Chapter 1

Metrology Through Ages

1.1 Introduction

Since time immemorial human beings have been weighing and measuring objects
in one form or the other, and have been trying to define units of measurements.
Normally one compares a quantity of a particular body with that of another body,
whose quantity, under question, is known. In earlier days, one might have compared
similar quantities, one of which could have been a part of the human body, for
example the foot of a person. The problem with such definitions was encountered
when this unit was to be implemented throughout the country. In this case, persons
with different foot lengths would assign different numbers for a given distance. To
obviate this difficulty they could have decided to estimate all distances in terms of
the king’s foot length. However, the problem with this system would be that the
king could not be expected to go wherever a distance needed to be measured, and
the question of what would happen after his death too would arise.
The next bright idea was to use an artefact like a piece of wood, metal or some
other material as a unit of length. One of the earlier records of such an artefact
was found in the form of an “Egyptian Cubit” around 2,500 BC. This first well-
documented example was derived from the length of the arm from the elbow down
to the outstretched tip of the middle finger. By 2,500 BC this had been standardised
as a royal master cubit made of black marble (measuring about 52 cm). This cubit
was divided into 28 equal parts (each roughly the width of a finger), which could be
further divided into fractional parts, the smallest of these being just over a millime-
tre. About 500 years later a royal decree about length, weight and capacity measures
was issued in Babylon. This was a piece of granite whose length was equal to the
length of the forearm plus the width of the palm of the Pharaoh ruling at that time.

1
2 1 Metrology Through Ages

1.2 History of Metrology in India

1.2.1 Legal Metrology

Since ancient times India has been following good trade practices. One of the most
ancient texts of India is the Manusmriti. Manusmriti via ashloka 403 in the 8th
chapter mandates the King as follows:

The king should examine the weights and balances every 6 months to ensure true measure-
ments and to mark them with the royal stamp.

1.2.2 Town Planning

The next record of the history of measurements in India is from the Indus Valley
Civilization around 4,000–1,500 BC.
In the Harappa era, which is nearly 5,000 years old, one finds excellent examples
of town planning and architecture. Strong evidence exists that in the Mohenjodaro
period all bricks used were of the same relative dimensions, that is the length,
breadth and thickness are in the ratio of 4:2:1. The significance of the decimal was
already known, even though a Hindu mathematician demonstrated the counting of a
decimal at a much later date.

1.2.3 Length Measurements

In the Mauryan period during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, around 500 years
BC, there was a well-defined system of weights and measures. The government of
that time ensured that everybody used the same system. According to this system,
the smallest unit of length was Parmanu. Lengths measurements as multiples of
Parmanu in steps of 8 were defined in the Kautilya Arthshastra and are given by
Professor A. R. Verma [1] as follows:

8 Parmanu D 1 Rajahkan (dust particle coming from the wheel of a chariot)

8 Rajahkan D 1 Liksha (egg of lice)
8 Liksha D 1 Yookamadhya
8 Yookamadhya D 1 Yavamadhya
8 Yavamadhya D 1 Angul (width of a finger)
8 Angul D 1 Dhanurmushti

Taking one Angul – the width of a finger – as 1 cm, one can see that even in
500 BC, Indians were measuring lengths as small as 0:3 m roughly. This also shows
the measurement capability and need of the industry in the Mauryan period.
1.2 History of Metrology in India 3

This process of updating units of measurements continued from one period to

another. In the Mughal period at the time of the Mughal emperor Akbar, Abul Fazl-i-
Allami in his Ain-i-Akabari described the Gaz as the unit of length. The Gaz was
divided into 24 equal parts and each part was called Tassuj. Some historians called
this unit Ilahigaz instead of Gaz. The system was extensively used for land records,
and for the construction of buildings, houses, wells, gardens and roads. The term
Gaz continued to be used till the introduction of the metric system in India in 1956.
The actual length of one Gaz and the number of its subdivisions underwent several
changes. In the British period, the length of the Gaz was made equal to the imperial
yard and it was subdivided into 36 equal parts, each of which was called an inch.
The inch was divided into eight equal parts (commonly called soot). For engineering
purposes, 1/8 of an inch was divided into two or four equal parts.

