Lecture Module 5 PDF

Logic
➢ the science or study of how to evaluate arguments and

reasoning
➢ it helps us to differentiate correct reasoning from poor
reasoning
Logical Reasoning – used in mathematics to prove theorems, in

computer science to verify correctness of programs and to
prove theorems.
PROPOSITION ( or STATEMENT)
➢ a declarative sentence which is either true or false, but
not both.
Example: The following are Proposition (or Statement):
• 7 + 4 = 10
• Apples are black.
• Two and two makes 5.
• France is a country.
• 2020 will be a leap year.
• Sun rises in the west.
Example: The following are Not propositions (Not a
statement):
• Close the door. (Imperative, Command)

• Please turn off the lights. (Request)
• Do you speak French? (Interrogative, Question)
• Oh man, that hurts! (Exclamation)
• History is interesting. (Opinion)
Truth table – of the proposition is the truth and falsity of the proposition
Propositional variable – a variable which is used to represent a

proposition
Formal propositional variable – written using propositional logic

notation; 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and 𝑠 are used to represent propositions.
Compound proposition – a proposition composed of two or more simple

propositions connected by logical connectives “and/but,” “or,” “if then,”
“not,” “if and only if,” and “exclusive-or.”
Simple proposition (or atomic) – a proposition which is not compound

SIMPLE STATEMENTS
Simple statements do not contain other statements as their

parts. We typically represent simple statements using letters
𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, ...
Example:
𝒑: 𝐽𝑜ℎ𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠.

𝒒: 𝐻𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝐴.
CONNECTIVES
It join simple statements into more
complex statements, called compound
statements.
TYPES OF CONNECTIVES:
I. CONJUCTION
The conjunction of the proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 is the compound proposition “𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞.”
Symbolically, 𝑝⋀𝑞, where ⋀ is the symbol for “𝑎𝑛𝑑/𝑏𝑢𝑡.”
Example:
𝒑: 𝐽𝑜ℎ𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠.
𝒒: 𝐻𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝐴.
Conjunction
If 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is true,
then 𝑝⋀𝑞 is true;
otherwise 𝑝⋀𝑞 is false.
Meaning, the conjunction
of two propositions is true
only if each proposition is
true.
Example: Determine the truth value of
each of the following conjunction.
a. India is a European country and 3 is an even number.

b. Salt is sweet and there are 31 days in October.

c. 1 + 4 = 5 and mango is the national fruit of the Philippines.

II. DISJUNCTION
The disjunction of the proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 is the compound proposition “𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞.”
Symbolically, 𝑝⋁𝑞, where ⋁ is the symbol for “𝑜𝑟.”
Example:
𝒑: 𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠.

𝒒: 𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠.
Disjunction
If 𝑝 is true or 𝑞 is true or if
both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true, then
𝑝⋁𝑞 is true; otherwise 𝑝⋁𝑞
is false. Meaning, the
disjunction of two
propositions is false only if
each proposition is false.
Example: Determine the truth value of each
of the following disjunction.
a. 4 ≤ 2.
b. 3 + 7 = 15 or Michael Jordan is not a boxing champion.

c. 11 is a prime number or Florida is a state in the United States.

III. NEGATION
The negation of the proposition 𝑝 is denoted by ~𝑝, where ~ is the symbol for
“𝑛𝑜𝑡.”
Example: Write the negation of each statement.
1. 𝒑: 𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟.
~𝒑:
2. 𝒑: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑑.
~𝒑:
Negation
If p is true, ~𝑝 is false.
Meaning, the truth value of
the negation of a proposition
is always the reverse of the
truth value of the original
proposition.
Example: The following are propositions for 𝑝, find the
corresponding ~𝑝.
a. 𝒑: 10 + 2 = 12
b. 𝒑: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑑.

c. 𝒑: 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑙𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠.

IV. CONDITIONAL ( IMPLICATION )

The conditional of the proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 is the compound proposition “𝑖𝑓 𝑝, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞.”
Symbolically, 𝒑 → 𝒒, where → is the symbol for “𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛.”
𝒑 is called hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and

𝒒 is called conclusion (or consequent or consequence).
Example:
𝒑 ∶ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐.

