2.

5 The Cell Cycle

As eukaryotic cells grow and divide, they move through three distinct stages.
cell cycle the three stages (interphase, These stages make up what is known as the cell cycle (Figure 1). The stages
mitosis, and cytokinesis) through which of the cell cycle are interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Cells grow and
a cell passes as it grows and divides
prepare to divide during interphase. Cell division occurs during mitosis and
To watch an animation of the cytokinesis. You will learn about each of these three stages in more detail in
cell cycle, this section.
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mitosis cytokinesis

cycle begins

cell
cell prepares to divide division
cell grows

e
int er phas

cell receives instructions

DNA replicates regarding division
Figure 1 The cell cycle consists of three stages: interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Interphase is
the time between cell divisions when a cell grows.

The length of time it takes to complete one cycle varies. Embryonic cells
divide rapidly. Some of your body cells may take as much as 30 h for a cycle.
Very specialized cells, such as adult nerve cells, may never divide at all.

Interphase
Interphase is the longest stage for most cells, but it is not a resting stage.
interphase the phase of the cell cycle During interphase, the cell is carrying out all life activities except division.
during which the cell performs its normal These activities include growth, cellular respiration, and any specialized
functions and its genetic material is copied
functions of that cell type. During this stage, the genetic material, DNA
in preparation for the cell division
(deoxyribonucleic acid), is in very long, thin, invisible strands. When the
cell prepares for cell division, the strands are duplicated so that there are two
identical strands of the genetic material. More organelles are also formed.
mitosis the stage of the cell cycle in
which the DNA in the nucleus is divided;
the first part of cell division
Cell Division
Cell division occurs in two stages: mitosisthe division of the contents
cytokinesis the stage in the cell cycle
when the cytoplasm divides to form two of the nucleusand cytokinesisthe division of the rest of the cell, such
identical cells; the final part of cell division as cytoplasm, organelles, and cell membrane (Figure 2). Each cell division
daughter cell one of two genetically
produces two genetically identical cells called daughter cells.
identical, new cells that result from the Mitosis is composed of four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
division of one parent cell telophase (PMAT). The cells move gradually from one phase to the next.

40 Chapter 2 • Cells, Cell Division, and Cell Specialization NEL

 Figure 2 The three stages of the cell
cycle in which a parent cell grows,
duplicates its DNA, and divides into two
daughter cells.

Interphase Mitosis
DNA is copied A complete set Cytokinesis
of DNA collects Cell divides
at either end into two
of the cell daughter cells

Cell division

Prophase
As interphase ends, the cell enters the first phase of mitosis—prophase. The prophase the first stage of mitosis, in
long strands of DNA condense into a compact form, becoming visible under which the chromosomes become visible
and the nuclear membrane dissolves
a microscope as chromosomes (Figure 3(a)). Because the DNA was copied
during interphase, each chromosome consists of two identical strands called chromosome a structure in the cell
nucleus made up of a portion of the cell’s
sister chromatids. An individual strand is called a chromatid. The sister
DNA, condensed into a structure that is
chromatids are held together by a centromere. The nuclear membrane visible under a light microscope
dissolves during prophase.
chromatid one of two identical strands of
DNA that make up a chromosome
Metaphase
centromere the structure that holds
During metaphase, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
chromatids together as chromosomes
(Figure 3(b)). This stage is easily recognized. All the chromosomes must be
in the line for mitosis to continue. metaphase the second stage of mitosis,
in which the chromosomes line up in the
middle of the cell

LEARNING Tip
Stages and Phases
There are three stages in the cell cycle:
interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
Mitosis is divided into four phases. Even
though “interphase” ends with -phase,
do not get confused: it is a stage, not a
phase!

Figure 3 The first two phases of

(a) (b)
mitosis: (a) prophase and (b) metaphase

NEL 2.5 The Cell Cycle 41

 Anaphase
anaphase the third phase of mitosis, in In anaphase, the centromere splits and the sister chromatids separate
which the sister chromatids separate into (Figure 4(a)). They are now called “daughter chromosomes.” These daughter
daughter chromosomes, and each moves
chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell. Under the microscope, they
toward opposite ends of the cells
appear to be pulled apart.

Telophase
telophase the final phase of mitosis, Telophase is the final stage of mitosis (Figure 4(b)). The daughter
in which the chromatids unwind and a chromosomes stretch out, become thinner, and are no longer visible. A new
nuclear membrane reforms around the
nuclear membrane forms around each group of daughter chromosomes. At
chromosomes at each end of the cell
this stage, the cell appears to have two nuclei.
To see an animation of mitosis,
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(a) (b)
Figure 4 The last two phases of mitosis: (a) anaphase and (b) telophase

Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division. The cytoplasm divides,
producing two genetically identical daughter cells. The process of cytokinesis
is slightly different in plant and animal cells. In a plant cell, a plate between
the daughter cells develops into a new cell wall (Figure 5(a)). In an animal
cell, the cell membrane is pinched off in the centre (Figure 5(b)).

Figure 5 Cytokinesis in plant and

animal cells. (a) In a plant cell, a plate
develops into a new cell wall, sealing
off the contents of the new cells from
each other. (b) In an animal cell, the cell
membrane is pinched off in the centre
(a) (b)
to form two new cells.

