Basic Electronics

Module 4 BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

4.1 Introduction
4.2 BJT as an amplifier
4.3 BJT as a switch
4.4 Transistor switch circuit to switch ON/OFF an
LED and a lamp in a power circuit using a relay
4.5 Feedback Amplifiers Principle
4.6 Properties and advantages of Negative
Feedback
4.7 Types of feedback
4.8 Voltage series feedback
4.9 Gain stability with feedback
4.10 Oscillators Barkhaunsen's criteria for
oscillation
4.11 RC Phase Shift oscillator
4.12 Wien Bridge oscillator
4.13 IC 555 Timer
4.14 Astable Oscillator using IC 555
 Basic Electronics

Transistor means, transfer resistor. So, named because it transfers the signal from the region of low
resistance to the region of high resistance. Transistor is a three layered - two PN junction semiconductor
device. The three layers are called the emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). It is also called as Bipolar
Junction Transistor (BJT): because, both electrons and holes contribute to current in the device. This
current controlled device is invented in 1948 by Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain at Bell Laboratories.
BJT can act as an electrically controlled switch, or a current amplifier depending upon junction biasing
condition. There are two types of BJT: NPN and PNP. The NPN type consists of two N-regions
separated by a P-region. The PNP type consists of two P-regions separated by an N-region. The details
of three regions of the transistor can be summarized as below.

Region Function Doping level Physical Area

Emitter (E) Emits or injects the majority carriers high Moderate

Base (B) Controls the flow of the majority carriers light Thin
Collector (C) Collects the majority carriers Moderate Large

Doping level of the Emitter is made high because its function is to emit the majority carriers. Base is
thin and lightly doped because it has to control the flow of majority carriers with least recombination.
Physical area of the collector is large because it must dissipate more heat while collecting the majority
carriers. Structure and circuit symbol of PNP and NPN transistors are shown in the fig. 4.1.

Arrow head in the circuit

symbol shows the conventional
direction of current flow

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.1 (a) Structure and circuit symbol of PNP (b) Structure and circuit symbol of NPN transistor

The CE amplifier is designed so that a small change in input voltage, results large changes at the output
due to small current in the B) of the transistor made large changes in the Collector current C).
That means, the small swings in the input produce large changes in the output.
 Basic Electronics
Amplifier is the circuit that increases the strength of a
weak signal, is as shown in fig. 4.2.
Let Vin be a small AC input voltage signal applied to
the Base of the NPN transistor connected in the CE
mode in series with the bias source VBB.
During positive half cycle of Vin: Input voltage to
the transistor is (VBB + Vin). This makes input more
forward bias. Increasing IB, causes exponential
increase in IC and it is IC = IB.
As IC rises, voltage drop across RC increases and VCE
drops toward ground (VCE = Vo =VCC - IC RC). As a
result, output voltage Vo (= VCE) is a negative swing.
During negative half cycle of Vin: Input voltage to
the transistor is (VBB - Vin). This makes input less Fig. 4.2 Biased NPN transistor in CE mode as a voltage
forward bias. Decreasing IB, causes decrease in IC. Amplifier
As IC drops, voltage drops across RC also decreases and VCE rises toward VCC (VCE = Vo =VCC - IC
RC). As a result, output voltage Vo (= VCE) is a positive swing.
In this way small swings in the input produce large changes in the output. Since the output signal
goes negative when the input is positive, input and output signals are 180o out of phase.
is current gain defined as the ratio of the Collector current IC to the Emitter current IB. IC
Voltage gain is given by, AV = IB
Characteristics:
1. Large current gain, voltage gain and power gain 2. Voltage phase shift is about 1800
3. Moderate input and output impedance

Transistor Voltages and currents

PNP and NPN Transistor voltages and currents are described in the fig.4.3.

