox,
• Receive wind from any direction (No yaw control required),
• Simple blade design and low cost of fabrication.
Disadvantages
• Not self starting, thus, require generator to run in motor mode at start,
• Lower efficiency (the blades lose energy as they turn out of the wind),
• Difficulty in controlling blade over-speed, and
• Oscillatory component in the aerodynamic torque is high.

2. HORIZONTAL-AXIS WIND TURBINES (HAWT)

The most common design of modern turbines is based on the horizontal-axis
structure. Horizontal axis wind turbines are mounted on towers as shown in figure. The
tower’s role is to raise the wind turbine above the ground to intercept stronger winds in order
to harness more energy.
Horizontal-axis wind turbines get their name from the fact that their axis of rotation is
horizontal. They have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and
are pointed into the wind. The variability of wind distribution and speed brings up the
requirement of a gear system connected to the rotor and the generator. The gear system
enables a constant speed of rotation to the generator thus enabling constant frequency
generation. Turbine blades are made stiff in order to prevent the blades from being pushed
into the tower by high winds. Downwind machines have also been built, as they no longer
require a yaw mechanism to keep them facing the wind and also because in high winds the
blades can turn out of the wind thereby increasing drag and coming to a stop. Most of the
HAWTs' are upwind as downwind systems cause regular turbulence which may lead to
fatigue.
 Figure: Horizontal axis wind turbines
Advantages
• Higher efficiency,
• Ability to turn the blades, and
• Lower cost-to-power ratio.
Disadvantages
• Generator and gearbox should be mounted on a tower, thus restricting servicing, and
• More complex design required due to the need for yaw or tail drive.

⮚ WIND TURBINE COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS:-

Figure: Wind turbine components

● The tower is the physical structure that holds the wind turbine. It supports the rotor,
nacelle, blades, and other wind turbine equipment. Typical commercial wind towers
are usually 50–120 m long and they are constructed from concrete or reinforced steel.
 ● Blades are physical structures, which are aerodynamically optimized to help capture
the maximum power from the wind in normal operation with a wind speed in the
range of about 3–15 m/s. Each blade is usually 20 m or more in length, depending on
the power level.
● The nacelle is the enclosure of the wind turbine generator, gearbox, and internal
equipment. It protects the turbine’s internal components from the surrounding
environment.
● The rotor is the rotating part of the wind turbine. It transfers the energy in the wind to
the shaft. The rotor hub holds the wind turbine blades while connected to the gearbox
via the low-speed shaft.
● Pitch is the mechanism of adjusting the angle of attack of the rotor blades. Blades are
turned in their longitudinal axis to change the angle of attack according to the wind
directions.
● The shaft is divided into two types: low and high speed. The low-speed shaft
transfers mechanical energy from the rotor to the gearbox, while the high-speed shaft
transfers mechanical energy from gearbox to generator.
● Yaw is the horizontal moving part of the turbine. It turns clockwise or anticlockwise
to face the wind. The yaw has two main parts: the yaw motor and the yaw drive. The
yaw drive keeps the rotor facing the wind when the wind direction varies. The yaw
motor is used to move the yaw.
● The brake is a mechanical part connected to the high-speed shaft in order to reduce
the rotational speed or stop the wind turbine over speeding or during emergency
conditions.
● Gearbox is a mechanical component that is used to increase or decrease the rotational
speed. In wind turbines, the gearbox is used to control the rotational speed of the
generator.
● The generator is the component that converts the mechanical energy from the rotor
to electrical energy. The most common electrical generators used in wind turbines are
induction generators (IGs), doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs), and permanent
magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs).
● The controller is the brain of the wind turbine. It monitors constantly the condition of
the wind turbine and controls the pitch and yaw systems to extract optimum power
from the wind.
● Anemometer is a type of sensor that is used to measure the wind speed. The wind
speed information may be necessary for maximum power tracking and protection in
emergency cases.
● The wind vane is a type of sensor that is used to measure the wind direction. The
wind direction information is important for the yaw control system to operate.
Wind Power Curve:-
Wind speed largely determines the amount of electricity generated by a turbine. Higher wind
speeds generate more power because stronger winds allow the blades to rotate faster Faster
rotation translates to more mechanical power and more electrical power from the generator.
The relationship between wind speed and power for a typical wind turbine is shown in
Figure.
Turbines are designed to operate within a specific range of wind speeds. The limits of the
range are known as the cut-in speed and cut-out speed. The cut-in speed is the point at which
the wind turbine is able to generate power. Between the cut-in speed and the rated speed,
where the maximum output is reached, the power output will increase cubically with wind
speed. For example, if wind speed doubles, the power output will increase 8 times. The
cut-out speed is the point at which the turbine must be shut down to avoid damage to the
equipment. The cut-in and cut-out speeds are related to the turbine design and size and are
decided on prior to construction.

Air Density
Power output is related to the local air density, which is a function of altitude, pressure,
and temperature. Dense air exerts more pressure on the rotors, which results in higher power
output
Wind turbines use the power in wind to move the blades of a rotor to power a generator.
There are two general types of wind turbines: horizontal axis (the most common) and
vertical-axis turbines

A wind turbine is a revolving machine that converts the kinetic energy from the wind
into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is then converted into electricity that is sent
to a power grid. The turbine components responsible for these energy conversions are the
rotor and the generator. 
The rotor is the area of the turbine that consists of both the turbine hub and blades. As
wind strikes the turbine’s blades, the hub rotates due to aerodynamic forces. This rotation is
then sent through the transmission system to decrease the revolutions per minute. The
transmission system consists of the main bearing, high-speed shaft, gearbox, and low-speed
shaft. The ratio of the gearbox determines the rotation division and the rotation speed that the
generator sees.
Figure 1 shows the major components of a wind turbine: gearbox, generator, hub,
rotor, low-speed shaft, high-speed shaft, and the main bearing.  The purpose of the hub is to
connect the blades’ servos that adjust the blade direction to the low-speed shaft. The rotor is
the area of the turbine that consists of both the hub and blades. The components are all
housed together in a structure called the nacelle. 
You can use different control methods to either optimize or limit power output. You can
control a turbine by controlling the generator speed, blade angle adjustment, and rotation of
the entire wind turbine. Blade angle adjustment and turbine rotation are also known as pitch
and yaw control, respectively. A visual representation of pitch and yaw adjustment is shown
in Figures 5 and 6. 

Figure 5. Pitch Adjustment Figure 6. Yaw Adjustment

The purpose of pitch control is to maintain the optimum blade angle to achieve certain
rotor speeds or power output. You can use pitch adjustment to stall and furl, two methods of
pitch control. By stalling a wind turbine, you increase the angle of attack, which causes the
flat side of the blade to face further into the wind. Furling decreases the angle of attack,
causing the edge of the blade to face the oncoming wind. Pitch angle adjustment is the most
effective way to limit output power by changing aerodynamic force on the blade at high wind
speeds.
The final type of control deals with the electrical subsystem. You can achieve this
dynamic control with power electronics, or, more specifically, electronic converters that are
coupled to the generator. The two types of generator control are stator and rotor. The stator
and rotor are the stationary and nonstationary parts of a generator, respectively. In each case,
you disconnect the stator or rotor from the grid to change the synchronous speed of the
generator independently of the voltage or frequency of the grid. Controlling the synchronous
generator speed is the most effective way to optimize maximum power output at low wind
speeds. 
Figure 7 shows a system-level layout of a wind energy conversion system and the
signals used. Notice that control is most effective by adjusting pitch angle and controlling the
synchronous speed of the generator
 All wind turbines extract energy from the wind through aerodynamic forces. There
are two important aerodynamic forces: drag and lift. Drag applies a force on the body in the
direction of the relative flow, while lift applies a force perpendicular to the relative flow.
The difference between drag and lift is illustrated (Fig. 8.1) by the difference between
using a spinaker sail, which fills like a parachute and pulls a sailing boat with the wind, and a
Bermuda rig, the familiar triangular sail which deflects with wind and allows a sailing boat to
travel across the wind or slightly into the wind. Drag forces provide the most obvious means
of propulsion, these being the forces felt by a person (or object) exposed to the wind. Lift
forces are the most efficient means of propulsion but being more subtle than drag forces are
not so well understood.

The basic features that characterise lift and drag are:

1. Drag is in the direction of airflow.
2. Lift is perpendicular to the direction of airflow.
3. Generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be
developed.
4. With a good aerofoil (Fig. 8.2), the lift produced can be more than
thirty times greater than the drag.
5. Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices.

SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF WIND ENERGY

Wind energy is one of the cleanest sources of electricity today; unlike fossil fuel
plants, wind turbines do not emit greenhouse gases or pollutants while generating
electricity. Wind turbines generate clean, emission-free electricity: we don’t need to burn
fossil fuels to generate wind energy. While there are some fossil fuels emissions as a result of
constructing wind farms and manufacturing turbines, the lifetime emissions from a wind farm
are low in comparison to any fossil fuel generation. Additionally, the wind is freely available
and inexhaustible in our atmosphere, meaning we will never run out of it

Local wildlife

Perhaps the most widely studied negative consequence of wind power is the threat to
local species populations, particularly birds and bats. When the blades of wind turbines rotate
at high speeds, the air pressure around the blades shifts and increases the likelihood of birds
and bats colliding with the blades. However, the exact impact on local bird and bat life can
vary dramatically from one wind farm to the next, and properly siting wind farms can often
eliminate most of these concerns.
Additionally, building wind farms can disrupt the natural habitat of several different
animal species: constructing wind farms requires human accessibility to potentially otherwise
remote areas, which can sometimes mean building new roads or clearing new land. This can
result in habitat segmentation and loss for certain local animal populations.
Bats may be injured by direct impact with turbine blades, towers or transmission
lines. Recent research shows that bats may also be killed when suddenly passing through a
low air pressure region surrounding the turbine blade tips. The numbers of bats killed by
existing onshore and near-shore facilities has troubled bat enthusiasts.
Noise
Modern wind turbines produce significantly less noise than older designs. Turbine
designers work to minimise noise, as noise reflects lost energy and output. Noise levels at
nearby residences may be managed through the citing of turbines, the approvals process for
wind farms, and operational management of the wind farm.
Land use

The amount of land required to install a wind turbine varies depending on the size of
the project, where it’s located (flat ground vs. hills vs. ocean), and more. In general, off-shore
wind projects require more space than land-based ones, as the turbines and blades tend to be
larger.
Importantly, wind turbines and their supporting infrastructure don’t take up much
physical land space; however, individual turbines need to have a sufficient amount of space
between them, which can add up for large-scale wind farms. 
Fortunately, many wind farms can be built on areas that have previously been cleared.
New wind farms can also be set up for dual land-use and can also serve as pasture land for
livestock, cropland for farming, or hiking trails.
The site selected for wind farm

(i) Adequate and uniform average wind velocity throughout year. Freedom from
cyclones, floods, lighting strokes, Superior wind speed.
(ii) Availability of vacant land free from forests, townships etc. Wind farms typically
need large lands. Good road access to sites
(iii) Availability of distribution substation connected to the electrical grid within a
short distance (<10Km).
(iv) Suitable terrain and soil for installing the wind turbine towers movement of crane
etc.
(v) Environmental clearances.
(vi) Approach roads upto site for movement of erection equipment and the wind
turbine subassemblies.