𝒒 ∶ 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦.
Conditional
The conditional proposition
𝑝 → 𝑞 is false only when p is
true and q is false; otherwise
𝑝 → 𝑞 is true. Meaning,
𝑝 → 𝑞 states that a true
proposition cannot imply a
false proposition.
Equivalent Forms of the Conditional
Table below lists some of the various forms that may be used to write a
conditional statement.
Common Forms of p → q
Example: Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.
1. We can get a dog only if we install a fence around the backyard.

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional
Table below lists some of the various forms that may be used to write a
conditional statement.
Common Forms of p → q
Example: Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.
2. Superman is the Man of Steel provided that Batman is the Dark Knight.
Example: Obtain the truth value of each of the
following conditional propositions.
a. If Manny Pacquiao is a senator, then birds are amphibians.

b. Tomato is a fruit, if 𝜋 is an irrational number.

c. 8 ÷ 2 = 5 provided that Philippines is a communist country.

V. BICONDITIONAL
The biconditional of the proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 is the compound proposition

“𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑞.” Symbolically, 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒, where ↔ is the symbol for
“𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓.”
Example:
𝒑 ∶ 𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑑.

𝒒 ∶ 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑦.
Biconditional
If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are both
true or both false,
then 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is true;
otherwise 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 it is
false.
following biconditional propositions.
a. 20 ÷ 4 = 5 if and only if hexagon has six sides.

b. The moon is triangle is equivalent to the earth is square.

c. Ostrich is not a bird is a necessary and sufficient for Venus is a planet.

VI. EXCLUSIVE-OR
The exclusive-or of the proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 is the compound proposition

“𝑝 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 − 𝑜𝑟 𝑞.” Symbolically, 𝒑⨁𝒒, where ⨁ is the symbol for
“𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 − 𝑜𝑟.”
Exclusive-or
true or both false,
then 𝑝⨁𝑞 is false; if 𝑝
and 𝑞 have opposite
truth values, then
𝑝⨁𝑞 is true.
Simple Statements and Compound Statements
George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple

statements and the symbols ∧,∨, ~, →, ↔ and ⨁ to represent connectives.
Type of
Statement Connective Symbolic Form
Statement
not 𝑝 not ~𝑝 negation
𝑝 and 𝑞 and/but 𝑝∧𝑞 conjunction
𝑝 or 𝑞 or 𝑝∨𝑞 disjunction
If 𝑝, then 𝑞 If… then 𝑝→𝑞 conditional
𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 if and only if 𝑝↔𝑞 biconditional
𝑝 exclusive-or 𝑞 exclusive-or 𝑝⨁𝑞 exclusive-or
Logical Connectives and Symbols
Common Words Associated with Various Connectives
Logical Connectives Symbolic Form Word
𝑝 and 𝑞
𝑝 but 𝑞
Conjunction 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝 also 𝑞
𝑝 in addition 𝑞
𝑝 moreover 𝑞
Disjunction 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝 or 𝑞
If 𝑝, then 𝑞
𝑝 implies 𝑞
𝑝 only if 𝑞
𝑝 therefore 𝑞
𝑝 is stronger than v
Conditional 𝑝→𝑞
𝑝 is sufficient condition for 𝑞
𝑞 if 𝑝
𝑞 follows 𝑝
𝑞 is weaker than 𝑝
𝑞 is a necessary condition for 𝑝
𝑝 if and only if 𝑞
Biconditional 𝑝↔𝑞 𝑝 is equivalent to 𝑞
𝑝 is necessary and sufficient for 𝑞
Exclusive-or 𝑝⨁𝑞 𝑝 exclusive or 𝑞
Example: Consider the following simple statements.
𝑝: 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑦.
𝑞: 𝐼 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦.
𝑟: 𝐼 𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑛′𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚.
𝑠: 𝐼 𝑔𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒.
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. Mathematics is easy and I get high grade.

b. I passed the exam and I get high grade.

c. Mathematics is not easy if and only if I didn’t pass the exam.

d. If Mathematics is easy, then I get high grade.

e. I passed the exam or Mathematics is easy.

f. I need to study if and only if Mathematics is not easy.

g. I get high grade or I passed the exam.

h. I don’t need to study if and only if Mathematics is easy.

Example: Translate Symbolic Statements in Words
Consider the following statements.

