ZEROS of an ANALYTIC

FUNCTION.
MMATH18-102

Zeros of an Analytic Function 1

 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ∶ 𝐼𝑓 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒇 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑚 ≥ 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔: 𝐺 → 𝐶 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑚 𝑔 𝑧 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0.

𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ∶ 𝐴𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐶. 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ∶ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠.

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
∞
∶ 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑓 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒.
𝑛=0
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 0; 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑅 > 0. ∴ 𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∞

𝑓 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ≥ 𝑅.

𝑛=0
𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅 → ∞ 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡.

𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆 ∶ 𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ′𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 ′ .

𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑.
𝐼𝑓 𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + . . +𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎0 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑛 ≥ 1.
𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎0
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑝(𝑧) = lim 𝑧 𝑛 1 + . . . + 𝑛 = ∞.
𝑧→∞ 𝑧→∞ 𝑧 𝑧

𝐼𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑.

Zeros of an Analytic Function 2

 𝑳𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒗𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆′ 𝒔 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇 ∶ 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 ≤ 𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐶.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 ∈ 𝐶, 𝑎𝑠 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑧; 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑅 > 0 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒;
1! 𝑀
𝑓′ 𝑧 ≤ . 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅 > 0 ∴ 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅 → ∞ 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0.
𝑅
𝑊𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 ⟹ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒍𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒓𝒂: 𝐼𝑓 𝑝 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝 𝑎 = 0.
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑝 𝑧 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙.
1
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑝 𝑧 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑝 𝑧
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 ∴ lim 𝑝 𝑧 = ∞ ⟹ lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 0
𝑧→∞ 𝑧→∞
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 1 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 < 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 > 𝑅.
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐵ത 0; 𝑅 , ∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑀 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 ≤ 𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 |𝑧| ≤ 𝑅.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑧 ≤ max 1, 𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧, 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝐿𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑣𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⟹ 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝 𝑎 = 0.

sin 𝑧, cos 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 𝑧 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑. 𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒.

Zeros of an Analytic Function 3

 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 ∶ 𝐼𝑓 𝑝 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎1 , . . . , 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑗 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘𝑗 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑐 𝑧 − 𝑎1 𝑘1 . . . 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑚 𝑘𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘1 + . . . +𝑘𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝.

𝑘1
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘1 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑎1 𝑔1 𝑧
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐, 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑔1 (𝑎1 ) ≠ 0.
𝑘2
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎2 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝 𝑧 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔1 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔1 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑎2 𝑔2 𝑧 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠;
𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑎1 𝑘1 𝑧 − 𝑎2 𝑘2 𝑔2 𝑧 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑔2 𝑎1 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔2 𝑎2 ≠ 0.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑧 𝑧 − 𝑎1 𝑘1 . . . 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑚 𝑘𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ;
𝑔𝑚 𝑎1 ≠ 0, . . . 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑚 𝑎𝑚 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎1 , . . . , 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝 𝑧 ∴ 𝑔𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑐 𝑧 − 𝑎1 𝑘1 . . . 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑚 𝑘𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑘1 + . . . +𝑘𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝. ∎

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑝 𝑧 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛.

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑐, 𝑝 𝑧 − 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠.
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑐 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.
𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝒂 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒏 𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒏 − 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔.

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, for example 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 0.

Zeros of an Analytic Function 4

 𝑵𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒉𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 ∶

𝑰. 𝐴 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑟ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎. 𝐼𝑛 𝐶, 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 , 𝑟 > 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎.

𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴 𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑎.

𝐼𝑛 𝐶 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑟 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 ∩ 𝐴 ∖ 𝑎 .

𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 < 𝑏 − 𝑎 < 𝑟.

𝑰𝑰. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑎.

(𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙. )

𝑰𝑰𝑰. 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ.
𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐵(𝑎; 𝑟)

𝑰𝑽. 𝐼𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑.

Zeros of an Analytic Function 5

 𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎:

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐶 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠:
𝑎 𝑓 ≡ 0 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 ;
𝑏 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛 ≥ 0 ;
𝑐 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.

𝑰𝒍𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 ∶
1
𝐼𝑓 𝑓: 𝐷 → 𝐶 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓 = 5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 3, 4, … . 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 = 5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐷.
𝑛
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑔 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ∈ 2,4 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ≡ 𝑔.

1+𝑧 𝑛𝜋 − 2
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑧 < 1. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 ∶ 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
1−𝑧 𝑛𝜋 + 2
𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝐷 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 1 ∉ 𝐷.

Zeros of an Analytic Function 6

 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇 ∶ 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠.
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 ≡ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑛 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 (𝑏).
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 ≡ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 = 𝐺 𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑐 .
𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 . 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑍 = 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛.
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑅 > 0 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ⊂ 𝐺 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 .
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑍 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑍 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑎.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim 𝑓(𝑎𝑛 ) = lim 0 = 0.
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 1 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = . . . = 𝑓 𝑛−1
𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑛
𝑎 ≠ 0.