1.2.4 Time Measurements

The time measurement system in ancient India was excellent, and it covered a range
from microseconds to trillions of years, including the cycles of the universe. In the
Yjur Veda, chapter VII, ashloka 30, there is a description of the months and the
year. From the language it is clear that there are 12 months, each consisting of two
paksh (14 days) according to the orbiting of the moon around the earth. The actual
number of days in a month may vary by a day according to the position of the moon
and the sun. It is a very practical method for measuring time and does not require
any equipment. Everybody can see the moon at night and can tell which day it is.
However, it appears that even in those days they knew that the earth is revolving
around the sun and that the seasons depend upon the relative position of the earth
and the sun. To adjust to this observation the seasons start almost simultaneously
with the months. There was a provision for an additional 13th month, which may
occur periodically to compensate for the revolution of the earth around the sun. The
Vedic year almost coincides with the time of one revolution of the earth around the
sun. This practice still continues in Hindu religious calendars used in astrology and
for festivals. The seasons and the festivals fall almost in the same lunar month.

Time Intervals

Time intervals (24-h day) used in astrology are even now subdivided into the
following submultiples:
1 (24 h) day D 30 Mahurat
1 Mahurat D 2 Ghadi
1 Ghadi D 60 Pal D 24 min
1 Pal D 6 Asho
1 Asho D 10 Vipul
1 Vipul D 0.4 s
4 1 Metrology Through Ages

Much before the present era, in Vedic times, more than 5,000 years BC, Indians
had separate names for much smaller time intervals. The term for the smallest time
interval as given in the holy book Shrimadbhagwat Puran [2] was permanu, and its
multiples are as follows:
2 permanu D 1 anu
3 anu D 1 trisrenu
3 trisrenu D 1 truti
100 truti D 1 vedh
3 vedh D 1 love
3 love D 1 nimesh
3 nimesh D 1 chhun
5 chhun D 1 kashta
15 kashta D 1 laghu
15 laghu D 1 nadika
2 nadika D 1 mahurat
30 mahurat D 1 day and 1 night (one sunrise to the next)
7 days and 7 nights D 1 saptah
2 saptah D 1 paksh
2 paksh D 1 lunar month
2 months D 1 ritu
3 ritu D 1 ayan
2 ayan D one lunar year
From the above data we get:
3,280,500,000 permanu D 24-h day D 86,400 s
37,968.75 permanu D 1 s
1 permanu D 2:6 s
However, for day-to-day life in the holy book Mahabharat, ashloka 231 [3], the
smallest time interval was considered as nimesh, and its multiples, which are used
till today, are as follows:
15 nimesh D 1 kashta
30 kashta D 1 kala
30 kala D 1 mahurat
30 mahurat D 1 day and 1 night
4.6875 nimesh D 1 s or
1 nimesh D 0.21333  0.2 s
The existence of a separate name for the time interval known as permanu, which
is equivalent to 2:6 s, indicates two things: there was a frequent need to have such
a small time interval and there existed methods of detecting such small intervals
with reasonable precision.
In addition to the above, we get quite a few sets of time intervals and counting of
time in various literatures, which is inevitable when we are looking at a history of
10 million years. Some of these systems are mentioned below.
1.2 History of Metrology in India 5

Detailed information on time measurement is given in the Vishnu Puran, Book I,

Chap. III.

Sidereal Metrics

1 paramanu D the normal interval of blinking in humans, or approximately 4 s

1 vighati D 6 paramanu, or approximately 24 s
1 ghadiya D s 60 vighatis, or approximately 24 min
1 muhurta D 2 ghadiyas, or approximately 48 min
1 nakshatra ahoratram or sidereal day D exactly 30 muhurtas [4]
(Note: A day is considered to begin and end at sunrise, not at midnight.)
Quite a few other systems of time measurement in ancient India have been cited
on websites [5]; I have randomly selected a few, just to give a feel about the various
systems of time measurement in different time periods. The names of some of the
units cited may be the same but they are of different magnitudes, and the spelling of
some terms may be slightly different because Sanskrit words have been written in
roman script as they sound to different authors.

