Evolution of PLC:

 In the late 1960s the american motor car manufacturer general motors was interested in the
application of computers to replace the relay sequencing used in the control of car plants.
 The hydramatic division of the general motors corporation specified the design criteria for the first
programmable controller in 1968. Their primary goal was to eliminate the high costs associated with
inflexible, relay controlled systems.
 The first PLC was invented in 1969 by richard dick e. Morley, who was the founder of the Modicon
corporation.
 The specifications required a solid-state system with computer flexibility able to:
I) Survive in an industrial environment
II) Be easily programmed and maintained by plant engineers and technicians
III) Be reusable
PLC definition:
A programmable logic controller is a digitally operated electronic system, designed for use in an industrial
environment, which use a programmable memory for the internal storage of user-orientated instructions for
implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control,
through digital or analog inputs and outputs, various types of machines or processes.
Block diagram of PLC:
The six major sections of a PLC are
1. Sensing inputs or controlling hardware
2. PLC input hardware
3. The controller (or) CPU
4. Handling programming device (or) personal computer
5. Output PLC hardware
6. Hardware output devices

Fig1.1
1. The sensing section: The section is made up of limit switches, pressure switches, photo electric sensors,
push buttons , and so forth. These incoming hardware devices provide input signals. Devices such as, the
push buttons, limit switches, or photo electric sensor are field input devices. The term “field input” refers to
hardware items improving incoming signals that are tangible items that you physically connect to the PLC.
2. Input section: The input section of the PLC contains two major areas. First, the physical screw terminals
where incoming signals (input) from field input devices like a limit switch, for example, are attached to the
PLC. The second portion of the input section is the PLC’s internal conversion electronics if function of the
input sections electronic component is to convert and isolate the high voltage input level from field devices.
The status of input signals are stored in the input image table
3. Controller: The controller is commonly called as the central processing unit (CPU) or, simply, the
processor. This is the brain, or microprocessor , that controls all supervises the entire process. The CPU
solves the user program and updates the status of the outputs.
4. Programmer: The programmer is the device whereby the programmer or operator can enter or edit
program instructions or data. The program can be handling unit, as in figure 1-1,a personal computer, or an
industrial computer programming terminal.
5. Output section: The result of looking at, or reading, the on or off status of the inputs and using the
information to solve the user ladder program is to send updated signals to the output section. The output
section is simplify a series of switches, one for each output point, that are controlled by the CPU and are
used to turn output field devices on or off. The status of output signals is stored in the output image table
6. Field hardware devices: The section is made up of solenoid, indicating lamp, alarm, contactor, and so
forth.
The devices that are controlled by the PLC’s output screw terminals are the field hardware devices.

The central processing unit (CPU):

Fig1.2(a) Fig1.2(b)
The CPU works like a human brain works to direct the rest of the body. In actuality the CPU is a solid-state,
microprocessor integrated circuit chip. There are six LED’s near the top of the module. These LED’s
provide information to the electrical or maintenance worker regarding the following codes: whether the
processor is running (RUN), faulted (FLT), battery condition (BATT), forces in effect (FORCE), ethernet
(ENET), and RS-232 channel status (RS-232). The CPU comprises two components, the controller and the
memory system. The controller is the microprocessor, or the brain, that supervises all operations in the
system. The CPU reads, or gathers information from external sources such as input devices and stored the
information in memory for later use by the CPU. When done solving the user program, the CPU will write,
or send, data out to external devices such as modules and field hardware devices.
1. Store from the user program
2. Store of the input status file data: the input status file consists of memory locations that store the on or off
status of each field input device.
3. Storage of the output status file data: the output status file consists of memory locations that store the on
or off status of field hardware devices as the result of solving the user program. Data in the output status file
is waiting to be transferred to the output module’s switching device. The output module’s switching device
for each output point will turn power on (or) off to each field output devices.
4. Data storage: the data storage area of memory is used to store numerical data that may be used in math
calculations, recipe ingredient weights, bar code data being input to the PLC, and similar functions.

