PSY 307 – Psychological Assessment VARIETIES OF ASSESSMENT

Chapter 1: Educational Assessment – the use of tests and other tools

to evaluate abilities and skills relevant to success or
Psychological Testing and failure in a school or pre-school context.
▪ intelligence tests
Assessment ▪
▪
achievement tests
reading comprehension tests etc.
Retrospective Assessment – past; the use of evaluative
Psychological Assessment – the gathering and tools to draw conclusions about psychological aspects of
integration of psychology-related data for the purpose of a person as they existed at some point in time prior to the
making a psychological evaluation through the use of assessment
tools
Remote Assessment – the use of tools of evaluation to
gather data and draw conclusions about a subject who is
Psychological Testing – the process of measuring NOT in physical proximity to the person or people
psychology-related variables by means of devices and conducting the evaluation
procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior Ecological Monetary Assessment (EMA) – “in the
moment” evaluation of specific problems and related
cognitive and behavioral variables at the exact time and
TESTING VS ASSESSMENT place they occur; assessment by means of smartphones
TESTING ASSESSMENT
Objective
▪ to obtain some gauge, ▪ to answer a referral PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT
usually numerical in question, solve a problem,
nature, with regard to an or arrive at a decision
ability or attribute. through the use of tools of referral
evaluation
Process
▪ may be conducted ▪ individualized
individually or in groups ▪ focuses on the individual
meeting prior assessment
▪ focuses on the score and process
results
Role of Evaluator preparation
▪ tester is NOT key to the ▪ assessor is KEY to the
process process of selecting tests
▪ one tester may be and/or other tools as well
selection of tools and procedures
substituted for another as in drawing conclusions
without affecting the
evaluation
Skill of Evaluator formal assessment
▪ tester requires technician- ▪ assessment requires an
like skills in administering educated selection of
and scoring a test as well tools of evaluation, skill in
as interpreting a test result evaluation, and thoughtful writing a report of the findings
organization and
integration of data
Outcome more feedback sessions
▪ testing yield a test score ▪ assessment entails a logical
or a series of test scores problem-solving approach
▪ brings to bear many
sources of data designed to Collaborative Psychological Assessment – involves a
shed light on a referral collaboration between assessor and assessee; working
question
as partners from initial contact to final feedback.

Therapeutic Psychological Assessment – aims to be

helpful throughout the assessment process; results are
shared immediately; assessor and assessee co-develop Scoring – the process of assigning such evaluative codes
an interpretation of the results and decides further or statements to performance on tests, tasks, interviews,
questions. or other behavior samples
Dynamic Assessment – an interactive approach to Cut Score – aka cutoff score or cutoff; a reference point,
psychological assessment that follows: usually numerical, derived by judgment and used to
divide a set of data into two or more classifications.
evaluation Psychometrics – the science of psychological
measurement

intervention ▪ Psychometric – adj.; measurement that is

psychological in nature

evaluation
Psychometrist or Psychometrician – a professional who
uses, analyzes and interprets psychological test data

2.) Interview – a method of gathering information

TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT through direct communication involving reciprocal
1.) Test – a measuring device or procedure exchange.
Panel Interview – aka board interview; involves more
than one interviewer; usually used in hiring, firing, and
Psychological Test – a device or procedure designed to advancement of personnel
measure variable related to psychology.
▪ Advantage: minimize idiosyncratic biases of a
lone interviewer
▪ Disadvantage: cost of using multiple
Psychological tests and other tools of assessment
interviewers may not be justified
differ with respect to a number of variables:
Motivational Interviewing – a therapeutic dialogue that
• Content – subject matter; it varies with the focus of
combines person-centered listening skills + cognition-
a particular test
altering techniques; designed to positively affect
• Format – form, plan, structure, arrangement and motivation and effect therapeutic change
layout of test items; other considerations like time
limits and form of test administration (computerized,
pencil-and-paper etc.)
3.) Portfolio – work products retained on paper, canvas,
• Administration Procedures – one-to-one basis or
film, video, audio etc.; a sample of ability and
group testing; may involve demonstration of various
accomplishments
kinds of tasks and trained observation
• Scoring and Interpretation Procedures – some
results are derived from summation of responses;
others require more elaborate procedures 4.) Case History Data – records, transcripts, and other
accounts in written, pictorial, or other form that
• Psychometric Soundness – technical quality of the
preserve archival information, official or informal
test; whether or not it measures what it purports to
accounts, and other data and items relevant to an
measure
assessee.
Case Study – aka case history; a report or illustrative
DEFINITIONS account concerning a person or an event compiled on the
basis of case history data
Score – a code or summary statement, usually but not
necessarily numerical in nature, that reflects an evaluation Groupthink – a result of the varied forces that derive
of performance on a test, task, interview, or some other decision-makers to reach a consensus (such as motivation
sample of behavior. to reach a compromise in positions).
5.) Behavioral Observation – monitoring the actions Computer-Assisted Psychological Assessment (CAPA)
of other or oneself by visual or electronic means while – assisted; the assistance computers provide to the test
recording quantitative or qualitative info regarding user, NOT the testtaker.
those actions
Naturalistic Observation – variety of behavioral
observation; observing of humans in a natural setting in
which the behavior would typically be expected to occur ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED
ASSESSMENT OR ONLINE ASSESSMENT

