lOMoARcPSD|20911123

EC 1 Lecture notes 2016 Final Version

Electrical Engineering (Scientific College of Design)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

LECTURE NOTES
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS I
(Basic Electrical Engineering)

COURSE INFORMATION

Academic field: ENERGY

Level: Bachelor 2

ECTS: 04

Semester/Year: 1/ 2016-2017

TEXT BOOK AND REFERENCE

[1] J. David Irwin, R. Mark Nelms, Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, 2008 John Wiley & Sons
Inc.
[2] John O'Malley, Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Basic Circuit Analysis,
Second edition, McGraw-Hill
[3] Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, fifth
edition, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-338057-5.

INSTRUCTOR

Instructor: Dr. Nguyen Xuan Truong

E-mail : [email protected] Tel : +84. 968-456-006
Add: R.807, USTH building, N°18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi
Notice: This document is intended for internal use only to teaching at USTH, shall not be
distributed outside of University, and not to be distributed in stores.

NGUYEN Xuan Truong (1983) was born in Thanh Hoa, Vietnam. He received his Engineer
diploma degree in electrical engineering from the Hanoi University of Science and
Technology, Vietnam in 2007; M.S degree in electrical engineering from the Grenoble
Institute of Technology, Grenoble, France, in 2009 and Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering from the Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse, France, in 01/2014. He is
currently lecturer and researcher of the Energy department, at the University of Science and
Technology of Hanoi (USTH), Vietnam. His research interests are in the fields: distributed
generation (particularly photovoltaics), building energy management, energy conservation
and efficiency, micro smart-grid; electric vehicle charging station, electric vehicle-grid
integration and its services. He works also in the Clean Energy and Sustainable
Development Laboratory, co-founded the electrical engineering research team.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 1|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

CONTENT
COURSE INFORMATION ................................................................................................................. 1
TEXT BOOK AND REFERENCE...................................................................................................... 1
INSTRUCTOR..................................................................................................................................... 1
THEORETICAL COURSE CONTENTS ........................................................................................... 4
EXPERIMENTAL COURSE CONTENTS ........................................................................................ 4
GRADING SYSTEM (…/20) .............................................................................................................. 4
IMPORTANAT RULES ...................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1: Fundamental Circuits Quantities and Basic Laws .................................................... 6
1. Electric Circuit ................................................................................................................... 6
2. Circuit Variables ................................................................................................................ 6
a. Electric Charge ...................................................................................................................... 6
b. Electric Current .................................................................................................................. 6
c. Voltage (or potential difference) ........................................................................................... 9
d. Electrical Power ............................................................................................................... 10
e. Energy ................................................................................................................................. 11
3. Circuit Elements .............................................................................................................. 11
a. Active Elements .................................................................................................................. 12
b. Passive Elements ............................................................................................................. 13
c. Measuring Devices .............................................................................................................. 15
4. Basic Laws ....................................................................................................................... 16
4.1. Ohm’s Law ...................................................................................................................... 16
4.2. Kirchhoff’s Laws ............................................................................................................. 17
5. EXERCISES .................................................................................................................... 19
6. PROBLEMS (homework) ............................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 2: DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES ........................................................... 22
1. NODAL ANALYSIS....................................................................................................... 22
EXERCISES .............................................................................................................................. 23
PROBLEM (homework) ............................................................................................................ 29
2. LOOP ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................... 30
EXERCISES .............................................................................................................................. 31
NOTE: ........................................................................................................................................ 36
PROBLEM (homework) ............................................................................................................ 37
CHAPTER 3: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS CIRCUITS ......................................................... 38
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 38
2. ANALYSING OP-AMP CIRCUITS ............................................................................... 41
a. Nodal analysis is simplified by making some assumptions ................................................ 41
b. Ideal Op-amp ................................................................................................................... 41
3. PUPULART OP-AMP CIRCUITS ................................................................................. 42
3.1. Inverting Amplifiers ........................................................................................................ 42
3.2. Non-Inverting Amplifier .................................................................................................. 44
4. CIRCUITS WITH MULTIPLE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS .................................. 46
5. PROBLEMS .................................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 4: NETWORK THEOREMS ...................................................................................... 50
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 50
2. SUPERPOSITION ........................................................................................................... 51
3. THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS ............................................................ 52
4. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM ............................................................ 59

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 2|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

CHAPTER 5: FIRST- AND SECOND-ORDER TRANSIENT CIRCUITS ................................ 64

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 64
2. FIRST-ORDER CIRCUITS ............................................................................................ 64
2.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 64
2.2. THE NATURAL RESPONSE OF AN RC and RL CIRCUIT ........................................... 67
A. The source-free series RC circuit .......................................................................................... 67
B. The source-free series RL circuit .......................................................................................... 69
2.3. THE STEP RESPONSE OF RC AND RL CIRCUITS ...................................................... 71
3. SECOND-ORDER CIRCUITS ....................................................................................... 74
3.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 74
1. Contents ................................................................................................................................. 74
2. Notion..................................................................................................................................... 74
3. Solution steps ......................................................................................................................... 75
4. Finding initial values .............................................................................................................. 76
3.2. NATURAL RESPONSE OF A SERIES/PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT ............................. 80
A. The source-free series RLC circuit ....................................................................................... 80
B. The source-free parallel RLC Circuit .................................................................................... 83
3.3. STEP RESPONSE OF A SERIES/PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT ....................................... 85
A. The step response of a series RLC circuit ............................................................................. 85
B. The step response of a parallel RLC circuit .......................................................................... 86
4. PROBLEMS .................................................................................................................... 90

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 3|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

THEORETICAL COURSE CONTENTS

Fundamental Circuits Quantities, (Charge, Current, Voltage, Energy, Power, Sources; Circuit elements
1
(active and passive)
Basic Law: Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), & Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), Series &
2
Parallel Resistance and Voltage & Current Division
3 DC Circuit Analysis: Nodal Analysis (Node voltage method), Loop Analysis (mesh current method)
Operational Amplifier: Op-Amp Operation, Popular Op-Amp Circuit, Circuit with Multiple Operational
4
Amplifiers
Network Theorems: Superposition, Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits, Maximum Power Transfer
5
Theorem
6 First-order circuits (RC, RL circuits)
7 Second-order circuits (RLC circuits)

EXPERIMENTAL COURSE CONTENTS

Basic Measurement Techniques. Series Circuits and KVL. Parallel Circuits and KCL. Loading Effect and Whetstone
Bridge, R/2R Ladder Network. Internal Resistance, Thevenin Theorem and Norton Theorem. Power Transfer Theorem.
Voltage/Current behavior in Capacitors. Voltage Current behaviors in Inductors.

GRADING SYSTEM (…/20)

1 Attendance/Attitude 10 %
2 Exercise(s) 10 %
3 Practical (+ report) 15 %
4 Homework (+ report) 25 %
5 Final exam 40 %

IMPORTANAT RULES

You must attend AT LEAST 90% of the Practical Part (Lab.) TO PASS the course. If you missed the attendance of an
experiment, the result of its Report, Quiz and Other Works would be ZERO. The failure in the Practical and
Assignment Parts of the Course results in an F (<10/20) in the OVERALL GRADE.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 4|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Introduction
The lecture notes are written for internal use only (USTH – lecturer and student).
The following lecture notes are based on the topics described in the official syllabus of
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS I. The target audience for these lecture notes is students in the B2 in
Energy major of the Undergraduate school in USTH.
These lecture notes contain five main chapters. They cover most of the major topic areas, but are far
from comprehensive in scope. Students are still encouraged to consult one of the recommended text
books of [1], [2], and [3] for in depth explanations.
These lecture notes are devoted to DC circuits. The first two chapters, it covers the passive and
active elements, fundamental laws (Ohm, Kirchhoff) and theorems, circuit analysis techniques. An
introduction to operational amplifiers is presented in Chapter 3. A few examples and homework
problems in later chapters must be skipped. In the last chapter we perform what is normally referred
to as a transient analysis. We begin the analysis with first-order circuits—that is, those that contain
only a single storage element. When only a single storage element is present in the network, the
network can be described by a first-order differential equation. The analysis of first-order circuits
begins with the presentation of two techniques for performing a transient analysis: the differential
equation approach, in which a differential equation is written and solved for each network, and a
step-by-step approach, which takes advantage of the known form of the solution in every case. In
the second-order case, both an inductor and a capacitor are present simultaneously, and the network
is described by a second-order differential equation. Although the RLC circuits are more
complicated than the first-order single storage circuits, we will follow a development like that used
in the first-order case.
These lecture notes are a labor of Dr. Nguyen Xuan Truong, lecturer at Energy department of
University of Science and Technology of Hanoi. Many people have contributed, and I would like to
thank Dr. Tran Thanh Son from Electric Power University, Dr. Nguyen Dinh Quang from Institute
Energy Science/VAST (Co-Director, Energy department – USTH). This is a first version and I hope
these lecture notes will be improved with the contributions of additional instructors in the 2nd
version.
Hanoi, October 2016 – revised, October 2017.