𝑝: 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑦.
𝑞: 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐.
𝑟: 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒.
𝑠: 𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑑.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
a.) 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝

b.) ∼ 𝑟 ∧ 𝑠

c.) 𝑠 ↔ 𝑝

d.) 𝑞 → 𝑟

e.) 𝑞 ∧ 𝑠

f.) 𝑟 ∨∼ 𝑠
Compound Statements and
Grouping Symbols
If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to indicate
which simple statements are grouped together.
The table below illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate groupings for some
statements in symbolic form.
If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma is used to
indicate which simple statements are grouped together. Statements on the same
side of a comma are grouped together.
Example: Translate Compound Statements
Let 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟 represent the following.

𝑝: 𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑔𝑒.
𝑞: 𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑎 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑗𝑜𝑏.
𝑟: 𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑢𝑙.
a. Write ~𝒑 → (~𝒒 ∧ ~𝒓) as an English sentence.
b. Write “If you graduated from college and get a good job, then you
will be successful.” in symbolic form.
Solution:
a.) Because the ~𝑞 and the ~𝑟 statements both appear in parentheses in the symbolic form,
they are placed to the right of the comma in the English sentence.
Thus, the translation is: If you did not graduate from college, then you will not
get a good job and you will not be successful.
Solution:
b.) Because the p and the q statements are both to the left of the comma in the English sentence,
they are grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form.
Thus the translation is: (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) → 𝒓

Example:
Let 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and 𝑠 represent the following. Write each sentence
in symbolic form.
𝑝: 𝑃𝑎𝑢𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟.
𝑞: 𝑃𝑎𝑢𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟.
𝑟: 𝑃𝑎𝑢𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑠.
𝑠: 𝑃𝑎𝑢𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟.
1.) Paul is a table tennis player or a mechanical engineer, but he is not a basketball
player.
Example:
in symbolic form.
2.) Paul loves sports, if and only if he is a basketball player or a table tennis player.
Example:
in symbolic form.
3.) If Paul is a basketball player and a table tennis player, then he loves sports.
Example:
in symbolic form.
4.) Paul is a mechanical engineer and does not love sports, but he is a table tennis player.
Example:
Write each symbolic statement as an English sentence.
Use 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and 𝑠 as defined below.
𝑝: 𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑞: 𝐼 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑟: 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑.
𝑠: 𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑠.
1.) ~𝑟 ∧ 𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝
Example:

2.) 𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟 ∧ 𝑝
Example:

3.) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑠) ↔ 𝑞
Example:

4.) (∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑟) ∧ 𝑞
Truth Tables
Truth table
Every logical statement, simple or compound, is either true or false.
We say that the truth value of a statement is true (represented by the letter T) when
the statement is true, and false (represented by the letter F) when the statement is
false.
Example:
If 𝒑: 𝐼 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑜 is false, and
𝒒: 𝐼 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐 is true,
then the conjunction

𝒑 ∧ 𝒒: 𝐼 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐 is a false
statement.
Conjunction
If 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is true,
then 𝑝⋀𝑞 is true;
otherwise 𝑝⋀𝑞 is false.
Meaning, the conjunction
of two propositions is true
only if each proposition is
true.
Disjunction
If 𝑝 is true or 𝑞 is true or if
both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true, then
𝑝⋁𝑞 is true; otherwise 𝑝⋁𝑞
is false. Meaning, the
disjunction of two
propositions is false only if
each proposition is false.
Conditional
The conditional proposition
𝑝 → 𝑞 is false only when p is
true and q is false; otherwise
𝑝 → 𝑞 is true. Meaning,
𝑝 → 𝑞 states that a true
proposition cannot imply a
false proposition.
Biconditional
true or both false,
then 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is true;
otherwise 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 it is
false.
Exclusive-or
true or both false,
then 𝑝⨁𝑞 is false; if 𝑝
and 𝑞 have opposite
truth values, then
𝑝⨁𝑞 is true.
Negation
If p is true, ~𝑝 is false.
Meaning, the truth value of
the negation of a proposition
is always the reverse of the
truth value of the original
proposition.
Example: Construct a truth table for the ff.
1. ∼ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
p q ∼p ∨ q
T T
T F
F T
F F
2. 𝒑 ∧∼ 𝒒
p q p ∧ ∼q
T T
T F
F T
F F
3. 𝒑 ∧ [∼ 𝒑 ∨∼ 𝒒 ]
p q p ∧ [∼ ( p ∨ ∼q ) ]
T T
T F
F T
F F
4. (𝒑 ∧∼ 𝒒) →∼ 𝒑
p q (p ∧ ∼q ) → ∼p
T T
T F
F T
F F
5. (∼ 𝒑 → 𝒒) ∨ 𝒑
p q ( ∼p → q) ∨ p
T T
T F
F T
F F
6. ∼ 𝒑⨁𝒒 ∨∼ 𝒒
p q ( ∼p ⨁ q) ∨ ∼q
T T
T F
F T
F F
7. (𝒑 ∨∼ 𝒒)⨁ ∼ 𝒑
p q (p ∨ ∼q ) ⨁ ∼p
T T
T F
F T
F F
8. (∼ 𝒑 ∧∼ 𝒒) ↔ (∼ 𝒑 → 𝒒)
p q ( ∼p ∧ ∼q ) ↔ ( ∼p → q )
T T
T F
F T
F F
9. ∼ 𝒑 ⨁ 𝒒 ⋁ (∼ 𝒒 → 𝒓)
p q r (∼p ⨁ q) ⋁ ( ∼q → r)
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
10. 𝒑 ↔∼ 𝒒 ∧ (∼ 𝒓 ∨ 𝒒)
p q r (p ↔ ∼q ) ∧ ( ∼r ∨ q)
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
Equivalent Statements
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same

