DYNAMICS

Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of motion and what
produces and affects motion. Mechanics is usually divided into two parts: (1)
Kinematics and (2) Dynamics. Kinematics deals with the description of motion of
bodies without consideration of what causes the motion. Dynamics analyzes the
causes of the motion.

Force
Force is that which changes a body’s state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line. It is measured in Newtons (N).
One Newton is defined as the force required to give a mass of one kilogram an
acceleration of one metre per second square.
A force will act on a body to do the following:
(i) to get the body to start moving
(ii) to increase or decrease the speed of a body in motion
(ii) to change its direction of motion in a straight line
(iv) to bring a moving body to rest
(v) to deform the body.

Types of Forces
There are several types of forces. These include:
(a) Frictional force: Friction is the name given to the force which opposes
the relative sliding motion of two surfaces in contact with each other. This
 type of force exists between two solid surfaces in contact. An example is
the opposing force between the sole of your sandals and the ground.
(b) Viscous drag: this is the frictional force experienced in fluids (gases and
liquids).
(c) Tension: this force is experienced in a stretched material. If you touch the
stretched material your fingers will feel a pull or tautness because of the
potential energy set up in it.
(d) Centripetal force: this force acts on objects to keep them moving in
circular paths. Its direction is always towards the center of the circular
path. It can also be defined as that part of the total gravitational force
which is required to constrain the body to move in its circle of latitude.
(e) Force of gravity: It is that part of the total gravitational force which acts
on a body and so enables it in turn to exert an equal force on its support.
This force on the support is called the body’s weight.
(f) Gravitational force: this is the force of attraction existing between two
masses.
(g) Electrostatic force: this force is produced by electric charges and electric
currents. Electric charges tend to exert attractive or repulsive forces on
each other depending on the sign of the charges. Like charges attract and
unlike charges repel each other.
(h) Magnetic force: this force is produced by magnets, and current-carrying
conductors (e.g. two wires in which current is flowing).
Mass and Weight
The mass is a property of matter equal to the measure of an object’s resistance
to changes in either speed or direction of its motion. Its SI unit is the kilogram
(kg). Mass is a scalar quantity and can be measured with a beam balance or
electronic balance. The mass of an object is the same irrespective of where it
is measured.

The weight of a body is the force it exerts on anything which freely supports
it. This is due to the Earth’s pull on it by the force of gravity. It is measured in
Newtons. Spring balance can be used to measure the weight of an object. The
weight of an object depends greatly on the gravitational pull on it, therefore, it
varies from one place to another place. . This means that if the weight of an
object is measured both on the moon and on the earth the measuring device
will give different readings.

Relation between mass and weight

The relationship between mass and weight is given by the expression

Weight (W) = mass (m) x acceleration due to gravity (g)

W  mg 3.1
Newton’s laws of motion
Newton’s first law
Newton’s first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia. The tendency of
a body to remain at rest or if moving to continue its motion in a straight line is
called inertia. So we can say that inertia is the reluctance of a moving body to
stop and a body at rest to start moving.
Newton’s first law of motion states that everybody continues in its state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by a net external force to act
otherwise.

Newton’s Second law

Newton’s Second law of motion states that the time rate of change of momentum
of a body is directly proportional to the applied force acting on it and it takes
place in the direction of the force.
This law enabled scientists to define the unit of a force i.e. the Newton, N.
Suppose a force F acts on a body of constant mass m for a time t and causes its
velocity to change from u to v , then according to the second law, for a constant
acceleration in the time interval t,
mv  mu
F , from which
t
mv  mu
F k and
t

F  km
v  u 
3.2
t

but a 
v  u 
t
  F  kma 3.3
[Note: If m is not constant, then,

F
d
mv   m dv  v dm ]
dt dt dt
The Newton is defined as the force needed to give 1kg of mass an acceleration of
1ms-2 and therefore k  1 . Therefore Equation 3.3 becomes
F  ma 3.4

Impulse
The effectiveness of a force which produces motion depends on both the
magnitude of the force and the time for which the force acts. When a large force
acts for an extremely short duration, neither the magnitude of the force nor the
time for which it acts is important. In such a case, the total effect of force is
measured. The total effect of force is called impulse. It is a vector quantity and is
denoted by J . It is the product of a force and the time for which the force acts.
Therefore in SI units, impulse is measured in Newton second ( Ns ).