Instructor

Dr. Nguyen Xuan Truong

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 5|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

CHAPTER 1: Fundamental Circuits Quantities and Basic Laws

1. Electric Circuit
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from one
point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection
is referred to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as an element.
Definition: An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
Basic quantities: current, voltage, power and energy.
Scientists usually draw electric circuits using symbols:

For example: an electric circuit with battery, lamp, and wire-conductor.

2. Circuit Variables
a. Electric Charge
The most elementary quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. The concept of electric
charge is the underlying principle for all electrical phenomena. Charge is an electrical property of
the atomic particles of which matter consists q(t ) , measured in coulombs [C]. The charge of an
electron is: q = −1.602 ×10-19 [C].
Two types of electric charge: Positive charge is carried by subatomic particles called protons, and
Negative charge by subatomic particles called electrons.
Law of Conservation of Charge: Charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred.
b. Electric Current
Electric current in a wire i (t ) is defined as the net amount of charge that passes through the wire per
unit time, (other: the time rate of change of charge), and is measured in amperes (A).
dq(t )
i (t ) 
dt

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 6|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Note 1:
• 1 ampere (A) = 1 coulomb/second (C/s).
• The charge transferred between time t1 and t 2 is obtained by:
t2
q(t )   idt
t1

• To talk about current, we need to specify two things: direction; amount

They are conveyed by: arrow; value (positive/negative)
- Current in circuits physically realized by movement of electrons.
- Direction of current must be specified by an arrow.
- By convention, current direction defined as flow of positive charge.
- Note that positive charge is not flowing physically.
- Electrons have negative charge.
- They move in the opposite direction of current.

Two kinds of Electric Current:

• An alternating current (AC) is a current that varies with time --- Figure a.
Such AC current is used in your household, to run the air conditioner, refrigerator, washing
machine, and other electric appliances.
• A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time --- Figure b.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 7|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Note 2: Typical current magnitude

Note 3: Current range and Effect on person

Ing,[mA] Tác hại đối với người

AC current, f = (50 - 60)[Hz] DC current
0,6 - 1,5 Faint tingle (Bắt đầu thấy tê) Generally, not perceptible (Chưa có
cảm giác)
2-3 Increase stinging sensation (Tê tăng Generally, no sensation (Chưa có cảm
mạnh) giác)
5-7 Muscle starts clamping (Bắp thịt bắt đầu Stinging sensation (Đau như bị kim
co) đâm)
8 - 10 Hand sticks to electrical object (Tay Increase temperature (Nóng tăng dần)
không rời vật có điện)
20 - 25 Hand sticks to electrical object, getting Muscle lamps and vibrates (Bắp thịt co
hard to breath (Tay không rời vật có và rung)
điện, bắt đầu khó thở)
50 - 80 Respiratory arrest, increase heart beat Difficult to breath and to take the hand
Tê liệt hô hấp, tim bắt đầu đập mạnh off the object (Tay khó rời vật có điện,
khó thở)
90 - 100 More than 3s, heart stops beating (Nếu Respiratory arrest (Hô hấp tê liệt)
kéo dài với t ≥ 3[s] tim ngừng đập)

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 8|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Note 4: Measuring current

Electric current is measured in amps (A) using an ammeter connected in series in the circuit

c. Voltage (or potential difference)

Voltage is the energy absorbed or expended as a unit charge moves from one point to the other.
- Sometimes called potential difference.
- Can be created by a separation of charge.
- Is a measure of the potential between two points.
- Voltage pushes charge in one direction.
- We use polarity (+ and – on batteries) to indicates which direction the charge is being pushed
Voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
The voltage between two points a and b in a circuit is denoted by v ab can be interpreted in two

ways:
+ point a is at a potential of v ab volts higher than point b,

+ or the potential at point a with respect to point b is v ab .

dw
vab  ; w is the energy in joules [J] and q is charge in coulombs [C]
dq

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 9|Page

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

The ‘electrical push’ which the cell (battery) gives to the current is called the voltage. It is measured
in volts (V) on a voltmeter
To talk about voltage, we need to specify: polarity (+, -); and value (positive or negative number)
The (+) and (-) signs at the point a and b are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity.
For example:

Note: Typical voltage magnitude

d. Electrical Power
Is: time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W). Mathematically, the
instantaneous power:
dw  dw   dq 
p   *    v * i ; Where p power in watts; w = energy in Joules; t = time in seconds.
dt  dq   dt 
Note 1: Sign of power
• Plus sign: Power is absorbed by the element (resistor, inductor)
• Minus sign: Power is supplied by the element (battery, generator)

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 10 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Passive sign convention:

• If the current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage: p  vi
• If the current enters through the negative polarity of the voltage: p  vi
For example:

Note 2: Law of Conservation of Energy:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred. For this reason, the algebraic sum of
power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero. The total power supplied to the circuit must
balance the total power absorbed.
e. Energy
The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time 0 to t is:
t t
w   pdt   v * idt ----- Integration suggests finding area under the curve. Need to be careful with
0 0

negative area.
The electric power utility companies measure energy in kilowatt-hours [kWh].
3. Circuit Elements
There are 2 types of elements found in electrical circuits.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 11 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

+ Active elements: is capable of generating energy (generators, batteries, and operational

amplifiers).
+ Passive element: cannot generate energy (resistors, capacitors and inductors).

a. Active Elements

The most important active elements are voltage and current sources: (a) Voltage source provides
the circuit with a specified voltage; (b) Current source provides the circuit with a specified current.

Independent source: An active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is
completely independent of other circuit elements.
Dependent source: An active element in which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage
or current.
For example:

There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:

* A voltage-controlled voltage source.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 12 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

* A current-controlled voltage source.

* A voltage-controlled current source.
* A current-controlled current source.

b. Passive Elements

1) Resistors
The ability of a material to resist the flow charge is called its resistivity. It is represented by the
letter R.
A resistor is a circuit element that dissipates electrical energy (usually as heat)
Real-world devices that are modeled by resistors: incandescent light bulbs, heating elements, long
wires.
Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω)

Resistor is indicated by the symbol: or

Resistance of a wire depends on some factors like as length L [m], cross- sectional area A [m2] and
L
resistivity of material ρ [Ω.m]: R   [Ω]
A

The conductance [G] of a pure resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance. The unit of conductance is
1
the Siemens [S]: G 
R
A resistor is either fixed or variable. Most resistors are of the fixed type, meaning their resistance
remains constant.
A common variable resistor is known as a potentiometer or pot for short.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 13 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Note 1: Resistor Color Code: http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/tools/resistor-color-code-calculator/

2) Inductors

The circuit element that stores energy in a magnetic field is an inductor (also called an inductance).
With time-variable current, the energy is generally stored during some parts of the cycle and then
returned to the source during others.

Inductance L [H] results from the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor; the electric
current through the conductor creates a magnetic flux. Inductance is determined by how much
d
magnetic flux  through the circuit is created by a given current: L 
di

Voltage:
d(t ) d di
v L (t )   *
dt di dt
di
 L*
dt
di
Power: p (t )  v(t ) * i (t )  L * * i (t )
dt
t
1
Stored energy: WL   p(t )dt  2 L * i
2
(t ) , is equal to the amount of work required to establish the


current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field.

3) Capacitors
The circuit element that stores energy in an electric field is a capacitor (also called capacitance).
When the voltage is variable over a cycle, energy will be stored during one part of the cycle and
returned in the next. While an inductance cannot retain energy after removal of the source because
the magnetic field collapses, the capacitor retains the charge and the electric field can remain after
the source is removed. This charged condition can remain until a discharge path is provided, at
which time the energy is released. The charge, q  C * v(t ) , on a capacitor results in an electric field
UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 14 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

in the dielectric which is the mechanism of the energy storage. In the simple parallel-plate capacitor
there is an excess of charge on one plate and a deficiency on the other. It is the equalization of these
charges that takes place when the capacitor is discharged. The power and energy relationships for
the capacitance are as follows.

dq(t ) dq dv
iC (t )   *
dt dv dt dq
;C
dv dv
C*
dt
t
1
C 
vC (t )  idt

dv(t )
p (t )  C * v(t )
dt
t
1
WC   p(t )dt  2C * v
2
(t )


Note: Inductors, Capacitors  more detail in next part, EC 2.

c. Measuring Devices
Ohmmeter: measures the resistance of the element. Important rule: Measure the resistance only
when the element is disconnected from circuits.
Ammeter: connected in series with an element to measure current flowing through that element.
Since an ideal ammeter should not restrict the flow of current, (i.e., cause a voltage drop), an ideal
ammeter has zero internal resistance.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 15 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Voltmeter: connected in parallel with an element to measure voltage across that element. Since an
ideal voltmeter should not draw current away from the element, an ideal voltmeter has infinite
internal resistance.
4. Basic Laws
Here we explore two fundamental laws that govern electric circuits (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s
laws) and discuss some techniques commonly applied in circuit design and analysis.
Ohm’s law coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws gives a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing
a large variety of electric circuits.
4.1. Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law shows a relationship between voltage and current of a resistive element such as
conducting wire or light bulb. The voltage v(t ) across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current i (t ) flowing through the resistor.
v  i * R ; Where R = resistance of the resistor, denoting its ability to resist the flow of electric
current. The resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Note 1: To apply Ohm’s law, the direction of current i and the polarity of voltage v must conform
to the passive sign convention. This implies that current flows from a higher potential to a lower
potential in order for v  i * R . If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential,
v  i * R .