Principle of operation:
To get an idea of how a PLC operates, consider the simple process control problem illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Here a mixer motor is to be used to automatically stir the liquid in a vat when the temperature and pressure
reach preset values. In addition, direct manual operation of the motor is provided by means of a separate
pushbutton station. The process is monitored with temperature and pressure sensor switches that close their
respective contacts when conditions reach their preset values.

Fig1.3
For the program to operate, the controller is placed in the RUN mode, or operating cycle. During each
operating cycle, the controller examines the status of input devices, executes the user program, and changes
outputs accordingly. Each symbol can be thought of as a set of normally open contacts. The symbol is
considered to represent a coil that, when energized, will close a set of contacts. In the ladder logic program of
Figure 1.4, the coil O/1 is energized when contacts I/1 and I/2 are closed or when contact I/3 is closed. Either
of these conditions provides a continuous logic path from left to right across the rung that includes the coil. A
programmable logic controller operates in real time in that an event taking place in the field will result in an
operation or output taking place. The RUN operation for the process control scheme can be described by the
following sequence of events:

• First, the pressure switch, temperature switch, and pushbutton inputs are examined and their status is
recorded in the controller’s memory.
• A closed contact is recorded in memory as logic 1 and an open contact as logic 0.
• Next the ladder diagram is evaluated, with each internal contact given an OPEN or CLOSED status
according to its recorded 1 or 0 state.
• When the states of the input contacts provide logic continuity from left to right across the rung, the output
coil memory location is given a logic 1 value and the output module interface contacts will close.
• When there is no logic continuity of the program rung, the output coil memory location is set to logic 0
and the output module interface contacts will be open.

Fig1.4 Process control PLC ladder logic program with typical addressing scheme
Memory organisation:
The term processor memory organisation refers to how certain areas of memory in a given PLC are used.
Not all PLC manufacturers organize PLC memories in the same way. Although they do not all use the same
memory makeup and terminology, the principles involved are the same.
 Data table
(Input/output locations, Internal relay and timer/counter
locations)
User program
(The user program causes the controller to operate in a
particular manner)
Housekeeping memory
(Used to carry out functions needed to make the processor
operate )
Fig1.5 Memory organisation

Fig1.5 shows an illustration of the allen-bradley PLC-2 memory organisation known as a memory map.
Every PLC has a memory map, but it may not be like the one illustrated. The memory space can be divided
into two broad categories: the user program and the data table.
The user program is where the logic ladder program is entered and stored. The user program is entered and
stored. The user program will account for most of the total memory of a given PLC system. It contains the
logic that controls the machine operation. This logic consists of instructions that are programmed in ladder
logic format. Most instructions require one word of memory.
The data tables stores the information needed to carry out the user program. This includes information such
as the status of input and output devices, timer and counter values, data storage, and so on. Contents of the
data table can be divided into two categories: status data and numbers or codes. Status is on/off type of
information represented by 1s and 0s, stored in unique bit locations. Number or code information is
represented by groups of bits.
A processor files is the collection of program files and data files created under a particular processor file
name.
Program files
System functions (0)
Reserved (1)
User program (2)
Subroutineprograms (3-255)

Fig1.6 Program file

Program files are the areas of processor memory where ladder logic programing is stored. They may
include:
 System functions(file 0)-this file is always included and contain various system related information
and user-programmed information such as processor type, i/o configuration, processor file name,
and password
 Reserved(file1)-this file is reserved by the processor and is not accessible to the user.
 Main ladder program(file2)-this file is always included and contains user programmed instructions
that define how the controller is to operate.
 Sub –rountine ladder program(file3-255)-these files are user-created and are activated according
to subroutine instructions residing in the main ladder program file.

Data files
Output image
(0)
Input image
(1)
Status
(2)
Bit
(3)
Timer
 (4)
Counter
(5)
Control
(6)
Integer
(7)
Reserved
(8)
Network
(9)
Bit (10-
255)
Timer
Counter
Control
Integer
Fig1.7 Data file