WIND RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Wind resource assessment is the most important step in planning a community wind
project because it is the basis for determining initial feasibility and cash flow projections, and
is ultimately vital for acquiring financing. Your project will progress through several stages
of assessment:
Initial Assessment
Detailed site characterization
Long-term validation of data
Detailed cash flow projection and acquiring financing
This site Initial Assessment
p utilizes existing data from state wind resource maps, nearby publicly available wind
resource data, and other weather measurement sites to make rough projections about the
financials of your project. This step should be used as an indicator to justify a more
substantial investment to install equipment and hire professionals for a detailed site
characterization.
Initial assessment of the site is fairly simple in most states with publicly available
high resolution wind resource data. Recent advances in computer modeling and the internet
have made public wind data sources easily accessible.
 Detailed Site Characterization
 Once you have determined from preliminary evaluations that you have a promising
site to install wind turbines and you plan to continue with the project development, you will
need to hire an expert to perform a detailed wind resource site assessment with wind
measurement equipment at your site for at least one year. This is necessary to assure you,
your investors, and your banker that the project is feasible. The level of detail of your study,
however, will depend on the size of your intended project. The larger the project or
investment under consideration, the larger and more expensive resource assessment effort is
warranted.
The instrumentation used for wind resource assessment includes three major components:
anemometers and wind direction vanes, which are sensors to measure the wind speed and
direction,
a data logger, and
a meteorological mast, or tower.
Measurement of temperature and pressure, which requires additional sensors, is also
standard. Meteorological towers typically are at least 50 m (164 ft) lattice or monopole
towers supported by guy wires.
Long-Term Validation of Data
This stage compares data at the site to long term weather data over the course of ten
years or more. This will help determine whether the data represents a low, medium, or high
wind year and allow adjustments to your long-term production estimates.
Once you have collected both short-term and long-term data from the site and from
other sources, you can make some comparisons between historical data and that collected at
your site. If there is an airport or a weather station within several miles of your site with
similar topography to your site, with the help of your meteorological consultant you can
determine if the on-site data was collected during a year that was windier or less windy than
the historical average. This will help to ensure that your production estimates are descriptive
of the site and not inflated due to an abnormally windy year. It is important that you consult
with your investors as well as your lending institution throughout the process to make sure
that your methods are acceptable to them.
Computer models are based on many years of historical weather data and in more and
more cases can stand on their own or complement data taken with a meteorological tower
with instrumentation at a project site.
Detailed Production Estimates and Cash-flow Projections
You will use your detailed site profile to combine validated production and revenue estimates
from the sale of electricity produced with initial financing sources and any incentives
available to your project. This projection is to help you show your lenders and investors that
the project will be able to cover debt and generate required returns. It is important to note that
you will refine these revenue estimates as the project progresses, and your lender should
understand this. The lender wants to see that you are performing due diligence, you
understand the type of business you are participating in, and that you are realistic about the
project outcomes.
Once you have a solid estimation of the wind at your site and can show that the
project is financially viable, you can take it to the bank. You can use the projected cost of
your project, the cost of financing that your institution is willing to offer you, as well as the
required returns from investors and other assumptions to determine the price of energy you
need to negotiate to ensure a positive project cash flow.
 A wind energy conversion system is an apparatus for converting the kinetic energy
available in the wind to mechanical energy that can be used to power machinery (grain mills,
water pumps, etc) and/or to operate an electrical generator  wind energy conversion has
become a reliable and competitive means for electric power generation. The life span of
modern wind turbines is now 20-25 years, which is comparable to many other conventional
power generation technologies. The average availability of commercial wind power plants is
now around 98%. The cost of wind power has continued to decline through technological
development, increased production level, and the use of larger turbines.
The major components of a typical wind energy conversion system include a wind
turbine, a generator, interconnection apparatus, and control systems. At the present time and
for the near future, generators for wind turbines will be synchronous generators, permanent
magnet synchronous generators, and induction generators, including the squirrel-cage type
and wound rotor type. For small to medium power wind turbines, permanent magnet
generators and squirrel-cage induction generators are often used because of their reliability
and cost advantages. Induction generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators, and
wound field synchronous generators are currently used in various high power wind turbines.
HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Hybrid Renewable Energy System (HRES) combines two or more renewable energy
resources with some conventional source (diesel or petrol generator) along with storage, in
order to fulfil the demand of an area. Hybrid energy systems oftentimes yield greater
economic and environmental returns than wind, solar, geothermal or trigeneration stand-alone
systems by themselves.
advantages of hybrid renewable energy systems
Higher total energy efficiency
 More reliable
 Operational flexibility
 Lower emission
Name the various types of hybrid energy systems.
 PV-wind hybrid system
 PV-diesel hybrid system
 Wind-PV hybrid with diesel
 Biomass-wind-fuel cell hybrid system.
PV-WIND HYBRID SYSTEM
It is type of hybrid energy system consist of a photovoltaic array coupled with a wind
turbine.
This would create more output from the wind turbine during the winter, whereas during the
summer, the solar panels would produce their peak output.
• Photovoltaic (PV) cells are electronic devices that are based on semiconductor
technology and can produce an electric current directly from sunlight.
• The best silicon PV modules now available commercially have an efficiency of over
18%, and it is expected that in about 10 years’ time module efficiencies may rise over
25%.
• Wind power is electricity produced by a generator, which is driven by a turbine
according to aerodynamics in flowing air.
 • Photovoltaic (PV) modules convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity.
• Modules can be wired together to form a PV array that is wiring modules in series the
available voltage is increased and by wiring in parallel, the available current is
increased.
• The three-bladed wind turbines are operated "upwind," with the blades facing into the
wind.
• The other common wind turbine type is the two-bladed, downwind turbine.
DC-AC inverter changes low voltage direct current (DC) power, which is produced by the PV
or wind turbine or stored in the battery into standard alternating current (AC)
Charge controller regulator
• It prevents the PV array and wind turbine from over- charging the battery.
• Most modern controllers maintain system voltage regulation electronically by varying
the width of DC pulses they send to the batteries (this is called pulse width
modulation or PWM).
• Another category called "shunt type" controllers divert excess energy into a "shunt
load.“
• A new generation of PV controllers has "maximum power point tracking." They take
advantage of the maximum power available in the module by adjusting current and
voltage.

PV-DIESEL HYBRID SYSTEM

Integrating the diesel generator with photovoltaic arrays, so called PV-Diesel Hybrid
System, have several advantages such as reducing daily operation hour of diesel generator
while servicing to the clients increase and the diesel engine is always running on its best
efficiencies. The goal of the PV-diesel hybrid system is reducing the diesel operation hours
but delivering the electricity for 24 hours to the customers The PV-diesel hybrid system is the
integration of photovoltaic system with diesel generator to supply the load. The purpose of
this technology is providing electricity for 24 hours to the customers but reducing the
operation hours of diesel generator in an optimal way. The systems consist of PV arrays,
diesel generator, batteries and inverter. The basic operation is controlled by knowing the
condition of load and battery.
Solar hybrid systems are power systems that combine solar power from a photovoltaic system
with another energy source. One of the most common hybrid systems being PV diesel hybrid
system, coupling PV and diesel generators, also known as diesel gensets. The diesel
generators are used to steadily fill in the gap between the load and the power generated by the
PV system. Battery storages can be used to enhance the overall system performance to ensure
that the amount of energy meets the demand
The basic operation of photovoltaic hybrid system could be divided into 3 load conditions,
which are low load, medium load and peak load.
Under low load conditions the diesel generator is off and the load energy supplied by the PV
energy through the inverter. The diesel generator will operate at optimal loading to feed the
load, and it will charge the battery if there is excess energy at medium load. At the peak load
condition diesel generator running at optimal loading in parallel with inverter. Inverter is
converting DC power from the battery into AC power.

● Diesel genset
Diesel Gensets provide energy through fuel consumption. They are most of the time used in
poor-grid (recurring power outage) or off-grid sites as a backup or the main energy resource.
Their operating cost is high because of the constant need for fuel to power all the connected
equipment but can even increase because of the fuel cost which fluctuates. 

● Photovoltaic system
A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV
modules and panels. PV panels are designed to absorb the sun’s rays as a source of energy for
generating electricity. They use the solar photovoltaic (PV) technology that converts solar
radiation into direct current.

● Solar inverters
A solar inverter is one of the most important elements of the solar electric power system. It
converts the variable direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into the
alternating 240V current (AC).

● Batteries
Batteries can be added to store the excess energy provided by the PV system. Thus being
used when there is a lack or no PV production

WIND-PV HYBRID WITH DIESEL

Designed to reduce the consumption of diesel
–Pits cost of wind power against cost of diesel power
–Reduces diesel storage needs
–Reduced environmental impact; fuel transport & emissions
•Used for larger systems with demands over ~ 100 kW peak load up to many MW

•Based on an AC bus configurations using wind turbines and diesel engines

•Batteries, if used, store power to cover short lulls in wind power

•Large potential, varying degrees of maturity with fewer examples

•Obviously requires a good wind resource to be “economica

Low penetration systems -Wind acts as a negative load, very little control or integration of
wind turbines into the power system is needed .

•Mid penetration systems -Wind becomes a major part of the power system but diesel
engines still provide much of the system power control. Additional components and limited
supervisory control required to assist diesels in maintaining power quality.

