Robotic Forklift Guide

The Robotic
Forklift Guide
Imagine a factory or warehouse without human intervention, no
damages, no risk... everything on time, smooth and elegantly
transported.

Well! you do not have to keep on dreaming, you only need a

robotic forklift system.

Are you ready for the show?

1. What is a Robotic Forklift System?

2. What are the main types of Robotic Forklifts?
3. How do Automated Forklifts Navigate?
4: Robotic Forklifts Safety Systems
5. What Sensors do Forklift Robots use?
6. What pallet storage methods can be performed by Robotic Forklifts?
7. How much do Robotic Forklifts Cost?
8. Robotic Forklift Manufacturers
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 What is an AGV System

1. What is a Robotic
Forklift System?
A robotic forklift system is composed by

Robot

A self-driving robotic forklift system is a set of elements united by a superior management system.
These elements are basic, and they interact in order to make the whole system work.

The main elements of the Robotic System are the Vehicles, the Management Software and the
Peripherals.

The Vehicles
An Automatic Guided Forklift also know as ALT is a Self-Driving computer or pc controlled Forklift. So a
forklift moving around and transporting goods by its own without human intervention, it's just a
driverless forklift.

It’s a driverless robot vehicle.... simply put... think about a self-driving forklift moving pallets.

This specific type of mobile robot is inspired by the conventional manned forklifts. The forklift AGV is
designed to provide both horizontal and vertical movement of the load.

The robotic forklifts are increasingly becoming a must in manufacturing premises and warehouses
where operations are highly standardized, repetitive, and easily accomplished without need of human
intervention.

For example, the driverless forklifts are widely used in warehouses for high rack management or
removing pallets with finished goods from the end of the production lines.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

The Robotic Forklift Management System

The robot Management System is a Software (or a pack of different software)… that arrives installed
in a PC Server or that can be installed in a customer virtual server or even in an external cloud
server.

What are the tasks of the Management Software?

• Administration of transportation orders
• Mission management,
• Optimization of transportation schedules
• Mobile robots traffic control
• Communication with other management software such ERP, WMS, etc

The Management System is also in charge of communicating with external devices or software
such, Warehouse Management Systems, ERP, MES, etc.

The Management System gathers all the system inputs, elaborates them, track them and sort them, in
order to provide the right info about missions to the vehicles.

This software is extremely important because it will determine the overall system performance and
could lead to a lower investment level thanks to elaborated algorithms for traffic and order
optimization.

Management System ensures that the loads are transported to the correct destination, at the right
time and in the most efficient way.

The Management System integration with customer’s systems can be done using different
standards as SQL, database, web services, FTP, message queues (MQ), TCP/IP sockets… and so
on.

Some advanced fleet management controls can choose the best path for the vehicles, reducing
waiting time and travels without a load.

The entire vehicle fleet can be dynamically routed by continuously

planning for optimal vehicle utilization according to fleet status,
available floor space, storage buffers and current order queue.

The Management system is also in charge of providing graphical

interface to operators and generates statistical analyses.

How do mobile robots communicate with the

Management System?
Basically, via wifi. Make sure that your premises count on good and quality wifi network that will allow
fast and safe information exchange between the different System elements.

Otherwise, you can have standalone mobile robot that does not require any Management System…
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but options and possibilities will be very limited.
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 Robotic Forklift Guide

2. What are the main types of driverless forklift trucks?

Automated forklifts are inspired on traditional manual forklifts. We can find the same types of vehicles
working in a self driving mode. Of course, each AGV forklift type will have a defined application and will
have specific advantages and disadvantages.

TYPE OF FORKLIFT PICTURE What's the best?

Fast movement for floor to floor

operations
PALLET STACKER or
PALLER JACK Fast deployment

Limited footprint

COUNTERBALANCE High payload capacity

High payload capacity with reduced

OUTRIGGER footprint

Great for combination for high racking

REACH TRUCK and possibility to run out from
warehouse aisles

The king of racking warehouses.

VERY NARROW AISLE High height capacity

VNA
Increase warehouse capacity because
of its ability to work in narrow aisles.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

The Pallet Jack

A Pallet Mover Robot is a type self-driving vehicle conceived to transport palletized loads in manufacturing
facilities.

These pallet moving robots are easy to deploy because they do not require any infrastructure modification
and, typically, they can be included in your standard process flow without any variation. If you have a
manned pallet jack moving pallets from A to B, there's a good chance that you can substitute it by an
automated vehicle with the consequent advantages of agvs.

Basically, an automated pallet lifter is a self-driving pallet jack able to

drive and navigate by itself.

This type of robot allows limited vertical movement of the load, reaching
pallets on racks or shelves at low height or in floor-to-floor operations.

Autonomous pallet movers are the “smallest” of the robotic forklift family.

These autonomous pallet robots have stabilizers located beneath the

forks. These stabilizers allow reduced vehicle dimensions, weight, and a
tight turning radius, ensuring great manoeuvrability.

Autonomous Pallet Movers are suitable only for Single-Face Pallets due
to their under fork stabilizers.

If you need to handle Double-Face pallets, you need a counterbalanced

or outrigger forklift vehicle.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

PALLET MOVER or
FORKLIFT AGV TYPE
STACKER
Racking Warehouse MINIMUM
AISLE WIDTH (Distance between 3,6 m/140'/11,8ft
pallets)

MAX SPEED FORWARD 2 m/s - 386 ft/min

MAX LOAD STOCKING HEIGHT 3 m / 120’ /9,8 ft

TYPICAL LOAD CAPACITY Max 1.500 kg /3.300 lbs

PALLET JACK AGV

Pros Cons

•Reduced footprint • Only suitable for open pallets

•Flexible and fast • Limited stacking height

Counterbalance Forklift
A counterbalanced automated lift truck is a forklift that counterbalances the weight of the load with a
weight, usually cast iron or the battery, in the rear of the truck.

