TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION IN QUNTITATIVE RESEARCH

Concept of Data Collection

• Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information
on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that
enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes.
• The data collection component of research is common to all fields of
study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc.
While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate
and honest collection remains the same.
• The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that
then translates to rich data analysis and allows the building of a
convincing and credible answer to questions that have been posed.
Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data
(quantitative, qualitative).
• Accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both
the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or
newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce
the likelihood of errors occurring.
• Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You
can have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the
required data you will not be able to complete your project.
• Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard
work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task
successfully.
• Data collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed by
the selection of a sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a
certain instrument to collect the data from the selected sample.
 Types of Data
1. Qualitative Data :
Qualitative Data: Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually
descriptive or nominal in nature. This means the data collected are in the form of
words and sentences. Often (not always), such data captures feelings, emotions, or
subjective perceptions of something. Qualitative approaches aim to address the
‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and tend to use unstructured methods of data
collection to fully explore the topic.
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in
three broad categories –
• In-depth interview
• Observation methods
• Document review
METHODS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
2. Grounded Theory
3. Face to face interview
4. Observation
5. Case studies
6. Ethnography/ Participatory Research
7. Projective techniques
Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be
mathematically computed. Quantitative data measure uses different
scales, which can be classified as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval
scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data includes measurements
of something. Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the program.
They use a systematic standardized approach and employ methods such as
surveys and ask questions.
• Experiments/clinical trials.
• Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the
number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the
day).
• Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
• Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face
and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc
• Rating scale
• Psychological test
QUESTIONNAIRE
 What is Questionnaire ?

• A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series

of questions (or other types of prompts) for the purpose of
gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was
invented by the Statistical Society of London in 1838.
• A Questionnaire is used where factual information from the
respondents is desired. It consists of a form containing a series of
questions where the respondents themselves fill in the answers.
 Questionnaire