truth value for all possible truth values of their simple
statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth values
in the final columns of their truth tables.
The notation p  q is used to indicate that the statements p

and q are equivalent.
Example: Verify That Two Statements Are Equivalent
1. Show that 𝒑 → 𝒒 and ∼ 𝒒 →∼ 𝒑 are equivalent statements.
p q p → q ∼q → ∼p
T T
T F
F T
F F
2. Show that ∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒 and 𝒑 ∨∼ 𝒒 are equivalent statements.
p q ∼p → ∼q p ∨ ∼q
T T
T F
F T
F F
3. Show that ∼ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and ∼ (𝒑 ∧∼ 𝒒) are equivalent statements.
p q ∼p ∨ q ∼ (p ∧ ∼q )
T T
T F
F T
F F
4. Show that 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and 𝒑 ∨ (𝒒 ∧∼ 𝒑) are equivalent statements.
p q p ∨ q p ∨ (q ∧ ∼p )
T T
T F
F T
F F
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same

truth value for all possible truth values of their simple
statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth values
in the final columns of their truth tables.
The notation p  q is used to indicate that the statements p

and q are equivalent.
These equivalences are known as De Morgan’s laws for statements.
De Morgan’s laws can be used to restate certain English sentences in an equivalent

form.
Prove that the De Morgan’s Law for statement is an Equivalent statement
Prove that the De Morgan’s Law for statement is an Equivalent statement
Example: State an Equivalent Form
1.) Use one of De Morgan’s laws to restate the following sentence in an
equivalent form.
It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.

Example: State an Equivalent Form
2.) Use one of De Morgan’s laws to restate the following sentence in an
equivalent form.
It is not true that: today is Wednesday and it is raining.

Let’s Try This…
Make use of one of De Morgan’s laws to write the given statement in an equivalent
form.
1. Ellen did not go to work this morning and she did not take her
medication.
form.
2. Wendy will go to the store this afternoon or she will not be able to
prepare her pesto recipe.
form.
3. It is not true that, I bought a new car and I moved to Florida

form.
4. It is not true that, she received a promotion or that she received a

raise.
form.
5. It is not the case that, the students cut classes or took part in the
demonstration.
Tautologies, Contradictions
and Contingency
A tautology is a compound statement that is true for all possible
combinations of the truth values of the propositional variables are also
called logically true.
A contradiction is a compound statement that is false for all possible

combinations of the truth values of its propositional variables also
called logically false or absurdity.
A contingency is a compound statement that can either be true or