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑘 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 +𝑎𝑛+1 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛+1

+. . . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑅.
∞ 𝑘=𝑛

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑔 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑘−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑧 − 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛+2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 +. . . . , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅

𝑘=𝑛
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛 𝑔 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎 ≠ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑟; 0 < 𝑟 < 𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔 𝑧 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛 𝑔 𝑧 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑟. . . (i)
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑟ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, 𝑓 𝑏 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 0 < 𝑏 − 𝑎 < 𝑟.
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑖 .
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑏).

Zeros of an Analytic Function 7

 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ∶ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛 ≥ 0. 𝑇𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤: 𝑓 ≡ 0

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑓 𝑛 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛 ≥ 0 . 𝐵𝑦 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝐴 ≠ ∅.

𝑊𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴ҧ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑧𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑧.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓 (𝑘) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ;
𝑓 𝑘 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑘 lim 𝑧𝑛 = lim 𝑓 𝑘 𝑧𝑛 = lim 0 = 0 ∀ 𝑘 𝑎𝑠 𝑧𝑛 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑓 𝑘
𝑧𝑛 = 0 ∀𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∀𝑛
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 > 0 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ⊂ 𝐺 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 .

𝐵𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛;
∞
𝑛
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑓 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑅, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛 = = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 0.
𝑛!
𝑛=0
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑛 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 0.
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ⊂ 𝐴 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏.

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ≠ ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 𝐺.

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑓 ≡ 0.∎

Zeros of an Analytic Function 8

 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝟏: 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑓 ≡ 𝑔 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑔 𝑧 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑔 𝑧 𝑜𝑛 𝐺.
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 ℎ ≡ 0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ ℎ 𝑧 = 0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐺. ∎

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝟐 ∶ 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝐺
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔: 𝐺 → 𝐶 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑔 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚.
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇 ∶ 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓 𝑎 = 0. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 ≥ 1 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑛−1 𝑎 = 0.
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = . . . = 𝑓 𝑛−1
𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑛
𝑎 ≠ 0.

𝑧 − 𝑎 −𝑛 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ≠ 𝑎;
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔 𝑧 = ൞ 1
𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑎.
𝑛!
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛 𝐺 ∖ 𝑎 .
∞

𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ⊂ 𝐺 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑘 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 +𝑎𝑛+1 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛+1

+. . .
𝑘=𝑛
−𝑛
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑧 − 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛+2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 +. . . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ∖ 𝑎 , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐.
1
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 lim 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎.
𝑧→𝑎 𝑛!
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑓 𝑧 = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑔 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑. ∎

Zeros of an Analytic Function 9

 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝟑: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐶 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 > 0
𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ⊂ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑅.
(𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅)
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇 ∶ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑍 = 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐺, 𝑖, 𝑒 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑍.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑍 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑎.
𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ⊂ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 ∉ 𝑍 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑅 ∖ 𝑎 .
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑅. ∎

𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: 𝐼𝑓 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑖𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇 ∶ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐵ത 𝑎; 𝑟 ⊂ 𝐺, 𝛾 𝑡 = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 ; 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 𝑓(𝑤) 1 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ) 𝑖𝑡
1
𝑓 𝑎 = න 𝑑𝑤 = න 𝑖𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑t = න 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡.
2𝜋𝑖 𝛾 𝑤 − 𝑎 2𝜋𝑖 0 𝑟𝑒 2𝜋 0
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑎 ≤ න |𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ) |𝑑𝑡 ≤ න |𝑓(𝑎 |𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒.
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 0 =
2𝜋
‫׬‬0 {|𝑓(𝑎)| − |𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ) |}𝑑𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐵ത 𝑎; 𝑟 ⊂ 𝐺.
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤 = 𝜌 = |𝑓(𝑎)|.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝛼 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 .
𝐵𝑦 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝛼 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.∎

Zeros of an Analytic Function 10

 𝑬𝒙 𝟔. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
𝑓 𝑎 ≤ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺, 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑖𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 .

𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑎 = 0, 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒. 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝐺.
1 1 1 1 1
𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠 (𝑎) = ≥ = 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
𝑓 𝑓 |𝑓(𝑎)| 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓
1
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑡𝑜 .
𝑓

𝑬𝒙 𝟖. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐺 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑧 𝑔 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓 ≡ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑔 ≡ 0.
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕 ∶ 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 ≡ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒. 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑓 ≢ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝐵𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 ⊂ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑔 𝑧 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 .
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵 𝑎; 𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑔 ≡ 0 𝑜𝑛 𝐺.

(𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 ′𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ′ . )

Zeros of an Analytic Function 11