Smaller Units of Time Used in the Vedas [5]

1 trasarenu D the combination of 6 celestial atoms

1 truti D the time needed to integrate 3 trasarenu, or 1/1,687.5 of a second
1 vedha D 100 truti
1 lava D 3 vedha
1 nimesha D 3 lava, or a blink
1 kshana D 3 nimesha
1 kashtha D 5 kshana, or about 8 s
1 laghu D 15 kashtha, or about 2 min
15 laghu D 1 nadika, which is also called a danda
This equals the time before water overflows in a six-pala [14 ounce] pot of cop-
per, in which a hole is bored with a gold probe weighing four masha and measuring
four fingers long. The pot is then placed on a tripod.
2 dandas D 1 muhurta
6 or 7 dandas D 1 yamah, or 1/4 of a day or night
There are 4 prahara or 4 yama in each day or each night

Lunar Metrics [5]

A tithi (also spelled thithi) or lunar day is defined as the time it takes for the longi-
tudinal angle between the moon and the sun to increase by 12˚. A tithi is variable in
time intervals varying approximately from 19 to 26 h.
6 1 Metrology Through Ages

A paksa (also paksha) or lunar fortnight consists of 15 tithis.

A masa or lunar month (approximately 29.5 days) is divided into 2 pakshas:
the one between new moon and full moon is called gaura (bright) or shukla
paksha; and the one between full moon and new moon is called krishna (dark)
paksha [5].
A ritu comprises of 2 masas.
An ayanam is made up of 3 ritus.
A varsha or year consists of 2 ayanams.

Tropical Metrics

1 yaama D 7.5 ghatis

8 yaamas D 1 half of the day (either day or night)
ahoratram D a tropical day [5]

In this case also, a day is considered to begin and end at sunrise, not at midnight.

Reckoning of Time Among Other Entities

Reckoning of Time Among the Pitras [5]

Pitra is a Sanskrit word which means forefathers, which may also be considered
as history.
1 day of the pitras D 1 solar masa (month)
30 days of the pitras D 1 month of the pitras
12 months of the pitras D 1 year of the pitras
The lifespan of the pitras is 100 years of the pitras (D 3,000 solar years)

Taking the lifespan of a human being as 100 years, 3,000 years appears to be a rea-
sonable period spanning the history of a particular sect to which the human being
belonged.

Reckoning of Time Among the Devas

1 day of the Devas D 1 solar year

30 days of the Devas D 1 month of the Devas
12 months of the Devas D 1 year of the Devas
The lifespan of the Devas is 100 years of the Devas (D 36000 solar years)

Deva is again a Sanskrit word meaning a demigod or demigoddess. This may be

considered as a specific religion with the specific name of a deity as its head. Taking
the lifespan of a religion as 36000 years appears to be a reasonable period for an
existence of a specific religion.
1.2 History of Metrology in India 7

The use of the number 10 and its integral powers as a multiplication factor to
obtain higher units may be appreciated. The decimal system was deep-rooted in
ancient India.
The word Deva is also used for the divine. So instead of saying Deva day, Deva
month and Deva year we can call them divine day, divine month and divine year,
respectively.

Reckoning of Time for Brahma

12000 years of the Devas D 1 Mahayuga D 4320000 solar years

One Mahayuga is divided into 10 charnas consisting of four Yugas, namely Satya
Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dwapar Yuga, and Kali Yuga. The duration of each Yuga in terms
of charnas and solar years is tabulated below.

The Four Yugas

4 charnas (1728000 solar years) Satya Yuga
3 charnas (1296000 solar years) Treta Yuga
2 charnas (864000 solar years) Dwapar Yuga
1 charnas (432000 solar years) Kali Yuga

As this is a repetitive cycle there are altogether 1,000 cycles of Mahyugas in one
day of Brahma.
One cycle of the above four Yugas makes one Mahayuga (4.32 million solar
years)
A Manvantara consists of 71 Mahayugas (306,720,000 solar years). Each Man-
vantara is ruled by a Manu.
After each Manvantara follows one Sandhiya Kala of the same duration as the
Satya Yuga (1,728,000 solar years). It is said that during a Sandhiya Kala, the
entire earth is submerged in water.
A Kalpa consists of a period of 1,728,000 solar years, and is called Adi Sandhiya.
This is followed by 14 Manvantaras and 14 Sandhiya Kalas.
A day of Brahma is one Kalpa, as is also one night of Brahma.
One day of Brahma equals 14 times 71 Mahayugas C (15 times 4 Kali Yugas)
D 994 Mahayugas C (60 Kali Yugas)
D 994 Mahayugas C (6 times 10 Kali Yugas)
D 994 Mahayugas C 6 Mahayugas
D 1,000 Mahayugas
The duration of a day of Brahma is confirmed by a statement of ashloka 17
in the 8th chapter of the Shrimadbhagvad Gita: “sahasra-yuga paryantam ahar-
yad brahmano viduh”, meaning a day of Brahma is 1,000 mahayugas. Thus, a day
of Brahma is a Kalpa that has a duration of 4.32 billion solar years. Two Kalpas
8 1 Metrology Through Ages