Fig. 4.3 PNP and NPN Transistor Voltages and currents

Table 2 Notations and meanings of PNP and NPN Transistor Voltages and currents
Transistor voltages Transistor Currents
Between transistor terminals Between terminal and Through terminals
ground
VCE = Voltage between Collector-Emitter VE = Emitter Voltage IE = Emitter Current
VCB= Voltage between Collector-Base VB = Base Voltage IB = Base Current
VEB= Voltage between Emitter-Base VC = Collector Voltage IC = Collector Current
 Basic Electronics

4.3 Transistor as a switch

A BJT works as a switch when it is alternately driven between the saturation region and cutoff regions.
A simple version of the switch is shown in fig. 4.4(a) and (b).
Cut-off Characteristics: When the input equals 0V, the BE junction is reverse biased (OFF), so no
current flows in the circuit; hence transistor works as open switch.
Saturation Characteristics: When the input equals +VBB, the BE junction is forward biased (ON), so
current flows in the circuit; hence transistor works as closed switch.

The input = 0V, hence IB = 0, in turn IC = 0

Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7V
BE and BC junctions are reverse biased
IC = 0, thus VCE = VCC
Transistor is - -off region ) and
operates as a open switch

The input is +Vin = VBB, Base current IB flows

Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7V
BE and BC junctions are forward biased
Maximum Collector current flows (IC = Vcc/RL)
and VCE = 0, ( No voltage drop )
- and
closed switch

Fig4.4. Transistor as a switch (a) open switch (b) Closed switch

Electromechanical relays are switches used to control high power electrical devices or load (electric
lamp, motor, etc). It is possible to control the relay operation using a transistor as a switch. When a
transistor is able to energize a coil of the relay, so that the external load connected to it is controlled. The
fig.4.5, illustrates transistor switch circuit to switch ON/OFF an LED and a LAMP in a power circuit
using a relay.
Consider the fig.4.5 (a) illustrates a transistor switch circuit used to switch ON/OFF an LED using the
relay coil. The input (+ V) applied at the Base causes to drive the transistor into saturation region, which
further results the circuit becomes short circuit. So the relay coil gets energized and relay contacts get
 Basic Electronics
operated and LED turned ON. Similarly, fig.4.5 (b) illustrates a transistor switch circuit used to switch
ON/OFF a lamp using the relay coil.

Fig.4.5 (a) illustrates a transistor switch circuit used to switch ON/OFF an LED using the relay

Fig. 4.5(b) illustrates a transistor switch circuit used to switch ON/OFF an LAMP using the relay

In inductive loads, particularly switching of motors and inductors, sudden removal of power can induce
a high potential across the coil. This high voltage can cause considerable damage to the rest circuit.
Therefore, the diode is connected in parallel with inductive load to protect the circuit from induced
voltages.
 Basic Electronics

Feedback Systems are very useful and widely used in amplifier circuits, oscillators, process control
systems as well as other types of electronic systems. A feedback system is one in which a fraction of the
output signal is sampled and then fed back to the input to form an error signal that drives the system.

A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are the amplifier and the feedback circuit.
The Feedback circuit is essentially a potential divider consisting of resistances R 1 and R2. The purpose
of feedback circuit is to return a fraction of the output voltage to the input of the amplifier circuit. The
concept of feedback amplifier can be understood from the following fig.4.6.

Fig. 4.6 Principle of Feedback Amplifier

From the fig.4.6 the gain of the amplifier is represented as A and defined as the ratio of output voltage
Vo to the input voltage Vi. The gain of the feedback circuit is represented as and extracts a voltage
Vf o from the output Vo of the amplifier. f/Vo is called as feedback ratio
(fraction).
This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the signal
voltage Vs. Now,
Vi = Vs + Vf (positive feedback)
Vi = Vs Vf = Vs (negative feedback)

Depending upon whether the feedback signal aids or opposes the input signal, there are two types of
feedbacks used.

Positive feedback is when output is added to the input (via feedback) and amplified again. In this case,
the feedback signal (voltage or current) is in phase with the input signal. Both the input signal and
feedback signal introduces a phase shift of 180o thus making a 360o resultant phase shift around the
loop, to be finally in phase with the input signal.
 Basic Electronics
Though the positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier, it has the disadvantages such as
Increasing distortion and instability

Though the positive feedback increases the

gain of the amplifier, it has the disadvantages
such as
Increasing distortion and
instability

It is because of these disadvantages the positive feedback is not recommended for the amplifiers. If the
positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations, by which oscillator circuits are formed.
Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This is defined as the ratio of
output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,