Note 2: The two extreme possible values of R.

(i) When R = 0, we have a short circuit and v  i * R  0 showing that v  0 for any i .

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 16 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

(ii) When R = ∞, we have an open circuit and:

v
i  lim  0 ; indicating that i  0 for any v .
R  R

Not all resistors obey Ohms law. A resistor that obeys Ohms law is known as a linear resistor
+ A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohms law:

Examples of devices with nonlinear resistance are the lightbulb and the diode. Although all
practical resistors may exhibit nonlinear behavior under certain conditions, we will assume in this
class that all elements actually designated as resistors are linear.
Note 3: Current through a resistor causes power dissipation
V2
P  I *V   I2 *R
R
The power rating is the maximum allowable power dissipation in the resistor. Exceeding this
power rating leads to overheating and can cause the resistor to burn up.
4.2. Kirchhoff’s Laws
a) Concept: Node, Branch and Loop
Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways, we need to
understand some basic concept of network topology.
• Network = interconnection of elements or devices
• Circuit = a network with closed paths

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 17 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Branch: A branch (b) represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor. A branch
represents any two-terminal element. On the Figure: branches AF, AB, BE, BC, CD
Node: A node (n) is the point of connection between two or more branches. It is usually indicated
by a dot in a circuit. On the Figure: nodes A, B, C and E
If a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node.
Loop: A loop (l) is any closed path in a circuit. A closed path is formed by starting at a node,
passing through a set of nodes and return. On the Figure: the paths ABEFA, BCDEB
and ABCDEFA are loops
Mesh: a loop that contains no other loop  a loop is said to be independent. Independent loops or
paths result in independent sets of equations. A network with b branches, n nodes, and l or m
independent loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology:
b = l + n −−1.

b) Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL)

N

The algebraic sum of current entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero: i  0
n 1

KCL is based on the law of conservation of charge. An alternative form of KCL is “Sum of
currents (or charges) entering a node = Sum of the currents (charges) leaving the node”.

c) Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL)

N

The algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero: v  0
n 1

KVL is based on the law of conservation of energy. An alternative form of KVL is “Sum of
voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises”.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 18 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

 v1  v2  v3  v4  v5  0

When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied to obtain the total voltage.

5. EXERCISES

All student have to do this part, after 15 minutes, student will be asked to resolve the problems.

Example 1.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 19 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Find v1 and v2 ; with: V1 = 10V, V2 = 8V; R1 = 4Ω; R2 = 2Ω

Solution:

- Ohm’s Law:

v1  R1 * I  4 I and v 2  R 2 * I  2 I

- KVL: clockwise around the loop, the sum of the voltage drops is:
 V 1  v1  V 2  v 2  0
 10  4 * I  8  2 * I  0  I = 9A; v1  4 I  36V ; v2  2 I  18V

Example 2.

Calculate I and Vab

Because of the open circuit between nodes: a and b, the middle branch has no effect on the current
I. Consequently, I can be obtained by applying KVL to the outside loop. The total resistance of this
loop is: 2 + 8 + 5 + 9 = 24 Ω. And in the direction of I, the sum of the voltage rises from voltage
sources is: 100 + 20 = 120 V. So, I = 120/24 = 5 A.

From the summing of voltage drops across the right-hand branch, the voltage drop, top to bottom
across the middle branch is: 5(5) - 20 + 5(9) = 50 V. Consequently, Vab = 50 – 30 = 20 V; because
there is zero volts across the 10Ω resistor.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 20 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

6. PROBLEMS (homework)

Problem 1: Find I1, I2 in this circuit:

Problem 2: Find V1; V2 in this circuit:

Problem 3: Find I; V across the current source in this circuit:

Problem 4: Find Vab in this circuit:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 21 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

CHAPTER 2: DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

We have seen that using Kirchhoff’s laws and Ohm’s law we can analyze any circuit to determine
the operating conditions (the currents and voltages). The challenge of formal circuit analysis is to
derive the smallest set of simultaneous equations that completely define the operating
characteristics of a circuit.

Here we apply the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s Law & Kirchhoff’s Laws) to develop
two powerful techniques for circuit analysis.

* Nodal Analysis (based on KCL)

* Mesh/Loop Analysis (based on KVL)

This is the most important chapter for our course.

1. NODAL ANALYSIS
• Concept:
- Developed based on the systematic approach of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to find all circuit
variables without having to sacrifice any of the elements.
- General procedure which is making use of node voltages in circuit analysis as key solutions.
• Importance terms
- Node Voltage: Potential difference between a marked node and the selected reference node.
- Element Voltage: Potential difference across any element or branch in the circuit.
When Node Voltage = Element Voltage?
• Why use Node Voltage?
- Further reduce the number of equations to be solved simultaneously.
- No of independent equations = No of the marked nodes exclusive of the reference node.
- Element voltages and currents can be obtained in few steps using the solved node voltages.
• NODAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES: 8 STEPS (DETAIL) --- OR MAYBE 03 STEPS
1) Clearly label all circuit parameters and distinguish the unknown parameters from the known.
2) Identify all nodes of the circuit
3) Select a node as the reference node also called the ground and assign to it a potential of 0
Volts. All other voltages in the circuit are measured with respect to the reference node.
4) Label the voltages at all other nodes.
5) Assign and label polarities.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 22 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

6) Apply KCL at each non-reference nodes and express the branch currents in terms of the
node voltages.
7) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the node voltages.
8) Now that the node voltages are known, the branch currents may be obtained from Ohm’s
law.
EXERCISES

Example 1:

Applying Nodal analysis on simple circuit, find the power dissipated by the 10Ω resistor, Is2 =
3mA; R1=10k Ω; R2=5k Ω; R3=4k Ω; R4=2k Ω

Solution:
- Mark all essential nodes
- Assign unknown node voltages
- Indicate the reference node
- Perform KCL at each marked non-reference nodes using Ohm’s law to formulate the equations in
terms of the node voltages.
V1  V2
• KCL at V1 : I s1  I s 2  (1)
R1

V2  V1 V2  01 V2  V3
• KCL at V2 :   0 (2)
R1 R3 R2

V3  V2 V3  0
• KCL at V3 : I s2   0 (3)
R2 R4

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 23 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

3 mA

10 k V2 5 k
V1 V3

2 mA 4 k 2 k

V1 = 60.55 [V]; V2 = 10.55 [V]; V3 = -1.27 [V]

The element voltage of R1 =10k Ω:  PR1 

V 1  V 22 
60.55  10.552  0.25[W ]
R1 10

Example 2: Calculate the node voltages in the circuit below

2A
v1 • v2
•
5
10  20  4A

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 24 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

NOTE: APPLYING NODAL ANALYSIS ON CIRCUIT WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES

Three different effects depending on placement of voltage source in the circuit.

Does the presence of a voltage source complicate or simplify the analysis?
Case 1: Voltage source between two non-reference essential nodes
E
N OD
E R Vs
P
SU
Nonreference Nonreference
essential node V1 V2 essential node

Case 2: Voltage source between a reference essential node and a non-reference essential node.

DE
NO
N GE
OW TA Vs
KN OL
V
Nonreference Reference
essential node V1 0 V essential node

Case 3: Voltage source between an essential node and a non-essential node.

FI
NO ND N
N- OD
E E
Vs TE SSE VO
RM NT L T
S IA A
Nonreference VO OF L N GE A
LT NO OD T
essential node V1 Va AG D E IN
E E
Non-essential
node

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 25 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Example 3: With voltage source

I

R1 v1 v2
R3

E + R2 R4
_

Example 4: Find the power of the 10-V voltage source? Is it supplying energy to the circuit or
absorbing energy from the circuit? Show your work according to the nodal analysis procedure.

