Lesson 2

Measurements in
Chemistry
 Measurements in Chemistry
• Measurement is the determination of the dimensions, capacity, quantity, or
extent of something.
• In chemical laboratories, the most common types of measurements are those
of mass, volume, length, temperature, pressure, and concentration.
• Two systems of measurement are in use in the United States: (1) the English
system of units and ( 2) the metric system of units.
• Common measurements of commerce, such as those in a grocery store, are
made in the English system, The units of this system include the inch, foot,
pound, quart, and gallon.
• The metric system is used in scientific work. The units of this system include
the gram, meter, and liter.
 Measurements in Chemistry
• Metric system units now appear on numerous
consumer products.
• Soft drink now come in 1-, 2-, and 3 – liter
containers.
• Road signs in some states display distances in
both miles and kilometers.
• Canned and packaged goods such as cereals and
mixes on grocery store shelves now have the
masses of their contents listed in grams as well
as in pounds and ounces.
Metric System Units
• In the metric system, there is one base unit for each type of measurement ( length, mass,
volume, and so on).
• The names of fractional parts of the base unit and multiples of the base unit relative to
the base unit list common metric system prefixes, along with their symbols or
abbreviations and mathematical meanings.
Metric System Units
• The meaning of metric system prefix is independent of the base unit it modifies and
always remain constant.
• For example, the prefix kilo – always means 1000; a kilosecond is 1000 seconds, a
kilowatt is 1000 watts, and a kilocalorie is 1000 calories. Similarly, the prefix nano –
always means one billionth of gram, and a nanoliter is one-billionth of liter.
 Metric Length Units
• The meter (m) is the base unit of length in
the metric system. It is about the same size
as the English yard; 1 meter equals 1.09
yards.
• The kilometer (km) is 1000 times larger
than the meter; the centimeter (cm) and
millimeter (mm) are respectively, one-
hundredth and one-thousandth of a meter.
• Most laboratory length measurements are
made in centimeters rather than meters
because of the meter’s relatively large size.
Fractional
Parts

Multiples
Write the name of the metric system prefix associated with the listed power
of 10 or the power of 10 associated with the listed metric system prefix.
1. nano- 7. milli-
2. micro- 8. pico-
3. deci- 9. mega-
4. 103 10. 10-6
5. 106 11. 10-2
6. 109 12. 10-1
 Metric Mass Units
• The gram (g) is the base unit of mass in
the metric system. It is a very small unit
compared with the English ounce and
pound.
• It takes approximately 28 gram to 1 equal
ounce and nearly 454 grams to equal 1
pound.
• Both grams and milligrams (mg) are
commonly used in the laboratory, where
the kilogram (kg) is generally too large.
 Metric Mass Units
• The terms mass and weight are often used
interchangeably in measurement discussion;
technically, however, they have different
meanings.
• Mass is the measure of the total quantity of
matter in an object.
• Weight is a measure of the force exerted on an
object by gravitational forces.
• The mass of a substance is a constant; the
weight of an object varies with the object’s
geographical location.
 Metric Volume Units
• The liter ( L) is the base unit of volume in
the metric system.
• The abbreviation for liter is a capital L
rather than a lowercase l because a
lowercase l is easily confused with the
number 1 .
• A liter is a volume equal to that occupied
by a cube that is 10 centimeters on each
side.
3
• Consequently, the units milliliter and cubic
centimeter are the same. 1 mL = 1 cm
 Origin of Measurement Uncertainty
• Because measurements are never exact, two types of information must
be conveyed whenever a numerical value for a measurement is
recorded : (1) the magnitude of the measurement and (2) the
uncertainty of the measurement.
• The magnitude is indicated by the digit values. Uncertainty is indicated
by the number of significant figures recorded. Significant figures are
the digits in a measurement that are known with certainty plus one
digit that is estimated.
 Guidelines for Determining Significant
Figures
1. In any measurement, all nonzero digits are significant.
2. Zeros may or may not be significant because zero can be
used in two ways: (1) to position a decimal point and (2) to
indicate a measured value. Zeros that perform the first
function are not significant, and zeros that perform the
second function are significant. When zeros are present in
a measured number, the following rules are used:
a. Leading zeros, those at the beginning of a number, are
never significant.