The data file portion of the processor’s memory stores input and output status, processor status, the status of
various bits, and numerical data. All this information is accessed via the ladder logic program. These files
are organized by the type of data they contain and may include:
 Output (file0)-this files stores the state of the output terminals for the controller.
 Input(file1)-this file stores the status of input terminals for the controller.
 Status(file2)-this files stores controller operation information. This file is useful for troubleshooting
controller and program operation.
 Bit(file3)-this file is used for internal relay logic storage.
 Timer(file4)-this file stores the timer accumulated and preset values and status bits.
 Counter(file5)-this file stores the counter accumulated and preset values and status bits.
 Control(file6)-this file stores the length, pointer position, and status bit for specific instructions
such as shift registers and sequencers.
 Integer(file7)-this file is used to store numerical values or bit information.
 Reversed(file8)-this file is not accessible to the user.
 Network communications(file9)-this file is used for network communications if installed or used
like files 10-255.
 User-defined(files10-255)-this files are user-defined as bit, timer, counter, control, and/or integer
data storage.

Power supply
Electrical supply is used in bringing electrical energy to central processing unit. Most PLC
controllers work either at 24 VDC or 220 VAC. On some PLC controllers you'll find electrical supply
as a separate module. Those are usually bigger PLC controllers, while small and medium series
already contain the supply module. User has to determine how much current to take from I/O
module to ensure that electrical supply provides appropriate amount of current. Different types of
modules use different amounts of electrical current.
This electrical supply is usually not used to start external inputs or outputs. User has to provide
separate supplies in starting PLC controller inputs or outputs because then you can ensure so
called "pure" supply for the PLC controller. With pure supply we mean supply where industrial
environment can not affect it damagingly. Some of the smaller PLC controllers supply their inputs
with voltage from a small supply source already incorporated into a PLC

PLC types (fixed and modular) :

Fixed I/O PLC:
This PLC has the sections like input module, CPU and associated memory, power supply and
Output module. These sections are built into one self-contained unit. Fixed PLCs are also referred as
“shoebox” or “brick” by manufacturers due to their shape and size. In this type the number of inputs and
outputs cannot be expanded.

Example : Allen bradley micro logic 1000 has 6 discrete inputs and 4 discrete outputs.

Advantages:
I) less scanning time
Ii) low cost
Iii) less trouble shooting time
Disadvantages:
I) limited number of inputs and outputs
Ii) not suited for future expansion
Iii) if part of the unit fails, need to replace entire
Modular I/O PLC:

A modular PLC is built with several components that are plugged into a common rack with Extendable I/O
capabilities. It consists of a rack, power supply, CPU and I/O modules. On a rack these modules are fixed as
separate hardware items. Modular PLCs are further divided into small, medium and large PLCs based on the
program memory size and the number of I/O features.
Example: Siemens: s7-300 and s7-400
Allen bradley: slc 5/01, slc 5/02 etc.,
List of various brands of PLCs available:
1. Siemens
2. Allen bradley
3. Omron
4. Ge fanuc
5. Modicon
6. Keyence
7. Mitsubishi
8. Toshiba
9. Honeywell
10. Festo corp.
Advantages of PLC:
The major advantages of PLC circuit over hardwired relay panel circuits are listed below:
1. Flexibility
2. Large quantity of contacts
3. Speed of operation
4. Reliability & security
5. Documentation
6. Fail safe operation
7. Newer technology
8. Less power consumption
9. Required less floor space
10. Fault location and rectification is easy
11. Logic changes can be reprogrammed
12. Ladder programming method
13. Documentation
14. Pilot running
Disadvantages of PLC:
1. High Cost
2. Need software for programming

# Criterion for comparison PLC Hardwired

1 Requirement of Instruction Instructions are required Instructions are not required

2 Time required for Less time More time

modification
3 Memory Requirement Memory is required for Memory is not required
storing the program
4 Cost Initial cost is high Initial cost is low
5 Power Consumption Less High
6 Space Required Small Large
7 Heat generated Less High
8 Technology Latest Old
9 Fault identification Easy Not easy
10 Error Correction Easy Not easy
No control circuit. It is Control circuit involves lot
11 Control circuit
controlled by program of internal wiring

Racks, chasis, or baseplates:

Depending on the modular PLC manufacturer, the term used to identify the hardware device that holds all
the modules together may vary.one manufacturer may use the term rack, base unit, or backplane, another
may use chassis, while yet another uses the word base plate. The rack, chassis, or baseplate holds the power
supply, CPU, i/o modules together in an easy-to-mount package.
The local, or base PLC:
A modular PLC in a single chassis can be stand-alone system where the PLC is dedicated to controlling one
machine or process. This type of configuration is usually called a base rack, resident, or local chassis. In
application such as this, each machine or process may have its own dedicated, fixed, or modular PLC. The
general electric series 90-30 PLC in fig contains all pieces necessary to control a machine operation or
process. This local PLC will only control the machine to which it is dedicated.
However, a PLC chassis can have multiple uses beyond being a stand-alone local PLC. Let us explore these
other uses.