10 V

40  5

50  8
3A
25 

- Mark essential nodes and assign unknown node voltages and indicate the reference node

- Perform KCL at each marked non-reference nodes using Ohm’s law to formulate the
equations in terms of node voltages.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 26 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

At Node V1
V2  V1 V
i 1
40 80
At Node V2:
V2 V2  V1
3i    10V2  V1  240 ; and Super-Node Equation: V1 V2  10
8 40
We obtain: V1  30.91; V2  20.91
V2  V1 V
Finding current through the voltage source:  i  1 ; i  0.636 [ A]
40 80
Hence: Pvoltagesource  i *V  (0.636) *10   6.36 [W ] , negative sign  Delivering energy

Example 5: Voltage source between an essential node and a non-essential node

Find the current through the 10 k resistor. Show your work according to the nodal analysis
procedure
8 mA

4 k 15 V 4 k

10 k
1 k 5 k
25 V

Solution:
Mark essential nodes and assign unknown node voltages and indicate the reference node. For
voltage sources, indicate the node voltages at both ends with respect to the assigned unknown node
voltages at the essential nodes

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 27 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

- Perform KCL at each marked non-reference nodes using Ohm’s law to formulate the equations in
terms of node voltages
At Node V1:
V1 V1  (V2  15)
  8 mA  0
1k 4k
 5V1  V2  17
At Node V2
V2  25  V1  (V2  15) V2  V3
   0 mA
10k 4k 4k
  10V1  18V2  10V3  250

At Node V3
V3  V3  V2
   8 mA  0
5k 4k
  5V2  9V3  160

 V1  5.43 ; V2  10.17 ; V3  12.13

V2  15  V1 V2  V3
Finding current through the 10kΩ, KCL at V2 : i    0 ; i  3.01 [mA]
4k 4k

Example 6: Circuit with dependent sources

Use the node-voltage method to find both dependent terms i0 and Vx of the dependent sources of the

circuit in Figure below:

3 Vx

10 io 8
+ Vx -

12 V
10  2

io

- Mark essential nodes and assign unknown node voltages and indicate the reference node

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 28 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

3 Vx
E
N OD
R
PE
SU 8  V3

KNOWN
10 io V2
V1

+ Vx -
12 V
10  2

io

- Perform KCL at each marked non-reference nodes using Ohm’s law to formulate the equations in
terms of node voltages.

V3  12V

V2 V2  12
KCL at Node V2:   10 i0  5V2  80 i0  12
2 8

Super-node equation: 3Vx  V1  V3  V1  12

V2  12 V1
Constraint equation: Vx  V2 ; and i0    10 i0  720 i0  8V1  10V2  120
8 10

  V1  3V2  12 ; V1  6.51 ; V2  1.83 ; i0  0.264

PROBLEM (homework)

Problem 1:

Determine the node voltages for this circuit, given the following parameters:   2 ;

R1  12k; R2  6k; R3  3k; iA  2mA

Problem 2:

Let us determine the current I 0 in:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 29 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

2. LOOP ANALYSIS
Loop analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using loop/mesh currents
as the circuit variables.
Loop analysis is a special application of KVL on a circuit. We use a special kind of loop called a
'mesh' which is a loop that does not have any other loops inside of it. A mesh starts at a node and
traces a path around a circuit, returning to the original node without hitting any nodes more than
once. We can only apply mesh analysis to planar circuits that is circuits without crossover
connections. If a circuit cannot be redrawn without the intersecting disconnected lines then we
cannot use mesh analysis.

IMPORTANCE TERMS
Mesh Current: Assigned unknown current flows around the perimeter of the mesh/loop.
Element Current: Actual current through any element or branch in the circuit.
 When Mesh Current = Element Current?
The mesh method uses the MESH CURRENTS AS THE CIRCUIT VARIABLES. The various
steps are given below.
1. Clearly label all circuit parameters and distinguish the unknown parameters from the known.
2. Identify all meshes of the circuit.
3. Assign mesh currents and label polarities.
4. Apply KVL at each mesh and express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the mesh currents.
6. Now that the mesh currents are known, the voltages may be obtained from Ohm’s law.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 30 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

EXERCISES

Example 1:

Consider the following circuit. A voltmeter reads -7.2 volts across the dependent source. Find the
gain A of the current-controlled voltage source.

Solution: First draw the meshes to be examined in the circuit. They are labelled in green with
current i1 and red i2 with below.
Consider the dependent source. It is supplying a voltage in the opposite direction to the reading
from the voltmeter. From this, we can infer the voltage of the source element:
Aia  (7.2)  Aia  7.2 [V ]
The dependent current is between both meshes. We can represent this current in terms of the mesh
currents:
ia  i1  i2
Now that we can represent the dependent source in terms of the mesh currents, apply KVL to obtain
the equations. Mesh analysis on the green loop shows:
 Vs  R1i1  0 ;  36  10i1  0  i1  3.6 [ A]
On the second mesh with the dependent source, the mesh equation will be:
 Aia  R2i2  0 ;  7.2  4i2  0  i2  1.8 [ A] ;
Using the values for and from the mesh equations, the dependent source gain can finally be found:
ia  i1  i2 ; ia  1.8 [ A] ; Aia  7.2  A  4

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 31 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Example 2:

2 9

12  8V
12 V

4 3

Find power dissipated in 12-resistor and 3-resistor using mesh analysis

Solution:
2 9

12 
12 V
I1 I2 8V

4 3

2 meshes = 2 KVL Equations.

Case 1: Current source located at the outer most boundary

R1

R2 I1 R3

Is I2 12 V I3 R4

 Connecting mesh current immediately known (I3 = -Is)

 No need to apply KVL around that loop/mesh.
 Mesh Current = Element Current = Current Source Value
Example: Let us find both V0 and V1 in the circuit in this circuit:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 32 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Although it appears that there are 02 unknown mesh currents, the current goes directly through the
current source and, therefore, is constrained to be I1  2 mA . Hence, only the current is unknown.
KVL for the rightmost mesh I2 is:
2 * ( I 2  I1 )  2  6 * I 2  0 ; I1  3 / 4 mA

V0  I 2 * 6  9 / 2 [V ]

To obtain V1 (voltage across the current source), we apply KVL around any closed path. If we use
the outer loop, the KVL equation is:
V1  4 * I1  2  6 * I 2  0 ; V1  21 / 2 [V ]

Case 2: Current source located at the boundary between 2 meshes

 Enclose the current source and combine the two meshes to form a SUPER-MESH.
 KVL is performed around the super-mesh; do not consider voltage across current source.
 Formulate simultaneous mesh equation – express the relationship between mesh currents
that form the s/mesh and current source that it encloses
Example:
R1

I1
R2 R3

I2 I3 R4
12 V
3 mA

KVL for loop (I2 and I3): 12  (I 2  I1 ) * R2  ( I 3  I1 ) * R3  I 3 * R4  0

KVL for loop (I1): R1 * I1  (I1  I 2 ) * R2  ( I1  I 3 ) * R3  0

Super-Mesh: I 3  I 2  I s

Example 3:
Find the branch currents I1, I2, and I3, Vx using mesh analysis

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 33 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Example 4:
Find V0: using mesh analysis.

Example 5:

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1

a) Write the nodal equations describing the circuit.
b) Determine the branch currents by nodal voltages.
c) Write loop equations describing the circuit.
d) Determine the branch currents by loop currents.
e) Give Vs1 = 100V, Vs2 = 80V, Vs3 = 24V, Is = 4A, R1 = 5 Ω, R2 = 15 Ω, R3 = 4 Ω, R4 = 8 Ω,
R5 = 6 Ω. Determine the voltages across R3, R4 and R5.

Solution:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 34 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Note that:
Va  VS1 ; Vb   VS 2 ; Vc  VS 3 ;
a) Write the nodal equations describing the circuit + b) Determine the branch currents by nodal
voltages.
Mark essential nodes and assign unknown node voltages V1 ; V1 ; reference node.
Ohm’s law:
Va  V1 VS 1  V1  V1  Vb  V1  VS 2 V V V  Vc V2  VS 3
I R1   ; I R2   ; I R 4  1 2 ; I R3  2 
R1 R1 R2 R2 R4 R3 R2

Nodal Equations, apply KCL:

- At node 1:
VS 1  V1  V1  VS 2 V1  V2
I R1  I R 2  I R 4  0;   0 
R1 R2 R4

1 1 1 1 1 1
(   ) *V1  *V2  VS 1 *  VS 2 2 ; 40V1  15V2  3040 (1)
R1 R2 R4 R4 R1 R2

- At node 2:
V1  V2 V2 V  VS 3
I R 4  I R5  I S  I R3  0;   IS  2 0;
R4 R5 R2

1 1 1 1 1
* V1  (   ) * V2   I S  VS 3 2 ; 15V1  43V2  672 (2)
R4 R5 R2 R4 R2

From (1) and (2), we obtain: V1  46.78V ; V2  29.26

I R1  10.64 A ; I R 2  8.52 A ; I R3  1.32 A ; I R 4  2.19 A ; I R 2  4.88 A

c) Write loop equations describing the circuit.