•High penetration systems -Completely integrated power system with advanced control.
Diesel generators shut off when not needed. Limited operational control of system by plant
staff.
 UNIT 3
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS

Solar radiation may be converted directly into electricity by solar cells (photovoltaic

cells) The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the
surface of a metal when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are
called photoelectrons. It is important to note that the emission of photoelectrons and the
kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons is dependent on the frequency of the light that is
incident on the metal’s surface. The process through which photoelectrons are ejected from
the surface of the metal due to the action of light is commonly referred to as photoemission.
The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering light as a wave. However,
this phenomenon can be explained by the particle nature of light, in which light can be
visualized as a stream of particles of electromagnetic energy. These ‘particles’ of light are
called photons

Semiconductor material such as silicon, gallium arsenide, copper indium diselenide,

cadmium telluride etc. is used in the manufacturing of solar cells due to its photovoltaic
property.
It consists of N type and P type semiconductor material. N type is highly doped and P
type is lightly doped. Top and bottom is of conducting electrode to collect the current. The
bottom is fully covered with the conductive layer and top layer is not fully covered because
the sun rays should not be fully blocked. Since semiconductors are reflective in nature,
antireflective coating is used. The whole arrangement is kept inside a thin glass to avoid
mechanical shock.
 The working of solar cell is based on photovoltaic effect. It is a effect in which current
or voltage is generated when exposed to light. Through this effect solar cells convert sunlight
into electrical energy.
A depletion layer is formed at the junction of the N type and P type semiconductor material.
When light energy of the sun rays falls on the solar panel, the photons which is the small
bundle of energy whose energy is higher than the energy gap gives energy to the electrons
and holes in the depletion region. The electrons and holes move to the higher level which is
the conduction band. The electrons move towards N type and holes move towards P type and
they act as a battery. So this movement of electrons and holes forms the electric current.

v-i characteristics of a solar cell

The basic characteristics of a solar cell are the short-circuit current (ISC), the open-circuit
voltage (VOC) m is maximum current, Vm is maximum voltage
Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in
temperature reduce the bandgap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the
semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with
increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy of the electrons in the
material. Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond. In the bond model of a
semiconductor bandgap, a reduction in the bond energy also reduces the bandgap. Therefore
increasing the temperature reduces the bandgap.
In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is the open-circuit
voltage. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.
The five-parameter PV performance model is derived from an equivalent circuit of a solar
cell, which consists of a current source, a diode, and two resistors, as shown in Fig.

Figure:-Single-diode electrical PV module equivalent circuit.

The characteristic equation of the equivalent circuit contains five independent

parameters, hence the name five-parameter model. These parameters can be determined
analytically using only the measurements at STC that are available on manufacturer
datasheets: current at maximum power Imp, voltage at maximum power Vmp, short-circuit
current Isc, open-circuit voltage Voc, and temperature coefficients of short-circuit current Isc
and open-circuit voltage Voc. The methodology to determine the model parameters involves
first constraining the characteristic equation at short-circuit, open circuit, and maximum
power conditions.

There are two conditions of interest for the actual PV and for its equivalent circuit, which are:

1.the current that flows when the terminals are shorted together (the short-circuit
current, Isc);
2.the voltage across the terminals when the leads are left open (the open-circuit voltage, Voc).
When the leads of the equivalent circuit for the PV cell are shorted together, no current flows
in the (real) diode since Vd = 0, so the whole current from the ideal source flows through the
shorted leads. Since the short-circuit current must equal Isc, the magnitude of the ideal
current source itself must be equal to Isc. When the leads from the PV cell are left open, the
load current, I, is null and the V on the load is equal to Voc = Vd.
The equivalent circuit model is more intuitive, easy to process, and moderate in
computation. The parameters of the model are easy to identify and suitable for simulation
experiments with circuits. Therefore, the equivalent circuit model is widely used in practical
engineering applications.

where
VPV = PV module voltage (V)
IPV = PV module current (A)
Iph = light current (A)
I0 = diode reverse saturation current (A)
Rs = series resistance (Ω)
Rp = shunt resistance (Ω)
A photovoltaic system converts the Sun's radiation, in the form of light, into usable electricity.
It comprises the solar array and the balance of system components. PV systems can be
categorized by various aspects, such as, grid-connected vs. stand alone systems,
building-integrated vs. rack-mounted systems, residential vs. utility systems, distributed vs.
centralized systems, rooftop vs. ground-mounted systems, tracking vs. fixed-tilt systems, and
new constructed vs. retrofitted systems

Solar Energy Collectors

A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar radiation from
the Sun. Solar collectors receive the heat from solar rays and give it to the heat transport
fluid. These devices are primarily used for active solar heating and allow for the heating
of water for personal use. These collectors are generally mounted on the roof and must be
very sturdy as they are exposed to a variety of different weather conditions.
The use of these solar collectors provides an alternative for traditional domestic water
heating using a water heater, potentially reducing energy costs over time. As well as in
domestic settings, a large number of these collectors can be combined in an array and used to
generate electricity in solar thermal power plants.
These are generally of two types.
(i) Non- concentrating (or) flat plate solar collector.
(ii) Concentrating type solar collector
● Paraboloidal dish collector
● Parabolic trough collector
● Heliostat
The solar energy collector, with its associated absorber, is the essential component of any
system for the conversion of solar radiation in to more usable form (e.g heat or electricity). In
the non-concentrating type, the collector area is the same as the absorber area. On the other
hand, in concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater.
By means or concentrating collectors, much higher temperatures can be obtained than
with the non-concentrating type. Concentrating collectors may be used to generate medium
pressure steam. They use many different arrangements of mirrors and lenses to concentrate
the sun’s rays on the boiler. This type shows better efficiency than the flat plate type. For best
efficiency, collectors should be mounted to face the sun as it moves through the sky.

FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR:

A flat plate collector consists of basically of an insulated metal box with glass or
plastic cover and dark colored absorber plate. Solar radiation is absorbed by the absorber
plate and transferred to a fluid that circulated through the collector in tube.
Transparent cover of glass sheets are placed on the upper side of absorber plate to
reduce thermal loss. Thermal Insulation is provided between the absorber plate. Flat plate
collector absorbs both beam & diffuse component of radiant energy. Hence, they can function
without need of tracking the sun. Also, they absorb energy even during cloudy & hazy
atmosphere.
The absorber plate is specially blackened metal surface. Sun ray striking the absorber
plate are absorb the absorber plate resulting in the temperature rise of the absorber plate. Heat
transport fluid is circulated through the tubing which is in intimate Contact with the absorber
plate. The heat is transferred from the absorber plate to the heat transport fluid.
Insulation materials are generally mineral wool or glass wool or fiber glass. The front
covers are generally glass that is transparent to incoming solar radiation and opaque to the
infra-red re-radiation from the absorber. The glass covers act as a convection shield to reduce
the losses from the absorber plate beneath. The glass thickness of 3 and 4 mm are commonly
used. The usual practice is to have 2 covers with specific ranging from 1.5 to 3cm.
CONCENTRATING TYPE SOLAR COLLECTOR

There are three types of concentrating collector

▪ Parabolic trough system

▪ Parabolic dish  collector

▪ Heliostats

Parabolic Trough System

Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter “u”. The troughs concentrate
sunlight onto a receiver tube that is positioned along the focal line of the trough. Sometimes a
transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat loss. Higher temperature
around 300 degree C can be achieved. Only direct beam radiation can be collected. Tracking
the sun is only in one plane for daily movement the sun. The pipe is located along the center
line absorbs the heat and the working fluid is circulated through the pipe.

Figure: Parabolic Trough System

Parabolic Dish  Collector

A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, but has
mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker.
A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the sun and concentrate the sun's rays onto a
receiver located at the focal point in front of the dish. Parabolic dish systems can reach 1000
°C at the receiver, and achieve the highest efficiencies for converting solar energy to
electricity in the small-power capacity range.
The beam radiation is reflected by paraboloidal dish surface. In distributed system
several dishes are installed. The receivers are connected in series/parallel by piping system to
collect hot working fluid in a reservoir. Such pipe systems are complex and costly.

Figure: Parabolic Dish  Collector

Heliostats

A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct solar energy to a large
absorber located on a tower. To date the only application for the heliostat collector is power
generation in a system called the power tower.
A power tower has a field of large mirrors that follow the sun's path across the sky. The
mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on top of a high tower. A computer keeps the
mirrors aligned so the reflected rays of the sun are always aimed at the receiver, where
temperatures well above 1000°C can be reached. High-pressure steam is generated to produce
electricity.
The controls are complex and costly. Collector cover a very vast ground. Each
heliostat should have individual tracking control.

Figure: Heliostats

Flat Plate Solar Collector

Advantage
• It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse radiation for heating.
• Requires less maintenance.

Disadvantages
• Large heat losses by conduction and radiation because of large area.
• No tracking of sun.
• Low water temperature is achieved.
Applications of flat plate collector:

1. Solar water heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.

2. Desalination plant for obtaining drinking water from sea water.
3. Solar cookers for domestic cooking.
4. Drying applications.
5. Residence heating.

Advantages of concentrating collector over flat collector

• The size of the absorber can be reduced that gives high concentration ratio.
• Thermal losses are less than FPC. However small losses occur in the concentratingcollector
because of its optical system as well as by reflection, absorption by mirrors andlenses.
• The efficiency increases at high temperatures.
• In these collectors the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater than the absorber
area.
• These collectors are used for high-temperature applications.
• Reflectors can cost less per unit area than flat plate collectors.
• Concentrating systems can be used for electric power generation when notused
for heating or cooling.
• Little or no anti freeze is required to protect the absorber in a concentrator systemwhereas
the entire solar energy collection surface requires anti freeze protection in a flatplate
collector

Disadvantages
• Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only beam component is collected
in case of focusing collectors because diffuse component cannot be reflectedand is thus lost.
• In some stationary reflecting systems it is necessary to have a small absorber to track the
sun image; in others the reflector may have to be adjustable more than one position if year
round operation is desired; in other words costly orienting systems have to be used to track
the sun.
• Additional requirements of maintenance particular to retain the quality of reflecting surface
against dirt, weather, oxidation etc.
• Non –uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flat-plate collectors in uniform.
• Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss, so they introduce
additional factors in energy balances.
• High initial cost.

Application

Water Pumping:-
Solar power is commonly used for water pumping facility which has been proved more
effective in villages for agricultural purposes. The energy from the solar panel is used to
operate the pump that is used lift the water from lower level to higher level.
Cooking:-
solar cookers are the most happening in the present market. Solar cookers are commercially
available and are easy to operate and maintain. The world’s largest solar kitchen has been set
up in India at Taleti, near Mount Abu, situated at a height of 1219 m above sea level in
Rajasthan. It boasts of a six-module solar steam cooking system and a total of 84 parabolic
dish concentrators shell type receivers
Heating:-
solar water heaters and air heaters have been very common since decades even before PV
cells could exist. Solar water heaters alone help reduce the consumption of energy to a major
extent. These trap the heat energy from the sun, and store hot water in the containers
Traffic Signals:-
Traffic signals at all areas can easily be operated using solar panels. Shadow free area is the
only concern for this.
Cold Storage:-
Solar energy can be used for cold storage as well as air conditioning application. Vapor
compressor system using solar photovoltaic panels and vapor absorption system using
thermal collectors can be used for these purposes.
Solar PV System in Space:-
The solar arrays arranged in space station produce more than required power for the space
station . When the station is in sunlight, about 60 percent of the electricity that the solar
arrays generate is used to charge the station's batteries
Transportation:-
PV can provide auxiliary power for vehicles such as cars and boats. Automobile sunroofs can
include PV for onboard power needs or trickle-charging batteries. Lightweight PV can also
conform to the shape of airplane wings to help power high-altitude aircraft. 

solar radiation, electromagnetic radiation, including X-rays, ultraviolet and infrared

radiation, and radio emissions, as well as visible light, emanating from the Sun. 

Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the Sun in the form
of electromagnetic radiation as measured in the wavelength range of the measuring
instrument. The solar irradiance is measured in watt per square metre (W/m2) in SI units.
This radiation that comes directly from the solar disk is defined as beam radiation. The
scattered and reflected radiation that is sent to the earth surface from all directions (reflected
from other bodies, molecules, particles, droplets, etc.) is defined as diffuse radiation. The
sum of the beam and diffuse components is defined as total (or global) radiation
Instruments for measuring solar radiation
Solar Radiation flux is usually measured with the help of a pyranometer, pyrheliometer,
pyrgeometer, radiometer, sunshine recorder
A pyrheliometer measures the intensity of direct solar radiation. It is so designed that it
measures only the radiation from the sun's disk (which has an apparent diameter of ½°) and
from a narrow annulus of sky of diameter 5° around the sun's disk.

A pyranometer measures global radiation (the combined intensity of direct solar radiation
and diffuse sky radiation). It measures solar irradiance from the solid angle 2pi onto a plane
surface. When mounted horizontally facing upwards it measures global solar irradiance. If it
is provided with a shade that prevents beam solar radiation from reaching the receiver, it
measures diffuse solar irradiance.
A pyrgeometer measures the effective terrestrial radiation. It measures the atmospheric
infrared radiation spectrum that extends approximately from 4.5 μm to 100 μm.
A radiometer is an instrument designed to measure the radiated electromagnetic power.
When used in solar energy applications, it is usually desirable for radiometers to respond the
same to equal amounts of energy at all wavelengths over the wavelength range of the
radiation to be measured. Most radiometers therefore work by using a thermopile to measure
the temperature rise of a sensitive element whose receiving surface is painted dull black.
An alternative method of measuring solar radiation, which is less accurate but also less
expensive, is a sunshine recorder.
Sunshine recorder
Sunshine recorders measure the number of hours in the day during which the sunshine is
above a certain level (typically 200 mW/cm2).

Figure : Sunshine Recorder

The duration of bright sun shine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine recorder
shown in above figure the sun’s Rays are focused by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip
held in a groove in a spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there
is bright sunshine, the image formed is intense enough to burn a spot on the cord strip.
Though the day as the sun moves across the sky, the image moves along the strip. Thus, a
burnt trace whose length is proportional to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip.

The Photovoltaic cell is the semiconductor device that converts the light into electrical
energy. The voltage induces by the PV cell depends on the intensity of light incident on it.
The name Photovoltaic is because of their voltage producing capability
The electrons of the semiconductor material are joined together by the covalent bond. The
electromagnetic radiations are made of small energy particles called photons. When the
photons are incident on the semiconductor material, then the electrons become energised and
starts emitting.
The energises electron is known as the Photoelectrons. And the phenomenon of emission of
electrons is known as the photoelectric effect. The working of the Photovoltaic cell depends
on the photoelectric effect.

Construction of Photovoltaic Cell

The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium, cadmium, silicon, selenium and gallium
are used for making the PV cells. Mostly silicon and selenium are used for making the cell.

there are various different types of cell

● Crystalline silicon cells

● Monocrystalline cells
● Polycrystalline cells
 ● Thin film solar cells

Monocrystalline cells

Monocrystalline solar panels are the oldest type of solar panel and the most developed. These
monocrystalline solar panels are made from about 40 of the monocrystalline solar cells.
These solar cells are made from pure silicon. In the manufacturing process (called the
Czochralski method), a silicon crystal is placed in a vat of molten silicon. The crystal is then
pulled up out of the vat very slowly, allowing for the molten silicon to form a solid crystal
shell around it called an ingot. The ingot is then sliced thinly into silicon wafers. The wafer is
made into the cell, and then the cells are assembled together to form a solar panel.

Monocrystalline solar cells appear black because of the way sunlights interacts with pure
silicon. While the cells are black, there’s a variety of colors and designs for the back sheets
and frames. The monocrystalline cells are shaped like a square with the corners removed, so
there are small gaps between the cells

Advantages
● Here are some of the advantages of monocrystalline solar cells:
● They have the highest level of efficiency at 15-20%
● They require less space compared to other types due to their high efficiency
● Manufacturers state that this form of solar cell lasts the longest, with most giving
them a 25-year warranty
● They perform better in low levels of sunlight, making them ideal for cloudy areas

Disadvantages
 Here are some of the disadvantages to monocrystalline solar cells:
● They are the most expensive solar cells on the market, and so not in everyone’s price
range
● The performance levels tend to suffer from an increase in temperature. However, it is
a small loss when compared to other forms of solar cell
● There is a lot of waste material when the silicon is cut during manufacture

Polycrystalline Solar Cells

Polycrystalline solar panels are a newer development, but they are rising quickly in
popularity and efficiency. Just like monocrystalline solar panels, polycrystalline cells are
made from silicon. But polycrystalline cells are made from fragments of the silicon crystal
melted together. During the manufacturing process, the silicon crystal is placed in a vat of
molten silicon. Instead of pulling it out slowly, this crystal is allowed to fragment and then
cool. Then once the new crystal is cooled in its mold, the fragmented silicon is thinly sliced
into polycrystalline solar wafers. These wafers are assembled together to form a
polycrystalline panel.

Polycrystalline cells are blue in color because of the way sunlight reflects on the crystals.
Sunlight reflects off of silicon fragments differently than it does with a pure silicon cell.
Usually the back frames and frames are silver with polycrystalline, but there can be
variation. The shape of the cell is a square, and there are no gaps between corners of cells

Advantages
Here are some of the advantages of polycrystalline solar cells:
 ● The manufacturing process is cheaper and easier than the monocrystalline cells
● It avoids silicon waste
● High temperatures have less negative effects on efficiency compared with
monocrystalline cells. This makes the polycrystalline cells more attractive to people in
warmer areas as the price is lower

Disadvantages
Here are some of the disadvantages to polycrystalline solar cells:
● Efficiency is only around 13-16% due to low levels of silicon purity. So they are not
the most efficient on the market
● They have lower output rates which make them less space efficient. So more roof
space is needed for installation

Thin Film Solar Cells

Thin-film solar panels are an extremely new development in the solar panel industry. The
most distinguishing feature of thin-film panels is that they aren’t always made from silicon.
They can be made from a variety of materials, including cadmium telluride (CdTe),
amorphous silicon (a-Si), and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS). These solar cells are
created by placing the main material between thin sheets of conductive material with a layer
of glass on top for protection. The a-Si panels do use silicon, but they use non-crystalline
silicon and are also topped with glass
Thin film solar cells are manufactured by placing several thin layers of photovoltaic on top of
each other to creates the module. There are actually a few different types of thin film solar
cell, and the way in which they differ from each other comes down to the material used for
the PV layers. The types are as follows:
● Amorphous silicon
● Cadmium telluride
● Copper indium gallium selenide
● Organic PV cells
Depending on the technology that has been used, the efficiency rates for thin film solar cells
tends to vary from 7% to 13%. Since 2002, the knowledge levels and popularity for thin film
solar cells has risen dramatically, which also means that research and development have been
increased. Due to this, we can expect future models to hold efficiency rates of 10-16%.
Advantages
Here are some of the advantages of thin film solar cells:
● They can be manufactured to be flexible, making them widely applicable to a range of
situations and building types
● Mass production is easy to achieve, making them potentially cheaper to produce than
crystalline solar cells
● Shading has a similar effect on their efficiency

Disadvantages
Here are some of the disadvantages of thin film solar cells:
● They are not ideal for domestic use as thy take up a lot of space
● Low space efficiency means that they will cause further expenses in the form of
enhancers, like cables of support structures
● They have a shorter lifespan and so shorter warranty periods
Consider the figure below shows the constructions of the silicon photovoltaic cell. The upper
surface of the cell is made of the thin layer of the p-type material so that the light can easily
enter into the material. The metal rings are placed around p-type and n-type material which
acts as their positive and negative output terminals respectively.

The multi-crystalline or monocrystalline semiconductor material make the single unit of the

PV cell. The mono-crystal cell is cut from the volume of the semiconductor material. The
multicell are obtained from the material which has many sides.

The output voltage and current obtained from the single unit of the cell is very less. The
magnitude of the output voltage is 0.6v, and that of the current is 0.8v. The different
combinations of cells are used for increasing the output efficiency. There are three possible
ways of combining the PV cells.

Working of PV cell

The light incident on the semiconductor material may be pass or reflected through it. The PV
cell is made of the semiconductor material which is neither a complete conductor nor an
insulator. This property of semiconductor material makes it more efficient for converting the
light energy into electric energy.

When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the electrons of the material starts emitting.
This happens because the light consists small energise particles called photons. When the
electrons absorb the photons, they become energised and starts moving into the material.
Because of the effect of an electric field, the particles move only in the one direction and
develops current. The semiconductor materials have the metallic electrodes through which
the current goes out of it.

Consider the figure below shows the PV cell made of silicon and the resistive load is
connected across it. The PV cell consists the P and N-type layer of semiconductor material.
These layers are joined together to form the PN junction.
 UNIT 4

BIO-ENERGY

Biomass is a key renewable energy resource that includes plant and animal material,
such as wood from forests, material left over from agricultural and forestry processes, and
organic industrial, human and animal wastes. The energy contained in biomass originally
came from the sun. Through photosynthesis carbon dioxide in the air is transformed into
other carbon containing molecules (e.g. sugars, starches and cellulose) in plants. The
chemical energy that is stored in plants and animals (animals eat plants or other animals) or in
their waste is called biomass energy or bioenergy.

Biomass comes from a variety of sources which include:

● Wood from natural forests and woodlands
● Forestry plantations
● Forestry residues
● Agricultural residues such as straw, stover, cane trash and green agricultural
wastes
● Agro-industrial wastes, such as sugarcane bagasse and rice husk
● Animal wastes (cow manure, poultry litter etc)
● Industrial wastes, such as black liquor from paper manufacturing
● Sewage
● Municipal solid wastes (MSW)
● Food processing wastes
AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES
Crop residues encompasses all agricultural wastes such as bagasse, straw, stem, stalk,
leaves, husk, shell, peel, pulp, stubble, etc. Large quantities of crop residues are produced
annually worldwide, and are vastly underutilised. Rice produces both straw and rice husks at
the processing plant which can be conveniently and easily converted into energy.
Significant quantities of biomass remain in the fields in the form of cob when maize is
harvested which can be converted into energy. Sugar cane harvesting leads to harvest residues
in the fields while processing produces fibrous bagasse, both of which are good sources of
energy. Harvesting and processing of coconuts produces quantities of shell and fibre that can
be utilized.