It is used whenever it is not possible to use fork-over vehicles and whenever is needed high payload and
stacking height capacity.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Counterbalanced robotic forklifts are widely used for shipping and receiving loads and they are an ideal
solution for moving pallets to and from storage.

These vehicles are bigger and need more space for turning radius, but they can handle heavy loads and
can reach higher stacking heights.

COUNTERBALANCE - FORKLIFT TRUCK

Pros Cons

• High stacking and

• Large footprint
payload capacity

Straddle Forklifts
Straddle or outrigger robotic forklifts are equipped with two horizontal stabilizing legs, positioned out of
the load width.

The straddle stacker needs less manoeuvre space than counterbalanced vehicles. Support legs make
AGVs and their load more stable during the lift and while travelling.

STRADDLE or OUTRIGGER
Pros Cons
High stacking and payload capacity
Large footprint
High stacking and payload capacity
Need of lateral space for supports
Good Stability
Wider vehicle
Reduced Footprint turning radius
Shorter AGV body

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Very Narrow Aisle Automated Forklifts.

An automated VNA truck is a vehicle specifically designed to do one thing: operate in very narrow aisles
while performing high lifting loading operations.
It is a type of Robotic Forklift designed to work in areas narrower than 6,5 feet (78 inches / 2000 mm).

This kind of vehicle is used in racking operations being able to store pallets at 36 feet height (11 m /
430’).

This vehicles are also known as trilateral or bilateral forklifts.

Very Narrow Aisle AGVs can save up to 50% more space than standard Reach Trucks.

Very Narrow AGV Forklift. Picture by

courtesy of ROCLA OY

Space is limited and expensive. For this reason, warehouses are becoming taller and the available areas
for vehicle transit are narrowing.

VNAs are widely used in countries with expensive land costs. VNAs are extremely specialized machines
and hence are excellent for high volume handling applications.

They are the fastest option in terms of load handling per hour.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

What is the standard aisle width needed for a VNA AGV?

There are two main dimensions regarding aisle

width.

The first dimension is the minimum corridor width

needed for the VNA to perform loading/unloading
activities in the working aisle between two racks.

The typical dimension to be checked is the “distance

between pallets” that should be around 1,600 mm
(63 inch / 5.3 ft).

The second important dimension is the transit corridor needed for going from one warehouse aisle to
another one.

This one:

VNA AGVs are like “automated mammoths,” so the corridor should be around 7 m (275 inch/23 ft),
always leaving safety space for fixed structures.

In this sketch, the red line is the physical

contour of a VNA and blue line is the
safety distance to be respected.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

What is standard loading height for a VNA Truck AGV?

VNAs are very accurate, and they can perform loading and unloading operations at around 12 m high
(470 inch/40 ft)

How fast is an Automated Very Narrow Aisle truck?

Forward speed is around 2 m/sec (710 inch/sec- 3103ft/min).

The VNA’s main task is to stock pallets on high racks, hence it is also important to know lifting speed.

Lifting speed can reach up to 300 mm /sec (12 inch/sec – 60 ft/min).

What kind of navigation method is preferred for VNAs?

VNAs work with Laser Navigation, so they are LGVs.

In any case, considering the very tight tolerance required to deposit a pallet at 12 m high, it is better to
have inductive wire navigation within the aisle between two racks which enables better stopping
tolerance.

VNAs can switch navigation technology when they are in or out of the aisle.

What about VNA forks?

Fork options are the same as for manual VNAs.

VNAs can be equipped with telescopic load handling forks or with turret head for trilateral turning
(100º…0º…+100º) of load for more versatile pallet handling.

With trilateral forks, the head that supports the forks can rotate and can pick up and deposit loads on
one side of the aisle or the other, as well as in front. They can also deposit pallets directly on the ground.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Trilateral Forks.

With bilateral forks, the forks are telescopic and assembled on what is called a cradle. The telescopic
forks handle pallet loads in racks to both sides of the vehicle symmetrically.

Unlike trilaterals, these machines can neither deposit pallets on the ground nor place them in front. Yet
they do have the advantage that they can operate in even narrower aisles and can complete a greater
number of cycles.

Bilateral telescopic forklifts.

The load fork system is equipped with sensors to detect load presence in the rack as well as on the forks.
Sensors also ensure that load is properly positioned and centralized.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

VERY NARROW AISLE AGV

Pros Cons
Significantly faster pallet handling in
narrow aisle applications compared to
reach trucks.
Low flexibility. VNA AGVs are specifically
No risk of operator mistakes.
designed for narrow aisle operations.
Whatever they do out of the aisle… is wasting
Reduced aisle width, increasing
time and money.
warehouse holding capacity compared to
reach trucks.
They should require other types of AGVs
Possibility to add weekend shifts without (pallet mover or counter-balance forklifts) to
additional costs. perform non-aisle tasks, hence increasing
investment.
Large possibilities of integration with
WMS and ERPs.

Increased safety thanks to restrictive

AGV safety standards.

Automated Reach Truck.

A self-driving reach truck is a narrow-aisle, right-angle stacking truck designed for unit load handling
typically used in racking operations.

The reach truck is an specific type of robotic forklift conceived to operate in narrow aisles and,
together with the Automated Very Narrow Aisle Trucks, they are the best machine for storing and
retrieving pallets in racks.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Reach truck AGVs can reach outside of the footprint of the vehicle to pick and drop loads.

Some of main advantages of the reach truck AGV is the performant lifting speed and limited footprint.

What is the maximum load capacity of a Reach Truck ?

This kind of vehicles can handle up to 1.5 tons (near 3,300 lbs).

What is the maximum stacking height?