Suppose a force F acts for a short time dt . The impulse of this force is given by
dJ  Fdt 3.5
If we consider a finite interval of time from t1 to t2 , then the impulse is given by
t2

J   Fdt
t1
3.6

The right hand side of Equation 3.6 represents the impulse of a varying force.
If the force is constant both in magnitude and in direction, then
 t2 t2

 Fdt  F  dt  F t t  F(t2  t1 )  Ft 3.7

t
J  2

1
t1 t1

From the above expression, impulse of a constant force F is equal to the product
of the force and time interval t for which the force acts.

Impulse and Momentum

According to Newton’s second law of motion, the applied force is,
Change in momentum dP
F  3.8
time taken dt
where P is the momentum of the body under consideration and t is the time.
Fdt  dP 3.9
Integrating both sides of Equation 3.9 gives
t2 P2

F  dt   dP 3.10
t1 P1

where P1 and P2 are momenta at times t1 and t2 respectively.

F t t2   P P2
t P
 F (t2  t1 )  P2  P1
1 1

Ft  P2  P1 3.11
So the impulse is equal to the change in momentum produced by the force.

Example 3.1. A force of 75N is used to pull a body of mass 55kg through a
distance of 35m in 6s. Find the change in momentum of the body.

Solution
 mv  mu
Applying Newton’s second law of motion, F  ,
t
we can write Ft = mv – mu = momentum change.
Therefore momentum change ( mv – mu) = Ft = 75 x 6 = 450Ns.

Example 3.2. While waiting in his car at a spotlight, an 80 kg man and his car are
suddenly accelerated to a speed of 5 m/s as a result of a rear-end collision.
Assuming the time taken to be 0.3s, find (a) the impulse on the man and (b) the
average force exerted on him by the back of the seat of his car.

Solution:

(a) Impulse = momentum change

M=80kg, v=5m/s, u=0m/s
J  mv  mu   805  0  400Ns

mv  mu  400
(b) F    1330N
t 0.3

Example 3.3. A golfer hits a golf ball of mass 51g and the ball leaves the club
with a velocity of 80m/s. Assuming that the ball and the club are in contact for
0.006s, find the ball’s final momentum and the average force exerted by the club
on the ball.

Solution:

Since impulse is equal to the change in momentum,

J  Ft  mv  mu
 mv  mu 0.05180  0 
F   680N
t 0.006

The final momentum is, mv  0.05180  4.08kgms1

Example 3.4. A 5.0g bullet moving at 100m/s strikes a log. Assume that the
bullet undergoes a uniform deceleration and stops in 6cm. Find (a) the time taken
for the bullet to stop, (b) the impulse on the log and (c) the average force
experienced by the log.

Solution:

Using v 2  u 2  2aS , where v, u and S have their usual meanings.

u=100m/s, v=0m/s, S=0.06m.

v 2  u 2 0 2  1002 104
(a) a    ms 2
2S 2 x0.06 0.12

v  u 0  100
Now, the time taken, t   x0.12  1.2 x103 s
a  10 4

(b) impulse J  mv  u   1000.005  0.5Ns

mv  0.5
(c) F    417N
t 1.2 x103

Collision
A collision is said to occur when two or more bodies physically exert relatively
strong forces against each other or when the path of one body is changed by the
influence of another body.
Collision ranges from the microscopic scale of sub-atomic particles to the
astronomic scale of colliding Stars and Galaxies. The forces acting in the system
of colliding forces are Action and Reaction forces. Also, collision causes the
momentum and kinetic energy of the interacting bodies to change. But the total
momentum is conserved and so also is the total energy, but mechanical energy
may not be conserved.
There are two types of collisions namely Elastic and Inelastic collisions.

Elastic collisions
A collision is said to be elastic if both the momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved in the collision. In an elastic collision, deformed bodies regain their
original shapes completely. So deformation is temporary. Colliding bodies always
separate after collision. The mechanical energy is not converted to any other
forms of energy. The forces of interaction are conservative in nature.

Perfectly elastic collision is an extremely rare physical phenomenon. Collisions

between atomic and sub-atomic particles are assumed to be the nearest perfectly
elastic collision.