0.0141 Has three significant figures

0.0000000048
Has two significant figures
b. Confined zeros, those between nonzero digits, are
always significant.

3.063 Has four significant figures

0.001004 Has four significant figures

c. Trailing zeros, those at the end of a number, are
significant if a decimal point is present in the number.

56.00 Has four significant figures

0.05050 Has four significant figures

d. Trailing zeros, those at the end of a number, are not significant if
the number lacks an explicitly shown decimal point
59,000,000 Has two significant figures

6010 Has three significant figures

 Origin of Measurement Uncertainty
•It is important to remember what is “significant” about
significant figures. The number of significant figures in a
measurement conveys information about the uncertainty
associated with the measurements.
•The “location” of the last significant digit in the numerical
value of a measurement specifies the measurement’s
uncertainty.
Origin of Measurement Uncertainty

4620.0
Five significant figures
Has an uncertainty of tenths
Origin of Measurement Uncertainty

4620
Three significant figures
Has a uncertainty in the tens
place
Origin of Measurement Uncertainty

462,000
Three significant figures
Has a uncertainty in the
thousands place
For each of the following measurements, give the number of
significant figures present and the uncertainty associated with the
measurement.
a. 5623.00 f. 0.1031
b. 0.0031 g. 47230
c. 97,200 h. 637, 000, 000
d. 637
e. 727.23
 Significant Figures and Mathematical
Operations
• When measurements are added, subtracted,
multiplied, or divided, consideration must be given
to the number of significant figures in the computed
result.
• Mathematical operations should not increase ( or
decrease) uncertainty of experimental measures.
• Hand-held electronic calculators generally
“complicate” uncertainty considerations because
they are not programmed to take significant figures
into account.
 Rounding Off Numbers
• When calculator answers contain too many digits, it is necessary to delete
(drop) the nonsignificant digits, a process that is called rounding off.
Rounding off is the process of deleting unwanted ( nonsignificant) digits
from calculated numbers. There are two rules for rounding off numbers.
1. If the first digit to be deleted is 4 or less, simply drop it and all the
following digits.
For example, the number 3.724567 becomes 3.72 when rounded to three
significant figures.
 Rounding Off Numbers
2. If the first digit to be deleted is 5 or greater, that digit and all that
follow are dropped, and the last retained digit is increased by one.
The number 5.00673 becomes 5.01 when rounded to three significant
figures.

These rounding rules must be modified slightly when digits to the left
of decimal point are to be dropped. To maintain the inferred position
of the decimal point in such situations, zeros must replace all the
dropped digits that are to the left of the inferred decimal point.
Round off each of the following numbers to two significant
figures to two significant figures.
a. 25.7 e. 432.55
b. 0.4327 f. 0.03317
c. 432, 117 g. 162, 700
d. 13, 500 h. 65, 234
 Operational Rules

Significant-figure considerations in mathematical operations

that involve measured numbers are governed by two rules, one
for multiplication and division and one for addition and
subtraction.
 Operational Rules
1. In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in
the answer is the same as the number of significant figures in the
measurement that contains the fewest significant figures.
Four significant figures Three significant figures

Calculator answer

6.038 x 2.57 = 15.51766

= 15.5 Three significant figures
Correct Answer
 Operational Rules
2. In addition and
subtraction, the answer
has no more digits to the 9.333 Uncertain digit
( thousandths)

right of the decimal than

are found in the
+ 1.4 Uncertain digit
( tenths)

measurement with the

fewest digits to the right of
the decimal point.
10.733 Calculator answer

10.7
Uncertain digit ( tenths)
Correct Answer
 Expressing Answer to the Proper
Number of Significant Figures
Five significant figures Two significant figures

becomes

Calculator answer Correct answer

 Expressing Answer to the Proper
Number of Significant Figures
Four significant figures

Four significant figures

becomes

Calculator answer Correct answer

 Expressing Answer to the Proper
Number of Significant Figures
Four significant figures Four significant figures

becomes

Calculator answer Correct answer

 Expressing Answer to the Proper
Number of Significant Figures
All three input numbers have uncertainty in the tenths place

becomes

Calculator answer Correct answer

Expressing Answer to the Proper
Number of Significant Figures

Calculator answer

Correct Answer
Expressing Answer to the Proper
Number of Significant Figures

Calculator answer

Correct Answer
Perform the following computations, expressing your answers to the proper
number of significant figures. Assumed that all number are measured
numbers
 Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a numerical system in which numbers are
expressed in the in the form A X 10n, where A is a number with a
single nonzero digit to the left of the decimal place and n is a
whole number. The number A is called coefficient. The is called
exponential 10n term.
Coefficient Exponent