Regarding lifting height, Reach Truck AGVs can reach 10 m (33 ft - 3100 inch)

What is the maximum speed?

Lifting speed, or vertical speed, is around 0.3 m/sec (1 ft/sec - 12 inch/sec), while horizontal speed
(travel speed) is 2 m/s (6,5 ft/min- 78 inch/sec) max.

The benefits and drawbacks of a Reach truck compared to a Forklift Truck

• Depending on the design, lift trucks have a 35% smaller turn radius than forklifts. This allows them
to work in narrower aisles.

• A reach truck forklift can reach higher shelving

• A reach truck forklift allows you to use a double deep pallet racking system

• A Counterbalance Forklift can handle higher payloads

The benefits and drawbacks of a Reach truck compared to a VNA

• A VNA can work in 1,7 m wide aisles compared to near 3 m wide aisles of reach trucks. VNAs are
designed to work inside warehouses that have a small amount of space and lots of stock.

• VNAs are clumsy “mammoths” out of the aisles. They are great in the aisle but require a lot of
space for turning.

• Due to VNAs dimensions, they are more complex to integrate with other equipment like conveyors.

• VNAs cannot be used in lane buffers.

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Robotic Forklift Guide

Robotic Forklift Technical Specifications

In the table below, you can find some of the main specifications of the standard Robotic Forklifts. These
numbers are indicative, so please check with your supplier to have a better understanding about their
possibilities.

Required tolerances, lifting heights and aisle width are subject to load weight and dimensions.

Furthermore, environmental influencers, such as floor conditions can have an impact on the system
requirements. Professional guidance and verification is recommended.

Numbers might change dramatically depending on the specific product and project requirements.

PALLET
FORKLIFT TYPE COUNTERBALANCED OUTRIGGER REACH TRUCK VNA
MOVER/STACKER

Racking
Warehouse
3,7m/145'/12,1 1,6m/ 63' / 5,3
MINIMUM AISLE 3,6 m/140'/11,8ft 4,5m/177'/14,7 ft 3m/118'/10,84ft
WIDTH (Distance ft ft
between pallets)

MAX SPEED 2 m/s - 386 2 m/s - 386 2 m/s - 386 2 m/s - 386
FORWARD
2 m/s - 386 ft/min
ft/min ft/min ft/min ft/min

LOAD STOKING 1,5 m / 60' /4,10 10 m /354 '/ 4 m / 157'/ 13 10 m /354 '/ 11 m / 430' / 36
HEIGHT ft 210,5 ft ft 210,5 ft ft

MAX LOAD 1.500 kg /3.300 2.500 kg / 5.500 1.500 kg 1.500 kg 1.200 kg /

CAPACITY lbs lbs /3.300 lbs /3.300 lbs 2.645 lbs

INDICATIVE $150.000 -
$60.000 $85.000 $80.000 $130.000
VEHICLE PRICE $200.00

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Robotic Forklift Guide

3. How do Automated Forklifts Navigate?

Automated Forklifts navigation is improving day after day. The final reliability and performance of your
robotic system will depend on its navigation technology.

Simply put, the navigation system localizes the vehicle in the environment and provides it the right data
for moving forward

The majority of the Automated Forklifts perform Laser Navigation. For this reason, AGV Forklifts are
commonly called LGV, so Laser Navigation Vehicles.

Nevertheless, more and more suppliers are developing new autonomous navigation systems. These
autonomous or natural navigation systems can be found in many automated pallet jacks and stackers.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Laser Guided Navigation (LGV)

An LGV or Laser Guided Vehicle is an automated vehicle that navigates with a laser positioning system.

Laser Guided Vehicles (LGV Vehicles) are fast, accurate and reliable. This navigation technology is
traditionally used in automated forklifts that are boosting warehouse efficiency all around the world.

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Robotic Forklift Guide

How do LGVs work?

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Robotic Forklift Guide

Natural Autonomous Navigation

Step by step “free”, autonomous or natural
navigation is entering in the mobile robot
industry.

The concept is simple, natural or “free”

navigation, so navigation without need of
hardware installation like wires, tapes,
reflectors.

These vehicles rather than following a magnetic

tape on the floor (or perform reflector laser
triangulation) they can, for example, identify a
defined wall and navigate at a given distance
from it.

The vehicles using natural navigation are called

Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) instead
of Mobile robots.

An AMR doesn't require predefined fixed

paths. It can define its route
on-the-fly. If an obstacle is detected, the
AMR adjusts its path to navigate around
the object.

There are several navigation technologies

under in the «natural» umbrella: SLAM
with LiDAR Sensors, Vision SLAM, Ultra
Wide Band, Vision Navigation based on
cameras, GPS, etc

The NAV-LOC’s defining feature is its ability to localize

vehicles on the basis of natural surrounding contours.
This is made possible by a 2D LiDAR sensor which
supplies precise scan data. This data is then processed
in the SIM2000ST CPU from SICK using a clever
algorithm. The NAV-LOC thereby always delivers up-to-
date data on the position and orientation of a vehicle
without additional reflectors.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Natural Navigation Advantages and Disadvantages

Navigation Technology Advantages Disadvantages

Easy to install

Flexibility: Easy to add new paths or

modify existing ones Reliability in chaotic and variable
environments
Fast and Lower cost of installation
Lower positioning accuracy
compared with other navigation
No invasive installation. methods

No costs due to implementation

maintenance

What are the benefits of the Natural Navigation?

• It’s the future: More and more companies are investing, developing and improving Natural Navigation
Technology.

• Easy to install: Just draw a line in your pc or drive your robot to teach the track. It will map and
localize it by itself and it will do the rest of the job.

• Easy to modify. Same as the installation, just add, remove, modify the tracks or destinations
effortless.

• Low installation costs. Installation is fast and easy.