constitute a day and night of Brahma. The second part of the aforesaid ashloka also
confirms that the duration of the night of Brahma is also 1,000 Mahayugas.
1 month of Brahma D 30 days C 30 nights of Brahma D (259,200,000,000 solar
years)
1 year of Brahma D 12 months of Brahma D 3,110,400,000,000 solar years
1 Parardha D 50 years of Brahma D 155,520,000,000,000 solar years
100 years of Brahma is the lifespan of Brahma D 311,040,000,000,000 solar
years or 311 trillion years
After 100 years of Brahma, the universe starts with a new Brahma. It may be
noted that we are in the time of the second Brahma.
We are currently in the 28th Kali yuga of the first day of the 51st year of the
second Brahma in the reign of the 7th Manu – Manu Vaivasvata . This is the 51st
year of the present Brahma and so about 155 trillion years have elapsed since he
took over as Brahma.
It may be interesting to note the following:
1 Solar year D 365 days 6 h and 9 min
1 Lunar year D 354 days 8 h and 48 min
1 Lunar month D 29 days 12 h and 44 min
The current Kali Yuga (Iron Age) began at midnight of 17 February/18 February
in 3102 BC in the proleptic Julian calendar.
It is very interesting to note that a day of Brahma, a Kalpa, has a duration of 4.32
billion solar years. And from the latest dating techniques the age of the earth is found
to be between 4.5 and 5 billion years. A close match of these two measurements
raises very interesting questions.

Counting of Time

According to Saint Shukdeva [6], time is eternal and infinite. But for the purpose of
recording the happenings of worldly affairs and events, especially for larger intervals
of time, the year is taken as the unit and has the following multiples:
1 Kali Yuga D 432,000 years
2 Kali yugas D 1 Dwapar Yuga
3 Kali yugas D 1 Treta Yuga
4 Kali yugas D 1 Satya Yuga
1 Chaturyugee D 4,320,000 years (sum total of all the four Yugas)
71 Chaturyugees D 1 Manvantara D 306,720,000 years
Each Manvantara is preceded and followed by a lull period of 1,728,000 years,
which is equivalent to one Satya Yuga and is called Sandhiya.
14 Manvantras C 15 Satya Yugas or 15 Sandhiyas D 1 Kalpa D 4,320,000,000
years
1 Kalpa D 1 day of Brahma or 1 night of Brahma
2 Kalpas D 1 day and 1 night of Brahma
1.2 History of Metrology in India 9

100 years of Brahma is the period during which a universe is born and meets its
end. After this period a new universe is born again and a new civilization starts, and
this is a never-ending process. Therefore Saint Shukdeva said that time is eternal
and infinite.
At the beginning of any Hindu rite, an ashloka in Sanskrit is read out, which
means that this ritual is being performed for a certain purpose (name of the purpose)
by this particular person (name of the person including father’s and family names)
at this place (full address with country name) at this time of day (Ghadi and Pala
or in hours and minutes) in 5109 of Kalyugi year (for AD 2007, or Hindu calendar
year 2064 Sambat) of the 28th Chaturyugee of the 7th Manvantra on the first day
of the 51st year of the 2nd Brahma. This is a wonderful example of counting time
from the start of the universe to the present time.

Time Scale in Seconds

From the description of the names of different time intervals, one can easily deduce
that our forefathers had a range of time measurement from 107 s on the smaller
side to 1022 s on the extremely large side. Giving specific names to the vast range
of time measurements suggests that they were in need of such small and large time
intervals and also that measurement capabilities did exist for such small and big
time intervals. The logarithmic scale of time is shown in Fig. 1.1 along with specific
names of some units in various systems of time counting in seconds [4]. I would like
to draw the attention of readers to some names of time intervals that might have been
the same in different systems, but differing largely in values. One such example is
the term truti.
10–7