▪ The use of questionnaires is an indirect method of

research used to gather a wide- range of information
from a large population.
▪ Questionnaires are designed so that the participant
must read the questions that they are being asked
and must then answer them based on the response
style.
 Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
• The questionnaire should be concerned with specific topics, which
must be regarded as relevant by the respondents. The investigator
must clearly state the significance, objectives and aims of the
questionnaire either in a separate letter or in the questionnaire itself.
• The questionnaire should, as far as possible, be short as very lengthy
questionnaire often find their way into the wastebasket.
• Directions and wordings of the questions should be simple and clear.
Each question should deal with a single idea.
• The questions should be objective and should not provide any hints
or suggestions regarding a possible answers.
 How to construct a Questionnaire
• Initial considerations
• Preparation of questions or items
• Re-examination and revision of questions
• Pretesting the questionnaire
• Determination of reliability and validity
• External form of questionnaire
• Accompanying or covering letter
 Functions of Questionnaire
• Description:
one of the basic functions of questionnaire is to describe the
individual or group characteristics.
In other words, the questionnaire provides description about age,
sex, marital status, occupation, income, political affiliation, religious
affiliation, occupation etc.
These pieces of information, in turn, serve many purposes of the
researcher .
• Embarrassing questions, presuming questions and hypothetical
questions should be avoided.
• The questions should be presented in a good order proceeding from
general to specific responses or from those showing a favorable
attitude to an unfavorable attitude.
• Lastly, a questionnaire must be attractive in appearance, neatly
printed and clearly arranged.
2. Measurement :
Another important function of a questionnaire is the measurement
of individual or group variables like attitude, opinion, personality traits,
etc.
The questionnaire may consist of several items which aim at
assessing many aspects of human behavior.
 Basic rules for questionnaire item construction
• Use statements that are interpreted in the same way by members of
different subpopulations of the population of interest.
• Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits
will give different answers.
• Think of having an "open" answer category after a list of possible
answers.
• Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
• Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
• Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
• Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all
educational levels
• Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
• Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like
strawberries and potatoes?).
• Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an
answer.
• The questionnaire should as far as possible, be short .
• A questionnaire must be attractive in appearance, neatly printed or
duplicated and clearly arranged.
 Wording of Questions in a Questionnaire for
Behavioral Research as a tool of data collection
1. Simplicity in language:
In choosing the language for the questions, the researcher must
keep in view the population for which it is meant. If the sample is
taken from a general population, technical and jargon should be
avoided . If on the other hand the sample is taken from professional,
the terms appropriate to the population may be used.
While one is wording the language of the questions meant for the
general population, the words chosen should be informal, simple and
convey the exact and same meaning to all the respondents.
2. Ambiguity :
The investigator must take care to avoid ambiguous questions
because such questions do not convey the same meaning to all the
respondents and there fore different respondents may give different
answers to the same question.
For example, suppose the question is “ Do you feel shy when you are
in a group ?
A person may feel shy when he or she is in a heterosexual group but
may not feel shy in homosexual group. So answers “NO” and “YES”
may be misinterpreted.
 For such double- barreled questions, two independent questions
should be given so that the respondent is never placed in a state of
dilemma and can answers according to his likes and dislikes .
Sometimes no one particular wording can be accepted by all. In such
a situation the spilt-ballot technique is useful where different wordings
of the same questions are used for different equivalent groups of
respondents and subsequently, their responses are compared for
knowing the effect of the wordings.
3. Vague words :
Vague words should be avoided because they encourage vague
answers .
words like “often”, “generally’, “fairly”, etc. should be avoided unless
the investigator is interested in vague answers .
Vagueness also by the use of “why questions” for example “ why do
you not want to educate your wards in a co-educational institutions ? –
The answer may depend upon many factors, which may apply to some
respondents and may not to some others.
Therefore, nothing definite can be concluded about the respondents.
 4. Embarrassing questions :
When respondents are asked questions about private matters or
regarding matters which they do not want public, they are embarrassed. E.g.
questions relating to sexual behavior, stealing, cheating in examination etc.
may be embarrassing to respondents and hence, they will either refuse to
answer or distort their true answers.
Some investigators have suggested methods to deal with the embarrassing
nature of questions so that their threat is reduced.
One simple method for doing so is not to ask such questions directly from
the respondents but to ask them to express their views in others.
Likewise sentence completion techniques may also be adopted to reduce
the threating nature of embarrassing Questions.
5. Double negatives :
Double negatives should be avoided . Such negatives tend to cancel
each other and, therefore, create confusion for the respondents.
For example, “Do you not approve the idea that working women
should not engage themselves in domestic affairs?”
6. Leading questions : A leading question is one, which by virtue of its
content and structure, leads to a specific answer. Such questions
should also be avoided.
For example, the form of the question : “ Should something not be
done about domestic violence? Usually leads to positive answer.
And the question form “ You don’t think offline classes should be
started ? Do You ? Usually leads a negative answer.
Sometime the words leading to a specific answer may be so subtle
that they go unnoticed. The questionnaire builders should take special
care when using subtle leading words.
 7. Presuming questions :
Presuming questions are those which presume something about the
respondent. In other words , the question should be such that
necessarily implies that the respondent possesses the knowledge
regarding the theme of the question or that he has participated in
those activities, which are being asked. In other words the
respondents should be asked relevant questions.
 8. Hypothetical questions :
Hypothetical questions are of a little value because the
respondents’ answers towards such questions do not reflect anything
concrete.
The form of the questions :
“ Would you like to _________ ?”
And “ What will you do if _________ ?
Illustrates hypothetical questions and as far as possible such wordings
should be avoided.
 Order of Questions
• In questionnaire, the order of the individual question is of great
significance because the order tends to influence the validity of the
obtained answers as well as the refusal rates (Cantril, 1944, Whitfield,
1950).
• In the beginning the respondent is unsure of himself as well as
curious . So, the opening questions should be simple, general, and
such as to put the respondent at ease.
• This has a natural effect of establishing rapport between the
investigator and the respondent.
• No sensitive or embarrassing question should be put in the beginning
because it is likely to lead to refusal to answer.
• Then Questions should move from the general to specific aspect in a
logical manner.
• Kohn & Cannel have recommended that it is most wise to start with