First draw the meshes to be examined in the circuit. They are labelled in figure with current I1 ; I 2 ;

I 3 ; I 4 ; I 5 with below.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 35 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Loop Equations, apply KVL:

Loop 1: ( R1  R2 ) * I1  R2 * I 2  VS 2  VS1

Loop 2: (R2 ) * I 2  (R2  R3  R4 ) * I 2  R3 * I3  VS 3  VS 2

Super-Mesh: I 4  I 3  I S

Note that: voltage across the current source V x , can determine:

Loop 3:  VS 3  R3 * I 2  R3 * I 3  Vx  0 , and Loop 4: R5 * I 4  Vx  0

So:  R3 * I 2  R3 * I3  R5 * I 4  VS 3

 I R1  I1  10.64 A ; I R 2  I 2  I1  8.5 A ; I R 4  I 2  2.19 A ; I R3  I 2  I5  1.3A

Example 6:Example 3.16, page 128, [1]

NOTE:
(a) Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh analysis
applies KVL to find unknown currents.

(b) Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is convenient and reduces
the number of equations that must be solved simultaneously.

(c) Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is only applicable to a circuit
that is planar. A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one
another; otherwise it is nonplanar.

(d) Given a network to be analyzed, how do we know which method is better or more efficient?
Suggestion: Choose the method that results in smaller number of variables or equations.

• A circuit with fewer nodes than meshes is better analyzed using nodal analysis, while a circuit
with fewer meshes than nodes is better analyzed using mesh analysis.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 36 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

PROBLEM (homework)

Problem 1:
Let us find V x in the network in:

Problem 2:
Let us find all parameters: I x ; V0 in the network in:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 37 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

CHAPTER 3: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS CIRCUITS

1. INTRODUCTION
Operational Amplifiers: electronic device that can amplify (increase/ decrease) the amplitude of
signal. They are represented both schematically and realistically below, they are integrated circuits
(ICs):

• An op-amp is a high voltage gain, DC amplifier with high input impedance, low output
impedance, and differential inputs.
• Positive input at the non-inverting input produces positive output, positive input at the inverting
input produces negative output.
Notation: The basic op amp with supply voltage included is shown in the diagram below.
Where:
V+ : non-inverting input
V- : inverting input
Vout: output
VS+: positive power supply (sometimes also VDD, VCC, or VCC + )
VS- : negative power supply (sometimes also VSS, VEE, or VCC - )
The power supply pins (VS+ and VS-) can be labeled in different ways

+ An operational amplifier is modeled as a voltage controlled voltage source.

+ An operational amplifier has a very high input impedance and a very high gain

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 38 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

The operational amplifier (op-amp) is a voltage controlled voltage source with very high gain. It is a
five terminal four port active element. The symbol of the op-amp with the associated terminals and
ports is shown:

The power supply voltages VCC and VEE power the operational amplifier and in general define the
output voltage range of the amplifier. The terminals labeled with the “+” and the “-” signs are called
non-inverting and inverting respectively. The input voltage Vp and Vn and the output voltage Vo are
referenced to ground. The five terminals of the op-amp form one (complicated) node and if the
currents are defined as shown on figure, the KCL requires that:
I n  I p  I c  I 0  0

Therefore, for current balance we must include all currents. This is what defines an active element.
If we just consider the signal terminals, then there is no relationship between their currents. In
particular: I n  I p  I 0 # 0

The equivalent circuit model of an op-amp is shown on:

The voltage Vi is the differential input voltage: Vi  Vp  Vn . Ri is the input resistance of the device

and Ro is the output resistance. The gain parameter A is called the open loop gain. The open loop
configuration of an op-amp is defined as an op-amp circuit without any circuit loops that connect
the output to any of the inputs.
In the absence of any load at the output, the output voltage is: V0  AVi  A(Vp  Vn )

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 39 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Which indicates that the output voltage Vo is a function of the difference between the input voltages

V p and Vn . For this reason, op-amps are difference amplifiers.

Use of OP-AMP

+ Op amps can be configured in many ways using resistors and other components.
+ Operational amplifiers are almost always used with negative feedback, in which part of the output
signal is returned to the input in opposition to the source signal.
+ Amplifiers provide gains in voltage or current.
+ Op amps can convert current to voltage

Building Negative Feedback Amplifiers

With two resistors we can construct the fundamental feedback network of a negative feedback
amplifier. Depending on the terminal at which the signal is applied, the fundamental negative
feedback configuration can be:
- in the inverting amplifier arrangement, where the input signal, Vin , is applied to the inverting

terminal,
- or in the non-inverting amplifier arrangement, where the input signal, Vin , is applied to the non-

inverting terminal.

We will perform the analysis by considering both the effect of finite open loop gain A is finite; and
the ideal op-amp model for which A → ∞ .

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 40 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

2. ANALYSING OP-AMP CIRCUITS

a. Nodal analysis is simplified by making some assumptions

1. Check for negative feedback: to ensure that an increase in Y makes (V+ − V−) decrease, Y
must be connected (usually via other components) to V−, example: resistance
2. Assume V+ = V−: Since (V+ − V−) = Y/A, this is the same as assuming that A = ∞.
Requires negative feedback.
3. Assume zero input current: in most circuits, the current at the op-amp input terminals is
much smaller than the other currents in the circuit, so we assume it is zero.
4. Apply KCL at each op-amp input node separately (input currents = 0).
5. Do not apply KCL at output node (output current is unknown).
Note: The op-amp needs two power supply connections; usually +15 V and −15 V. These are
almost always omitted from the circuit diagram. The currents only sum to zero (KCL) if all five
connections are included:
VS+: positive power supply (sometimes also VDD, VCC, or VCC + )
VS- : negative power supply (sometimes also VSS, VEE, or VCC - )
b. Ideal Op-amp
From a practical point of view, an ideal op-amp is a device which acts as an ideal voltage controlled
voltage source. The device will have the following characteristics:
o No current flows into the input terminals of the device. This is equivalent to having an
infinite input resistance: Ri   . In practical terms this implies that the amplifier device will

make no power demands on the input signal source.

o Have a zero output resistance: R0  0 . This implies that the output voltage is independent of

the load connected to the output.

In addition the ideal op-amp model will have infinite open loop gain (A → ∞). The ideal op-amp
model is shown schematically on:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 41 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

In summary, the ideal op-amp conditions are:

I n  I p  0 : No current into the input terminals

Ri   : Infinite input resistance

R0  0 : Zero output resistance

A → ∞: Infinite open loop gain

3. PUPULART OP-AMP CIRCUITS

3.1. Inverting Amplifiers
The basic inverting amplifier configuration is shown on this figure. The input signal ( Vin ) is applied

to the inverting terminal and the balance of the circuit consists of resistors R1 and R2.

Let’s analyze this circuit, i.e determine the output voltage V0 as a function of the input voltage Vin

and the circuit parameters, by assuming infinite input resistance at the inverting and non-inverting
terminals, zero output resistance and finite open loop gain A. The equivalent circuit of this model is
shown on:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 42 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Example:
Ex 1.

Rf
Gain, G  
R1
Ex 2.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 43 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

3.2. Non-Inverting Amplifier

This picture shows the basic non-inverting amplifier configuration. The negative feedback is
maintained, and the input signal is now applied to the non-inverting terminal.

The equivalent circuit of the Non-Inverting amplifier with a finite open-loop gain is shown on this
figure. Here we have assumed an infinite input resistance and a zero output resistance for the op-
amp.

R2
1
V R1
V0  A(Vin  Vn ) ; with G  0  ,
Vin R2
1  (1  )/ A
R1
The gain is positive and unlike the inverting amplifier, the output voltage V0 is in phase with the
input Vin and the gain is always greater than 1.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 44 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Non-inverting amplifier: Ideal model

The ideal model implies the voltages at nodes 1 and 2 are equal: Vn  Vin . Also, since no current

flows into the terminals of the op-amp, KCL at node 1 gives,

V0 R2
G  1
Vin R1
Example:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 45 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

SUMMARY OF IDEAL AMPLIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

4. CIRCUITS WITH MULTIPLE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

1. Inverting Summer

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 46 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

KCL at non-inverting node:

2. Non-inverting Summer

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 47 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

3. The difference amplifier

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 48 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Since a difference must reject a signal common to the two inputs, the amplifier must have the
property that V0  0 when V1  V2 . This implies that:

5. PROBLEMS
Ex1. Derive an expression for V0 in terms of V S 1 and VS 2

Ex2. Derive an expression for V0 in terms of I S 1 and VS 2

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 49 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

CHAPTER 4: NETWORK THEOREMS

1. INTRODUCTION

Network Theorems:
- The fundamental laws that govern electric circuits are the Ohm’s Law and the Kirchoff’s Laws.
- Technique to analyze a circuit: Node and Mesh
Linearity
Example:
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent voltage and current
sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all node voltages in terms of the source values.