10–6

10–5

10–4

10–3

10–2
10–1

100
101

102

103

104

105

106

107
Truti

Renu

Lava

Leekshaka

Second
Paramanu
Vighati

Ghati
Muhurta

Nakshatra ahoratram

Paksha
Masa
Ruthu
Aayan
Year
108
109
1010

1011

1012
1013

1014
1015

1016
1017

1018
1019
1020
1021

1022
Mahayuga

Manvantara

Day of Brahma

Cycle of Brahma

Fig. 1.1 Logarithmic time scale in ancient India

10 1 Metrology Through Ages

1.2.5 Units of Time and Angle

The division of the circle into 360˚ and the day into hours, minutes and seconds can
be traced back to the Babylonians, who had a sexagesimal system of numbers. The
360˚ may have been related to a year of 360 days.

1.2.6 Mass Measurement

In Vedic times, equal care was taken for trade and commerce and there was a well-
established system of weights and volume measures. Similar to the present system,
they had different weights and sometimes even different nomenclatures for the use
of different merchandise.

For Trade in Food Grains and Similar Items

For units of mass and volume please refer to [7]. The drone is the unit of weight
used for food, grains and similar items. Its submultiples were:
1 Drone D 4 Adaka D 16 Prastha D 64 Kudava D 256 Pala D 1024 Karsa D
16,384 Masa
In other words:
1 Drone D 4 Adaka
1 Adaka D 4 Prastha
1 Prastha D 4 Kudava
1 Kudava D 4 Pala
1 Pala D 4 Karsa
1 Karsa D 16 Masa
One may appreciate that each successive unit is in submultiples of four of its
predecessor.
Assuming 1 Masa is about 1.1016 g, we have:
1 Drone D 18,048.6 g D 18 kg

For Gold Trade [7]

1 Aksa D 1 Karsa (gold) D 16 Masa (gold),

It may be noted that here also karsa and masa have the same ratio of 16:1 as in the
grain trade.
1 Masa (gold) D 5 krsnala D 1/10 suvarn (gold)
Suvarn (gold) D 10 Masa
1.2 History of Metrology in India 11

1 Masa D 5 Krsnala
1 Suvarn (gold) will be nearly equal to 11.016 g in present SI unit of mass.
In fact, a number of many other systems of weights were used in different periods
of the Vedic era.

For Silver Trade

For silver there appears to be different sets of weights and denominations:

1 Dharna D 10 Pala D 16 Masaka (silver) D 1 Purana (silver)
1 Dharna D 19 Sispava D 2/5 Kara D 10 Pala D 24 Rakitika

1.2.7 Volume Measurements

1 Drone (bucket) D 16 Puskala

1 Puskala D 8 Kunici

In another system:
1 Drone D 1,024 Musti D 200 Pala D 1/20 Kumbha
1 Kumbha D 20Drone
1 Drone D 200 Pala
1 Pala D 5.12 Musti
1 Khri D 16 Drone or 64 Haka
1 Drone D 2 Adhaka D 32 Seer
1 Surpa D 2 Drone D 64 Seer
Arranging the units in ascending order, we get:
1Haka D 1/4 Drone
1 Adhaka D 1/2 Drone
1 Drone D 1 Drone
2 Drone D 1 Supra
16 Drobe D 1 Khri
Here the binary system has been followed.
During the British period, efforts were made to achieve uniformity in mass,
length and area measurements. The British rulers connected the Indian weights and
measures to those being used in Great Britain at that time, which were inch, foot and
yard for length, and grain, ounce and pound for weight. A compromise was reached
in mass measurement, as follows:
8 Ratti D 1 Masa
12 Masa D 1 Tola
5 Tola D 1 Chhatank
12 1 Metrology Through Ages

16 Chhatank D 1 Seer (very roughly equal to 1 kg)

40 Seer D 1 Maund
1 Maund D 100 pounds troy (exact)
This system of mass measurement continued in the British-occupied India till
1947, the year of our independence. However, in the Princely States, the term seer
was used but its nominal value in terms of the British standard pound was different
from one state to another. At the time of metrication there were as many as 120
types of seers. Each seer was different from the other, both in shape and value.
Similarly in area measurements the units were different from one state to another.
It is sad that even after about 60 years of adoption of the metric system, the old units
in land measurements are still being used. In addition to these there are different
units by names and values that are used for land area measurements.