6.) Role-Play Tests – a tool of assessment wherein • Greater Accesses – test administrators have greater
assessees are directed to act as if they were in a access to potential test users because of the global
particular situation reach of the Internet
• Faster Scoring and Interpretation – scoring and
Role-Play – acting an improvised or partially improvised interpretation of test data tend to be quicker than for
part in a simulated situation paper-and-pencil tests
• Lower Costs – costs associated with Internet testing
tend to be lower than costs associated with paper-and-
7.) Computer as Tools – help in the measurement of pencil tests
variables, generating simulations, test administration, • Accessibility – the Internet facilitates the testing of
and score interpretation otherwise isolated populations, as well as people with
disabilities for whom getting to a test center might
Local Processing – scoring done on-site
prove a hardship.
Central Processing – scoring conducted at some central • Eco-Friendly – Internet-testing tends to be “greener”
location • Less Errors – less chance for scoring errors with
Internet-based tests
Simple Scoring Report – a mere listing of a score or
scores
Extended Scoring Report – more detailed report that DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED
includes statistical analyses ASSESSMENT OR ONLINE ASSESSMENT
Interpretive Report – distinguished by its inclusion of One basic issue has to do with “test-client integrity”
numerical or narrative interpretative statements in the which includes:
report
• verification of the identity of the testtaker when a
Consultative Report – a type of report may provide test is administered online
expert opinion concerning analysis of data • varying interests of the testtaker versus that of the
test administrator.
Integrative Report – designed to integrate data from
• testtakers may have unrestricted access to notes,
other sources; employs previously collected data into the
test report other Internet resources, and other aids in testtaking
• unproctored Internet testing leads to “score inflation”
as compared to more traditionally administered tests

Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) – adaptive; a 8.) Other Tools:

reference to the computer’s ability to tailor the test to the ▪ Video
testtaker’s ability or test-taking pattern ▪ Virtual Reality (VR) Technology
▪ Medical Equipment
▪ Biofeedback Equipment
▪ Puzzles
 PSY 307 – Psychological Assessment mandated by law or governmental regulation or as
other provided in this Code of Ethics.
Chapter 2:
2. Assent and Parental Consent – To provide
Ethical Guidelines protection for vulnerable persons, peoples, or groups
who are legally incapable of giving informed consent,
we shall nevertheless (a) provide an appropriate
The Psychological Association of the explanation, (b) seek the individual’s assent, (c)
Philippines (PAP) adopted a Code of Ethics for Clinical consider such persons’ preferences and best interests,
Psychologists in the 1980s, and this Code has remained and (d) obtain appropriate permission from a legally
unchanged since then. authorized person, if such substitute consent is
In the last quarter of 2020, a committee was permitted or required by law.
tasked to revise the Code of Ethics, in view of recent ▪ When consent by a legally authorized person is
technological developments as well as the implications of not permitted or required by law, we shall take
the Covid-19 pandemic on the practice of psychology. reasonable steps to protect the individual’s rights
and welfare.
The revised version of the Code of Ethics aligns with the
following laws: 3. Full Disclosure – When psychological services are
court ordered or otherwise mandated, we shall inform
• RA 10029 or Philippine Psychology Act of 2009 – the individual of the nature of the anticipated
aims to regulate the professional practice of services, including whether the services are court
psychology in the country; to protect the public from ordered or mandated and any limits of confidentiality,
inexperienced or untrained individuals; and to nurture before proceeding.
competent, upright and assiduous psychologists
4. Documentation of Consent – We shall
• RA 11036 or the Philippine Mental Health Act of appropriately document written or clearly
2018 – aims to affirm the basic right of all Filipinos expressed unwritten advanced directives, oral
to mental health; to protect the fundamental rights of consent, permission, and assent.
persons availing psychiatric, neurologic and
psychosocial health services; to develop and establish
a national mental health care system CONFIDENTIALITY