The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with positive feedback is given by
(Vs + = Vo (Vs +
Or
AVs + AVs +
Or
AVs =Vo (1- -

Negative feedback is when the output is subtracted from the input. In this case, the feedback signal
(voltage or current) is out of phase with the input signal. In negative feedback, the amplifier introduces
a phase shift of 180o into the circuit while the feedback network is so designed that it produces no
phase shift or zero phase shift. Thus the resultant feedback voltage V f is 180o out of phase with the
input signal Vin. The output Vo must be equal to the input voltage (Vs - o) multiplied by the gain A of
the amplifier. Hence,

Or
AVs AVs
Or

Therefore, the equation of gain of the feedback

amplifier, with negative feedback is given by
 Basic Electronics
Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there are many advantages.

Stability of gain is improved

Reduction in distortion
Reduction in noise
Bandwidth increases
Non linear distortion decreases improves higher fidelity
Increase in input impedance
Decrease in output impedance
It is because of these advantages negative feedback is frequently employed in amplifiers.
Disadvantages
Overall amplifier gain is reduced.
Unstable and oscillate at high frequencies.

1. Reduced gain
2. Increased bandwidth
3. Increased stability
4. Decreased Noise
5. Modified Input impedance and Output Impedance

There are four different types of feedback topologies based on type of output signal and feedback signal
(voltage or current signal). Voltage feedback is taken in series with the load and current feedback is
taken in shunt with the load.
1. Voltage-series or series-shunt feedback
Voltage in and Voltage out or Voltage
Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS).
Works as a voltage amplifier as the input
signal is a voltage and the output signal is a
voltage, so the transfer gain is given as:
Av = Vo / Vi.

2. Current-series or series-series feedback

Voltage in and Current out or Voltage
Controlled Current Source (VCCS).
Works as trans-conductance type amplifier
system as the input signal is a voltage and
the output signal is a current. then for a
series-series feedback circuit the transfer
gain is given as:
Gm = Io / Vi.
 Basic Electronics
3. Current-shunt or shunt-series feedback
Current in and Current out or Current
Controlled Current Source (CCCS).
Works as a true current amplifier as the input
signal is a current and the output signal is a
current, so the transfer gain is given as:
Ai = Io / Ii.

4. Voltage-shunt or shunt-shunt feedback

Current in and Voltage out or Current
Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS).
Works as trans-resistance type voltage
amplifier as the input signal is a current and
the output signal is a voltage, so the transfer
gain is given as:
Rm = Vo / Ii.

The input voltage Vi of the basic amplifier is the algebraic sum of input signal Vs and the feedback
signal Vo , where Vo is the output voltage. In this case, feedback connection with a part of the output
voltage V0 fed back in series with the input signal Vs.

If there is no feedback (Vf = 0), the voltage gain of the

amplifier is Vo Vo
A
Vs Vi

If a feedback signal Vf is connected with the input in

series, the overall voltage gain is

Input Impedance with the feedback is:

VS = Ii Z i + Vf = I i Z i + Vo
Using voltage divider rule, we get:

Now, Vo = AV Ii ZL =AV Vi
 Basic Electronics

The gain, A of the basic amplifier depends generally on certain factors (temperature, parameters of
active devices, OP, etc.).

Differentiating,

Where, dAf /Af = fractional change in gain with the feedback;

dA/A = fractional change in gain without the feedback.

( ) = de-sensitivity (reciprocal of sensitivity) indicates the fraction by which the voltage gain has
been reduced due to feedback.

4.10 Oscillators Barkhausen's criteria for oscillation

An oscillator is a circuit that produces a periodic waveform on its output using only the DC supply
voltage (VCC) as an input.
A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback can act as an oscillator. That means, it can generate
oscillations without any external signal source. The necessary conditions for oscillations is shown in the
fig. 4.7.

Fig. 4.7Conditions for Oscillation

 Basic Electronics
Barkhausen Criterion or Conditions for Oscillation
Two conditions are required for a sustained state of oscillation:
1. The phase shift around the feedback loop must be 0o or 360o.
2. The voltage gain, Acl, around the closed feedback loop must be unity (i.e, loop gain, Av = 1).
The voltage gain around the closed feedback loop, is the product of the amplifier gain, and the feedback
factor, , of the feedback circuit. Acl = Av
As illustrated in the fig.4.7, when oscillation starts at t0, the condition Acl > 1 causes the sinusoidal
output voltage amplitude to build up to a desired level. Then Acl decreases to 1 and maintains the desired
amplitude.