• No invasive installation. Natural Navigation robots do not require any kind of external infrastructure
that could interfere with plant operations.

• No costs due to implementation maintenance. There is nothing installed for the navigation, so there is
nothing to maintain.

What are the drawbacks of Natural Feature Navigation?

• Navigation Reliability. Robots with Natural Navigation could have “orientation” problems in very
chaotic, confusing areas due to the variable environment. In other words, if the environment is too
chaotic, the robot could not find itself.

• Lower positioning accuracy compared with laser guided navigation.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

4. Robotic Forklifts SAFETY Systems

Picture by courtesy of SICK Inc

One of the main advantages of robotic forklifts is that they are safer than manned forklifts. Driverless
robots don’t harm people or damage infrastructure, because they are provided with safety sensors that
prevent them from running into people or things.

With the aim to make mobile robot safer for wide industrial and commercial use, there are certain safety
rules and safety standards that mobile robots (AGV or AMR) must comply with.

In order to comply with these safety rules, the robots must include some safety sensors and devices to
avoid and proactively prevent risks.

Mobile Robots generally run smoothly and predictable, however

on the rare occasion something doesn’t work properly, the
safety system will halt the vehicle.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

What are the self-driving forklift safety standards?

AGV safety standard in the USA

The latest industry consensus standard for Safety Standard for Driv- erless,
Automatic Guided Industrial Vehicles and Automated Func- tions of Manned
Industrial Vehicles is ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2019.

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is the governing body for the
development of safety standards in the United States. The of ANSI-Accredited
Standards Developer for safety standards related to industrial trucks is the
Industrial Truck Standards Devel- opment Foundation (ITSDF).

AGV safety standard in the EU

AGV safety standards in Europe are found in EN ISO 3691-4:2020 “Industrial
trucks — Safety requirements and verification — Part 4: Driverless industrial
trucks and their systems”.

This document is applicable for mobile platforms including: AGV, tunnel tugger,
under cart, etc.

This document supersedes EN 1525:1997.

Both documents are not an obligation. They basically provide the guidelines and
standards for not only how to achieve acceptable residual risk on an automatic
guided vehicle , but how to imple- ment an overall safety system including
elements of design, opera- tion, and maintenance of mobile platforms.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

What are the main risk reduction measures in the mobile

robots?
The risk reduction measures in a mobile robot can be divided in two main categories:

Active risk reduction measures

Passive risk reduction measures

The main active risk reduction measures or safety sensors are:

Safety Laser scanner and/or collision avoidance system

Pressure-sensitive bumpers
Safety PLC

While the most important passive risk reduction measures are:

Emergency stop devices

Warning lights
Audible warning/alarm signals
Awareness signs on the Vehicle

Active Safety Systems

Mobile robots should count on personnel detection means (e.g., laser scanners or pressure-sensitive
bumpers) that must at least operate over the observable area of the maximum width of the vehicle and
its load.

Createdo
pcorna
omheu
nect Personnel detection means m u s t be designed to
stop t h e vehicle before colliding w i t h a person.

Picture by courtesy of SICK Inc

If the condition above cannot be guaranteed (such as with a
bumper device), the speed in the movement direction must not
exceed 0.3 m/s, and an additional emergency stop devices
must be reachable within 600 mm from the hazardous point.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Safety Laser Scanner or Collision Avoidance System

Safety Laser scanners are also known as electro-sensitive protective devices (ESPEs) or active opto-
electronic protective devices responsive to diffuse reflection (AOPDDRs).

If this type of safety system is used as the primary sensing device, such noncontact sensing device(s)
must be fail-to-safe, including their operation and mounting.

When sensing people or an object in the path of the vehicle at a distance no less than the leading edge of
the sensing field in the main direction of travel, these systems must safely initiate a stop command to the
vehicle prior to contact between the vehicle structure and the people or objects.

Safety laser scanners used in the AGV industry typically have at least two or three safety fields.

The first one is the “warning field”, in case an obstacle is detected by the laser in this field, the vehicle
decelerates (the yellow area in the picture below).

The second one, and most important, is the “safety field” or “protective field”, in case an obstacle is
detected by the laser in this field, the robot must achieve a complete stop (the red area in the picture
above). This is the only field that contributes to the robot safety certification.

Some laser scanners could have more fields (see the orange one) that can be used as an additional
warning field, for example, to have an intermediate speed reduction before stopping the vehicle.

These fields, warning field and safety field define the “monitored area”.

Video:
Monitoring automatic
guided vehicles (AGV) -
wi t h Safe Motion Control
f r o m SICK

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Safety Laser Scanner or Collision Avoidance System

Picture by courtesy of SICK Inc

SICK Safety Laser Scanner Range.

Picture courtesy of SICK, Inc.

The design of the safety field depends on many factors, such as surrounding area and stopping
capability (e.g., vehicle speed, pay- load, and floor conditions).

Every point of the robot path must have a specific protective field to ensure that time and distance to
vehicle stoppage will avoid any contact with obstacles.

Time (and distance) needed to stop an mobile robot travelling at 2 meters/ second with 1000 kg payload
is completely different than the time needed to stop robot travelling at 1 meter/second with 200 kg
payload. The inertia involved is completely different in both cases. Think back to your physics classes on
momentum, velocity, acceleration, mass, and friction.

Of course, in the first case you will need a longer

protective field in order to allow the vehicle to stop in
time before contacting the obstacle.

The mobile platform will continue with its automatic

operation approximately three seconds after the
obstacle is removed from the protective field.

Picture by courtesy of SICK Inc

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

The Safety Laser Scanners monitor the associated protective field following the instructions given by the
Safety PLC.

The Safety PLC must cut the power to the motor wheel for stop- ping the vehicle whenever needed.