• RA 10912 or the Continuing Professional A. Maintaining Confidentiality

Development Act of 2016 – to institute measure that It is our duty to safeguard any information
will continuously improve the competence of Filipino divulged by our clients, regardless of the medium where
professionals and to make them attuned to the it was stored. It is also our duty to make sure that this
development and advancements in their chosen field information is secured and is not placed in areas, spaces,
computers, or gadgets such as laptops and smartphones
that are easily accessible to other unqualified persons.
INFORMED CONSENT
B. Limitations of Confidentiality
1. Consent – When conducting research or providing 1. It is our duty to discuss the limitations of
assessment, therapy, counseling, or consulting confidentiality to our clients, may it be due to
services in person or via electronic transmission, regulated laws, institutional rules, or professional or
telepsychology or video conferencing, telephone, scientific relationship. In cases where the client is a
social media platforms, or other forms of minor or is legally incapable of giving informed
communication, we shall obtain the informed consent, the primary guardian or legal representative
consent of the individual or group of individuals should be informed about the limitations of
using language that is reasonably understandable to confidentiality.
that person or persons and peoples, except when
conducting such activities without consent is 2. Before the actual interview, session, assessment, or
any other related psychological activities, we explain
 explicitly to the client all anticipated uses of the 4. We may disclose confidential information without the
information they will disclose. consent of the client or legal representative only when
it is mandated by law or permitted by law for valid
3. We may release information to appropriate purposes such as:
individuals or authorities only after careful ▪ (a) when professional services are needed to be
deliberation or when there is imminent danger to the provided;
individual and community. In court cases, ▪ (b) when appropriate professional consultations
information should be limited only to those pertinent are needed to be obtained;
to the legitimate request of the court. ▪ (c) when the client, psychology practitioner, or
others are needed to be protected from harm;
4. If the psychological services, products, or information and,
are coursed through an electronic transmission (such ▪ (d) When payments for psychological services
as fax, email, etc.), it is our duty to inform the clients are needed to be obtained from a client who does
of risks to privacy. To safeguard privacy in these not pay for services as agreed
cases, the psychology professional must adhere to
strict standards and best practices in the transmission 5. However, the extent to which we divulge information
of information through the use of encryption, is limited to what is only needed to achieve the
passwords, etc. purpose.