Agricultural residues also includes plant leaves, husks, some roots and stems. The
residues of dedicated bioenergy non-food crops grown for their starches, sugars, or oils for
the conversion into bioethanol and biolubricants. The advantage of agricultural residues is
that they do not require the use of additional land space because they are grown together with
the food crops.

ANIMAL WASTE

There are a wide range of animal wastes that can be used as sources of biomass
energy. The most common sources are animal and poultry manure. In the past this waste was
recovered and sold as a fertilizer or simply spread onto agricultural land, but the introduction
of tighter environmental controls on odour and water pollution means that some form of
waste management is now required, which provides further incentives for waste-to-energy
conversion.
Animal Waste from farms, ranches, slaughterhouses, fisheries and dairies or any
concentration of animals into giant livestock farming facilities produces large amounts of
manure and sewage sludge. Liquid sewage, animal wastes, and also human waste from urban
areas, provides a constant source of chemical energy and gases which can be converted into
electrical power at these wastewater treatment plants.

FORESTRY RESIDUES

Forestry residues are generated by operations such as thinning of plantations, clearing for
logging roads, extracting stem-wood for pulp and timber, and natural attrition. Harvesting
may occur as thinning in young stands, or cutting in older stands for timber or pulp that also
yields tops and branches usable for biomass energy. Harvesting operations usually remove
only 25 to 50 percent of the volume, leaving the residues available as biomass for energy.

Stands damaged by insects, disease or fire are additional sources of biomass. Forest residues
normally have low density and fuel values that keep transport costs high, and so it is
economical to reduce the biomass density in the forest itself.

WOOD WASTES

Wood processing industries primarily include sawmilling, plywood, wood panel, furniture,

building component, flooring, particle board, moulding, jointing and craft industries. Wood
wastes generally are concentrated at the processing factories, e.g. plywood mills and
sawmills. The amount of waste generated from wood processing industries varies from one
type industry to another depending on the form of raw material and finished product.
Generally, the waste from wood industries such as saw millings and plywood, veneer and
others are sawdust, off-cuts, trims and shavings. Sawdust arise from cutting, sizing,
re-sawing, edging, while trims and shaving are the consequence of trimming and smoothing
of wood.

INDUSTRIAL WASTES
The food industry produces a large number of residues and by-products that can be
used as biomass energy sources. These waste materials are generated from all sectors of the
food industry with everything from meat production to confectionery producing waste that
can be utilised as an energy source.
Solid wastes include peelings and scraps from fruit and vegetables, food that does not meet
quality control standards, pulp and fibre from sugar and starch extraction, filter sludges and
coffee grounds. These wastes are usually disposed of in landfill dumps.
Liquid wastes are generated by washing meat, fruit and vegetables, blanching fruit and
vegetables, pre-cooking meats, poultry and fish, cleaning and processing operations as well
as wine making.
These waste waters contain sugars, starches and other dissolved and solid organic matter. The
potential exists for these industrial wastes to be anaerobically digested to produce biogas, or
fermented to produce ethanol, and several commercial examples of waste-to-energy
conversion already exist.

Municipal Solid Wastes and Sewage

Millions of tonnes of household waste are collected each year with the vast majority disposed
of in open fields. The biomass resource in MSW comprises the putrescibles, paper and plastic
and averages 80% of the total MSW collected. Municipal solid waste can be converted into
energy by direct combustion, or by natural anaerobic digestion in the engineered landfill.
At the landfill sites, the gas produced, known as landfill gas or LFG, by the natural
decomposition of MSW (approximately 50% methane and 50% carbon dioxide) is collected
from the stored material and scrubbed and cleaned before feeding into internal combustion
engines or gas turbines to generate heat and power. The organic fraction of MSW can be
anaerobically stabilized in a high-rate digester to obtain biogas for electricity or steam
generation.
Sewage is a source of biomass energy that is very similar to the other animal wastes. Energy
can be extracted from sewage using anaerobic digestion to produce biogas. The sewage
sludge that remains can be incinerated or undergo pyrolysis to produce more biogas.

Biomass is converted to energy through various processes, including:

Thermal conversion is the use of heat, with or without the presence of oxygen, to convert
biomass into other forms of energy and products.  These include direct combustion, pyrolysis,
and torrefaction.  
● Combustion is the burning of biomass in the presence of oxygen. The waste heat is
used to for hot water, heat, or with a waste heat boiler to operate a steam turbine to
produce electricity.  Biomass also can be co-fired with existing fossil fuel power
stations.
● Pyrolysis convert biomass feedstocks under controlled temperature and absent oxygen
into gas, oil and biochar (used as valuable soil conditioner and also to make
graphene). The gases and oil can be used to power a generator and some technologies
can also make diesel and chemicals from the gases.
● Torrefaction is similar to pyrolysis but in a lower operating temperature range. The
final product is an energy dense solid fuel often referred to as “bio-coal”.
 Thermochemical conversion is commonly referred to as gasification. This technology
uses high temperatures in a controlled partial combustion to form a producer gas and charcoal
followed by chemical reduction. A major use for biomass is for agriculture residues with gas
turbines. Advanced uses include production of diesel, jet fuel and chemicals.
Biochemical Conversion involves the use of enzymes, bacteria or other microbes to
break down biomass into liquids and gaseous feedstocks and includes anaerobic digestion and
fermentation. These feedstocks can be converted to energy, transportation fuels and
renewable chemicals.
Chemical Conversion involves the use of chemical agents to convert biomass into
liquid fuels which mostly is converted to biodiesel.
Thermochemical conversion can be classified as pyrolysis, liquefaction, gasification, and
direct combustion based on their temperature, pressure, and duration of heating.
Thermochemical conversion is considered as the simplest route for microalgae conversion
into biofuel when compared to chemical and biochemical process.

Thermochemical conversion, characterized by higher temperature and conversion

rates, is best suited for lower-moisture feedstock and is generally more flexible and robust
than biological processes (Materazzi, 2017). Thermochemical conversion
includes incineration, pyrolysis, and gasification. The incineration technology is the
controlled combustion of waste with the recovery of heat to produce steam which, in turn,
produces power through steam turbines.

Direct combustion is a thermochemical technique in which the biomass is burned in

open air or in the presence of excess air. In this process, the photosynthetically stored
chemical energy of the biomass will be converted into gases.

PYROLYSIS

Pyrolysis is one of the technologies available to convert biomass to an intermediate

liquid product that can be refined to drop-in hydrocarbon biofuels, oxygenated fuel additives
and petrochemical replacements. Pyrolysis is the heating of an organic material, such
as biomass, in the absence of oxygen.

Pyrolysis is thermal decomposition occurring in the absence of oxygen. It is always

also the first step in combustion and gasification processes where it is followed by total or
partial oxidation of the primary products. Lower process temperature and longer vapor
residence times favor the production of charcoal. High temperature and longer residence time
increase the biomass conversion to gas and moderate temperature and short vapor residence
time are optimum for producing liquids. The product distribution obtained from different
modes of pyrolysis process are summarized in the table below. Fast pyrolysis for liquids
production is of particular interest currently as the liquids are transportable and storage.
GASIFICATION

Gasification is the conversion by partial oxidation (i.e. more oxidizing agent than for
pyrolysis but less than for complete combustion) at elevated temperature of a carbonaceous
feedstock such as biomass or coal into a gaseous energy carrier. Gasification takes place in
two main stages. First, the biomass is partially burned to form producer gas and charcoal. In
the second stage, the carbon dioxide and water produced in the first stage are chemically
reduced by the charcoal, forming carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Gasification requires
temperatures of around 800°C or more to minimize the residues of tars and high
hydrocarbons in the product gas. This gas, commonly called “producer gas”, contains
hydrogen (18–20%), carbon monoxide (18–20%), carbon dioxide (8-10%) , methane (2-3%),
trace amounts of higher hydrocarbons such as ethane and ethene, water, nitrogen (if air is
used as the oxidising agent) and various contaminants such as small char particles, ash, tars
and oils.

Gasification is a technology that converts carbon-containing materials, including coal,

waste and biomass, into synthetic gas which in turn can be used to produce electricity and
other valuable products, such as chemicals, fuels, and fertilizers.
Gasification does not involve combustion, but instead uses little or no oxygen or air in a
closed reactor to convert carbon-based materials directly into a synthetic gas, or syngas.
Gasification offers an alternative to more established ways of converting feedstocks
like coal, biomass, and some waste streams into electricity and other useful products. The
advantages of gasification in specific applications and conditions, particularly in clean
generation of electricity from coal, may make it an increasingly important part of the world's
energy and industrial markets. The stable price and abundant supply of coal throughout the
world makes it the main feedstock option for gasification technologies going forward. The
technology's placement markets with respect to many techno-economic and political factors,
including costs, reliability, availability and maintainability (RAM), environmental
considerations, efficiency, feedstock and product flexibility, national energy security, public
and government perception and policy, and infrastructure will determine whether or not
gasification realizes its full market potential.

BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSION

Biochemical conversion of biomass involves use of bacteria, microorganisms and

enzymes to breakdown biomass into gaseous or liquid fuels, such as biogas or bioethanol.
The most popular biochemical technologies are anaerobic digestion (or biomethanation) and
fermentation. Anaerobic digestion is a series of chemical reactions during which organic
material such as human waste is decomposed through is decomposed through the metabolic
pathways of naturally occurring microorganisms in an oxygen depleted environment.
Biomass wastes can also yield liquid fuels, such as cellulosic ethanol, which can be used to
replace petroleum-based fuels

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

Anaerobic digestion is the natural biological process which stabilizes organic waste in
the absence of air and transforms it into biofertilizer and biogas. Anaerobic digestion is a
reliable technology for the treatment of wet, organic waste. Organic waste from various
sources is biochemically degraded in highly controlled, oxygen-free conditions circumstances
resulting in the production of biogas which can be used to produce both electricity and heat.
Biomass conversion technologies are slowing being built for home boilers also.
An anaerobic digestion plant produces two outputs, biogas and digestate, both can be
further processed or utilized to produce secondary outputs. Biogas can be used for producing
electricity and heat, as a natural gas substitute and also a transportation fuel. A combined heat
and power plant system (CHP) not only generates power but also produces heat for in-house
requirements to maintain desired temperature level in the digester during cold season. In
Sweden, the compressed biogas is used as a transportation fuel for cars and buses. Biogas can
also be upgraded and used in gas supply networks.