If we had safety-related bumpers or inclinometers or single-beam photoelectric safety switches, etc., all
of them would be linked and monitored by the Safety PLC.

SAFETY LASER EMERGENCY SAFETY LASER

SCANNER STOP DEVICE SCANNER

SAFETY PLC

SAFETY LASER SAFETY

SCANNER ENCODER

DRIVE
WHEEL

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Robotic Forklift Guide

Mobile Robot Operating Zone Classification

Until now, we have provided and described details about the risk reduction measures of the AGV vehicle
itself. But what about safety related to the whole AGV application? More specifically, what about safety
related to the AGV installed in a defined environment?

There are some best practices that AGV integrators should follow while installing an AGV system.

In some cases, it is not possible for the AGV manufacturer to fulfill all of the safety requirements.
Therefore, every AGV application should have a subsequent risk assessment performed and agreed
upon between the integrator and user.

It is very important to develop and delivery training to all

individuals exposed to the AGV application.

We can distinguish five different AGV operation zones depending on the safety system conditions:

Operating Zone
Operating Hazard Zone
Restricted Zone
Confined Zones
Load TransferArea
These zones depend on:

The clearance between the AGV (or its load) contour and the nearest fixed structure.

The presence of an active safety-related detection device in the travel direction.

Hazard and/or restricted zones shall be designated as such by the user and system integrator during the
design, installation, and start up phases. After installation, it is the responsibility of the user to make sure
that these zones are continually and clearly marked by floor/ground markings, lights, or other
designations.

Confusion with other awareness markings and signs must be avoided to provide the highest level of
understanding by the ex- posed individuals.

Areas of clearance of less than 0.5 m may present a risk to person- nel. Before the mobile platform
enters hazard zones and restrict- ed areas, speed must be reduced and an audible warning must be
activated.

The table below shows zone classification depending on clear- ances, speed, and status of the safety
device(s).

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

C1 C2 C3 Safety Zone Speed

(in mm) (in mm) (in mm) device Type (m/s)

Active Operating Rated Speed

>500 >500 >500
Inactive Hazard 0.3

Active Hazard 0.7

>500 >500 <500
Inactive Hazard 0.3

Active Hazard 1.2

<500 and
>500 >500
>100
Inactive Hazard 0.3

C1 and C2 are the clearance Active Hazard 0.7

<500 and
between the truck and the >500 <500
>100
Inactive Hazard 0.3
continu- ous fixed closed
Active Operating Rated Speed
structure.
>500 <100 >500
Inactive Hazard 0.3
C3 is the clearance from the Active Hazard 0.7
current position to the fixed >500 <100 <500
Inactive Hazard 0.3
closed structure/object in the
direction of travel. <500 and
Active Hazard 1.2
<500 and >100 >500
>100
Inactive Restricted 0.3

Active Hazard 0.3

<500 and
<500 and >100 <500
>100
Inactive Restricted 0.3

Active Hazard 1.2

<500 and
<100 >500
>100
Inactive Restricted 0.3

Active Hazard 0.3

<500 and
<100 <500
>100
Inactive Restricted 0.3

Active Hazard Rated Speed

<100 <100 >500
Inactive Hazard 0.3

Active Hazard 0.3

<100 <100 <500
Inactive Restricted 0.3

Safe AGV Forklift is the efficient safety solution for

automated guided vehicles (AGVs) with lifting forks.
Installation on automated lifting fork vehicles with a drive
wheel is easy. The speed and direction-independent
protective field switching of the safety laser scanner
prevents stops and is gentle on wear and tear parts.
Previous solutions prevent automated loading and
unloading compliant with standards because the
protective field of the laser scanner was violated by the
lifting fork. Thanks to the use of the safety encoders, the
vehicle can continue to move with the lifting fork lowered
at a safely reduced speed. This increases productivity and
enables fully-automated and safe operation of AGVs with
lifting forks.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Operating Zone
The recommended clearance between an AGV including its load, and any external structure must be a
minimum of 0.5 m (19.7 inches). This clearance must be maintained between obstructions and vehicles
(including loads).

In the operating zones, the safety device in the direction of move- ment must be active.

As you can see in the table above, if we have one side with clear- ance less than 100 mm, the zone is
considered operating if the other two clearances are wider than 500 mm and the safety de- vice is
active.

C1>500

C2>500

AGV
DIRECTION

C2>500

In this case, the Automatic Pallet Mover is running close to a wall with clearance less than 100 mm.

On the other side, the clearance is more than 500 mm.

The safety laser scanner is active with the protective field long enough to detect a person and stop
before contact.

The max speed permitted is the rated speed.

When the vehicle stops, the person can always leave the area along the C1 side. There is an “escape
route”.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Operating Hazard Zone

A hazard zone is an area where the clearance is slightly less than half a meter, but you can still
manoeuver in the aisles between the vehicle.

A hazard zone is an area with inadequate clearance or a zone which cannot be protected by personnel
detection means.

If there is no active safety laser scanner, the maximum allowed speed is 0.3 m/s. In this case, all the
zones are classified as hazard zone.

C1<500 AND >100

C2>500

AGV DIRECTION

C1<500 AND >100

In this case the Automatic Pallet Mover is running close to both walls with clearance less than 100 mm.

The operator still has some space to escape, but it is limited.

The safety laser scanner is active with the protective field long enough to detect a person and stop before
contact. This is clearly a hazardous operation, and the max speed should be 1.2 m/s.

If the safety laser scanner is not active, the zone should be classi- fied as restricted with max speed
allowance of 0.3 m/s.

Hazard zones:

Must be clearly indicated by suitable signs or ground markings.

Mobile robots must emit additional audible and / or visual
warnings.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Restricted Areas
A zone with inadequate clearance that can’t be protected personnel detection means, must be
designated “restricted zone”.