Good frequency stability and waveform can be obtained from oscillators employing resistive and
capacitive elements. Such amplifiers are called R-C or phase shift oscillators and have the additional
advantage that they can be used for very low frequencies. In a phase shift oscillator, a phase shift of 180º
is obtained with a phase shift circuit instead of inductive or capacitive coupling. A further phase shift of
180º is introduced due to the transistor properties.
Fig.4.8 (a) shows a single section of RC network. From the elementary theory of electrical engineering,
it can be shown that alternating voltage V1 across R leads the applied voltage V1 by øº. The value of
ø depends upon the values of R and C. If resistance R is varied, the value of ø also changes. If R were
reduced to zero, V1 will lead input voltage by 90º i.e. ø = 90º. However, adjusting R to zero would be
impracticable because it would lead to no voltage across R. Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a
value that makes V 1 to lead input voltage by 60º. Similarly as shown in fig.4.8 (b) for three RC stages
output lead the input voltage by 180º.

V1

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.8 RC phase shift network. (a) RC single section producing 60º phase shift (b) RC three sections producing 180 o
phase shift.

As shown in the fig. 4.9, RC Phase shift oscillator consists of an opamp and a RC phase shift network.
The phase shift network consists of three RC sections. At some particular frequency f0, the phase shift in
each RC section is 60º so that the total phase-shift produced by the RC network is 180º.
 Basic Electronics

Vo

Fig.4.9 R-C phase shift oscillator

The frequency of oscillations is given by:

N = number of RC stages,
R1 = R2 = R3 =R
C1 = C2 = C3 =C i)

When the circuit is switched on, it produces oscillations of frequency determined by eqn. (i). The output
V0 of the OPAMP is fed back to RC feedback network. A phase shift of 180º is produced by OPAMP. A
further phase shift of 180º is produced by the RC network. As a result, the phase shift around the entire
loop is 360º. This satisfies one of the criteria. Another criterion is loop gain, .

RC Oscillators are constant and provide a well shaped sine wave output with the frequency being
proportional to 1/RC and therefore, when we are using a variable capacitor a wide frequency range is
possible.

(i) It does not require transformers or inductors.

(ii) It can be used to produce very low frequencies (starting at a few Hertz and up to about 100 kHz).
(iii) The circuit provides good frequency stability.
 Basic Electronics
Disadvantages
(i) It is difficult for the circuit to start oscillations as the feedback is generally small.
(ii) The circuit gives small output.

A Wien bridge oscillator is an oscillator that generates sine waves with a wide range of frequencies. The
bridge comprises four resistors and two capacitors. Wien bridge oscillator using RC bridge and OPAMP
is shown in the fig.4.10.

Fig.4.10 Wien bridge oscillator using RC bridge and OPAMP

When the circuit is switched on, there exists a particular frequency at which the values of the resistance
and the capacitive reactance will become equal to each other, producing maximum output voltage. This
frequency is referred to as resonant frequency which is given as

The output V0 of the OPAMP is fed back to Wien bridge feedback circuit with respect to points a and c.
Points b and d provide ve and + ve inputs to the OPAMP. A phase shift of 180º is produced by
inverting OPAMP. A further phase shift of 180º is produced by the RC feedback bridge circuit. As a
result, the pha

For oscillations, Barkhausen other criterion: loop gain, is -1.

Let,
 Basic Electronics

Solving, R3 = 2R4
Thus ratio of resistances will provide sufficient loop gain for the circuit to oscillate at the frequency of
Eqn. (ii).

Applications of Wien Bridge Oscillators

To measure the audio frequency
As a band-pass filter to amplify the 19KHz pilot carrier from FM audio
To produce sine wave
For finding the exact value of the capacitor
For generating 0o phase
Advantages
By varying capacitances the frequency of oscillation can be easily varied
Excitation for AC Bridge
To fabricate pure tune
Useful audio frequency range (20 Hz to 100 kHz)
Disadvantages
Maximum frequency output is limited because of amplitude and phase shift characteristics of the
amplifier
The design is bulky

IC 555 timer mainly consists three sections: (see fig. 4.11(b)).