Write node equation: node voltage at node 1: V

V  Vs V
   IS  0
R1 R2

1 1 1
(  )V  VS  I S ; we have two kind of sources: VS , I S
R1 R2 R1

V , R1 , R2 , …linearity;  V  a1V1  a2V2  ...  b1 I1  b2 I 2 ...

Linearity theorem:
+ For any electrical circuit containing resistors and independent sources, every node voltage and
branch current is a linear function of all source values and has the form of aU
i i

Where: U i , source values; a i , suitably dimensioned constant.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 50 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

V2
+ Note: the power is not linear function: P  I R  2

R
2. SUPERPOSITION
Total current through or voltage across a resistor or branch
+ Determine by adding effects due to each source acting independently
+ Replace a voltage source with a short-circuit
+ Replace a current source with an open-circuit
+ Find results of branches using each source independently
+ Algebraically combine results
• Power
– Not a linear quantity
– Found by squaring voltage or current
• Theorem does not apply to power
– To find power using superposition
– Determine voltage or current
– Calculate power
Example 1:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 51 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Example 2: Given the circuit below. Find the current I by using superposition
12 

IS = 3 A 6 +
_ VS = 54 V

First, deactivate the source IS and find I in the 6  resistor

Second, deactivate the source VS and find I in the 6  resistor.
Sum the two currents for the total current.
Step 1: Open-source IS
12 

IVs

6 +
_ VS = 54 V

IVs = 3 A
Step 2: Short-source VS

Is 12 

IS = 3 A 6

3 x12
IS  2 A
(3  12)
Total current I: I = IS + Ivs = 5 A

3. THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS

3.1. THEVENIN’S THEOREM

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 52 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

 A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced with an equivalent circuit of an ideal voltage
source, VTh, in series with a resistor, RTh.
 VTh is equal to the open-circuit voltage at the terminals.
 RTh is the equivalent or input resistance when the independent sources in the linear circuit are
turned off

Linear circuit is a circuit where the

voltage is directly proportional to the
current (i.e., Ohm’s Law is followed).
Two terminals are the 2 nodes/2 wires
that can make a connection between the
circuit to the load.

Steps to Determine VTh and RTh

1. Identify the load, which may be a resistor or a part of the circuit.
2. Replace the load with an open circuit.
3. Calculate VOC. This is VTh.
4. Turn off all independent voltage and currents sources in the linear 2-terminal circuit.
5. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. This is: RTh.
 The current through and voltage across the load in series with VTh and RTh is the
load’s actual current and voltage in the original circuit.
Examples:
Ex1. Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 53 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

First remove everything to the right of A-B.

6
V AB  30  10 V
6  12 
Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4  resistor (A-B) is open. Thus there can be no
voltage across the resistor.
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find the resistance seen looking in these
terminals.

RTH  (12 // 6)  4  8

After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this to the load in order to find VX.

10V .2
VX   2V
2  8

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 54 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Ex2. For the circuit below, find VAB by first finding the Thevenin circuit to the left of terminals A-
B.

We first find VTH with the 17  resistor removed.

20V .20 
V AB  VTH  (1,5 A).10    31 V
20   5
Next, we find RTH by looking into terminals A-B with the sources deactivated.

5(20)
RTH  10   14 
(5  20)

VAB  17V

Working with a mix of independent and dependent sources

Ex3. Find the voltage across the 100  load resistor by first finding the Thevenin circuit to the left
of terminals A-B.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 55 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

First remove the 100  load resistor and find VAB = VTH to the left of terminals A-B.

 86  80 I S  6 I S  0  I S  1 A
VAB  6 I S  30 I S   36V

To find RTH we deactivate all independent sources but retain all dependent sources as shown in this
figure

We cannot find RTH of the above circuit, as it stands. We must apply either a voltage or current
source at the load and calculate the ratio of this voltage to current to find RTH.

Around the loop at the left we write the following equation:

 15
50 I S  30 ( I S  1)  6 I S  0;    I S  A
43

Using the outer loop, going in the cw direction, using drops;

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 56 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

The Thevenin equivalent circuit tied to the 100  load resistor is shown below.

36 x100
V100   22.9 V
57.4  100

Ex4.
Finding the Thevenin circuit when only resistors and dependent sources are present. Consider the
circuit below. Find Vxy by first finding the Thevenin circuit to the left of x-y.

For this circuit, it would probably be easier to use mesh or nodal analysis to find Vxy. However, the
purpose is to illustrate Thevenin’s theorem.
We first reconcile that the Thevenin voltage for this circuit must be zero. There is no “juice” in the
circuit so there cannot be any open circuit voltage except zero. This is always true when the circuit
is made up of only dependent sources and resistors.
To find RTH we apply a 1A source and determine V for the circuit below.

Write KVL around the loop at the left, starting at “m”, going cw, using drops:
 50(1  I X )  10 I X  20(1  I X )  60 I X  0
I X  0.5 A
We write KVL for the loop to the right, starting at n, using drops and find;
 60(0.5)  1x20  V  0 V  50 volts
UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 57 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

V
RTH  ; where V  50V ; I  1A ;
I
Thus, RTH = 50. The Thevenin circuit tied to the load is given below.

So, VXY = 50 V

3.2. NORTON’S THEOREM

Norton’s Theorem states that this network can be replaced by a current source shunted by a
resistance R.

In the Norton circuit, the current source is the short circuit current of the network, that is, the
current obtained by shorting the output of the network. The resistance is the resistance seen looking
into the network with all sources deactivated. This is the same as RTH.

We recall the following from source transformations

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 58 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

In view of the above, if we have the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a network, we can obtain the
Norton equivalent by using source transformation. However, this is not how we normally go about
finding the Norton equivalent circuit.
Ex.
Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B for the network shown below.
Connect the Norton equivalent circuit to the load and find the current in the 50  resistor.

It can be shown by standard circuit analysis that: I SS  10.7 A

It can also be shown that by deactivating the sources. We find the resistance looking into terminals
A-B is: RN  55
RN and RTH will always be the same value for a given circuit. The Norton equivalent circuit tied to
the load is shown below:

4. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an aid to system
design. Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load resistance when
that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network supplying the power.
If the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the source network,
its dissipated power will be less than maximum.
UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 59 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

In our Thevenin equivalent circuit above, the maximum power transfer theorem states that “the
maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the
Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network supplying the power“.
The process used to make is RL  RTH  RS called impedance matching.
Problem statements:
• What is the maximum power that can be delivered to a load?
• What is the value of R L that maximizes the power?

• What is the efficiency of power transfer?

Power Transfer Calculation:
RL
( VTH ) 2
2
V L R  RTH VTH
PL   L ( ) 2 RL
RL RL RL  RTH
dPL
To find the value of R L for which PL is maximum, set:  0;
dRL

2  ( RTH  RL )  2 RL ( RTH  RL ) 
2
dPL
 VTH  0
dRL  ( RTH  RL ) 4 
( RL  RTH ) 2  2RL ( RL  RTH )  RL  RTH
Results of maximum power transfer:
• The maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance match to the Thevenin’s
resistance
V 2 TH
• The maximum power transferred to the load: Pmax  PL , ( RL  RTH ) 
4 RTH

• The efficiency of power transfer:

PL Power delivered to the load
 
PSource Power generated by the source

V 2 TH V 2 TH
PSource  I 2 L ( RL  RTH )  ( RL  RTH )  ; ( when : RTH  RL )
4 RTH 2 RTH

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 60 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

PL
   50%
PSource

Example 1: Find the maximum power delivered to the load R in the given circuit

Solution:
Step 1: Find VTH

VTH  50 VTH
  0  0 ;  VTH  33.3V
5 10
Step 2: Find RTH

RTH  5  (10 // 5)  8.33

V 2 TH
Pmax  PL , ( RL  RTH )   33.28W
4 RTH
Example 2:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 61 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

a) Find the value of RL that result in maximum

power being transferred to RL.
b) Calculate the maximum power that can be
delivered to RL.
c) When RL is adjusted for maximum power
transfer, what percentage of the power delivered
by the 360 V source reaches RL?
Example 3: Find the Load R L that results in maximum power delivered to the load. Also determine

Pmax ; R1  6 ; R2  4 ; VS  6V

First, we use the circuit (b) to obtain the Thévenin equivalent circuit.