HYDROLYSIS

Hydrolysis is a common form of a chemical reaction where water is mostly used to

break down the chemical bonds that exists between a particular substance.

Hydrolysis is derived from a Greek word hydro meaning water and lysis which
translates to the word break or to unbind. Usually in hydrolysis the water molecules get
attached to two parts of a molecule. One molecule of a substance will get H+ ion and the
other molecule receives the OH- group. Hydrolysis reaction is mainly used to break
down polymers into monomers.

Hydrolysis basically means the act of setting apart chemicals by adding water. The
reaction of water with another chemical compound results in the formation of two or more
products. Some examples of hydrolysis include dissolving a salt of a weak acid or base in
water or dissolving sulphuric acid in water where hydronium and bisulfate compounds are
formed. Hydrolysis also helps in breaking down proteins, fats, and complex carbohydrates in
food.

There are several types of hydrolysis

1. Salts: This is the most common type of hydrolysis. Hydrolysis of salts generally refers
to the reaction of salt with water where it involves the interaction between cations or
anions of salts and water. During hydrolysis, a salt breaks down to form ions,
completely or partially depending upon the solubility factor.
2. Acid and Base: Acid–base-catalysed hydrolysis can be found during the hydrolysis of
esters or amides. Here, the process of hydrolysis occurs when water or hydroxyl ion
reacts with the carbon of the carbonyl group of the ester or amide where new
 compounds are formed. The products of both hydrolysis are compounds with
carboxylic acid groups.
3. ATP: Most biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms are in the form of
ATP hydrolysis which takes place with the help of enzymes acting as catalysts. The
catalytic action of enzymes allows the hydrolysis or breaking down of proteins, lipids,
oils, fats and carbohydrates.

HYDROGENATION

Hydrogenation is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and other

compounds and elements. Hydrogenation is used in many applications such as the food
industry, petrochemical industry and the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry.
Hydrogenation is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and an element or
compound, ordinarily in the presence of a catalyst. The reaction may be one in which
hydrogen simply adds to a double or triple bond connecting two atoms in the structure of the
molecule or one in which the addition of hydrogen results in dissociation (breaking up) of the
molecule (called hydrogenolysis, or destructive hydrogenation).
The catalysts most commonly used for hydrogenation reactions are the metals nickel,
platinum and palladium and their oxides. For high-pressure hydrogenations, copper chromite
and nickel supported on kieselguhr (loose or porous diatomite) are extensively used.
Hydrogenation is widely used in the industry. Hydrogenation is used to solidify,
preserve or purify many products, raw materials, or ingredients. Ammonia, fuels
(hydrocarbons), alcohols, pharmaceuticals, margarine, polyols, various polymers and
chemicals (hydrogen chloride and hydrogen peroxide) are products treated using a
hydrogenation process.
The most commonly hydrogenated product is vegetable oil. Hydrogenation converts
vegetable oil from a liquid to a solid or semi-solid fat. D-Sorbitol syrup is made by hydrolysis
of starches to make dextrose, the dextrose is then hydrogenated to create sorbitol or sugar
alcohol.  In the Petroleum Industry hydrogenation is used in a process called hydrocracking
which breaks heavy crude’s long hydrogen carbon chains into lighter petroleum products like
diesel, gasoline and jet fuel.

⮚ TYPES OF SIMPLE BIOGAS PLANTS CAN BE DISTINGUISHED AS BELOW

1. Balloon Plants 
2. Floating Drum Plants
3. Fixed Dome Plants
4. Deen Bandhu Biogas Plant:

1. BALLOON PLANTS:

A balloon digester consists of a plastic or rubber digester bag, in the upper part of
which the gas is stored. The inlet and outlet are attached directly to the skin of the balloon.
The gas is moved from the balloon to where it will be used by the pressure build up inside the
balloon and can be enhanced by placing weights on the balloon. The fermentation slurry is
agitated slightly by the movement of the balloon skin. This is favourable to the digestion
process. Even difficult feed materials, such as water hyacinths, can be used in a balloon plant.
The balloon material must be UV-resistant. Materials which have been used successfully
include RMP (red mud plastic), Trevira and butyl.
 Figure: Balloon plant

Advantages:
Low cost, ease of transportation, low construction (important if the water table is high), high
digester temperatures, uncomplicated cleaning, emptying and maintenance.

Disadvantages:
Short life (about five years), easily damaged, does not create employment locally, little scope
for self-help.
Balloon plants can be recommended wherever the balloon skin is not likely to be damaged
and where the temperature is even and high. One variant of the balloon plant is the
channel-type digester with folia and sunshade.

2. FLOATING GASHOLDER TYPE:

The floating gas holder type bio gas plant consists of a dome shaped gas holder made
of steel for collecting bio gas. The dome shaped gas holder is not fixed but is moveable and
floats over the slurry present in the digester tank. Due to this reason, this biogas plant is
called floating gas holder type biogas plant.

Figure: floating gasholder type

Slurry is prepared by mixing water in cattle dung in equal proportion in mixing tank.
The slurry is then injected into a digester tank with the help of inlet pipe. The digester tank is
a closed underground tank made up of bricks. Inside the digester tank, the complex carbon
compounds present in the cattle dung breaks into simpler substances by the action of
anaerobic microorganisms in the presence of water. This anaerobic decomposition of
complex carbon compounds present in cattle dung produces bio gas and gets completed in
about 60 days. The bio gas so produced starts to collect in floating gas holder and is supplied
to homes through pipes. And the spent slurry is replaced from time to time with fresh slurry
to continue the production of bio gas.

Advantages:
Simple, easily understood operation, constant gas pressure, volume of stored gas visible
directly, few mistakes in construction.

Disadvantages:
High construction cost of floating-drum, many steel parts liable to corrosion, resulting in
short life (up to 15 years; in tropical coastal regions about five years for the drum), and
regular and maintenance costs due to painting. In spite of these disadvantages, floating-drum
plants are always to be recommended in cases of doubt. Water-jacket plants are universally
applicable and especially easy to maintain. The drum won’t stick, even if the substrate has
high solids content. Floating-drums made of glass-fiber reinforced plastic and high density
polyethylene have been used successfully, but the construction cost is higher than with steel.
Floating-drums made of wire-mesh-reinfoiiced concrete are liable to hairline cracking and are
intrinsically porous. They require a gas light, elastic internal coating. PVC drums are
unsuitable because not resistant
to UV.
The floating gas drum can be replaced by a balloon above the digester. This reduces
construction costs (channel type digester with folia), but in practice problems always arise
with the attachment of the balloon at the edge. Such plants are still being tested under
practical conditions.

3. FIXED-DOME PLANTS:
A fixed-dome plant consists of an enclosed digester with a fixed, non-movable gas
space. The gas is stored in the upper part of the digester. When gas production commences,
the slurry is displaced into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of
gas stored; therefore the volume of the digester should not exceed 20 m". If there is little gas
in the holder, the gas pressure is low. the height difference between the slurry level in the
digester and the slurry level in the compensation tank. The costs of a fixed-dome biogas plant
are relatively low.  It is simple as no moving parts exist. There are also no rusting steel parts
and hence a long life of the plant (20 years or more) can be expected. The plant is constructed
underground, protecting it from physical damage and saving space. While the underground
digester is protected from low temperatures at night and during cold seasons, sunshine and
warm seasons take longer to heat up the digester. No day/night fluctuations of temperature in
the digester positively influence the bacteriological processes. The construction of fixed
dome plants is labor-intensive, thus creating local employment. Fixed-dome plants are not
easy to build. They should only be built where construction can be supervised by experienced
biogas technicians. Otherwise plants may not be gas-tight (porosity and cracks).

Figure: fixed-dome plant

Function:
 A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an immovable,
rigid gas-holder and a displacement pit, also named 'compensation tank'. The gas is stored in
the upper part of the digester. When gas production commences, the slurry is displaced into
the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored, i.e. with the
height difference between the two slurry levels. If there is little gas in the gas-holder, the gas
pressure is low.
Advantages: 
Low initial costs and long useful life-span; no moving or rusting parts involved; basic
design is compact, saves space and is well insulated; construction creates local employment.
Advantages are the relatively low construction costs, the absence of moving parts and rusting
steel parts. If well constructed, fixed dome plants have a long life span. The underground
construction saves space and protects the digester from temperature changes.
Disadvantages
Gas leaks occur quite frequently; fluctuating gas pressure complicates gas utilization;
amount of gas produced is not immediately visible, plant operation not readily
understandable; fixed dome plants need exact planning of levels; excavation can be difficult
and expensive in bedrock. Disadvantages are mainly the frequent problems with the
gas-tightness of the brickwork gas holder. Fixed dome plants can be recommended only
where construction can be supervised by experienced biogas technicians.

4. DEEN BANDHU BIOGAS PLANT:

The outlet tank of Deen bandhu is dome shaped. Due to the spherical surface, which
has smaller surface area as compared to rectangle surface, the quantity of construction
material and man days for of labour and mason are reduced. The structural strength of
spherical structure is more than a rectangular structure; therefore the width of the wall has
been reduced. Construction of Deen bandhu requires lesser days as compared to Deen bandhu
model. With little bit of information about Deen bandhu model, the mason trained in
Construction of Deen bandhu plant can easily construct Deen bandhu plant.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF DEEN BANDHU

1. Foundation:
The foundation of the plant is bowl shaped with a collar around the circumference.
The construction of the digester dome is done on this collar.
2. Dome Digester:
The dome of the digester is divided in 2 parts. The bottom part is called digester. The
mixture of dung and water decomposes in this part and produces gas due to bacterial activity.
3. Gas storage:
The upper part of the digester dome is called gas storage. The gas produced by the
bacterial activity is stored in this place.
4. Gas outlet pipe:
A nipple is fitted on the top of the dome, which is connected to a GI pipe. The gas
reaches the kitchen through this pipe.
5. Inlet:
The pipe through which fresh dung and water enters the plant is called Inlet pipe. This
pipe is connected to a small tank for mixing dung and water.
6. Outlet:
 The portion of the plant where the slurry accumulates after coming out of the digester
is called outlet tank. It is in two parts. The first bottom part is small and rectangular, which is
connected to the dome opening, while the other part of outlet tank is dome shaped. A small
slurry discharge hole is provided in the outlet tank. The volume of the dome upto the hole is
equivalent to the gas storage volume. Only the amount of gas equivalent to this volume can
be used in a burner or lamp. The main function of this part is to provide pressure for release
of gas from the dome. The level of slurry raises upto the outlet hole in this tank when the
plant is full with gas.