C. Recording 6. When confidential information is needed to be shared

It is our duty to obtain consent from clients or with schools, organizations, social agencies or
their legal representatives before recording the voices or industry, we make sure that only qualified psychology
images of the clients. Before the actual recording, we practitioners will supervise such releases.
explain explicitly all anticipated uses of recorded voices
or images of the clients. 7. Information gathered from school, hospital, office or
organization becomes part of the institution where it
D. Minimizing Invasions of Privacy was obtained. Release of such information becomes
1. When we consult cases with our colleagues or make confidential and may be acquired only with prior
written and oral reports, we only reveal information approval from management or an authorized
that is relevant to the purpose for which the representative.
communication is made.
2. We discuss confidential information we obtained F. Consultation
from our work only to persons clearly concerned or 1. We do not discuss with our colleagues or other
only for scientific, medical and professional purposes. professionals confidential information that could lead
In such situations, personal identifiers such as name, to the identification of the client, unless the client
address, organizational affiliation, etc. are not gave consent or the disclosure cannot be avoided.
disclosed.
2. When we seek second opinion from our colleagues or
E. Disclosures other professionals, we make sure that the extent to
1. We take reasonable steps to ensure that information which we disclose information is limited to what is
to be disclosed will not be misused, misunderstood or only needed to achieve the purpose.
misinterpreted to infringe on human rights, whether
intentionally or unintentionally.
G. Use of Confidential Information for Other
2. We may disclose confidential information only when Purposes
the client or legal representative gave their consent, We do not reveal confidential and personally
unless it is prohibited by law. identifiable information of our clients in our writings,
lectures and seminars, classroom discussions, research,
3. We may disclose confidential information only to the publications, or other public or social media postings
source of referral and with a written permission from unless the client or legal representative consented in
the client if it is self-referral. writing; there is legal authorization; or, we take
reasonable steps to adequately disguise the client.
 2. For evaluation purposes, we discuss the results of
clinical and counseling relationships with our
CONFIDENTIALITY OF RECORDS colleagues’ concerning materials that will not
constitute undue invasion of privacy.
1. We maintain confidentiality in creating, storing,
3. We release information to appropriate individuals or
accessing, transferring, and disposing of our records
authorities only after careful deliberation or when
in whatever form or media these are encoded and
there is imminent danger to the individual and the
stored.
community. In court cases, data should be limited
2. When confidential information is entered into
only to those pertinent to the legitimate request of the
databases or other systems that are available to other
court.
people, we use codes, passwords, and other
techniques to avoid the inclusion of any personal
B. Informed Consent
identifiers.
1. We seek for freely given and adequate informed
3. In the event that we anticipate retirement, transfer,
consent for psychotherapy. We inform clients in
resignation or withdrawal from a position or practice,
advance the nature and anticipated course of therapy,
we make advanced plans to facilitate the appropriate
potential benefits or risks of treatment, or conflicts of
transfer and to protect the confidentiality of records
interests, fees, third party involvement, client’s
and data.
commitments, and limits of confidentiality.
2. We respect the client’s rights to commit to, terminate,
INFORMED CONSENT IN ASSESSMENT or withdraw from therapy.
3. In instances where there is a need to provide generally
1. We gather informed consent prior to the assessment recognized techniques and procedures that are not yet
of our clients except for the following instances: established, we discuss with our clients the nature of
a) when it is mandated by the law the treatment, its developing nature, potential risks,
b) when it is implied such as in routine educational, alternatives and obtain consent for their voluntary
institutional and organizational activity participation.
c) when the purpose of the assessment is to 4. We discuss with our clients both our rights and
determine the individual’s decisional capacity. responsibilities at appropriate points in the working
2. We educate our clients about the nature of our relationship.
services, financial arrangements, potential risks, and 5. In instances where the therapist is still undergoing
limits of confidentiality. In instances where our training, we discuss this matter with the client and
clients are not competent to provide informed consent assure them that adequate supervision will be
on assessment, we discuss these matters with provided.
immediate family members or legal guardians. 6. As psychometricians, we are prohibited from the
3. In instances where a third-party interpreter is needed, practice of therapy, unless in emergency situations.
the confidentiality of test results and the security of
the tests must be ensured. The limitations of the
obtained data are discussed in our results, COPYRIGHT
conclusions, and recommendations.
4. In teleassessment, we inform test takers of the Plagiarism
implications of poor internet connectivity during the We do not present any portions of other’s work or
test-taking session on their test performance, data as our own, even if the source is cited occasionally.
particularly for timed assessments.
Publication Credit
CONFIDENTIALITY AND INFORMED CONSENT 1. We take responsibility and credit only for work we
IN THERAPY have actually done and credit others (including
students and research assistants) for work they have
A. Confidentiality actually performed or to which they have
1. We regard confidentiality as an obligation that arises substantially contributed.
from our client’ s trust. We therefore restrict 2. We ensure that principal authorship and co-
disclosure of information about our clients except in authorship accurately reflect the relative scientific or
instances when mandated or regulated by the law.
 professional contributions of the individuals
involved, regardless of their relative status.
▪ Mere possession of an institutional position, such
as department chair or head of the research unit,
does NOT justify authorship credit.
▪ Minor contributions to the research or to the
writing for publications must be acknowledged
appropriately, such as in footnotes or an
introductory statement.
3. We do not claim credit or authorship in a publication
that is substantially based on our student’s thesis or
dissertation if we do not have substantial
contributions to the research beyond our regular
duties as thesis/dissertation mentor or advisor.
▪ As faculty advisors, we should discuss with
students, publication credit at the outset and
throughout the research and publication process
based on our relative contributions to the research
work.
4. In a multiple-authored article that is partly and/or
substantially based on the student’s thesis or
dissertation, we shall give appropriate publication
credit to the student based on the student’s
contribution relative to the other authors.
▪ When the article is mainly based on the student’s
thesis or dissertation, we credit the student with
primary authorship.

