Computer Graphics

Unit-1
1.1 Introduction
Computer Graphics involves technology to access. The Process transforms and presents
information in a visual form. The role of computer graphics insensible. In today life, computer
graphics has now become a common element in user interfaces, T.V. commercial motion
pictures.

Computer Graphics is the creation of pictures with the help of a computer. The end product of
the computer graphics is a picture it may be a business graph, drawing, and engineering.

In computer graphics, two or three-dimensional pictures can be created that are used for
research. Many hardware devices algorithm has been developing for improving the speed of
picture generation with the passes of time. It includes the creation storage of models and image
of objects. These models for various fields like engineering, mathematical and so on.

Definition of Computer Graphics:

It is the use of computers to create and manipulate pictures on a display device. It comprises of
software techniques to create, store, modify, represents pictures.

Why computer graphics used?

Suppose a shoe manufacturing company want to show the sale of shoes for five years. For this
vast amount of information is to store. So a lot of time and memory will be needed. This
method will be tough to understand by a common man. In this situation graphics is a better
alternative. Graphics tools are charts and graphs. Using graphs, data can be represented in
pictorial form. A picture can be understood easily just with a single look.

Interactive computer graphics work using the concept of two-way communication between
computer users. The computer will receive signals from the input device, and the picture is
modified accordingly. Picture will be changed quickly when we apply command.
1.2 Application of Computer Graphics

Computer-Aided Design for engineering and architectural systems etc.

Objects maybe displayed in a wireframe outline form. Multi-window environment is also
favored for producing various zooming scales and views. Animations are useful for testing
performance.

Presentation Graphics
To produce illustrations which summarize various kinds of data. Except 2D, 3D graphics are
good tools for reporting more complex data.

Computer Art
Painting packages are available. With cordless, pressure-sensitive stylus, artists can produce
electronic paintings which simulate different brush strokes, brush widths, and colors.
Photorealistic techniques, morphing and animations are very useful in commercial art. For
films, 24 frames per second are required. For video monitor, 30 frames per second are required.

Entertainment
Motion pictures, Music videos, and TV shows, Computer games.

Education and Training

Training with computer-generated models of specialized systems such as the training of ship
captains and aircraft pilots.

Visualization
For analyzing scientific, engineering, medical and business data or behavior. Converting data to
visual form can help to understand mass volume of data very efficiently.

Image Processing
Image processing is to apply techniques to modify or interpret existing pictures. It is widely
used in medical applications.

Graphical User Interface

Multiple window, icons, menus allow a computer setup to be utilized more efficiently.

1.3 Interactive and Passive Graphics

(a) Non-Interactive or Passive Computer Graphics: In non-interactive computer graphics,
the picture is produced on the monitor, and the user does not have any controlled over the
image, i.e., the user cannot make any change in the rendered image. One example of its Titles
shown on T.V.

Non-interactive Graphics involves only one-way communication between the computer and the
user, User can see the produced image, and he cannot make any change in the image.
(b) Interactive Computer Graphics: In interactive Computer Graphics user have some
controls over the picture, i.e., the user can make any change in the produced image. One
example of it is the ping-pong game.

Interactive Computer Graphics require two-way communication between the computer and the
user. A User can see the image and make any change by sending his command with an input
device.

Advantages of interactive Computer Graphics:

• Higher Quality
• More precise results or products
• Greater Productivity
• Lower analysis and design cost
• Significantly enhances our ability to understand data and to perceive trends.

Working of Interactive Computer Graphics:

The modern graphics display is very simple in construction. It consists of three components:

1. Frame Buffer or Digital Memory

2. A Monitor likes a home T.V. set without the tuning and receiving electronics.

3. Display Controller or Video Controller: It passes the contents of the frame buffer to the
monitor.

Frame Buffer: A digital frame buffer is large, contiguous piece of computer memory used to
hold or map the image displayed on the screen.
 • At a minimum, there is 1 memory bit for each pixel in the raster. This amount of
memory is called a bit plane.
• A 1024 x 1024 element requires 220 (210=1024;220=1024 x 1024)sq.raster or 1,048,576
memory bits in a single bit plane.
• The picture is built up in the frame buffer one bit at a time.
• A memory bit has only two states (binary 0 or 1), a single bit plane yields a black and
white (monochrome display).
• As frame buffer is a digital device write raster CRT is an analog device.

Properties of Video Monitor:

1. Persistence: Persistence is the duration of phosphorescence. Different kinds of phosphors
are available for use in CRT. Besides color, a major difference between phosphor in their
persistence how they continue to emit light after the electron beam is removed.

2. Resolution: Use to describe the number of pixels that are used on display image.

3. Aspect Ratio: It is the ratio of width to its height. Its measure is unit in length or number of
pixels.

Aspect Ratio =

1.4 Display Devices:

The most commonly used display device is a video monitor. The operation of most video
monitors based on CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). The following display devices are used:

1. Refresh Cathode Ray Tube

2. Random Scan and Raster Scan
3. Color CRT Monitors
4. Direct View Storage Tubes
5. Flat Panel Display
6. Lookup Table

1.4.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in traditional computer monitors
and televisions. The image on CRT display is created by firing electrons from the back of the
tube of phosphorus located towards the front of the screen.

Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they are projected on a screen. The
color you view on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue and green light.
Components of CRT:
Main Components of CRT are:

1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a heating filament
(heater) and a cathode. The electron gun creates a source of electrons which are focused into a
narrow beam directed at the face of the CRT.

2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.

3. Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the electrons into a narrow
beam.

4. Deflection Yoke: It is used to control the direction of the electron beam. It creates an electric
or magnetic field which will bend the electron beam as it passes through the area. In a
conventional CRT, the yoke is linked to a sweep or scan generator. The deflection yoke which
is connected to the sweep generator creates a fluctuating electric or magnetic potential.

5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is coated with phosphors.
Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron beam hits them. Phosphorescence is the term used
to characterize the light given off by a phosphor after it has been exposed to an electron beam.

1.4.2 Random Scan Display:

Random Scan System uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a line image
on the CRT screen. The picture is constructed out of a sequence of straight-line segments. Each
line segment is drawn on the screen by directing the beam to move from one point on the
screen to the next, where its x & y coordinates define each point. After drawing the picture. The
system cycles back to the first line and design all the lines of the image 30 to 60 time each
second. The process is shown in fig:

Random-scan monitors are also known as vector displays or stroke-writing displays or

calligraphic displays.

Advantages:
• A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where an image is
to be drawn.
• Produce smooth line drawings.
• High Resolution

Disadvantages:
• Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.

1.4.3 Raster Scan Display:

A Raster Scan Display is based on intensity control of pixels in the form of a rectangular box
called Raster on the screen. Information of on and off pixels is stored in refresh buffer or Frame
buffer. Televisions in our house are based on Raster Scan Method. The raster scan system can
store information of each pixel position, so it is suitable for realistic display of objects. Raster
Scan provides a refresh rate of 60 to 80 frames per second.

Frame Buffer is also known as Raster or bit map. In Frame Buffer the positions are called
picture elements or pixels. Beam refreshing is of two types. First is horizontal retracing and
second is vertical retracing. When the beam starts from the top left corner and reaches the
bottom right scale, it will again return to the top left side called at vertical retrace. Then it will
again more horizontally from top to bottom call as horizontal retracing shown in fig:
Types of Scanning or travelling of beam in Raster Scan

1. Interlaced Scanning
2. Non-Interlaced Scanning
In Interlaced scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to bottom. Due to
which fading of display of object may occur. This problem can be solved by Non-Interlaced
scanning. In this first of all odd numbered lines are traced or visited by an electron beam, then
in the next circle, even number of lines are located.

For non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. But it gives flickers. For
interlaced display refresh rate of 60 frames per second is used.

Advantages:
• Realistic image
• Million Different colors to be generated
• Shadow Scenes are possible.

Disadvantages:
• Low Resolution
• Expensive

1.4.3 Differentiate between Random and Raster Scan Display:

Random Scan Display Raster Scan Display
1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.
2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive
3. Any modification if needed is easy 3.Modification is tough
4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill
5. Refresh rate depends or resolution 5. Refresh rate does not depend on the
picture.
6. Only screen with view on an area is 6. Whole screen is scanned.
displayed.
7. Beam Penetration technology come 7. Shadow mark technology came under
under it. this.
8. It does not use interlacing method. 8. It uses interlacing
9. It is restricted to line drawing 9. It is suitable for realistic display.
applications.

1.4.4 Color CRT Monitors:

The CRT Monitor display by using a combination of phosphors. The phosphors are different
colors. There are two popular approaches for producing color displays with a CRT are:

1. Beam Penetration Method

2. Shadow-Mask Method

1. Beam Penetration Method:

The Beam-Penetration method has been used with random-scan monitors. In this method, the
CRT screen is coated with two layers of phosphor, red and green and the displayed color
depends on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphor layers. This method produces
four colors only, red, green, orange and yellow. A beam of slow electrons excites the outer red
layer only; hence screen shows red color only. A beam of high-speed electrons excites the inner
green layer. Thus screen shows a green color.

Advantages:
• Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
• Only four colors are possible
 • Quality of pictures is not as good as with another method.

2. Shadow-Mask Method:
Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System because they produce a much wider
range of colors than the beam-penetration method.
It is used in the majority of color TV sets and monitors.
Construction: A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphor color dots at each pixel position.

One phosphor dot emits: red light

Another emits: green light
Third emits: blue light

This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for each color dot and a shadow mask grid just behind the
phosphor coated screen.

Shadow mask grid is pierced with small round holes in a triangular pattern.

Figure shows the delta-delta shadow mask method commonly used in color CRT system.

Working: Triad arrangement of red, green, and blue guns.

The deflection system of the CRT operates on all 3 electron beams simultaneously; the 3 electron
beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains a sequence of holes
aligned with the phosphor- dot patterns.

When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dotted triangle, which
occurs as a small color spot on the screen.
The phosphor dots in the triangles are organized so that each electron beam can activate only its
corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.