If there isn’t an escape route for a pedestrian, the vehicle path must be considered a restricted area.

The user and system integrator must agree on appropriate risk reduction measures for this situation.

If an emergency stop device can be fitted, it

must be located on the vehicle within a 600

mm reach of the operator.

In cases where the emergency stop device can’t be reached (e.g., a forked vehicle traveling in reverse
for load deposit), personnel must be subject to verifiable safety and operating training.

Examples are Block storage and Very Narrow Aisle Restricted zone should:

a) be clearly marked
b) limit access to authorized trained personnel
c) be contained within perimeter fixed guards with a moveable guard for access by authorized personnel

Confined zones
Confined zones are zones inside perimeter safeguarding without speed limitation and where vehicles do
not have any personnel detection device.

Basically, vehicles run as fast as possible because personnel are not present.

Load Transfer Area

The load transfer can take place only in the designated position. If the area is not designed to prevent
personnel to be endan- gered, the area shall be considered as an operating hazard zone.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

5. What sensors do forklift 2D LiDAR for

Navigation LiDAR for
robots use? object
detection

Sensors are an indispensable part of mobile robots. Fork height

Sensors are their “eyes and ears”. sensors

Without good, reliable and affordable sensors, we

would not have the super performant mobile robots
that we have today. Load on
board
Mobile robots count on many types of sensors for their detection
basic functions, like navigation, guidance, safety,
material handling, obstacle avoidance, etc.

In this chapter we will discover what are the main

sensors used by the robotic forklifts and their different Safety
Scanner
applications. Here you have a quick recap table.

Function Type of Sensor Application

Safe 2D Lidar Safe personnel detection
Bumper Vehicle stoppage if contact
Safety Sensors
Vehicle speed and steering
Encoder
detection

Environment 2D & 3D Lidar, Ultrasonic,

Avoid impacts with objects
Perception Camera, Radar

2D & 3D Lidar, Ultrasonic, Mapping, Localization and

Navigation and Camera, Radar Navigation
Localization Line sensors (magentic,
Navigation
inductive, optic sensors)
Cameras, 2D or 3D LiDAR,
Pallet pocket detection
Ultrasonic
Optical distance sensors or
Load Handling Wire draw encoders
Fork Height Sensors

Photocells, ultrasonic, Ensure the right load

inductive positioning
RFID, Laser or Image Transported material
Identification based bar code scanners identification

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

What are the main types of sensors used by mobile robots?

Safety Sensors
Since their introduction more than 30 years ago, Automated Guided Vehicles are mobile, collaborative
machines that share traffic routes with manned industrial trucks and people.

As explained in the previous chapter, reliable person detection systems are required to prevent danger
to people in these surroundings. Due to international standards such as EN ISO 3691-4, ANSI B56.5 or
the latest ANSI/RIA R15.08 (for autonomous mobile robots), high safety requirements are placed on
person-detection systems.

The most important sensors under this category are the Safety Laser Scanners that must comply with
most restrictive safety standards.

Obstacle Sensors - Environment Perception

Collisions between automated guided vehicles and objects can be extremely costly and significantly
reduce system throughput.

It is not mandatory to cover3D-360° by rated personnel safety scanners (the “yellow ones”). On the
other hand, it would be wise to protect as much as possible the vehicle against potential risks like
suspended loads or goods protruding from a shelf.

In this case, there other types of obstacle sensor systems, such as multi-layer LiDAR sensors or vision
cameras with TOF technology, which can be utilized to detect these objects. 3D sensors also measure
the position of goods in real time, optimizing the load handling process of goods.

Navigation Sensors and Localization

Industrial truck automation concentrates on how the vehicle navigates. If the vehicle is unable to localize
its position, it is unable to navigate. The vehicle can determine its position on a physical track or with the
aid of a map-based localization system (SLAM).

Depending on the robot navigation technology, we could have different types of sensors such as LiDAR,
magnetic tape sensors, cameras, etc.

Load Handling and Identification

Load handling involves high demands not only on automated vehicles but on sensors as well.

The sensors must be able to detect different surfaces and load geometries so that the load can be
correctly identified and positioned.

Non-contact identification systems offer full traceability for goods transported with automated vehicles.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Environment perception sensors

The “safety” specification indicated in the previous point is related to “human or personnel” safety and
involves situations that could represent a risk for operators in the working area.

Nevertheless, there are other situations that could not strictly be understood as human safety but that
could raise other kinds of risk for the infrastructures, materials or the robot itself.

Driverless robots can be equipped with collision-avoidance sensors that are not rated as “safety” devices.

For example, robotic forklifts could be small compact LiDAR like the
LMS1xx 2D sensors installed on the sides of automated guided vehicles,
offering reliable detection of objects protruding from shelves, thus
preventing collisions.

We can also find 2D LiDAR like the TiM1xx and TiM3xx with scanning
ranges of 3 m to 10 m used for two-dimensional object detection.

Pictures by courtesy of SICK Inc

3D vision sensors enable definable spaces to be

constantly monitored. For example the Visionary-T
DT 3D vision sensor can create a point cloud
showing all the objects visible in a monitored space.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Environment perception sensors

A less expensive alternative are ultrasonic sensors that reliably detect objects in the vehicle path. The
work principle is the same as the one we have for ultrasonic sensors in car bumpers.

In contrast to optical scanners, such as LiDARs, ultrasonic sensors detect objects regardless of their
surface quality and do not suffer light conditions.

With scanning ranges of up to 8 m, the sensors

of the UM18 and UM30 product families are
predestined for use in automated guided
vehicles.

Want to know more about environment perception sensors?

Click here
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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Navigation and Localization Sensors

Robotic Forklifts navigate performing different technologies (mainly laser triangulation and natural contour
navigation). Depending on these technologies, the robots could mount different navigation sensors.

