29.

43 MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL

Electrical Methods
The direct conversion to liquid level position to
electrical signal is used in many instances. The
measurement is generally done by two conversions, so
that the liquid level is determined indirectly. The first
conversion usually is liquid level to a displacement
through a float in a liquid or a spring loaded plate in
contact with the surface in the case of granular solids.
This displacement is then converted into an electrical
Signal by a secondary transducer connected to float or
plate. There are, however, many applications where
this is not possible and hence other methods like
optical or acoustic means or gamma rays are usea.
 The electric transducers used for level measure-
ments are
Resistive,
Inductive, and
ACapacitive
29.42.1 Resistive Method
This method uses mercury as a conductor as
shown in Fig. 29.89. A number of contact rods are
placed at various liquid levels. As head h increases, the
rising level of mercury above the datum, shorts
successive resistors R and increases the value of h

directly.

Resistances- Ammeter

Liquid calibrated
to read h

Contact
rods

-Murcury

Fig. 29.89 Measurement of level of liquids by

resistive method.

Advantages
() Where there is a need for a fairly continuous
record of the level, more and more contact
rods can be added, with separate signal
outputs for each contact rod. The signal can

be used for indication and also for initiating

some control action to actuate valves or

pumps as well as lights and alarms

warning
depending upon the level.
eliminate
(i) The system uses low voltage to
dangerto the operators and to prevent arcing
at the contact points.

The signal can be transmitted to any desired

(ii)
point.
transducers can be used in pressurised
(iv) These or shafts.
containers without packing glands
the
(u) The unit is simple to calibrate since
rods
distance between the
levels of contact
indicated
measured and the
can be accurately
measured
checked for each
value may be
value.
29.43.6 Measurement of Liquid Level
Using Float
A float operated
voltage potential divider isis
shown in Fig. 29.96. As one liquid level rises in the

v -Voltage
potential
divider
wwww
-Wiper
-Pivot

-Tank
-Float

Fi
Fig 29.96 Float operated voltage potential divider for
liquid level measurements.
tank, the float, which isgenerally a hollow ball, is
raised. Its arm causes the wiper to move over the
potential divider whose output terminals are con-
nected to a voltameter. As a float rises, a greater part
of the potential divider is included in the output
circuit giving an increased output voltage.
The output voltage V is proportional to the
liquid level h.
The output terminals from the potential divider
may also be taken to a remote location for display and
control.
29.22 ELECTRICAL TACHOMETERS PunuAle wloleMeui
hu tuld & r o s
The electrical
tachomete:s are preferred over
mechanical tachometers for all dare Ar
daune sha
these tachoriuters offer all the
applications because
with electrical
advantages associated
transducers. The various types of
electrical tachorneters are
discussed below
29.2211 Electromagnotic Tachometor 29
Generators
There are two types of
electromagnetic tachonneter
generators called tachogenerators.
These are:
D.C. tachometer generators, and
AA.C. tachometer generators.

1. D.C. Tachometer Generators

D.C. tachometer generators consist of a small
armature which is coupled to the machine whose
speed is to be measured. This armature revolves in the
ficld of a permanent mag:iet. The emf generated is
proportional to the product of flux and speed. Since
the flux of the permanent magnet is constant, the
voltage 61erated is proportional to speed. The
polarity of output vo!tage indicates the direction of
rotation. This emt is measured with the help of a
moving coil voltmeter having a uniform sci.ke and
calibrated directly in terns of speed.
 1084 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumeni

When amplitude of induced voltaye is useca

Figure 29.43 shows a d.c. tachometer generator. A
measure of speed, the circuit of Fig. 2944 is used. The
series resistance is used in the circuit for the purpose
of limiting the current from the generator in the event output voltage of a.c. tachometer generator is rectifed
and is measured with a pernaneni mmagnet movin
of a short circuit on the oulput side.
coil instrument.
brushes Resistance
N Moving ciuN
voltmter

Moving coil
voltmeter Speed to be
Speed to be measured
measured
S
Commutator
Permanent
magnet Permanent magriet
A.C. generator -Rectifier
Smoothing
Circuit
Fig. 29.43 D.C. Tachometer Generator.

Advantages: Fig. 29.44 A.C. Tachometer Generator.