Inelastic collision
A collision is said to be inelastic if the kinetic energy is not conserved in the
collision. However, momentum is conserved. In an inelastic collision, deformed
bodies do not recover their original shapes. So deformation is permanent. Part of
the mechanical energy is converted to other forms of energy such as sound, heat,
light etc. The interacting forces are non-conservative in nature. Most of the
collisions between macroscopic bodies are inelastic.

Perfectly inelastic (Plastic) collision occurs when the interacting bodies stick
together after the collision. In this type of collision the loss of kinetic energy is
maximum but not complete.
Examples of such a collision are (1) a lump of wet mud thrown against a wall
(2) collision between two putty balls.

Momentum
The Momentum of a body is the product of its mass m and the velocity v with
which it is moving.
i.e., Momentum, P  mass  velocity  mv .
Momentum has both magnitude and direction therefore it is a vector quantity. Its
direction is the same as that of the velocity since the mass has no direction. The SI
unit for momentum is kgms 1 .
When two bodies, a heavy one and a light one are acted upon by the same force
for the same time, the light body builds up a higher velocity than the heavy one. In
both cases the momentum gained by the bodies are the same.

The law of conservation of momentum

When two or more bodies act upon one another, their total momentum remains
constant provided no external forces are acting.

The law can also be stated as follows:

In a system of colliding bodies, total momentum before collision is equal to total
momentum after collision.
The condition under which the law holds is that no external forces should act on
the bodies.

One-dimensional collisions.
(a) Elastic collision between two bodies moving in the same direction.
Let m1 and m2 be the masses of the two bodies. Also let their initial velocities

be u1 and u2 respectively along the same direction. After collision they separate

and move with different velocities v1 and v2 .

m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 v1 m2 v2
=

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.1

Applying the law of conservation of momentum,

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2 3.12

Since the collision is elastic, kinetic energy will be conserved.
Therefore,
Total kinetic energy before collision = Total kinetic energy after collision.
1 1 1 1
m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2 2
3.13
2 2 2 2
(b) Elastic collision between two bodies moving in opposite directions.
If after the collision they move in opposite directions then the law of conservation
of momentum becomes,

u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 = m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.2

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2v2 3.14

Also, total kinetic energy before collision = total kinetic energy after collision.
1 1 1 1
m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2 2
3.15
2 2 2 2
On the other hand if the momentum of one of the bodies involved is so great that
after collision they separate and move in the same direction then,

u1 u2 m2 v1 v2
m1 m1 m2
=
Before collision After collision
Figure 3.3

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2v2 3.16

The conservation of kinetic energy expression will be
1 1 1 1
m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2 2
3.17
2 2 2 2

(c) Elastic collision between a moving body and a stationary body.

After collision they separate and move with different velocities v1 and v2 along the
same direction.

u1 u2=0 v1 v2
m1 m2 = m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.4

m1u1  m1v1  m2 v2 3.18

The conservation of kinetic energy expression becomes

1 1 1
m1u1  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2
3.19
2 2 2

On the other hand if after collision they separate and move in opposite directions
with different velocities v1 and v2 then,
.
u1 u2=0 v1 v2
m1 m2 = m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.5

m1u1  m1v1  m2 v2 3.20

The conservation of kinetic energy expression changes to
1 1 1
m1u1  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2
3.21
2 2 2
Example 3.5. A ball of 0.4kg mass and a speed of 3m/s has a head-on,
completely elastic collision with a 0.6kg mass initially at rest. Find the speeds on
both bodies after the collision.

Solution:
Apply conservation of momentum.
Let v1 and v2 be final velocities for the 0-4kg and 0-6kg masses respectively.
Then,
0.4x3  0.6x0  0.4v1  0.6v2

1.2  0.4v1  0.6v2 1

For Elastic collision,
velocity of separation = - velocity of approach
v1  v2  v1

 v1  v2  3 2
Solving Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously yields
v1  0.6ms 1 and v2  2.4ms 1

Example 3.6. A proton of mass 1.66x10-27kg collides head-on with a helium

atom at rest. The helium atom has a mass of 6.64x10-27kg and recoils with a speed
of 5x 105m/s. If the collision is elastic, what are the initial and final speeds of the
proton and the fraction of its initial energy transferred to the helium atom?