1.2.8 Numeration

In Vedic times [8] we had a very good counting system and every numeral from zero
to 100 was given a separate name. Thereafter, names were assigned to each numeral
in steps of 10. This method continues to a numeral as high as 1018 .

Table 1.1 Nomenclature of numerals in Hindi and English

Numeral Vedic kaal Sanctioned by the standards of weights and measures
numeration rules 1987 as amended in 2002
Hindi English
100 Aik One can use the words in any local language
recognized by the Indian Constitution, Hindi
or English
101 Das
102 Shat
103 Hazar Hazar Thousand
104 Das hazar Das hazar Ten thousand
105 Lakh Lakh Hundred thousand
106 Niyut Das lakh Million
107 Crore Crore Ten million
108 Riburdh Das crore Hundred million
109 Vrand Arab Billion
1010 Kharab Das arab Ten billion
1011 Ni-Kharab Kharab Hundred billion
1012 Shankh Das kharab Trillion
1013 Padam Neel Ten trillion
1014 Sagar Das neel Hundred trillion
1015 Rintya Padam Thousand trillion
1016 Madhya Das padam Ten thousand trillion
1017 Pradharya Shankh Hundred thousand trillion
1018 Das pradharya Das shankh Thousand thousand trillion
Further Readings 13

One of the functions of the Standards of Weights and Measures Act of 1976 is
to officially prescribe the names of various numerals and the use of digits to write
a numeral, and to express numerals having more than three digits. As India is a
member of the Metric Treaty as well as the International Organization of Legal
Metrology, we tried to initially follow the French system of assigning names to
larger numerals. But later, visualizing the practice followed by countries with whom
we have the bulk of our trade, slight changes were adopted for terms higher than
million, as suggested by the author. The names assigned to various numerals larger
than one are given in Table 1.1.
One may notice that although some Hindi words are common in the second and
third columns, their numerical values are different.

References

1. A.R. Verma, National Measurement System (National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, 1987)
2. B.K. Chaturvedi, Shri Madbhagwat Purana. Available at www.bookshelf. beyondillusions.com
3. Hanuman Prasad Poddar (Hindi Translator) Mahabharat Ashloka 231, (Gita Press, Gorakh
Pur)
4. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/history of measurement systems in India
5. http://d-subrahmanyam.sulekha.com/blog/post/2007/03/time-measurement-inancient-india.
htm
6. S. Suresh, Bharat Main Vigyan ki oojwal parampara (Hindi) (Archana Prakashan, Bhopal,
2003)
7. Monier – Williams Sanskrit Dictionary www.veda.harekrsna.cz/encylopedia/units.html
8. Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati, Rigvedadi Bhashya Bhumika(Hindi) (Speedo Graphics,
Patparganj Delhi, 1876)

Further Readings

1. Science and technology in ancient India, available at www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

science-andtechnology-inancient-India
2. Indian mathematics, available www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian mathematics
3. Brennand W, Hindu Astronomy, 2004, availabile at www.amazon.com
4. Tulsi Ram, 1985, Sama Veda, Serve Desik Pratinididhi Sabha, Darya ganj, New Delhi
5. Maherishi Dayanand Sarswati, Yjur Veda, (Serve Desik Pratinididhi Sabha, Darya ganj, New
Delhi, 1889)
6. Trivedi Shiv Karan Das, Atharva Veda, (Serve Desik Pratinididhi Sabha, Darya ganj, New
Delhi, 1988). Note: Vedas at S No 4,5,6 are available in NPL India Library
7. Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, 2004, Vedic Chronology and Vedaga Jyotish, Cosmo
Publications UK ISBN 8177551000
8. V. Purana, Volume I, Chapter 3 – Time Measurement Section, Available at www.en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Vishnu Purana
9. B. Ebenezer, Translation of Surya-Siddhanta, a Text Book of Hindu Astronomy, 1860, Available
at www.amazon.com
10. J. Katz Victor, A History of Mathematics, 1998, Available at www.en.wikipedea.org/wiki
indian Mathematics
14 1 Metrology Through Ages

11. Dwight William Johnson. Exegesis of Hindu Cosmological Time Cycles, 2003, Available at
www.en.wikipedea.org/wiki
12. A. Mark, Surya Siddhanta, Chapter I with Commentary and Illustrations, 2005, Available at
www.en.wikipedea.org/wiki