Apply KVL to the close loop:

6  6i  2vab  4i  0 ; and 2vab  4i ; i  3 A ; VTH  12V

Find the short circuit current for circuit (c), i SC

Since ab is short, vab  0 ; Apply KVL to the close loop:

6  6iSC  2vab  0 ; iSC  1 A

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 62 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Find the equivalent resistance:

VTH V 2 TH
RTH   12 ; RL  RTH  12 ; Pmax  PL , ( RL  RTH )   3W
iSC 4 RTH

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 63 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

CHAPTER 5: FIRST- AND SECOND-ORDER TRANSIENT CIRCUITS

1. INTRODUCTION
We perform what is normally referred to as a transient analysis. Beginning with first-order circuits
that is, those that contain only a single storage element. When only a single storage element is
present in the network, the network can be described by a first-order differential equation.
Our analysis involves an examination and description of the behavior of a circuit as a function of
time after a sudden change in the network occurs due to switches opening or closing. Because of the
presence of one or more storage elements, the circuit response to a sudden change will go through a
transition period prior to settling down to a steady-state value. It is this transition period that we will
examine carefully in our transient analysis.
2. FIRST-ORDER CIRCUITS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
• A first order circuit is characterized by a first order differential equation.
• There are two types of first order circuits:
+ Resistive capacitive, called RC
+ Resistive inductive, called RL
• There are also two ways to excite the circuits:
+ Initial conditions
+ Independent sources
1. Contents
+ The Natural Response of an RC Circuit, an RL Circuit
+ The Step Response of RC and RL Circuit
2. Notion
The time-varying currents and voltages resulting from the sudden application of sources, usually
due to switching, are called transients. By writing circuit equations, we obtain integro-differential
equations.
The Canonical Charging and Discharging RC Circuits
Consider two different circuits containing both a resistor R and a capacitor C. One circuit also
contains a constant voltage source VS; here, the capacitor C is initially uncharged. In the other
circuit, there is no voltage source and the capacitor is initially charged to V0.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 64 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

The charging and discharging RC circuits

In both cases, the switch has been open for a long time, and then we flip it at time t = 0. What
happens in the circuit throughout the entire experiment? In particular, let’s focus on v C (t ) , as

knowing that will also give us the current iC (t ) by equation:

If we follow the same methodology as with resistive circuits, then we’d solve for v C (t ) both before

and after the switch closes. Well, before the switch closes, both circuits are in an open state. So
vC (0  ) for the uncharged capacitor is just 0, while it is V0 for the charged capacitor.
After the switch closes, we have complete circuits in both cases. KCL at the node v gives us the two
equations for the charging and discharging circuits, respectively:

Notice that we cannot simply solve an algebraic equation and end up with a single value for v C (t )

anymore. Instead, v C (t ) is given by an ordinary differential equation that depends on time. Hence,

the function v C (t ) describes the transient response after the switch closes; it is not instantaneous.

The other observation you should make is that the equations for both cases are strikingly similar.
The task that is now left to us is to solve these ODEs.
The Canonical Charging and Discharging RL Circuits
First-order circuits with inductors can be analyzed in much the same way. Consider the “charging”
and “dis- charging” RL circuits:

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 65 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

The “charging” and “discharging” RL circuits

While the notion of charging an inductor doesn’t really make sense, one can think of this in terms of
current. In DC steady-state, inductors act as shorts and allow any current to flow through them, but
inductors oppose immediate changes in current and introduce delays between the initial and final
currents. Again, these time transient responses are given by decaying exponentials. First note that
we can derive KVL equations:

Aside from the time constant, these equations are exactly the same as those for the voltage in a RC
circuit. Furthermore, the boundary conditions are analogous; in the charging case, i L (0)  0 and

iL ()  I S , while for L discharging we have i L (0)  I S and iL ()  0 .

The solutions to the ODEs are:

Circuits with Multiple Resistors, Sources, and Switches

While the examples that we analyzed were simple and cute, RC and RL circuits can quickly get
ugly, as with resistive and amplifier circuits. However, the same techniques that we’ve used here
can be extended to any first-order circuit. Look back at the RC and RL circuit diagrams. The ODEs
that we obtained only apply to these circuit configurations, but do they look familiar? Indeed, the
capacitor sees a Thevenin circuit, while the inductor sees a Norton circuit! Since we know that any
linear circuit has these equivalent circuits, this gives an alternative method for writing down the
ODE. Given any circuit with a capacitor or inductor, we can reduce the rest of the circuit down to a
Thevenin or Norton equivalent. Thus, for any arbitrary RC or RL circuit with a single capacitor or
inductor, the governing ODEs are

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 66 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

where the Thevenin and Norton circuits are those as seen by the capacitor or inductor.

3. Solution

Step 1:
Choose nodal analysis or mesh analysis approach
The solution of a linear circuit, called dynamic response, can be decomposed into:
Natural Response + Forced Response
Or: Steady Response + Transient Response
The natural response is due to the initial condition of the storage component (C or L).
The forced response is resulted from external input (or force).
In this chapter, a constant input (DC input) will be considered and the forced response is called step
response
Step 2:
Differentiate the equation as many times as required to get the standard form of a first order
differential equation (D.E)
Step 3: Solving the differential equation
x(t )  xh (t )  x p (t )

(1) homogeneous solution: xh (t )

(2) particular solution: x p (t )

Or x(t )  xn (t )  x f (t )

(3) natural solution: x n (t )

(4) forced solution: x f (t )

xh (t ) and x n (t ) is due to the initial conditions in the circuit;

x p (t ) and x f (t ) is due to the forcing functions (independent voltage and current sources for t > 0)

Step 4: Find the initial conditions:

x(0 ) then get the unique solution
2.2. THE NATURAL RESPONSE OF AN RC and RL CIRCUIT
A. The source-free series RC circuit

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 67 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

For: t  0

t 0

It is customary to assume that the capacitor is fully discharged after five time constants t  5

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 68 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

2 2t
V0 
The power dissipated in R is: p(t )  viR  e 
R
Example:

Find: vC (t ) , vx (t ) , ix (t ) , for t  0

vC (0)  15 V

Solution
Step 1. Use Thevenin theorem to find the equivalent RTH looking into a-b terminals.
RTH  (8  12) parallel 5  RTH  4
Step 2. Find vC (t )

Step 3. Replace vC (t ) as a voltage source in the original circuit and solve the resistive circuit.

B. The source-free series RL circuit

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 69 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Remember that vC (t ) and iL (t ) are continuous functions for bounded inputs.

VS
t  0, i   i (0  )  I 0
RS
t0

L
;  , time constant
R

Example:
The switch has been closed for time. At
t=0, it is opened.
Find:
ix (t ) , i (t ) , for t  0

Solution:
Step 1: At, t  0

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 70 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Step 2: At, t  0

RTH  (4  12) parallel 16 

RTH  8

Step 3
Replace L with an equivalent current source, and find ix (t ) solve the resistive circuit

2.3. THE STEP RESPONSE OF RC AND RL CIRCUITS

When a DC voltage (current) source is suddenly applied to a circuit, it can be modeled as a step
function, and the resulting response is called step response.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 71 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Step 1:

Step 2: Solving the differential equation

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 72 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Example:

Before t=0, the circuit is under steady

state. At t=0, the switch is moved to B.
Find: v(t ) , for t  0

Solution:
Step 1: At, t  0

Step 2: At, t  0

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 73 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

SUMMARY:

3. SECOND-ORDER CIRCUITS

3.1. INTRODUCTION
1. Contents
- Linear Second Order Circuits
- Solution Steps
- Finding Initial Values
- The RLC Circuit
- The Natural Response of a Series/Parallel RLC Circuit
- The Step Response of a Series/Parallel RLC Circuit
2. Notion
- Circuits containing two energy storage: Inductor and Capacitor
- Described by differential equations that contain second order derivatives

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 74 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

- Need two initial conditions to get the unique solution

Example:

(a) RLC parallel circuit (b) RLC series circuit

3. Solution steps
Step1: Choose nodal analysis or mesh analysis approach
Step2: Differentiate the equation as many times as required to get the standard form of a second
order differential equation (D.E)
d 2x dx
a 2
 b  x  y (t )
dt dt
Step 3: Solving the differential equation
x(t )  xh (t )  x p (t )

(5) homogeneous solution: xh (t )

(6) particular solution: x p (t )

Or x(t )  xn (t )  x f (t )

(7) natural solution: x n (t )

(8) forced solution: x f (t )

xh (t ) and x n (t ) is due to the initial conditions in the circuit;

x p (t ) and x f (t ) is due to the forcing functions (independent voltage and current sources for t > 0)

Step 4: Find the initial conditions:

dx(0 )
x(0 ) , ; and then get the unique solution
dt
NOTE:

a. The forced response

The forced response is due to the independent sources in the circuit for t > 0. Since the natural
response will die out once the circuit reaches steady-state (under DC conditions), the forced
response can be found by analyzing the circuit at t = ∞: x f (t )  x()

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 75 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

b. The natural response

A 2nd -order differential equation has the form:

d 2x dx
a 2
 b  x  y (t ) ; Where x(t ) is a voltage v(t ) or a current i (t ) .
dt dt
To find the natural response, set the forcing function y(t ) (the right-hand side of the D.E) to zero.

d 2x dx
a 2
b  x 0
dt dt
4. Finding initial values
- Under DC steady state, L is like a short circuit and C is like an open circuit.