Moving the Chromosomes

During mitosis, the movements of chromosomes are controlled by spindle
fibres: specialized structures that attach to the centromeres of each
chromosome. They begin forming during late interphase. During prophase
To learn more about the formation and metaphase, the spindle fibres pull the chromosomes into the middle
and action of spindle fibres, of the cell. Finally, during anaphase they pull the daughter chromosomes
GO TO NELSON SCIENCE toward opposite ends of the cell.
42 Chapter 2 • Cells, Cell Division, and Cell Specialization NEL
Cell Division—The Big Picture
Figure 6 shows how the stages of cell division fit into the cell cycle.

end of interphase prophase metaphase anaphase

telophase
The cell has grown. The DNA The chromosomes After the chromo- In the last phase of
cytokinesis
New organelles condenses, line up along the somes line up mitosis, the
have formed. DNA becoming shorter middle of the cell. along the middle chromosomes During cytokinesis,
has been replicated and thicker and The nuclear of the cell, each reach opposite the cell’s beginning of
in the nucleus. forming chromo- membrane chromosome ends of the cell cytoplasm divides. interphase
somes. Each completely separates into two and start to In an animal cell,
the cell is pinched The two new
chromosome is dissolves. identical single- lengthen. A new
off in the centre, daughter cells
made up of two stranded parts nuclear membrane
forming two new enter interphase,
identical chroma- (formerly the begins to form
daughter cells. In a and the cell cycle
tids. The nuclear chromatids; now around the
plant cell, a plate continues.
membrane starts the daughter chromosomes at
to dissolve, chromosomes). each end of forms that
releasing the The spindle fibres the cell. becomes a cell
chromosomes into pull the daughter wall, sealing off
the cytoplasm. chromosomes the contents of the
toward each end of new cells from
the cell. each other.
Figure 6 The stages of cell division

Checkpoints in the Cell Cycle DID YOU KNOW?

During the cell cycle, the cell’s activities are controlled at specific points, or Discovering Cell Cycle Checkpoints
The discovery of the key proteins that
checkpoints. At each checkpoint, specialized proteins monitor cell activities
regulate the cell cycle merited the
and the cell’s surroundings. These proteins send messages to the nucleus. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
The nucleus then instructs the cell whether or not to divide. A cell should 2001. This prize was jointly awarded to
remain in interphase and not divide if three researchers: Leland H. Hartwell
from the United States and Tim Hunt
• signals from surrounding cells tell the cell not to divide and Sir Paul M. Nurse from the United
• there are not enough nutrients to provide for cell growth Kingdom.

• the DNA within the nucleus has not been replicated GO TO NELSON SCIENCE

• the DNA is damaged

If the DNA is damaged and it is early enough in the cell cycle, there may
be enough time for the cell to repair the damaged DNA. If there is too much
damage to the DNA, the cell is usually destroyed. This is a vital process that
helps keep organisms healthy.

NEL 2.5 The Cell Cycle 43

 T RY THIS IDENTIFY THE PHASES OF MITOSIS
SKILLS: Observing, Evaluating, Communicating SKILLS HANDBOOK
5., 6.A.
Explore an online resource to help you identify cells in different A. Which phase of mitosis did you have the most trouble
stages and phases of the cell cycle. identifying? How will you identify this phase in the future? K/U

B. Compare the proportion of cells in the various stages and

GO TO NELSON SCIENCE
phases of the cell cycle. Write a statement summarizing the
percentage of cells in the different stages and phases. K/U
1. Examine the images of cells at various stages of the cell
cycle on the suggested websites. Study the descriptions of C. Draw a circle graph showing the percentage of cells in each
the different phases of mitosis. Identify which phases are phase of mitosis. K/U
illustrated. D. Which phase of mitosis takes the most time? Explain how
2. Calculate the percentage of cells in each stage or phase. you arrived at your answer. T/I

IN SUMMARY
• Cells follow a cell cycle that includes growth and • Mitosis is followed by cytokinesis, which results
preparation for division (interphase) followed by in the entire cell dividing into two new daughter
cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis). cells.
• In interphase, the cell carries out all of the • Animal cell cytokinesis features the cell pinching
normal cell activities, including copying its DNA. off to form two daughter cells.
• Mitosis is the division of the nucleus into • Plant cell cytokinesis features a new cell wall
two identical nuclei. Mitosis has four phases: forming to separate the two daughter cells.
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
(PMAT).

CHECK YOUR LEARNING

1. During which stage of the cell cycle does replication of the 5. Which stage or phase of the cell cycle corresponds to
DNA occur? K/U each of the descriptions below? K/U
2. Why is it necessary that the cell copies its DNA? K/U (a) A new cell wall begins to form.
3. Why are chromosomes visible during mitosis but not at (b) The membrane of the nucleus dissolves.
other times? K/U (c) Daughter chromosomes begin to separate.
4. Under a microscope, some cells can appear to be (d) The cell begins to pinch together along its centre.
between metaphase and anaphase (Figure 7). Explain this (e) Thick chromosome threads are visible in two distinct
observation. T /I regions of the cell.
(f) The cell grows and copies its DNA.
6. Create a table to summarize what happens during the
three stages of the cell cycle. K/U C
7. Biology books used to describe interphase as the “resting
phase.” Based on what we know now, what was wrong
with this term? K/U

Figure 7
44 Chapter 2 • Cells, Cell Division, and Cell Specialization NEL