some broad questions relating to the topics and then, narrowing
down to the specific questions related to the topics.
 Types of Questionnaire
• Questionnaires, as used in behavioral researches, can be classified on
the basis of two dimensions-
a. Type of response required and
b. Type of questionnaire administration
Based upon the type of response required, the questionnaire may be
of the following two types :
1. Fixed –response Questionnaire
2. Open-end Questionnaire
 Fixed-response Questionnaire
• A fixed –response questionnaire is a questionnaire which consists of
statements of questions with a fixed number of options or choices.
• The respondent is asked to check the option or response that best fits or
suits him.
• Such a questionnaire is also known as closed-form questionnaire or pre-
coded type of questionnaire.
• For Example,
1. Do you think traditional method of teaching-learning shall not be
replicated by on line teaching learning method? Yes/No
2. Do you believe specialization of psychology should be on merit base
instead of choice base ?
• One of the basic assumptions behind the use of a fixed-response
questionnaire is that the target sample has an adequate knowledge of
the subject-matter of the questionnaire.
• Another assumption is that the researcher has enough knowledge
about the sample under investigation .
so that he can easily anticipate what kinds of response are likely to
be given.
 Open-end Questionnaire
• An open end questionnaire is a questionnaire is a questionnaire
which consists of questions that require short or lengthy answers by
the respondents.
• For example,
1. What are causes of Unhappiness ?
2. Should offline classes be started at present ?
There are questionnaires that are made up of items having both fixed
and open-ended used.
• Based upon the method of administering questionnaires, the
following are the two common types of questionnaires :
1. Mail Questionnaire : ( google-form Questionnaire)
A mail questionnaire is a questionnaire which is mailed to the
designated subject with a request to answer the questions and return
it through mail.
Instructions for completing the questionnaire are usually enclosed and
return envelope is also provided.
A survey conducted in this area has revealed that about 70% of the
questionnaires mailed are not returned.
 Face-to-face Administered Questionnaire
• The face –to-face administered questionnaire is one where the
selected subjects are given questionnaire with the instructions to
complete them in the presence of the investigator or his associates .
• This type of questionnaire is more common than the mailed
questionnaire.
• Face-to-face administration of a questionnaire is usually preferred
where subjects for the study are readily available at one place.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fixed-
response Questionnaire
Advantages :
1. Fixed-response question or items are easily scored and coded. This facilitates
the statistical calculation and helps the researcher in arriving at a conclusion
soon.
2. Such questions or items require no writing from the respondents, because
they are simply to check the response that applies to them. Such items or
questions become more advantageous to those respondents, who, due to
some reason, can’t adequately express themselves verbally.
3. Fixed-response questions or items usually take less time in their completion.
4. If such a questionnaire is sent to the subject by post, the researcher can expect
that it will be returned by the subject soon because such questions take least
effort and time in their completion.
• Disadvantages :
• One important disadvantage of the fixed-response item is that, here,
the researcher remains unable to provide the respondent with all
relevant alternatives. If the respondent is forced to make a choice
among several such alternatives that, in fact, don’t fit him, the
resulting information will be misleading for the researcher.
• A fixed –response questionnaire sometimes encourage the
respondent to adopt some kind of response set or bias. In an attempt
to get over it quickly, the respondent may check only the first option
and ignore others in most of the items or questions.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Open-end
Questionnaires
• Advantages :
1. Open-end questionnaires have been found to be particularly beneficial
when investigator has little or no information about the subjects to be
studied.
2. Since an open-end questionnaire provides a greater of flexibility, it
encourages the investigator in eliciting unanticipated and insightful
replies from the respondents that actually increase the researcher’s
understanding of what is going on and why ?
• Disadvantages :
1 . Several types of biases may operate in an open- end questionnaire. In the
sample, some subjects may not able to express their opinions properly which
will produce misleading results.
2. Subjects of different socio-economic backgrounds don’t necessarily
see things in one and the same way, nor do they use similar vocabulary
to express themselves.
3. Open-end questionnaire is time- consuming as compared to the
fixed-response questionnaire.
4. If open-end questionnaire is mailed to the respondents, the
response rate will be lowered as compared to the situation where
fixed-response questionnaire is used.
5. Open-end questions are difficult to be objectively scored or coded.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Face-to-face
Administered Questionnaires
• Advantages :
1. A face –to-face administered questionnaire is less time consuming.
Here, the rate of questionnaire completion is high, and a better
return as compared to mailed questionnaire is expected.
2. The investigator knows well who is completing the questionnaire or
answering. This increases the validity of the collected information.
3. The researcher is present to answer any query that the respondent
may raise during the completion of the questionnaire.
4. A face to face administered questionnaire enables the investigator
or researcher to put probe questions, if any, for detailed analysis.
• Disadvantages :
1. The presence of the investigator or researcher makes the examiners or
respondents too conscious that sometimes adversely affects the validity
of the information thus collected.
2. If the researcher or the investigator is required to travel through out the
city or state for contacting respondents personally, the techniques
becomes much more costly and time consuming as compared to the
mail-questionnaire.
3. In such a questionnaire administration, the group of the respondents is
often selected according to acc essibility and convenience. Therefore,
such a group usually no longer remains representative of the population.
This affects the external validity of the questionnaire.
 Conclusion
• Advantages of Questionnaires: The advantages of questionnaires are -
• Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in
a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.
• Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited
affect to its validity and reliability.
• The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by
either a researcher or through the use of a software package.
• Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research.
• When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other
research and may be used to measure change.
• Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and /
or test existing hypotheses.
• Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are -
• To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of
emotions, behavior, feelings etc.
• Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by
the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without
explanation.
• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
• There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
• The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the
situation.
• People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their
own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to
someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged.
 Conclusion

Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in

qualitative research, because they commonly require subjects to
respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not acting naturally. However,
they have their uses, especially as a means of collecting information
from a wider sample than can be reached by personal interview.