false, depending on the truth values of the propositional variables
neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
Example:
Use a truth table to determine whether the given
statement is Tautology, Contradiction or Contingency
1.) 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝)
p p ∧ ( ∼p )
F
Example:
2.) 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
p q p ∨ ( ∼p ∨ q)
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example:
3.) ~ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
p q ~ [(p ∨ q) ∨ ( ~p ∨ q)]
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example:
4.) ∼ [𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ]
p q ∼ [p ∨ ( ~p ∨ q)]
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example:
5.) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑝
p q (p ∧ q) → p
T T
T F
F T
F F
6.) (𝑝 ⟶∼ 𝑞) ⟷ (𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟)
p q r (p ⟶ ∼q ) ⟷ (q ∧ ~r )
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
The Converse, the Inverse,
and the Contrapositive
Every conditional statement has three related statements.
They are called the converse, the inverse, and the
contrapositive.
The above definitions show the following:
The converse of p → q is formed by interchanging the antecedent p

with the consequent q. 𝒒→𝒑
The inverse of p → q is formed by negating the antecedent p and

negating the consequent q. ∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒
The contrapositive of p → q is formed by negating both the

antecedent p and the consequent q and interchanging these negated
statements. ∼ 𝒒 →∼ 𝒑
Example: Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.
1. If I get the job, then I will rent the apartment.
Converse (𝒒 → 𝒑): ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Inverse (∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒) : ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Contrapositive (∼ 𝒒 →∼ 𝒑) : _________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Example: Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.
2. If you stay, then I leave.
Converse (𝒒 → 𝒑): ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Inverse (∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒) : ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Let’s Try This…
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.
1. If I have money, then I will travel to Europe.
Converse (𝒒 → 𝒑): __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Inverse (∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒) : ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Contrapositive (∼ 𝒒 →∼ 𝒑) : __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. If we don’t receive the invitation, then we will not be able to attend the seminar.
Converse (𝒒 → 𝒑): __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Inverse (∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒) : ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
3. If the sky is blue, then deserts are dry.
Converse (𝒒 → 𝒑): ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Inverse (∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒) : ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
4. If Pluto is not a planet, then the sun is the center of the solar system.
Converse (𝒒 → 𝒑): __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Inverse (∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒) : ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
5. If the number is even, then it is divisible by 2.
Converse (𝒒 → 𝒑): __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Inverse (∼ 𝒑 →∼ 𝒒) : ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

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Logic

➢ the science or study of how to evaluate arguments and

Logical Reasoning – used in mathematics to prove theorems, in

Example: The following are Proposition (or Statement):

• Close the door. (Imperative, Command)

Propositional variable – a variable which is used to represent a

Formal propositional variable – written using propositional logic

Compound proposition – a proposition composed of two or more simple

Simple proposition (or atomic) – a proposition which is not compound

Simple statements do not contain other statements as their

𝒑: 𝐽𝑜ℎ𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠.

a. India is a European country and 3 is an even number.

b. Salt is sweet and there are 31 days in October.

c. 1 + 4 = 5 and mango is the national fruit of the Philippines.

𝒑: 𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠.

b. 3 + 7 = 15 or Michael Jordan is not a boxing champion.

c. 11 is a prime number or Florida is a state in the United States.

Example: Write the negation of each statement.

1. 𝒑: 𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟.

2. 𝒑: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑑.

b. 𝒑: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑑.

c. 𝒑: 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑙𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠.

IV. CONDITIONAL ( IMPLICATION )

𝒑 is called hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and

𝒑 ∶ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐.

1. We can get a dog only if we install a fence around the backyard.

a. If Manny Pacquiao is a senator, then birds are amphibians.

b. Tomato is a fruit, if 𝜋 is an irrational number.

c. 8 ÷ 2 = 5 provided that Philippines is a communist country.

The biconditional of the proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 is the compound proposition

𝒑 ∶ 𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑑.

a. 20 ÷ 4 = 5 if and only if hexagon has six sides.

b. The moon is triangle is equivalent to the earth is square.

c. Ostrich is not a bird is a necessary and sufficient for Venus is a planet.

The exclusive-or of the proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 is the compound proposition

George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Mathematics is easy and I get high grade.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

b. I passed the exam and I get high grade.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

c. Mathematics is not easy if and only if I didn’t pass the exam.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

d. If Mathematics is easy, then I get high grade.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

e. I passed the exam or Mathematics is easy.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

f. I need to study if and only if Mathematics is not easy.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

g. I get high grade or I passed the exam.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

h. I don’t need to study if and only if Mathematics is easy.

Consider the following statements.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

Consider the following statements.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

Consider the following statements.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

Consider the following statements.