The chief advantages of this tachometer are :
Limitations:
() The direction of rotation is directly indicated (i) The difficulty with this syste.r: is tiat at l:
by the polarity of the output voltage.
speed the frequency of output voltage is iow ald
(i) The cutput voltage is typically 10 mV/rpm hence it is very difficult to smooth out the ripp'es in
and can be measured with conventional type the output voltage wave shape and henc ac
d.c. voltmeters. tachometer generators are designed to have 2 large
number of poles so that the frequency of output
Disadvantages:
voltage is high even at low speeds.
The disadvantages are
(i) High speeds also present a problera. At high
(i) Brushes on snall tachometer generators often Reference speeds, the frequency inc:eases ard
produce maintenance problems, as their
contact resistance may vary and produce therefore, the impedance of the col of tade
generator increases. If good linearity is to be
appreciable error. Thus the commutator and
the brushes require periodic maintenance. maintained the input impedance of the display deviz
(i) The input zesistance of meter should be very must be considerably larger than the inipedance oíth
high as compared with output resistance of coils.
generator. This is required to limit the current However, modem electrical instruments such s
to small value. If the armature current is counters, nnake it desirable to use frequency ot output
large, the field of the permanent magnet is voltage as a measure of speed. this is beca:is; t*
distorted giving rise to non-linearity. frequency is not afrected by temperature, imped.e
of meters, and other systematic errors that can aftat
2. A.C. Tachometer Generators 3M
the rotor voltage readings. Thus the frequeriy *;
In order to overcome some of the difficulties
measured by elecironic counters is a measl
mentioned above, a.c. tachometer generators are used.
ed.
The tachometer generator has rotating magnet which peu
may be either a pernmanent magnet or an electro- 3. Drag Cup Rotor A.C. Tahogenerater
maynet. The coil is wound on the stator and therefore
the problems associated with commutator (as in d.c.
The principle of operation of an a.c. tachometerg
drag cup generator can be easily understood
tachometers) are absent. referring to rig. 29.45. In this case two stator fek
The rotation of the magnet causes an emf to be Windings are mounted a' right angles to each oterit.
induced in the stator coil. The amplitude and they are in space quadrature with each other. he x
frequency of this emf are both proportional to the windings are called ()eference winding and
speed of rotation. Thus either ampli:de or frequency (i) quadrature windir. The tachometer rotor is a t

of induced voltage may be used as a measure of aluminiunm cup (to lave low inertia) called drag
rotational speed. that rotates in the eir gap of field structure she wn n
25.37.4 Optical Encoders
There are two basic generic styles of optica
encoders
Entodr u a
An
A incremental
muhonical metio wuch gcneidke
A absolute.
digital s ignal an Ruponn b
The incremental encoder provides a pulse each time mcuon
the shaft rotates through a predefined distance while
an absolute encoder provides a "whole
world" output
with a unique code pattern representing each position.
bit absolute optical shaft encoder is
An eight
shown in Fig. 25.173. The output code is derived from
independent tracks on the encoder disc cotresponding
from these
to individual photo detectors. The output
or 0)
detectors would then be high or low (1
or

disc pattein tor that

depending upon the code
particular position.
 Paliern
Photodetectors
Output
0

0
Light

(a) Straight birary iystem.

0
Quantum

0 630 1 2a
34 56
7
Ru

(b) Cyclic (Gray) code.

Fig. 25 174 Shaft Enccders.

Fig. 25.173 An 8 bit absolute
optic: shaft encoder.
Absolute Encoders are used in Information about velocity is available
applications where by looking
a device is inactive for long at the time interval between
periods of time or moves pulses or at the number of
at slow rates, such as for flood
control, telescopes, pulses within a time period. These transducers have
Cranes etc. been explained earlier in Art. 25.35.
Absolute encoders use the natural binary code or
Optical encoders tend to follow one of twa
Gray code and BCD in addition to many other codes.
principles of operation; they consist of either a system
The incremental encoder creates of coded tracks
a series of consisting of transparent and opaque
equally spaced Signals corresponding to the sections and associated
mechanical increment required. For the
lamps and photocells to detect
divide a shaft rotation into 100
example, if we corresponding switching sequence, or they rely on
parts, an encoder the use of moire
fringe tuchniques,
higher resolution when used capable
would be selected to supply 1000 of much
square wave cycles for
per revolution. By using a counter to count these incremental
measurement.
cycles, we can find out how much the shaft has
The absolute
rotated. Suppose the count is 100, then the shaft has digitiser comprises an
assembly
rotated through 360 x (100/1000) consisting of a
Gray-coded pattern
360
=

reproduced on a
glass disc mounted
photographically
The simpler type of incremental encoder is on the input
the shaft. The code consists of ten
tachometer encoder. Its output waveform and code with
annular tracks each
track on the disc are shown in.
a
pattern of opaque and
transparent sections.
Fig. 25.174. A The code
tachometer encoder is sometimes called a
single track
reading system employs a filament lamp
and
incremental encoder because it has only one collimating lens from which light passes through
and cannot detect output the disc and a narrow
radial
direction. The output is usually a slit,
by lo be detected ten
square wave. photovoltaic cells. Depending on the angular position
of the shaft, certain cells receive light from the