2D LiDAR

The 360° horizontal 2D LiDAR detect reflector marks

within the working environment, measures the distance
away with high precision and provides the on-board
computer with precise information about the vehicle's
absolute position.

Tipically 2D LiDARs can target reflectors and contours

up to 70m away. Multiple measurements made on each
reflector or contour are converted into precise robotic
forklift coordinates.

Picture by courtesy of SICK Inc

The devices in the NAV3xx product family are characterized by their high
flexibility and suitability for a wide variety of applications. The NAV3xx
series are up to the challenge and collect reliable data throughout an entire
area up to a maximum distance of 250 meters.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Load Handling Sensors

Forklift AGV - Pallet Pocket Detector

Robot Forklifts have some special requirements regarding sensors. For example, the Pallet Pocket
Detection sensors (also known as pallet finder) that are required to detect the pockets in the pallet
to accurately pick up the pallet.

The task assigned to the robot is therefore to detect pallets in a certain loading area or shelf,
compute their positions and angles and engage them with a very low failure rate.

Mobile robots must be accurate enough to navigate the forks into the pallet pocket.

Pallet detection is made by three main types of sensors:

• Camera (monocular or stereo)

• 2D or 3D time-of-flight Laser Range Finder (LRF). Lasers that can operate in complete
darkness are not affected by lighting conditions.

• Ultrasonic sensors

The MRS1000 3D LiDAR sensor delivers

measurement data on four layers, thereby detecting
pallet openings, to name one example. It allows for
the corresponding positioning of transport forks
during the approach and reception of the pallet
without stopping the AGV. The recorded
measurement data can be used to create a profile.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Automated Forklift - Fork Height Sensors

Automated Forklifts require precise positioning of loads and effective control of rapid movements
for transporting materials. It is mandatory to count on resilient sensors to guarantee precise and
reliable operations.

There are two types of forks height sensors:

• Optical distance sensors are based on time-of-flight technology and enable continuous
determination of the fork height without causing wear. These sensors are used up to a height of
12m.

• Wire draw encoders are a combination of wire draw mechanism and encoder. They record the
drum rotation, which is proportional to the length, and provide the corresponding data. Typically,
draw encoders have a maximum measuring length of up to 10m, perfect for positioning the lift
height of forklift trucks.

Empty Bay 1D/2D/3D Sensors

Automated storage and retrieval of loads, particularly at great heights, requires precise detection of
the storage space and load carrier.

Thanks to the 1D/2D/3D sensors, empty bay detection as well as localization and measurement of
the loading position can be done quickly in a complete room volume without the sensor having to be
moved. The load is reliably transferred while taking into consideration the current situation.

1D Photoelectric 2D LiDAR 3D Snapshot

Proximity or distance TiM 2D LiDAR Visionary-T

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Robotic Forklift Guide

Load On Board Sensors

Picking up, securing and safely transporting cargo is one of the most important tasks of any
automated guided vehicle (AGV) or autonomous mobile robot (AMR). In order to successfully
complete this task, the proper sensors are required.

There are several methods and sensors to ensure the right load positioning. All of them
works with the same principle: If the load is not in the desired position, sensors will send a signal to
disable the vehicle movement.

For example, we have mentioned pallet pocket detection before. Once the robotic forklift has
correctly navigated into the pallet, the box, the bin, etc., it is mandatory to ensure that the load is
located in the correct position to avoid problems during its transportation.

Self-driving forklifts can mount photoelectric proximity

sensors on the forks targeting the ceiling. If the load is
located too close to the edge, the photocell beam would be
engaged, stopping the vehicle.

Ultrasonic sensors are a great option for

detecting boxes, bins, wire mesh crates
and totes.

They emit a sound cone that offers a wide

angle of detection and is independent of
color and material.

It means that the ultrasonic sensor will be

able to accurately sense and detect the
cargo regardless of whether the object is
black, reflective, solid or even a slotted bin.

Ultrasonic sensors UM18

Another solution is to use inductive sensors for detecting metallic unit loads.

Inductive sensors are able to sense ferrous and nonferrous metals like aluminum. The range for an
inductive sensor is generally smaller than other sensing methods (under 100mm). The small sensing
range and detection of only metal help ensure the mobile robot is in the right position and has the
correct cargo.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

6. What pallet storage methods can be performed by Robotic

Forklifts?
The main types of pallet handling are:

• Pallet racking
• Gravity racking
• Mobile racking
• Drive-in racking
• Block stacking

a) Pallet Racking

Pallet racking is the most common type of storage rack used in warehouses.

Pallet racking can be used in small warehouses and in large logistics centers. Unlike other racking
systems, pallet racking is characterized by reduced initial investment and operating costs.

Self-driving forklifts can manage racks , but there are a few things to take into consideration while
designing Racks for mobile robots applications.

Unit load Sideway and above tolerance

Standard tolerances pallet racking for fluent load handing

are:
A: Distance between pallets: 3 inch (75 mm)
B: Distance between load top and beam above:
minimum 3,9 inch (100 mm)

Usually racking operations are managed by

counterbalanced or reach truck AGVs because they do not
need supports beneath the forks so the floor can be used
for stocking material.

If the rack allows to introduce support legs, in some cases,

it is possible to use AGVs such as pallet stackers or pallet
jacks.

Distance between pallets one behind the other back-to-

back

Minimum distance needed is 3,9 inch (100 mm)

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

b) Gravity Racking
Gravity flow racking is used to store products quickly on a roller conveyor. Gravity racking hasn’t aisles,
so racks are utilized efficiently without waste of space.

Gravity racking is more expensive than standard racking, but its ROI is fast because they save space,
time, and labor.

Gravity racking is the best option for first-in, first-out (FIFO) management because the goods are moved
to the loading location by gravity.