Local expansion:
A single modular PLC chassis can be used as the base for expanding other chassis to make a larger system.
This is accomplished by installing i/o and a power supply into a second chassis.
The expansion chassis is connected to the base PLC with a communication cable. The communication cable
carries i/o status signals between the CPU, the in the base chassis, and the expanded chassis and its i/o.
Each expansion chassis has power supply as necessary for the particular application.
As an example, let us configure an allen-bradley slc-500 where 18 i/o modules are required. Since there is
no chassis available that will hold the CPU along with 18 i/o modules, expansion into second chassis is
necessary. Two slc 500 ten-slot chassis can hold up to 19 i/o modules and the processor. The electrical
signals to communicate i/o status between the local chassis and the locally expanded chassis will be
communicated through a cable connected between the two.

Industrial computers:
Notebook and desktop personal computers are not designed for continuous use in the manufacturing
environment. When a computer needs to reside in the harsh manufacturing environment, an industrially
hardened computer that is designed to withstand plant floor stress is the correct choice. Industrial computers
are designed to withstand the dirt, shock,vibration,high temperatures, and washdowns found in the factory
environment by incorporating the following features:
 Air filters on intake fans
 Fans with ball bearings
 National electrical manufactures association(nema)12,4,and 4x enclosures ratings
 Shock-mounted hard drives
 0-55 degrees centigrade compared to 0to 40 degrees centrigrade operating environment
 Special hard drives rated for longer mean time between failures(mtbf)
 Integrated mouse on front panel
 Hazardous environment rating class1,division 2
 Industrial computers are modular, which results in faster and easier repair
 Industrial computers do not need to be placed in a fan-cooled or air-conditioned enclosure with a
viewing window
 Industrial computers are available in two versions
Industrial monitors:
Industrial monitors are panel mounted and used in conjunction with an industrial rack-mount computer such
as the one illustrated in fig. These industrial monitors are available as eithier10.4-,15-,18.1-,or20.1-inch
diagonal displays with or without touch screen.with profiles as slim as 3 inches, and weighing as liTTLe as
6.5 pounds, they are easily fit into just about any panel. Industrial monitors are typically rated nema4/12
with a stainless steel nema 4x version available.
The allen-bradley family of 6185 tft flat panel monitors.(used with permission of Rockwell automation,inc.)
AC discrete input module:
Figure 2.2 (a) and (b) shows a schematic and circuit diagram of a typical ac discrete input
Module.
It has three primary parts:
I)power section ii) isolator section iii) logic section
I) POWER SECTION
The bridge rectifier circuit of the power section converts the incoming ac signal to a dc level signal. It then
passes the signal through a filter circuit, which protects the signal against bouncing and electrical noise on
the input power line. Threshold circuit detects if the incoming signal has reached or exceeded a
predetermined value for a predetermined time.
Figure 2.2 (a) schematic diagram of ac discrete input module

Figure 2.2 (b) circuit diagram of ac discrete input module

II) ISOLATOR SECTION:
After the detection of a valid signal, it passes the signal to logic section through an isolation circuit. The
isolator circuit is usually made up of an optical isolator (called as opto- coupler). It is used to isolate the
logic circuit from power circuit.this optical isolation helps to reduce the effect of electrical noise and
prevents damage to theprocessor due to line voltage transient.
II) LOGIC SECTION:
Dc signals from the opto-coupler are used by the logic section to pass the input signal to the CPU. The led in
the logic circuit is used to indicate the presence of a logic 1 signal in the logic section.
Led glow - input signal is present
Led not glow - input signal is not present.
DC discrete input module:
Figure 2.1 shows a circuit diagram of a typical dc discrete input module.
I) POWER SECTION:
A dc input module interfaces with field input devices that provide a dc output voltage. The
Difference between a dc input interface and an ac/dc input interface is that the dc input does not
Contain a bridge circuit, since it does not convert an ac signal to a dc signal. The input voltage
Range of a dc input module varies between 5 and 30 vdc.