Duplicate Publication of Data

We do not publish data that have been previously
published and claim them as original data. However, this
does not prohibit republishing of data as long as proper
acknowledgement is clearly stated.
 PSY 307 – Psychological Assessment ▪ Ex: gender, marital status, religion, race, hair
color, country, etc.
Chapter 3:

A Statistics Refresher Ordinal Scales – assign people into categories with a

clear and uncontroversial order; involves ranking or
hierarchy; have no absolute zero point and no clearly
defined interval
Measurement – the act of assigning numbers or
▪ allows for comparison of position or ranks
symbols to characteristics of things according to rules.
▪ Ex: year level, economic status, satisfaction
rating (“extremely dislike”, “dislike”, “neutral”,
“like”, “extremely like”)
The rules used in assigning numbers are
guidelines for representing the magnitude of the object
being measured.
Interval Scales – have meaningful distances between
numbers; have no absolute zero point
Scale – a set of numbers or other symbols whose ▪ allows for calculating means and standard
properties model empirical properties of objects to which deviation
the numbers are assigned. ▪ CANNOT be compared as ratios, proportions or
percentages
▪ Ex: temperature (Fahrenheit), temperature
(Celsius), IQ (Intelligence Quotient) score
DISCRETE VS CONTINUOUS SCALES
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
▪ can be counted ▪ cannot be counted Ratio Scales – has a true zero point, which indicates the
▪ has an infinite number of absence of the thing being measured
possible values that can be
measured ▪ represent the magnitude of the quantity being
▪ a sample space that can be ▪ any real number in the measured
counted scale’s sample space
▪ CAN be compared as ratios and proportions
▪ can have fractions or
decimals
▪ Ex: year levels, number of ▪ Ex: height, weight, length,
students, number of time, temperature, blood
children, number of pressure
previous hospitalizations

Error – the collective influence of all the factors on a

test or measurement beyond those specifically measured
by test or measurement.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
Nominal – simplest form of measurement; involve
classification or categorization based on one or more
distinguishing characteristics
▪ all things measured must be placed into mutually
exclusive and exhaustive categories
 Formula for Ungrouped Data (Raw Scores):
Distribution – a set of test scores arrayed for recording
or study

Formula for Grouped Data:

Raw Score – a straightforward, unmodified accounting
of performance that is usually numerical; may reflect a
simple tally
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
Frequency Distribution – aka simple frequency
distribution; all scores are listed alongside the number of
times the score occurred (frequency); might be listed in
tabular or graphic form
Grouped Frequency Distribution – test-core intervals
or class intervals replace the actual test scores; 2. Median – the middle score in the distribution;
obtained by ordering the scores in a list; either
▪ number of class intervals and the size or width of
ascending or descending order; median is the score
each class depends on the test user’s decision
exactly in the middle.
Frequency distributions of test scores can also be ▪ When the total number of scores is an even
illustrated graphically. number, the median is calculated by determining
the arithmetic mean of the two middle scores.
• Graph – a diagram or chart composed of lines, points, ▪ appropriate for ordinal, interval and ratio data.
bars, or other symbols that describe and illustrate data ▪ useful for skewed data, where relatively few
• Histogram – a graph with vertical lines drawn at the scores fall at the high end of the distribution or
true limits of each test score (or class interval), relatively few scores fall at the low end of the
forming a series of contiguous rectangles. distribution
• Bar Graph – numbers indicative of frequency also
appears on the Y-axis, and reference to some Formula for Grouped Data:
categorization (e.g., yes/no/maybe, male/female)
appears on the X-axis.
• Frequency Polygon – Expressed by a continuous line
connecting the points where test scores or class
intervals (as indicated on the X-axis) meet
frequencies (as indicated on the Y-axis).
3. Mode – the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution of scores; not commonly used; not
calculated, obtained by simply counting and
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
determining which score occurred most frequently
A measure of central tendency is a statistic that ▪ useful in analyses of a qualitative or verbal
indicates the average or midmost score between the nature
extreme scores in the distribution. ▪ convey a wealth of information in addition to
mean