1.07 X 10 4
Multiplication Sign Exponential term
 Converting from Decimal to Scientific
Notation
1. The decimal point in the decimal number is moved to the
position behind ( to the right of) of the first nonzero digit.
2. The exponent for the exponential term is equal to the number
of places the decimal has been moved. The exponent is
positive if the original decimal number is 10 or greater and is
negative if the original decimal is less than 1.
 Converting from Decimal to Scientific
Notation
The following two examples illustrates the use of these procedures:

Decimal point
is moved
7 places

9.3 X 10 7
 Converting from Decimal to Scientific
Notation
The following two examples illustrates the use of these procedures:

Decimal point
is moved
6 places

3.9 X 10 -6
 Scientific Figures and Scientific Notation
Only significant figures become part of the coefficient.

6.3 X 10 1 Two significant figures

6.30 X 10 1 Three significant figures

6.300 X 10 1 Four significant figures

 Multiplication and Division in Scientific
Notation
Multiplication and division of numbers expressed in scientific
notation are common procedures. For these two types of
operations, the coefficients, which are decimal numbers , are
combined in the usual way. The rules for handling the
exponential terms are
1. To multiply exponential terms, add the exponents.
2. To divide exponential terms, subtract the exponents.
 Multiplication and Division in
Scientific Notation

(2.33 X 10 ) x
3 (1.55 X 10 )
4

2.33 x 1.55 10 x 10
3 4

= 3.6115 Calculator answer =10 3+4

= 3.61 Correct answer =10 7

3.61 X 10 7
 Multiplication and Division in
Scientific Notation

8.42 10 6
8.42 X 10 6
3.02 10 4
3.02 X 10 4
=10 (+6)- (+4)
= 2.7880794
2.79 X 10 2
= 2.79 =10 2
Carry out the following mathematical operations involving
numbers that are expressed in scientific notation.
a. (4.057 X 10 ) x (2.001 X 10 )
3 7

b. 4.1 X 10 -10

3.112 X 10 -7
 Conversion Factors
• With both the English unit and metric system in common use in the
United States, measurements must often be changed from one system
to their equivalent in other system.
• The mathematical tool used to accomplish this task is a general method
of problem solving called dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is
a general problem-solving method in which the units associated with
numbers are used as a guide in setting up calculations.
• Central to the use of dimensional analysis is the concept of conversion
factors. A conversion factor is a ratio that specific how one unit of
measurement is related to another unit of measurement.
 Conversion Factors
The following steps show how to set up a problem using dimensional
analysis.
1. Identify the known or given quantity ( both numerical value and units)
and the units of the new quantity to be determined.
2. Multiply the given quantity by one or more conversion factors in such
a manner that the unwanted ( original) units are canceled, leaving
only the desired units.
3. Perform the mathematical operations indicated by the conversion
factor setup.
 Unit Conversions within the Metric
System

A standard aspirin tablet

contains 324 mg of aspirin.
How many grams of aspirin
are in a standard aspirin
tablet?
 Unit Conversions within the Metric
System

Analysis shows the presence

of 203 µg of cholesterol in a
sample of blood. How many
grams of cholesterol are
present in the blood sample?
 Unit Conversions within the Metric
System

Capillaries, the microscopic

vessels that carry blood from
small arteries to small veins,
are on the average only 1 mm
long. What is the average
length of a capillary in inches?
 Unit Conversions within the Metric
System
Blood analysis reports often give the amount of various substances present
in the blood in terms of milligrams per deciliter. What is the measure, in
quarts, of 1.00 deciliter?
1. A child is prescribed a dosage of 12 mg of a certain drug
per day and is allowed to refill his prescription twice. If
there are 60 tablets in a prescription, and each tablet has
4 mg, how many doses are in the 3 prescriptions (original +
2 refills)?
2. An order for a medication reads: Give 0.05 mL per
kilogram of body weight. How much medication should be
given to a patient weighing 160 lb?
3. The largest single rough diamond ever found, the
Cullinan Diamond, weighed 3106 carats. One carat is
equivalent to the mass of 0.20 grams. What is the mass of
this diamond in milligrams?