Figure 2.1 circuit diagram of dc discrete input module

II) ISOLATOR SECTION:
After the detection of a valid signal, it passes the signal to logic section through an isolation circuit. The
isolator circuit is usually made up of an optical isolator (called as opto- coupler). It is used to isolate the
logic circuit from power circuit.
This optical isolation:
1. Helps to reduce the effect of electrical noise
2. Prevents damage to the processor due to line voltage transient.
II) LOGIC SECTION:
Dc signals from the opto-coupler are used by the logic section to pass the input signal to the CPU. The led in
the logic circuit is used to indicate the presence of a logic 1 signal in the logic section.
Led glow - input signal is present
Led not glow - input signal is not present
Discrete i/o module:
The most common type of i/o interface module is the discrete type. This type of interface connects field
input devices of the on/off nature such as selector switches, pushbuttons, and limit switches. Likewise,
output control is limited to devices such as lights, relays, solenoids, and motor starters that require simple
on/off these are used to connect the sensors that are of digital in nature, i.e., only for switch on and off
purpose. These modules are available on both ac and dc voltages and currents with variable number of
digital inputs.
Sinking and sourcing:
Sinking and sourcing references are terms used to describe a current flow relationship between field input
and input module.
Input module sourcing:
Figure shown below is an example of a sourcing application. The positive potential is connected to the input
module and the negative potential is connected to the input device. Using conventional current flow
(positive to negative) it is said that the input module is the source of supply for the real world input device.
Now the input device receives current from the input module. If an input module provides current, it is said
to be sourcing.

Fig: input module sourcing

Input module sinking:
Figure shown below is an example of a sinking application. In this configuration, the positive potential is
connected to the input device and the negative potential is connected to the input module. In this case, using
a conventional (positive to negative) current flow, the input device is said to be providing current to the
input module. If the input module is receiving current, it is said to be sinking.

Fig: input module sinking

Output module sourcing:
Figure shown below is an example of a sourcing application. The positive potential is connected to the
output module and the negative potential is connected to the output device. Using conventional current flow
(positive to negative) it is said that the output module is the source of supply for the real world output
device. Now the output device receives current from the output module. If an output module provides
current, it is said to be sourcing.
Fig: output module sourcing
Output module sinking:
Figure shown below is an example of a sinking application. In this configuration, the positive potential is
connected to the output device and the negative potential is connected to the output module. In this case,
using a conventional (positive to negative) current flow, the output device is said to be providing current to
the output module. If the output module is
Receiving current, it is said to be sinking.

Fig: output module sourcing

As a general rule, sinking modules are used with output modules when interfacing with electronic
equipment (TTL or CMOS), while sourcing modules are used for dc load such as solenoids.
TTL output module:
Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) output modules switch 5v dc signals. A TTL output module allows for
interface between the PLC and TTL comparable devices. An example of a TTL interface would be
interfacing a PLC to various 5v dc field devices including ICs and seven segment displays.
TTL modules usually have eight available output terminals; however, high-density TTL modules may be
connected to as many as sixteen devices at a time. A TTL output interface requires an external power
supply.

Fig: TTL output module

Digital output modules take TTL-level signals from a measurement system to control an SCR’s output. A
bleeder resistor assures that the load will turn off when the SCR’s output achieves a high-impedance state.