1. Mean – aka arithmetic mean; symbol: X̄; most MEAN MEDIAN MODE
commonly used; the sum of the observations (test ▪ interval-level ▪ a statistic ▪ a nominal
scores) divided by the number of observations statistic that takes statistic
▪ most appropriate measure for interval or ratio ▪ generally the most into account ▪ cannot
stable and useful the order of legitimately be
data when the distributions are believed to be measure of central scores used in further
approximately normal tendency ▪ ordinal in calculations
nature
 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY 4. Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) – the mean
(average) distance between each data value and the
Statistics that describe the amount of variation in
mean of the data set
a distribution are referred to as measures of variability.
▪ Formula:

Variability – an indication of how scores in the

distribution are scattered or dispersed. ▪ the bar on each side of X - X̄ indicates that it is the
absolute value of the deviation score
▪ all deviation scores are then summed and divided
by the total number of scores (n) to arrive at the
average deviation
1. Range – simplest measure of variability; the
▪ rarely used – deletion of algebraic signs renders
difference between the highest and lowest scores
it a useless measure for purposes of any further
▪ Formula: highest – lowest = range
operations
▪ its potential use is limited
▪ provides a quick but gross description of the
spread of scores
▪ description of variation may be understated or 5. Standard Deviation – a measure of variability equal
overstated to the square root of the average squared deviations
about the mean; square root of variance
▪ a useful measure because each individual score’s
distance from the mean of the distribution is
INTERQUARTILE AND SEMI-QUARTILE
factored into its computation
RANGES
▪ Formula for Sample:

Quartiles – the dividing points between the four quarters

in the distribution; three quartiles: Q1, Q2 and Q3

▪ Formula for Population:

Note: quartile refers to a specific point; quarter refers to
an interval
Q2 – exactly the same as the median; midpoint of the
distribution
Q1 and Q3 – the quarter-points in a distribution of scores 6. Variance – widely used in psychological research;
the arithmetic mean of the squares of the differences
between the scores in a distribution and their mean
2. Interquartile Range – a measure of variability equal ▪ calculated by squaring and summing all the
to the difference between Q3 and Q1; it is an ordinal deviation scores and then dividing by the total
scale number of scores
▪ Formula: Q3 – Q1 = interquartile range ▪ Formula for Sample:

3. Semi-quartile Range – equal to the interquartile

range divided by 2
▪ Formula: ▪ Formula for Population:
(Q3 – Q1)
2
 SKEWNESS Negatively Skewed – distance between Q3 and Q2 is less
than the distance between Q2 and Q1
Skewness – the nature and extent to which symmetry is ▪ Q3 – Q2 < Q2 – Q1
absent; an indication of how the measurements in a
distribution are distributed
Symmetrical – the distances from Q1 and Q3 to the
median is the same
Positive Skew – when relatively few of the scores fall at
▪ Q3 – Q2 = Q2 – Q1
the high end of the distribution; tail ay nasa right side
▪ Note: Q2 is the median
▪ may indicate that a test is too difficult
KURTOSIS

Kurtosis – the steepness of a distribution in its center is

kurtosis; have little bearing in psychological tests

THREE GENERAL TYPES OF CURVES

Negative Skew – when relatively few scores fall at the

low end of the distribution
▪ may indicate that a test is too easy

1. Platykurtic – relatively flat

2. Leptokurtic – relatively peaked
3. Mesokurtic – somewhere in the middle
According to the original definition, the normal bell-
shaped curve would have a kurtosis value of 3.
In others, the value would be 0, with positive values
(+) indicating higher kurtosis and negative values (-)
indicating lower kurtosis.