1. Comparator:
The two OPAMP Comparators are compare the two input voltages i.e. between the inverting (-) and the
non-inverting (+) input and if the non-inverting input is more than the inverting input then the output of
the comparator is high.
2. A resistive network:
It is formed by three equal resistors - the IC bears its name as 555 timer). These are arranged in
voltage divider configuration and as a result provide the voltage CC CC.
3. Flip/Flop (FF):
FF is a memory element that operates as
R = 1, S = 0, output = 0 and R = 0, S = 1, output = 1.
The output of comparators is directly given to the inputs of SR Flip Flop. Thus the output of the SR Flip
Flop will be set according to the outputs of the comparator which in turn depends on the Trigger and
Threshold inputs.
 Basic Electronics

Fig.4.11 (a) IC 555 timer (b) internal circuitary

Pin No. Name Function

1 Ground Used to provide a zero voltage.
A low voltage (less than 1/3 the supply voltage) applied momentarily to the
2 Trigger Trigger input causes the output (pin 3) to go high. The output will remain
high until a high voltage is applied to the Threshold input (pin 6).
3 Output This is the output pin of the timer. It can source or sink 200 mA of current.
A low voltage (< 0.7V) applied to this pin will cause the output (pin 3) to
4 Reset
go LOW. This input should remain connected to +Vcc when not used.
This pin can be used to change the reference voltages of the comparators through
5 Control Voltage
this we can vary the timing.
When the voltage at this input rises above the threshold value (Vth) the
6 Threshold
output will go from high to low.
When the voltage across the timing capacitor exceeds the threshold value.
7 Discharge
The timing capacitor is discharged through this input.
8 Supply Voltage Positive supply voltage terminal is usually between +5V and +15V.

As an Oscillator (Mono-stable, Astable or in Bistable mode to produce a flip/flop type action)

In Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM),
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) etc.

4.14 Astable Oscillator using IC 555

The astable multi-vibrator is a free running oscillator that generates a continuous rectangular ON/OFF
pulses that switch between two voltage levels. The frequency of the pulses and their duty cycle are
dependent upon the RC values of the circuit.

From the fig.4.12, assume the Flip Flop is initially cleared, when the power is switched ON, then the output
of inverter will be HIGH.
 Basic Electronics

The capacitor C charges towards Vcc through the series resistors R1 and R2 (see fig. 4.13). The charging
time constant TC = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C. Where, R1 and R2 C in Farads. As voltage across the
capacitor is just greater than 2/3 Vcc, upper comparator sets Flip Flop and output goes LOW.

Fig.4.12 Astable Oscillator using IC 555

Fig.4.13 Astable Oscillator waveforms using IC 555

The capacitor C discharges through resistors R2. The discharging time constant TC = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C.
As voltage across the capacitor is slightly lesser than 1/3 Vcc, lower comparator resets Flip Flop and
output goes HIGH.
Since, TC > TD, output wave form is a rectangular pulse train. Total time period of the waveform shown
in the fig.4.13 (b) is
 Basic Electronics

T = TC + TD = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C + 0.693 (R1 + R2) C = 0.693 (R1 + 2R2) C

The duty cycle can be expressed as a percentage ( % ). If both timing resistors, R1 and R2 are equal in
value, then the output duty cycle will be 2:1 that is, 66% ON time and 33% OFF time with respect to the
period.
:

Case 1: The time during which the capacitor C charges from 1/3 VCC to 2/3 VCC is equal to the time
the output is HIGH and is given as TC or THIGH = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C, which is proved below.
Voltage across the capacitor at any instant during charging period is given as,
Vc = VCC (1 et / RC)
i) Time taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to +1/3 VCC
Vc = VCC (1 et / RC) where Vc =1/3 VCC
1/3 VCC = VCC (1 - et/RC)
e-t/RC = (1-1/3)
e-t/RC = 2/3
t1 = loge (3/2)RC where t = t1 (Note: ln = loge)
t1=0.405RC
ii) Time taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to +2/3 VCC