Inline arrangement: Another configuration for the 3 electron guns is an Inline arrangement in which the
3

electron guns and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the screen, are aligned along one scan
line rather of in a triangular pattern.

This inline arrangement of electron guns in easier to keep in alignment and is commonly used in high-
resolution color CRT's.

Advantage:
• Realistic image
• Million different colors to be generated
• Shadow scenes are possible

Disadvantage:
• Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.
• Relatively poor resolution
• Convergence Problem

1.5 Input Devices

The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the computer. The data can
be in the form of text, graphics, sound, and text. Output device display data from the memory of the
computer. Output can be text, numeric data, line, polygon, and other objects.
1. Keyboard:
The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by pressing the set of keys.
All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY keyboard.

The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also available.
• Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
• Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
• Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
• Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :
• Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
• Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.

Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast entry of numeric
data.

Function of Keyboard:
Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)
Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry, Menu selection or graphics
functions, etc.
Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are used to enter
scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons and switches are used to enter predefined function
values.
Advantage:
• Suitable for entering numeric data.
• Function keys are a fast and effective method of using commands, with fewer errors.
Disadvantage:
• Keyboard is not suitable for graphics input.
2. Mouse:
A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen. It is a small palm size box.
There are two or three depression switches on the top. The movement of the mouse along the x-axis
helps in the horizontal movement of the cursor and the movement along the y-axis helps in the vertical
movement of the cursor on the screen. The mouse cannot be used to enter text. Therefore, they are used
in conjunction with a keyboard.
Advantage:
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive

3. Trackball
It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse. This is mainly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted, and by changing fingers on the ball, the pointer
can be moved.

Advantage:
Trackball is stationary, so it does not require much space to use it.
Compact Size

4. Spaceball:
It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions where trackball can move in two directions
only. The movement is recorded by the strain gauge. Strain gauge is applied with pressure. It can be
pushed and pulled in various directions. The ball has a diameter around 7.5 cm. The ball is mounted in
the base using rollers. One-third of the ball is an inside box, the rest is outside.

Applications:
• It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the object.
• It is used to select various functions in the field of virtual reality.
• It is applicable in CAD applications.
• Animation is also done using spaceball.
• It is used in the area of simulation and modeling.

5. Joystick:
A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to change cursor position on a monitor screen.
Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball as its both lower and upper ends as shown in fig. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be changed in all four directions. The function of a
joystick is similar to that of the mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and
playing computer games.
6. Light Pen
Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube. When its tip is moved over the monitor screen, and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing
element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU.

Uses:
• Light Pens can be used as input coordinate positions by providing necessary arrangements.
• If background color or intensity, a light pen can be used as a locator.
• It is used as a standard pick device with many graphics system.
• It can be used as stroke input devices.
• It can be used as valuators

7. Digitizers:
The digitizer is an operator input device, which contains a large, smooth board (the appearance is
similar to the mechanical drawing board) & an electronic tracking device, which can be changed over
the surface to follow existing lines. The electronic tracking device contains a switch for the user to
record the desire x & y coordinate positions. The coordinates can be entered into the computer memory
or stored or an off-line storage medium such as magnetic tape.

Advantages:
• Drawing can easily be changed.
• It provides the capability of interactive graphics.
Disadvantages:
• Costly
• Suitable only for applications which required high-resolution graphics.

8. Touch Panels:
Touch Panels is a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel covering the
screen. A touch screen registers input when a finger or other object comes in contact with the screen.

When the wave signals are interrupted by some contact with the screen, that located is recorded. Touch
screens have long been used in military applications.

9. Voice Systems (Voice Recognition):

Voice Recognition is one of the newest, most complex input techniques used to interact with the
computer. The user inputs data by speaking into a microphone. The simplest form of voice recognition
is a one-word command spoken by one person. Each command is isolated with pauses between the
words.

Voice Recognition is used in some graphics workstations as input devices to accept voice commands.
The voice-system input can be used to initiate graphics operations or to enter data. These systems
operate by matching an input against a predefined dictionary of words and phrases.

10. Image Scanner

It is an input device. The data or text is written on paper. The paper is feeded to scanner. The paper
written information is converted into electronic format; this format is stored in the computer. The input
documents can contain text, handwritten material, picture extra.
By storing the document in a computer document became safe for longer period of time. The document
will be permanently stored for the future. We can change the document when we need. The document
can be printed when needed.

Scanning can be of the black and white or colored picture. On stored picture 2D or 3D rotations,
scaling and other operations can be applied.

1.6 Output Device

It is an electromechanical device, which accepts data from a computer and translates them into
form understand by users.

Printers:
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print data on paper.

Types of Printers: There are many types of printers which are classified on various criteria as
shown in fig:
Plotters
Plotters are a special type of output device. It is suitable for applications:

1. Architectural plan of the building.

2. CAD applications like the design of mechanical components of aircraft.
3. Many engineering applications.

Advantage:
• It can produce high-quality output on large sheets.
• It is used to provide the high precision drawing.
• It can produce graphics of various sizes.
• The speed of producing output is high.