Figure: Deen Bandhu biogas plant

PRAGATI DESIGN BIOGAS PLANT:-

The design has been developed by United Socio-Economic Development and

Research Programme (UNDARP) Pune, in order to have a cheaper floating drum bio gas
plant. In this design the depth of pit is less than K.V.I.C plant so that it can be constructed in
hilly and high water table areas. The cost of Pragathi plant is 20% less than KVIC plant.
 Figure 1: Pragathi design plant
The design shown in fig.1 indicates its different parts. The foundation of this plant is
of conical shape, with difference of one feet between outer periphery and its center so as to
reduce the earth and digester wall work. It is constructed at the base of the pit with cement,
sand and concrete, keeping the site conditions in view so it can bear the load due to weight of
slurry in the digester.
The digester of Pragathi design plant start from the foundation in dome shape there by
reducing the constructional area, for same digester volume, thus reducing the cost of
construction of the plant. The wall thickness of digester is kept 75mm only. Dome shape
construction takes place up to a collar base, where a central guide frame is provided. the
digester wall above guide-frame is constructed in cylindrical shape.
Partition wall is constructed in the digester for 4cum.and bigger sizes so as to control
the flow of slurry inside the digester it divides digester in two parts separating inlet and
outlet. The inlet is through pipe, placed while construction digester wall. It is used for feeding
daily slurry in to the digester and is generally of 100mm diameter. The out let pipe is also
100mm in diameter, and fixed while constructing digester wall. The asbestos cement pipe can
be used for inlet and out let.
The guide frame is made of angle iron and steel pipe, is embedded in the digester wall
at top of spherical portion of digester. The central guide pipe holds gas holder which is also
made of M.S sheet and angle iron. It floats up and down along pipe depending on the quantity
of gas in the drum.

INDUCTION GENERATOR 
An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of alternating
current (AC) electrical generator that uses the principles of induction motors to produce
electric power. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotors faster than
synchronous speed.
The construction of an induction generator is based on a very common squirrel-cage
induction motor type machine as it is cheap, consistent, and easily available in a wide range
of electrical sizes from partial horsepower machines to multi-megawatt capacities making
them ideal for use in both commercial and domestic renewable energy wind power
applications.
▪ Consider, an AC supply is connected to the stator terminals of an induction
machine. Rotating magnetic field produced in the stator pulls the rotor to run
behind it (the machine is acting as a motor).
▪ Now, if the rotor is accelerated to the synchronous speed by means of a prime
mover, the slip will be zero and hence the net torque will be zero. The rotor
current will become zero when the rotor is running at synchronous speed.
▪ If the rotor is made to rotate at a speed more than the synchronous speed, the slip
becomes negative. A rotor current is generated in the opposite direction, due to
the rotor conductors cutting stator magnetic field. 
 ▪ This generated rotor current produces a rotating magnetic field in the rotor
which pushes (forces in opposite way) onto the stator field. This causes a stator
voltage which pushes current flowing out of the stator winding against the
applied voltage. Thus,
the machine is
now working as an
induction generator
(asynchronous
generator).

Induction generator is not a self-excited machine. Therefore, when running as a generator, the
machine takes reactive power from the AC power line and supplies active power back into
the line. Reactive power is needed for producing rotating magnetic field. The active power
supplied back in the line is proportional to slip above the synchronous speed.
At the starting, the machine draws the lagging reactive volt-amperes from the supply
mains. The speed of the machine is increased above the synchronous speed by an external
prime mover. The speed is increased in the same direction as that of the rotating field
produced by the stator windings. The induction machine will operate as an induction
generator and will start producing a generating torque. This generating torque is opposite to
the direction of the rotation of the rotor. At this condition, the slip is negative and the
induction generator starts delivering energy to the supply mains.
The torque-speed characteristics of a 3 phase induction machine for all ranges of
speed is shown below

In an induction generator, the slip (s) is negative, and therefore, the load resistance is
also negative. This shows that the load resistance does not absorb the power, but starts acting
as a source of power. It starts supplying the electrical energy to the supply mains to which it
is connected.
The output of the induction generator depends upon the following factors given
below:
● The magnitude of the negative slip.
● The speed of the rotor or how fast the motor drives above the synchronous speed
in the same direction.
● Rotation of the motor when it operates as an induction motor.
It is clear from the torque-speed characteristic of the induction motor that the
maximum possible induced torque occurs in the generating mode. This torque is known
as Pushover Torque. If the torque becomes greater than the pushover torque, the generator
will over speed.

Applications of induction generators: Induction generators produce useful power even

at varying rotor speeds. Hence, they are suitable in wind turbines.

Advantages: Induction or asynchronous generators  are more rugged and require no

commutator and brush arrangement (as it is needed in case of synchronous generators).

SELF-EXCITED INDUCTION GENERATOR

It is clear that, an induction machine needs reactive power for excitation, regardless
whether it is operating as a generator or a motor. When an induction generator is connected to
a grid, it takes reactive power from the grid. But what if we want to use an induction
generator to supply a load without using an external source (e.g. grid)?
A capacitor bank can be connected across the stator terminals to supply reactive power to the
machine as well as to the load. When the rotor is rotated at an enough speed, a small voltage
is generated across the stator terminals due to residual magnetism. Due to this small
generated voltage, capacitor current is produced which provides further reactive power for
magnetization.
 UNIT 5
STORAGE SYSTEMS
ENERGY STORAGE

Energy storage is a critical hub for the entire grid, augmenting resources from wind,
solar and hydro, to nuclear and fossil fuels, to demand side resources and system efficiency
assets. It can act as a generation, transmission or distribution asset – sometimes in a single
asset.
Ultimately, storage is an enabling technology. It can save consumers money, improve
reliability and resilience, integrate generation sources, and help reduce environmental
impacts.

Save Money
Energy storage can save operational costs in powering the grid, as well as save money for
electricity consumers who install energy storage in their homes and businesses. Energy
storage can reduce the cost to provide frequency regulation and spinning reserve services, as
well as offset the costs to consumers by storing low-cost energy and using it later, during
peak periods at higher electricity rates.
By using energy storage during brief outages, businesses can avoid costly disruptions and
continue normal operations. Residents can save themselves from lost food and medicines, and
the inconvenience of not having electricity.

Improve Reliability & Resilience

Energy storage can provide backup power during disruptions. The same concept that applies
to backup power for an individual device (e.g., a smoke alarm that plugs into a home but also
has battery backup), can be scaled up to an entire building or even the grid at large.
Storage provides flexibility for the grid, to ensure uninterrupted power to consumers,
whenever and wherever they need it. This flexibility is critical to both reliability and
resilience. As the cost of outages continues to rise, the value of enhanced reliability and
improvements in resilience also increases.
Reduce Environmental Impacts
In simplest terms, energy storage enables electricity to be saved for a later, when and
where it is most needed. This creates efficiencies and capabilities for the electric
grid—including the ability to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
By introducing more flexibility into the grid, energy storage can help integrate more solar,
wind and distributed energy resources. It can also improve the efficiency of the grid –
increasing the capacity factor of existing resources – and offset the need for building new
pollution-emitting peak power plants.

Energy can be stored in a variety of ways, including:

● Pumped hydroelectric. Electricity is used to pump water up to a reservoir. When water

is released from the reservoir, it flows down through a turbine to generate electricity.
● Compressed air. Electricity is used to compress air at up to 1,000 pounds per square
inch and store it, often in underground caverns. When electricity demand is high, the
pressurized air is released to generate electricity through an expansion turbine
generator.
● Flywheels. Electricity is used to accelerate a flywheel (a type of rotor) through which
the energy is conserved as kinetic rotational energy. When the energy is needed, the
spinning force of the flywheel is used to turn a generator. Some flywheels use
magnetic bearings, operate in a vacuum to reduce drag, and can attain rotational
speeds up to 60,000 revolutions per minute.
● Batteries. Similar to common rechargeable batteries, very large batteries can store
electricity until it is needed. These systems can use  lithium ion, lead acid, lithium
iron or other battery technologies.
● Thermal energy storage. Electricity can be used to produce thermal energy, which can
be stored until it is needed. For example, electricity can be used to produce chilled
water or ice during times of low demand and later used for cooling during periods of
peak electricity consumption. 

INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Integrated renewable energy systems have numerous advantages and benefits

compared to conventional energy systems, such as decentralized energy production,
environmental impact reduction and better energy security. Renewable energy sources are
typically available in most of the regions on Earth. Renewable energy systems can be
classified under the following categories: solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, and ocean.
There are various energy conversion systems to transform these renewable sources into useful
products.

Renewable Energy Integration focuses on incorporating renewable energy, distributed

generation, energy storage, thermally activated technologies, and demand response into the
electric distribution and transmission system. A systems approach is being used to conduct
integration development and demonstrations to address technical, economic, regulatory, and
institutional barriers for using renewable and distributed systems

The goal of Renewable energy integration is to advance system design, planning, and
operation of the electric grid to:

● reduce carbon emissions and emissions of other air pollutants through increased use
of renewable energy and other clean distributed generation
 ● increase asset use through integration of distributed systems and customer loads to
reduce peak load and thus lower the costs of electricity
● support achievement of renewable portfolio standards for renewable energy and
energy efficiency
● enhance reliability, security, and resiliency from microgrid applications in critical
infrastructure protection and highly constrained areas of the electric grid
● support reductions in oil use by enabling plug-in electric vehicle (PHEV) operations
with the grid

Many storage technologies have been considered in the context of utility-scale energy storage
systems. These include:

● Pumped Hydro
● Batteries (including conventional and advanced technologies)
● Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
● Flywheels
● Fuel Cell/Electrolyser Systems
● Conventional Capacitors

Supercapacitors/Ultracapacitors

LEAD–ACID BATTERY 

The lead–acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first invented in 1859 by

French physicist Gaston Planté. Lead acid batteries are the most commonly used type of
battery in photovoltaic systems. Although lead acid batteries have a low energy density, only
moderate efficiency and high maintenance requirements, they also have a long lifetime and
low costs compared to other battery types. One of the singular advantages of lead acid
batteries is that they are the most commonly used form of battery for most rechargeable
battery applications
A lead acid battery consists of a negative electrode made of spongy or porous lead.
The lead is porous to facilitate the formation and dissolution of lead. The positive electrode
consists of lead oxide. Both electrodes are immersed in a electrolytic solution of sulfuric acid
and water. In case the electrodes come into contact with each other through physical
movement of the battery or through changes in thickness of the electrodes, an electrically
insulating, but chemically permeable membrane separates the two electrodes. This membrane
also prevents electrical shorting through the electrolyte

Pasted flat plates: The most common form of lead–acid battery plate is the flat plate
or grid. It can be mass produced by casting or it can be wrought. This is what is in car
batteries. The active material is applied to the grids by pasting and drying.
•
 Tubular plates: These are used in the positive plates of some larger industrial
lead–acid batteries. Cycle life is longer because the active material is more firmly
retained in woven tubes. The spines that carry the current are more protected against
corrosion. So-called positive plate batteries actually have a tubular positive plate and
flat negative plate.