THE NORMAL CURVE

One way of gauging the skewness of a distribution is
through examination of the relative distances of quartiles
from the median. Normal Curve – a bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically
defined curve that is highest at its center; perfectly
Positively Skewed – distance between Q3 and Q2 is
symmetrical, with no skewness
greater than the distance between Q2 and Q1
▪ Q3 – Q2 > Q2 – Q1
 STANDARD SCORES
Standard Score – a raw score that has been converted
from one scale to another scale, where the latter scale has
some arbitrarily set mean and standard deviation.
▪ conversion of raw scores to standard scores
allows for easier interpretation
Different systems for standard scores exist, each
unique in terms of its respective mean and standard
deviations.

In theory, the distribution of the normal curve

ranges from negative infinity to positive infinity. Because Z-score – aka zero plus or minus one scale; mean is set
it is symmetrical, the mean, median, and mode all have at 0 and a standard deviation is set at 1; equal to the
the same exact value. difference between a particular raw score and the mean
divided by the standard deviation

THE AREA UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE

Formula:

X – raw score or observed value

X̄ - mean of all the values in a data set
S – standard deviation of a sample
The normal curve can be conveniently divided into
areas defined in units of standard deviation. The empirical
rule, or the 68-95-99.7 rule, tells you where most of your T Scores – aka fifty plus or minus ten scale; mean is set
values lie in a normal distribution: at 50 and a standard deviation is set at 10; composed of
a scale that ranges from 5 standard deviations below the
• Around 68% of values are within 1 standard mean to 5 standard deviations above the mean.
deviation from the mean.
• Around 95% of values are within 2 standard
deviations from the mean. ▪ devised by W.A. McCall
• Around 99.7% of values are within 3 standard ▪ named T score in honor of his professor E.L.
deviations from the mean. Thorndike
A normal curve has two tails. The area on the normal
curve between 2 and 3 standard deviations above the
mean is referred to as a tail. The area on the normal curve OTHER STANDARD SCORES
between -2 and -3 standard deviations below the mean is • Stanine – A method of scaling test scores on a nine-
referred to as a tail. point standard scale with a mean of 5 and a
standard deviation of two.
 Correlation – An expression of the degree and direction
of correspondence between two things

Coefficient of correlation (r) expresses a linear

relationship between two (and only two) variables,
usually continuous in nature.
The meaning of correlation coefficient is
Stanines take on values from 1 to 9, which interpreted by its sign and magnitude.
represent the range of performance that is half if the • Perfect Correlation – either +1 or -1; relationship
standard deviation in width. The 5th stanine indicates the between the two variables being correlated is
average range. perfect—without error in the statistical sense.
• IQ scores – distribution typically has a mean set at • No Correlation – 0; absolutely no relationship
100 and a standard deviation at 15 exists between the two variables
• Positive Correlation – aka direct correlation; two
variables simultaneously increase or decrease
LINEAR AND NONLINEAR TRANSFORMATION • Negative Correlation – aka inverse correlation; one
variable increases and the other decreases
Linear Transformation – one that retains a direct
numerical relationship to the original raw score.
Non-linear Transformation – the resulting standard Pearson r – devised by Karl Pearson; r can be the
score does NOT necessarily have a direct numerical statistical tool of choice when the relationship between
relationship to the original, raw score the variables is linear and when the two variables being
correlated are continuous.
▪ may be required when the data under
consideration are not normally distributed yet Other names for Pearson r:
comparisons with normal distributions need to be ▪ Pearson correlation coefficient
made ▪ Pearson product-moment coefficient of
correlation

NORMALIZED STANDARD SCORES Coefficient of Determination (r2) – an indication of how

much variance is shared by the X- and Y- variables
Normalizing a distribution involves stretching
the skewed curve into a shape of a normal curve and ▪ obtained by squaring the correlation coefficient
creating a corresponding scale of standard scores, a and multiplying it to 100 = the percentage of
normalized standard score scale. variance accounted for

▪ used for purposes of comparability Spearman Rho – developed by Charles Spearman;

▪ generally preferrable to fine-tune the test frequently used when the sample size is small (fewer than
according to difficulty or other relevant variables 30 pairs of measurements) and especially when both sets
so that the resulting distribution will approximate of measurements are in ordinal (or rank-order) form.
a normal curve Other names for Spearman Rho:
▪ Rank-order correlation coefficient
CORRELATION AND INFERENCE ▪ Rank-difference correlation coefficient
▪ Spearman’s Rho
Coefficient of correlation – correlation coefficient; a
number that provides us with an index of the strength of
the relationship between two things.