2/3 VCC = VCC (1 - et/RC)

e-t/RC = (1-2/3)
e-t/RC = 1/3 where t = t2
t2= RC loge 3 = 1.0986 RC

iii) Time taken by the capacitor to charge from +1/3 VCC to +2/3 VCC

TC = (t2 t1) = (1.0986 0.405) RC = 0.693 RC

Substituting R = (R1 + R2) in above equation we have

TC = 0.693 (RA + RB) C

Case -2: The time during which the capacitor discharges from +2/3 VCC to +1/3 VCC is equal to the time
the output is low and is given as
Td/ R2C
Vc = 2/3 VCC e

Substituting Vc = 1/3 VCC and t = td in above equation we have

 Basic Electronics
(Td/ R2C)
1/3 VCC = 2/3 VCC e
(Td/ R2C)
2*e = 1, apply loge on both sides,

loge 2 - Td/ R2C = 0

TD = 0.693 R2C

1. Square Generator
2. FSK Generator
3. Pulse Position Modulator

Appendix A Analysis of RC Phase shift Oscillator

Let us find transfer function of the RC feedback network :

Applying KVL to various loops we get,

Replacing

I3
Basic Electronics
 Basic Electronics

This is the frequency with which circuit oscillates,

At this frequency,

Negative sign indicates phase shift of 180°

 Basic Electronics

1. Explain how BJT works as an amplifier and as a switch.

2. Explain how does a transistor used to switch ON/OFF an LED using the relay.
3. Differentiate between oscillator and amplifier.
Oscillators
1. They are self-generating circuits. They generate waveforms like sine, square and triangular
waveforms of their own. Without having input signal.
2. They are not self-generating circuits. They need a signal at the input and they just increase the
level of the input waveform.
3. It has infinite gain
Amplifiers
1. It has finite gain
2. Oscillator uses positive feedback.
3. Amplifier uses negative feedback.
4. What will happen to the oscillation if the magnitude of the loop gain is greater than unity?
In practice loop gain is kept slightily greater than unity to ensure that oscillator work even if there is a
slight change in the circuit parameters.

5. Define feedback. What are the types of it?

6. State the conditions for oscillations.
7. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of negative feedback. State the basic proprerties.
8. A phase shift oscillator has R=220Kohms, C=500pF. Calculate the frequency of oscillation.
9. Draw the block diagram and circuit diagram for Voltage series feedback amplifier.
10. Draw & explain RC phase shift oscillator.
11. Draw block diagram of voltage series -ve feedback amplifier and explain effect on i/p
impedance, o/p impedance and gain.
12. Explain the working of Wein bridge oscillator. Derive the expression for sustained oscillations.

1. dc. power into d.c. power

2. dc. power into a.c. power
3. mechanical power into a.c. power
4. none of the above
2
1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Neither positive nor negative
4. Data insufficient
3. The output waveform of a stable oscillator have
1. Constant frequency at low amplitude only
2. Constant frequency at high amplitude only
3. Variable frequency
4. Constant frequency
Answer: d
 Basic Electronics
4. The output of oscillator will not depend upon
1. Feedback
2. Amplifier
3. Both feedback and amplifier
4. Input voltage
Answer: d
5
1. L and C
2. R, L and C
3. R and C
4. None of the above
6
1. Only positive
2. Only negative
3. Both positive and negative
4. None of the above
Answer : 3
7. In a Wien-bridge oscillator, if the resistances in the positive feedback circuit are decreased, the

1. Remains the same

2. Decreases
3. Increases
4. Insufficient data
Answer : 3
8
1. Has more gain
2. Requires no input signal
3. Requires no d.c. supply
4. Always has the same input
9
1. A phase shift around the feedback loop of 180o
2. A gain around the feedback loop of one-third
3. A phase shift around the feedback loop of 0o
4. A gain around the feedback loop of less than 1
Answer : 3
10
1. A gain of 1 around the feedback loop
2. No gain around the feedback loop
3. The attention of the feedback circuit must be one-third
4. The feedback circuit must be capacitive
Answer : 1