Relay output:
Relay output modules are also known as contact outputs or dry contact outputs. The relay output modules
are used to switch A.C or D.C loads at low voltages and low current. Relay contacts are described as three
main arrangements or forms. The three arrangements are form a, form b and form c. A form a relay contact
is a single pole normally open contact. The form b relay contact is a single pole normally closed contact
which is similar to a single normally closed switch. The form c relay contact is a single pole double throw
contact. PLC output units are available with all three contact arrangements but typically form a and form c
are used. Relay outputs are also available with a common terminal and as isolated contacts.
Fig: form c relay output module
An output unit with three form c contacts having a common terminal is shown in figure.
Note in this figure that the common terminal of each of the three relays is connected to one common
terminal of the output unit labelled output com.
Isolated output module:
Isolated ac and dc outputs modules allows the interface to control output devices powered by different
sources, which may also be at different ground levels. For isolated output module extra terminals are
necessary for the independent return lines. Figure shows a typical
System output wiring diagram using an output unit having three form c isolated outputs. In
This type output unit, the relay contacts have no connection between them. Each output has three terminals.
The c terminal is the common terminal of the relay.

Fig: isolated relay output module

Analog output:
Analog output (ao) is for variable level or range of output between off or stopped and on or full speed as for
an electric motor for instance. Examples of analog outputs are a VFD (variable frequency drive), a valve
position actuator, and an industrial variable power supply.
The output signal can be divided into 32,767 increments and represented in a 16 bit word. To achieve
precision in controlling the valve, the 0 to 10 volt signal will be split into 32,767 steps. Since the output
module automatically converts the 16 bit output word to the proper analog value.

Figure 1.7 analog output

Example of analog output could be a valve in a tank filling application. The positioning of the valve can be
represented by a voltage level of zero volts when the valve is closed and up to +10v dc when the valve is
completely open. Any voltage between 0v dc and 10v dc would represent how far open the valve would be
compared to its fully open state. The analog output module transforms a digital bit value from the
processor's output status table to an analog output voltage or current level. Inside the analog output module a
digital to analog converter (d/a converter) is the solid state device that makes the conversion.

Surge supression and output modules

Electrical noise and microprocessor equipment like PLC s do not work well together. Electrical noise is
generated by many common industrial devices found in today industrial environment. Electrical noises can
be cause microprocessor equipment to malfunction or lock up .it can be picked upon low voltage
communication cabling transmitting data between PLCs or between a PLC and other hardware field
devices .when noise is picked up on a communication cable ,data can be corrupted .corrupted data can bring
a PLC network to a screeching halt .
Common devices such as motor starters ,relays ,contactors ,solenoids, clutches and brakes ,variable
frequencies drives ,and welding equipment’s are the primary culprits .noise disturbances on the power line
of generally caused by devices that have coils .these devices are called inductive devices .noises is created
when inductive devices is switched off
Transmitted noise is created by devices that create radio frequency (RF) noise. Transmitted noises
generally caused from high –current application such as welders and variable frequency drives. Variable-
frequency drives with newer insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) switching transistors are known for
generating large amounts of noise. In many cases, noise problems can be overcome by proper grounding,
shielded cabling inductors or chokes are communication lines, chokes on variable- frequencies drive motor
leads, and suspension devices on inductive devices such as motor starters or contactors .
Although most PLC output modules have build –in surge suppression to reduce the possibility of
damage from high – voltage transients, which is a good idea to install additional surge suppression to earn a
output module circuit switching an inductive load . Surge suspension should always be installed on a PLC
output circuit there is a set of hard contacts controlling an inductive field device. Install the surge
suppressor, also called a snubber, across the coil of the field device. The surge suppressor will not only
reduce the effect of voltage transients caused by interrupting the current to the inductive field device, it will
also prevent electrical noise from entering the system wiring. Surge suppression will also help prolong the
life of your output module‘s switching device.

Analog output:
The analog output modules converts processed digital values from the CPU into equivalent analog signals,
typically in the range of 0 -10v or 4 -20ma, to operate analog output devices using digital to analog
converter. This analog output value is proportional to the digital numerical value received by the module.
Analog output modules are selected to send out either a varying current or voltage signal. An analog output
could send a 4 to 20ma signal to a variable speed drive. The drive will control the speed of a motor in
proportion to the analog signal received from analog output module.
Example of analog output field devices: analog valves, actuators, chart recorders, electric motor drives,
analog meters and pressure transducers.
Applications of PLCS:
 Conveyor Systems,
 Food Processing Machinery,
 Bottle filling (water, soft drinks, canned food)]
 Auto Assembly (e.g. automobile industry)
 Fluid Level Control ( e.g. water tanks)
 Mixing Fluids (paint industries)