Gravity racks can be managed by Automated forklifts, but there are some important things to take into
consideration.

• Do your pallets have enough big pockets for forks or do you need a tilting mast?
• What is the needed side and vertical tolerance?
• Does your robot have support legs or should it be counterbalanced?

Gravity racks are inclined so the space for the forks is vertically limited. In other words, a gravity rack
must have fork pockets or the forks mounted in the robot must be able to tilt. Of course, tilting forks are
more expensive.

Regarding side tolerance and vertical tolerances, they are the same as what’s needed for the
standard racking 3 inch (75 mm) lateral and 3,9 inch (100 mm) vertical to the next rack beam.

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Robotic Forklift Guide

c) Mobile Racking
The mobile system consists of a common pallet rack mounted on a mobile platform. The shelves move
on rails, so aisles are opened or as required.

Autonomous Forklifts can communicate with the WMS and mobile rack plc to coordinate the aisles
opening/closing. It is important as well to have established communication protocol (via OPC, TCP/IP,
I/O, etc.) to ensure the robot moves into the aisle when is completely open and that the aisles are
closed when the AGV is out from them.

The type of robotic forklift will depend on the aisle width, storage heigh and payload. So, we could
have VNAs, Reach Trucks or counterbalance forklifts.

Another important topic regarding the mobile rack stopping accuracy is that it should be done in +/- 3
cm (1,2 inch).

Mobile racks count on many moving pillars. Laser Guided Vehicles need fixed reflectors to navigate, so
for this reason it could be necessary to leave a “navigation window” in the height of 2m/3m (6-10 ft) to
allow the laser beam pass through this window to find fix reflectors installed in the AGV working area.

d) Drive-in Racking
The main advantage of drive-in racking is the high density of rack storage due to the elimination of
aisles between rows. Drive-in racking is particularly advantageous in warehouses where storage space
costs are very high.

Drive-in racking is the best solution for storing large quantities of similar products or products with low
turnover.

The best solution for drive-in racking is frontal forklifts.

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

7. How much do robotic forklifts cost?

Driver salary
(cost/hour) AGV Forklift vehicle cost

Forklift vehicle cost

Number of vehicles

Number of working hours

Management Software

Number of drivers
Installation /
Commissioning
Number of vehicles
Maintenance

Maintenance

The overall robotic forklift system cost is composed of several elements:

The type and number of robots

Fleet Management Software Cost

Installation and Commissioning cost

Additional system costs

.

Mobile Robot System Maintenance Cost

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 Robotic Forklift Guide

Calculating the number of mobile robots is not easy. The final number depends on many factors such as
distance, number of missions, stacking height, vehicle speed, number of manoeuvres for pick and drop
operations, fleet bottlenecks, and so on.

Number of vehicles
On average 1 manned forklift = 1,3 or 1,5 robotic orklifts

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Robotic
Forklift
Manufacturers
 Robotic Forklift Guide
COMPANY ORIGIN PALLET MOVER/STACKER COUNTERBALANCED REACH TRUCK VNA
AGILOX AUSTRIA X X
AGVE AB SWEDEN
AMERICA IN MOTION (AIM) USA X X X
ANRONAUT SWITZERLAND X X X X
ASTI MOBILE ROBOTICS SPAIN X X
AUTOGUIDE USA X
AXTER AUTOMATION FRANCE X X X
BA SYSTEMES (ALSTEF) FRANCE X X X X
BALYO FRANCE X X X X
BLEICHER AUTOMATION GERMANY X
CASSIOLI ITALY X X X
CASUN CHINA X X X
DEMATIC USA X X X X
DIMASIMMA ITALY X X X X
DS AUTOMOTION AUSTRIA X X
EK ROBOTICS GERMANY X X X X
ELETTRIC80 ITALY X X X X
ESATROLL SWITZERLAND X X X
EUROTEC NETHERLANDS X
F3 DESIGN-NIPPER NETHERLANDS X
GEEK+ CHINA X X X
GIDEON CROAZIA X
GLOBAL AGV DENMARK
GRIDBOTS INDIA X
GUOZI CHINA X X
HANGCHA CHINA X X X
HYSTER-YALE USA X X X X
IDENTPRO GERMANY
i-COW ROBOTICS CHINA X X
JBT USA X X X X
JUNGHEINRICH GERMANY X X X X
KARTER NETHERLANDS X
K.HARTWALL FINLAND X X
KIVNON SPAIN X
KUMATECH NETHERLANDS X X X
LIFTCO GREECE X X
LINDE GERMANY X X X X
LOGISNEXT (ROCLA) FINLAND X X X X
MABO E&A NETHERLANDS X X
MAD AUTOMATION ITALY X X
MAX AGV SWEDEN X X X
METRALABS GERMANY X
MLR (ROFA) GERMANY X X
MOBILE INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS (MIR) DENMARK X
MOVIGO NETHERLANDS X
OCEANEERING USA X X
OCME ITALY X X X
OTTO MOTORS CANADA X
PROXAUT ITALY X X X
ROBOS AUTOMATED GUIDED
TURKEY X X
VEHICLES
SEEGRID USA X X
SIASUN CHINA X
SMARLOGY SPAIN X X X X
SOLVING FINLAND X X X X
SSI SCHAEFER - MOTUM BELGIUM X X
STOCKLIN SWITZERLAND X
SYNERSIGHT SPAIN X X
SYSTEM LOGISTICS ITALY X
TECNOFERRARI ITALY X X
TOYOTA SWEDEN X X X X
TRANSBOTICS - SCOTT
USA X
AUTOMATION
TRANSOLT TURKEY X
VISIONNAV CHINA X X X
VECNA ROBOTICS USA X X
WELLWIT ROBOTICS CHINA X X
WEWO EUROPE NETHERLANDS X

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