(a) L is like a short circuit (b) C is like an open circuit

- Under transient condition, L is like an open circuit and C is like a short circuit because iL (t ) and
vC (t ) are continuous functions if the input is bounded.

(a) L is like an open circuit (b) C is like a short circuit

diL (0  ) dvC (0  )
- To find and , we use the relations as bellow:
dt dt
diL (0  )  dvC (0  )
L  vL (0 ) ; and C  iC (0  )
dt dt
One can find v L (0  ) , iC (0 ) using either nodal or mesh analysis.

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 76 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

EXAMPLES

Example 1.
The circuit is under steady state. The switch is
opened at t = 0, determine the initial values:
di (0  ) dv (0  )
i (0  ) , , v(0  ) ,
dt dt
i() , v()
Solution:
- t  0 , the circuit is under DC steady state. L is like a short circuit and C is like an open circuit.

i (0  )  2 A ; v(0 )  4V , we have: t0

i(0 )  i(0 )  2 A and v(0 )  v(0 )  4V

- t  0 , the switch is opened at t = 0. The circuit is under transient condition, L is like an open
circuit and C is like a short circuit
(Since the inductor cannot current change abruptly. The inductor can be treated as a current source
in this case; Since the capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly. The capacitor can be treated as a
voltage source in this case).

t 0
KVL:
di (0  ) v L (0  )

2 A.4  vL (0 )  4V  12V ;  v L (0  )  0V ;  0
dt L

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 77 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

KCL:
dvC (0  ) iC (0  )
iC (0 )  iC (0 )  2 A ;   20 V / S
dt C
- t   ; L is short circuit, C is open
i ()  0 A ; v ()  12V

Example 2
Find:
diL (0  ) dv (0 )
iL (0  ) , , vC (0 ) , C
dt dt
iL () , vC ( ) , v R (0  ) , vR () ,

dvC (0 )
dt
Solution:
- t  0 , the circuit is under DC steady state. L is like a short circuit and C is like an open circuit.

iL (0 )  0 A , vC (0 )  20V ,

vR (0  )  0V

t 0

- t  0 , the switch is closed at t = 0. The circuit is under transient condition, L is like an open
circuit and C is like a short circuit

i L ( 0  )  i L (0  )  0 A
vC (0 )  vC (0 )  20V

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 78 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

4 2
i2  (0  )  3 A.  2 A ; vR (0 )  2 A.2  4V ; iC (0  )  3 A.  1A
2  4  2  4
diL (0  ) vL (0  ) dv (0  ) iC (0  )
  0A / S ; C   2V / S
dt L dt C

From KVL:
 vR  v0  vC  20  0

dvR (t ) dv0 (t ) dvC (t ) dv (0  ) dv0 (0  ) dvC (0  )

Take derivative:   ; R   (eq – 1)
dt dt dt dt dt dt
From KCL:
vR (t ) v0 (t ) dv (t ) dv (t )
3A   ; 0 R  0 (eq – 2)
2 4 2dt 4dt
dvR (0 ) 2
Combining (eq – 1) and (eq – 2);  V /S
dt 3
- t   ; L is short circuit, C is open

2 2.4
iL ()  3 A.  1A ; vC ()  20V ; vR ()  3 A.  4V
2  4  2  4

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 79 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

3.2. NATURAL RESPONSE OF A SERIES/PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

A. The source-free series RLC circuit
Assumed initial conditions :
i (0)  I 0
0
1
C 
vC (0)  idt  V0

+ Step 1:
t
di(t ) 1
Mesh analysis: Ri  L   idt  0 ;
dt C 

d 2i di i d 2i R di 1
To eliminate the integral, we take derivative: L 2
 R   0  2
  i0
dt dt C dt L dt LC
+ Step 2:
Homogeneous solution, characteristic equation
R 1
S 2  2S  02  0 ; where   ; Damping factor; and 02  ; 0 , Resonant frequency (or
2L LC
undamped natural frequency)
Characteristic roots (natural frequencies):

S1     2  02 and S1     2  02 ; i(t )  A1eS1t  A2eS2t

di(0  ) 
Where A1 and A2 are determined from the initial conditions: i (0 ) ;
dt
Three cases discussed
Overdamped case (distinct real roots):   0

Two real roots; i(t )  A1eS1t  A2eS2t

Critically damped case (repeated real root):   0

R
Equal real roots; i(t )  ( A1  A2 .t )et , because: S1  S 2    
2L

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 80 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Underdamped case (complex-conjugate roots):   0

Complex conjugate roots:

S1    j d ; S2    jd ; d  02   2

i(t )  A1et cos(d t )  A2et sin( d t )

Note: once i(t ) is obtained, solutions of other variables can be obtained from this mesh current.
+ Step 3:
Initial Condition: t  0 ; i(0 )  i(0 )  I 0 ; from mesh equation, let t  0 ;
0
di(0 ) 1 di(0  ) R V R V

Ri (0 )  L   idt  0 ;    i (0  )  0   I 0  0
dt C  dt L L L L

Or from equivalent circuit at t  0

di(0  )
L  vL  ( I 0 R  V0 )
dt
di(0  ) ( I R  V0 )
 0
dt L

Example 1: find i (t )

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 81 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

- t  0 , the circuit is under DC steady state. L is like a short circuit and C is like an open circuit.
10V
i (0  )   1A ; v(0 )  i(0 ).6  6V ;
4  6
R 9 1 1
- t  0 ;     9 ; 02    100 ;     0 , Underdamped case
2 L 2 * 0 .5 H LC 0.5 * 0.02

(complex-conjugate roots); d  02   2  4.359

d 2i 9 di 1
2
  i  0;
dt 0.5 dt 0.5 * 0.02
Characteristic equation:
S 2  18S  100  0 ; S1    jd  9  j 4.359 ; S2    jd  9  j 4.359

i(t )  A1et cos(d t )  A2et sin( d t ) ; i(t )  A1e9t cos(4.359t )  A2e9t sin( 4.359t )
- Initial conditions:
i (0  )  i (0  )  1A ; vC (0 )  v(0 )  6V

From mesh equation, let t  0 ;

0
di(0 ) 1 di(0 ) R v (0) 

Ri (0 )  L   idt  0 ;    i (0  )  C   2(9 *1  6)  6 A / S
dt C  dt L L
We have:
i(t )  A1e9t cos(4.359t )  A2e9t sin( 4.359t ) 
di(t )
 4.359 A1e 9t sin( 4.359 t )  9 A1e 9t cos( 4.359 t )  4.359 A2 e 9t cos( 4.359 t )  9 A1e 9t sin( 4.359 t )
dt

  di(0  )
i(0 )  i(0 )  1A  A1 ;  9 A1  4.359 A2  6  A2  0.6882
dt
 i(t )  e9t cos(4.359t )  0.6882e9t sin( 4.359t )

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 82 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Example 2 (example 7.8, pp. 325-326)

C=0.04F, L=1H, R=6Ω, iL(0)=4A, and vC(0)= -

4V
Find i (t )

Example 3 (example 7.9, pp. 327-326)

C=1/8 F, L=2H, R1=10Ω, R2=8Ω iL(0)= 0.5 A,

and vC(0)=1 V
Find v(t )

B. The source-free parallel RLC Circuit

Summary

Finding the constants: A1 and A2

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 83 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

NOTE:

Example:

Solution

t  0 , the circuit is under DC steady state. L is

like a short circuit and C is like an open circuit.
Get x(0 ) : i (0  ) , v(0 )

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 84 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

t  0,
Get x() : i() , v()
dx (0)
And ; S1, 2 ; A1, 2
dt

3.3. STEP RESPONSE OF A SERIES/PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

A. The step response of a series RLC circuit

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 85 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Characteristic Equation:

Summary:

B. The step response of a parallel RLC circuit

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 86 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Characteristic Equation:

Summary:

NOTE: General Second-Order Circuits

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 87 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Example: find i (t ) , v(t )

Solution:

Steps:

Method (a)

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 88 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

Method (b) Using Mesh Analysis

t 0

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 89 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|20911123

4. PROBLEMS

Exercise 1.

Find v(t) and i(t) for t > 0.

Exercise 2.

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. Give Vs1 = 50V, R1 = 5 Ω, Vs2 = 30V, R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 4 Ω, R
= 4 Ω, L = 2mH, C = 5mF. Determine the transient currents and voltages of the inductor L and
capacitor C.
Exercise 3.
Determine i(t) in the circuit shown below for t > 0

Exercise 4.
Let us determine the output voltage v(t). R1 = 10 Ω, R2 =2 Ω, L = 2 H, C = 0.25 F

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF HANOI 90 | P a g e

Downloaded by RAHUL YADAV ([email protected])