Chapter 4

D.C Transients
A transient state will exist in a circuit containing one or more energy storage elements (i.e.
capacitors and inductors) whenever the energy conditions in the circuit change, until the new
steady state condition is reached. Transients are caused by changing the applied voltage or
current, or by changing any of the circuit elements; such changes occur due to opening and
closing switches.

Response of R–C Series Circuit to a Step Input

Charging a Capacitor
Consider a series R–C circuit is shown in 1(a) and a step voltage of magnitude V shown in
Figure 1(b). The capacitor in Figure 1(a) is assumed to be initially uncharged. From Kirchhoff’s
voltage law, supply voltage,

Figure 4.1
Therefore, from equation (1)

This is a linear, constant coefficient, first order differential equation. Such a differential
equation may be solved, i.e. find an expression for voltage vC, by separating the variables.
Rearranging equation (2) gives:
The value of the time constant is CR seconds, i.e. for a series connected C–R circuit,
Time constant τ = CR seconds
This is an exponential growth curve, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 4.2

This is an exponential decay curve, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 4.3
𝑑𝑣𝐶
In the circuit of Figure 1 (a), current 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
This is an exponential decay curve as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4.4
After a period of time it can be determined from equations (4) to (6) that the voltage across the
capacitor, vC, attains the value V, the supply voltage, whilst the resistor voltage, vR, and current
i both decay to zero.
Example: A 500nF capacitor is connected in series with a 100kΩ resistor and the circuit is
connected to a 50V, d.c. supply. Calculate; (a) the initial value of current flowing,(b) the value
of current 150ms after connection, (c) the value of capacitor voltage 80ms after connection,
and (d) the time after connection when the resistor voltage is 35V.

Example: A 20µF capacitor is connected in series with a 50kΩ resistor and the circuit is
connected to a 20V, d.c. supply. Determine;(a) the initial value of the current flowing,(b) the
time constant of the circuit,(c) the value of the current one second after connection,(d) the
value of the capacitor voltage two seconds after connection, and (e) the time after connection
when the resistor voltage is 15V
Discharging a Capacitor
If after a period of time the step input voltage V applied to the circuit of Figure 4.1 is suddenly
removed, by opening the switch, then

i.e. the capacitor voltage, vC, decays to zero after a period of time, the rate of decay depending
on CR, which is the time constant, τ. Since vR +vC =0 then the magnitude of the resistor voltage,
vR, is given by:

Example: A capacitor is charged to 100V and then discharged through a 50 kΩ resistor. If the
time constant of the circuit is 0.8s, determine: (a) the value of the capacitor, (b) the time for
the capacitor voltage to fall to 20 V,(c) the current flowing when the capacitor has been
discharging for 0.5 s, and (d) the voltage drop across the resistor when the capacitor has been
discharging for one second.
Response of R–L Series Circuit to a Step Input
Current Growth
A series R–L circuit is shown in Figure 4.5. When the switch is closed and a step voltage V is
applied, it is assumed that L carries no current.

Figure 4.5
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, V=vL+vR

Hence,

This is a linear, constant coefficient, first order differential equation. Again, such a differential
equation may be solved by separating the variables. Rearranging equation (11) gives;
This is an exponential growth curve as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6
The p.d. across the resistor in Figure 5, vR =iR which again represents an exponential growth
curve.

The voltage across the inductor in Figure 5,

The time constant of a series connected L–R circuit is defined in the same way as the time
constant for a series connected C–R circuit, i.e. it is the time taken to reach its final value if the
initial rate of change is maintained. Its value is given by:
𝑳
Time constant, 𝝉 = 𝑹 seconds
Example: A coil of inductance 50mH and resistance 5Ω is connected to a 110V, d.c. supply.
Determine; (a) the final value of current, (b) the value of current after 4 ms, (c) the value of
the voltage across the resistor after 6ms, (d) the value of the voltage across the inductance
after 6 ms, and (e) the time when the current reaches 15A.
Example: The winding of an electromagnet has an inductance of 3H and a resistance of 15Ω.
When it is connected to a 120V, d.c. supply, calculate: (a) the steady state value of current
flowing in the winding, (b) the time constant of the circuit, (c) the value of the induced e.m.f.
after 0.1s, (d) the time for the current to rise to 85% of its final value, and (e) the value of the
current after 0.3s

Current Decay
If after a period of time the step voltage V applied to the circuit of Figure 5 is suddenly removed
by opening the switch, then from equation (11),
Example: A coil having an inductance of 6H and a resistance of RΩ is connected in series with
a resistor of 10Ω to a 120 V, d.c. supply. The time constant of the circuit is 300ms. When steady
state conditions have been reached, the supply is replaced instantaneously by a short-circuit.
Determine: (a)the resistance of the coil,(b) the current flowing in the circuit one second after
the shorting link has been placed in the circuit, and (c) the time taken for the current to fall to
10% of its initial value.

Example: An inductor has a negligible resistance and an inductance of 200mH and is

connected in series with a 1kΩ resistor to a 24V, d.c. supply. Determine the time constant of
the circuit and the steady state value of the current flowing in the circuit. Find;(a) the current
flowing in the circuit at a time equal to one time constant, (b) the voltage drop across the
inductor at a time equal to two time constants and (c) the voltage drop across the resistor after
a time equal to three time constants.