ULTRACAPACITOR

An ultracapacitor, also known as a supercapacitor, or electrochemical capacitor, is a

device for storing electrical energy which is growing rapidly in popularity. Ultracapacitors are
another type of capacitor which is constructed to have a large conductive plate, called an
electrode, surface area (A) as well as a very small distance (d) between them. Unlike
conventional capacitors that use a solid and dry dielectric material such as Teflon,
Polyethylene, Paper, etc, the ultracapacitor uses a liquid or wet electrolyte between its
electrodes making it more of an electrochemical device similar to an electrolytic capacitor.
Although an ultracapacitor is a type of electrochemical device, no chemical reactions
are involved in the storing of its electrical energy. This means that the ultra-capacitor remains
effectively an electrostatic device storing its electrical energy in the form of an electric field
between its two conducting electrodes as shown.
The double sided coated electrodes are made from graphite carbon in the form of
activated conductive carbon, carbon nanotubes or carbon gels. A porous paper membrane
called a separator keeps the electrodes apart but allows positive ion to pass through while
blocking the larger electrons. Both the paper separator and carbon electrodes are impregnated
with the liquid electrolyte with an aluminium foil used in between the two to act as the
current collector making electrical connection to the ultracapacitors solder tabs
The double layer construction of the carbon electrodes and separator may be very thin
but their effective surface area into the thousands of meters squared when coiled up together.
Then in order to increase the capacitance of an ultra-capacitor, it is obvious that we need to
increase the contact surface area, A (in m2) without increasing the capacitors physical size, or
use a special type of electrolyte to increase the available positive ions to increase
conductivity.
Then ultra-capacitors make excellent energy storage devices because of their high
values of capacitance up into the hundreds of farads, due to the very small distance d or
separation of their plates and the electrodes high surface area A for the formation on the
surface of a layer of electrolytic ions forming a double layer. This construction effectively
creates two capacitors, one at each carbon electrode, giving the ultracapacitor the secondary
name of “double layer capacitor” forming two capacitors in series.

A flywheel is a mechanical device which uses the conservation of angular

momentum to store rotational energy; a form of kinetic energy proportional to the product of
its moment of inertia and the square of its rotational speed flywheel, heavy wheel attached to
a rotating shaft so as to smooth out delivery of power from a motor to a machine.
The inertia of the flywheel opposes and moderates fluctuations in the speed of the engine and
stores the excess energy for intermittent use. To oppose speed fluctuations effectively, a
flywheel is given a high rotational inertia; i.e., most of its weight is well out from the axis.

SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage is a new technology that stores power

from the grid in the magnetic field of a superconducting wire coil with a near-zero energy
loss.
The device’s major components are stationary, making it extremely stable.
Furthermore, the uncertainty associated with power generation from various renewable
energy sources, such as solar and wind, is projected to bring up new potential prospects in
this industry.
SMES is a grid-enabled device that can store and discharge enormous amounts of
energy almost instantly. To replace a rapid loss or dip in line power, the system may release
high quantities of power in a fraction of a cycle
An electric current is routed through a coil formed of superconducting wire to store
the energy. Because there is no loss, after the coil is short-circuited (closed), the current stays
constant and produces a magnetic field, similar to MRI coils. As a result, the energy is stored
in the coil in both magnetic and electric forms, and it may be recovered in a relatively short
period.
An electrical current in a coil creates a magnetic field and the changes of this
magnetic field create an electrical field, a voltage drop. The magnetic flux is a reservoir of
energy. Superconducting wires do not deliver energy when conducting a current, so a coil
made with that materials maintain the current and the magnetic flux can be stored. The
magnetic flux is a reservoir of electrical energy. As shown in Figure 1, the energy is
stored/delivered when a controller changes the current, increasing or reducing it, a voltage
appears in the terminal which is regulated by the rate of change of the current, and can be
adjusted by the regulator delivering or catching energy to or from the external circuits SMES
coils should be made with superconducting wires and they require to be cold, very much
cold.

Power quality at the customer or

generator side.
Voltage control and reactive power
compensation.
-Improve transient stability of the grid.
-Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS

PUMPED STORAGE HYDROELECTRICITY

Pumped storage hydroelectricity works on a very simple principle. Two reservoirs at

different altitudes are required. When the water is released from the upper reservoir, energy is
generated by the down flow, which is directed through high-pressure shafts, linked to
turbines. In turn, the turbines power the generators to produce electricity. Water is pumped
back to the upper reservoir by linking a pump shaft to the turbine shaft, using a motor to drive
the pump.
This kind of plant generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods water is
pumped back for future use. During off-peak periods, excess power available from some
other plants in the system (often a run-of-river, thermal, or tidal plant) is used for pumping
the water from the lower reservoir. A typical layout of a pumped storage plant is shown in
Pumped hydroelectric storage facilities store energy in the form of water in an
upper reservoir, pumped from another reservoir at a lower elevation. During periods of high
electricity demand, power is generated by releasing the stored water through turbines in the
same manner as a conventional hydropower station. During periods of low demand (usually
nights or weekends when electricity is also lower cost), the upper reservoir is recharged by
using lower-cost electricity from the grid to pump the water back to the upper reservoir.

COMPRESSED-AIR ENERGY STORAGE 

Compressed-air energy storage (CAES) is a way to store energy for later use

using compressed air. At a utility scale, energy generated during periods of low demand can
be released during peak load periods
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) plants are largely equivalent to
pumped-hydro power plants in terms of their applications. But, instead of pumping water
from a lower to an upper pond during periods of excess power, in a CAES plant, ambient air
or another gas is compressed and stored under pressure in an underground cavern or
container. When electricity is required, the pressurized air is heated and expanded in an
expansion turbine driving a generator for power production.
The special thing about compressed air storage is that the air heats up strongly when
being compressed from atmospheric pressure to a storage pressure of approx. 1,015 psia (70
bar). Standard multistage air compressors use inter- and after-coolers to reduce discharge
temperatures to 300/350°F (149/177°C) and cavern injection air temperature reduced to
110/120°F (43/49°C). The heat of compression therefore is extracted during the compression
process or removed by an intermediate cooler. The loss of this heat energy then has be
compensated for during the expansion turbine power generation phase by heating the high
pressure air in combustors using natural gas fuel, or alternatively using the heat of a
combustion gas turbine exhaust in a recuperator to heat the incoming air before the
expansion cycle. Alternatively the heat of compression can be thermally stored before
entering the cavern and used for adiabatic expansion extracting heat from the thermal storage
system.
INTEGRATED RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 

The goal of Renewable energy integration is to advance system design, planning, and
operation of the electric grid to:

● reduce carbon emissions and emissions of other air pollutants through increased use
of renewable energy and other clean distributed generation

Integrated renewable energy systems have numerous advantages and benefits

compared to conventional energy systems, such as decentralized energy production,
environmental impact reduction and better energy security. Renewable energy sources are
typically available in most of the regions on Earth. Solar radiation is even more diversified
compared to other types of renewable energy sources. Specific forms of renewable energy
such as geothermal and ocean thermal energy have substantially higher capacity factors
during the year. Renewable energy systems can be classified under the following categories:
solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, and ocean. There are various energy conversion
systems to transform these renewable sources into useful products.
Solar energy can be used as thermal or converted into electrical work. Conventional
solar thermal systems are very suitable for residential application to provide electricity and
heating as well as cooling and fresh water. Solar thermal systems include concentrated solar,
which can drive several industrial processes requiring medium-high temperatures.
Furthermore, concentrated photovoltaic systems achieve considerably higher
solar-to-electricity efficiencies. The excess heat can also be utilized for other applications
such as cooling, desalination, etc.
Wind energy is also broadly available on Earth. The available kinetic energy in the
wind is converted into other useful forms, mainly electricity, by wind turbines. Two main
groups of wind turbine designs exist, namely the horizontal axis wind turbine and the vertical
axis wind turbine. Wind turbines can also be used to produce thermal energy via several
techniques: (i) friction between solid materials, (ii) agitation of fluid, and (iii)
electromagnetic induction. The mechanical energy is utilized to generate electromagnetic
induction, which eventually heats the fluid flowing inside the electromagnetic field.
Hydro energy is available in many forms: (i) potential energy from high heads of
water retained in dams, (ii) kinetic energy from current flow in rivers and tidal barrages, and
(iii) kinetic energy from the movement of waves on relatively static water masses. Depending
on the height and volume flow, suitable hydro turbines are utilized to convert available
energy into electricity. Hydropower has the highest energy conversion efficiency among all
renewables.
Geothermal energy is a form of thermal energy that exists in some specific areas of
the world at different temperature levels. Geothermal heat is utilized either for process
heating or is transformed into electricity via appropriate heat engines. A large portion of
heat-consuming processes can be delivered by geothermal energy, including space and water
heating, industrial processes, and several processes in agriculture and the food industry. The
geothermal fluid can be in different forms such as hot water, wet steam or dry steam. The
geothermal energy can be transformed via several cycles, including binary, flash, direct
expansion and others.
There are mainly five different types of energy extraction from oceans: tides, waves,
ocean currents, thermal energy, and osmotic (salinity gradient). Water current turbines have a
working mechanism similar to wind turbines, with the difference that the density and the
viscosity of water are 100 and 1000 times higher than that of air, respectively. The
temperature gradient of the ocean at deep levels yields a temperature difference that can be
enough to extract thermal energy at low efficiencies. This type of system is called ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC). Wave energy can be collected with floating bodies that
perform elliptic movement under the action of waves.
Biomass resources have a diverse origin ranging from wood and crop forms to food
waste forms. The main feature of biomass is its chemical composition, in such forms as
sugar, starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, resins, and tannins. Biomass energy can be
converted into useful forms such as heat, electricity, and transportation fuel. The most
common and easiest method of biomass conversion is by combusting and producing heat.
Gasification converts the biomass into a gaseous fuel such as syngas, whereas liquefaction
produces a liquid fuel.
Integration of these renewable energy resources can bring sustainable solutions and
multiple products. Numerous energy systems are available for possible combinations, such as
synthetic fuel production, absorption cooling, space heating, desalination, thermal energy
storage, fuel cells and thermochemical cycles, among others.