L–R–C Series Circuit Response

L–R–C circuits are widely used in a variety of applications, such as in filters in communication
systems, ignition systems in automobiles, and defibrillator circuits in biomedical applications
(where an electric shock is used to stop the heart, in the hope that the heart will restart with
rhythmic contractions). For the circuit shown below, from Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
Hence from equation (20):

This is a linear, constant coefficient, second order differential equation. To determine the
transient response, the supply p.d., V, is made equal to zero,

This equation may have either:

 two different real roots, when (R/2L)2 >(1/LC), when the circuit is said to be
overdamped since the transient voltage decays very slowly with time, or
  two real equal roots, when (R/2L)2 =(1/LC), when the circuit is said to be critically
damped since the transient voltage decays in the minimum
amount of time without oscillations occurring, or
 two complex roots, when (R/2L)2 <(1/LC), when the circuit is said to be underdamped
since the transient voltage oscillates about the final steady state value, the oscillations
eventually dying away to give the steady state value, or
 If R=0 in equation (24), the oscillations would continue indefinitely without any
reduction in amplitude — this is the undamped condition.
Example: A series L–R–C circuit has inductance, L=2mH, resistance, R=1kΩ and
capacitance, C =5µF. Determine (a) whether the circuit is over, critical or underdamped. (b)
the state of damping if C =5nF and (c) the value of capacitance that will give critical damping.

Roots of the Auxiliary Equation (AE)

With reference to equation (24);
 when the roots are real and different, say m =α and m =β, the general solution is

 when the roots are real and equal, say m=α twice, the general equation is;

 when the roots are complex, say m=α±jβ, the general solution is;

To determine the actual expression for the voltage under any given initial condition, it is
necessary to evaluate constants A and B in terms of vC and current i. The procedure is the same
for each of the above three cases. Assuming in, say, case (iii) that at time t =0,vC =v0 and
i(=C(dvC/dt))=i0 then substituting in equation (27):

Example: A coil has an equivalent circuit of inductance 1.5 H in series with resistance 90Ω. It
is connected across a charged 5µF capacitor at the moment when the capacitor voltage is 10
V. Determine the nature of the response and obtain an expression for the current in the coil.

Summary and Additional Examples

Damping and the Natural Response in RLC Circuits

Consider a series RLC circuit (one that has a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor) with
a constant driving electro-motive force (emf) E. The current equation for the circuit is;
This is equivalent to;

Differentiating;

This is a second order linear homogenous equation with a corresponding auxiliary equation as;

with roots:

𝑅 1
where 𝛼 = 2𝐿 is the damping coefficient of the circuit, 𝜔𝑜 = √𝐿𝐶 is the resonant frequency of
the circuit, 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the natural frequencies of the circuit. The nature of the current will
depend on the relationship between R, L and C.

Case 1: R2 > 4L/C (Over-Damped)

Graph of overdamped response

Here both m1 and m2 are real, distinct and negative. The general solution is given by

The motion (current) is not oscillatory, and the vibration returns to equilibrium.
Case 2: R2 = 4L/C (Critically Damped)

Graph of critically damped case.

Here the roots are negative, real and equal, i.e.

The vibration (current) returns to equilibrium in the minimum time and there is just enough
damping to prevent oscillation.

Case 3: R2 < 4L/C (Under-Damped)

Graph of RLC under-damped case.

Here the roots are complex where

The general solution is given by;

𝑅 1 𝑅2
Where where 𝛼 = 2𝐿 is the damping coefficient of the circuit and 𝜔 = √𝐿𝐶 − 4𝐿2 is the resonant
frequency of the circuit. In this case, the motion (current) is oscillatory and the amplitude
decreases exponentially, bounded by

1
When R=0, the circuit displays its natural or resonant frequency, 𝜔𝑜 = √𝐿𝐶
Example: In a series RCL circuit driven by a constant emf, the natural response of the circuit
is given by
The initial conditions are i(0) = 2 and di/dt at t = 0 is 4. State the nature of response of the
current and hence solve for i.
A.E 𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 4 which gives repeated roots as; 𝑚1 = −2 and 𝑚2 = −2.
The response is critically damped since the roots are equal.

Then, rewriting the current equation;

Differentiating gives;

This implies;

Therefore;

Alternatively;

The Forced Response and Second Order Linear Differential Equations

As in first order circuits, the forced response has the form of the driving function. For a constant
driving source, it results in a constant forced response.
For non-constant driving functions e.g. when

The complete response of a circuit is the sum of a natural response and a forced response.
Example: In a RLC circuit, R=10Ω, C=0.02F, L=1H and the voltage source is E=100V. Solve
for the current i(t) in the circuit given that t=0, the current in the circuit is zero and the charge
in the capacitor is 0.1C.
Using the equation;

It gives

Differentiating it gives a second order differential equation in i;

The auxiliary equation;

The equation has solutions as;

Therefore, the current equation will be in the form;

Substituting the initial conditions

The current is given as;

Determining the value of B.

Differentiating gives:

Returning to equation;
At time t=0;

This gives the solution for current i:

Natural and Non-Constant Forced Response

Natural Response
Example: In an RLC circuit, L=1H, R=10Ω and C=0.0025F and at t=0, the current is zero
and 𝑖 ′ (0) = 0.1𝐴/𝑠. Determine the value of i.

The initial conditions are;

The auxiliary equation;

The roots are;

Since it is underdamped

Since i(0)=0 and substituting this value;

The current equation then becomes;

Differentiating gives;
Since 𝑖 ′ (0) = 0.1𝐴/𝑠, substituting this value

The current flowing in the circuit is then given by;