Solution:

Mass of He = 4 x (mass of proton).

From conservation of momentum
mpu p  0  mp v p  mHevHe

mpu p  0  mp v p  4mp vHe

u p  v p  4vHe 1

From elastic condition,

velocity of approach = - velocity of separation
u p  v p  vHe 2

Adding Equations 1 and 2 gives,

 
2u p  5vHe  5 5 x105 ms 1  25x105 ms 1

u p  1.25x106 ms 1

From the momentum equation

 v p  4vHe  u p


v p  u p  4vHe  1.25x106  4 5 x105 
v p  1.25x106  2.00x106  7.5 x105 ms 1

KE of He 4m p 5 x10 

5

Fraction of Energy    0.64

initial KE m p 1.25x106 
 (d) Inelastic collision between two bodies moving in the same direction.
After collision they stick together and move with a common velocity v

m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 m2 v
=

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.6

m1u1  m2u2  m1  m2 v 3.22

(e) Inelastic collision between two bodies moving in opposite directions.

After collision they stick together and move with a common velocity v

m1 u1 u2 m2 m1 m2 v
=

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.7

m1u1  m2u2  m1  m2 v 3.23

(f) Inelastic collision between a moving body and a stationary body.

After collision they stick together and move with a common velocity v

u1 u2=0 v
m1 m2 = m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.8
m1u1  m1  m2 v 3.24
Example 3.7. A ball of mass 10kg moving with a velocity of 20ms-1 collides
inelastically with a 15kg ball moving with a velocity of 12ms-1. Calculate their
common velocity after the collision if they initially moved in
(a) the same direction
(b) opposite direction.

Solution
From the law of conservation of linear momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

10 kg 20ms-1 15 kg 12ms-1 10 kg 15 kg v
=

Before collision After collision

(a) if the balls initially moved in the same direction then,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2, but v1=v2= v
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v + m2v = ( m1 + m2) v
(10 x 20) + (15 x 12) = (10 + 15) v
200 + 180 = 150 v
380 = 150 v
380
Therefore common velocity in the same direction is v   2.53ms 1 .
150
(b) If the balls initially moved in opposite directions then,
 10 kg 20ms-1 12ms-1 15 kg 10 kg 15 kg v
=

Before collision After collision

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

(a) m1u1 - m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2, but v1= v2= v
m1u1 - m2u2 = m1v + m2v = ( m1 + m2) v
(10 x 20) - (15 x 12) = (10 + 15) v
200 - 180 = 150 v
20 = 150 v
20
Therefore common velocity in the opposite direction is v   0.13ms 1 .
150

Example 3.8. A 100kg object moving with a velocity of 25ms-1 collides with
a stationary object of mass 45kg. (a) Calculate their common velocities after
collision if they stick together and moved in one direction.
(b) Assuming the two objects separated but moved in the same direction, find
the velocity of the 45kg mass if after impact the 100kg object moved with a
velocity of 15ms-1.
Solution
From the law of conservation of linear momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

100 kg 25ms-1 45 kg 100 kg 45 kg v

=

Before collision After collision

 (a) m1u1 = m1v1 + m2v2, but v1= v2= v
m1u1 = ( m1 + m2) v
(100 x 25) = (100 + 45) v
2500 = 145 v
2500
Therefore, their common velocity is v   17.24ms 1 .
145

(b) From the law of conservation of linear momentum

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

100 kg 25ms-1 45 kg 100 kg 15ms-1 45 kg v

=

Before collision After collision

m1u1 = m1v1 + m2v2,

m1u1 = m1v + m2v
(100 x 25) = (100 x 15) + 45 v
2500 - 1500 = 45v
1000 = 45 v
1000
is v   22.22ms 1 .
45

Example 3.9. An 8g bullet is fired horizontally into a 9kg block of wood and
sticks in it. The block, which is free to move, has a velocity of 40 cm/s after
impact. Find the initial velocity of the bullet.

Solution:
Let’s consider the system (block + bullet). The velocity, and hence the momentum
of the block before impact is zero. The momentum conservation law says that
Momentum of system before impact = momentum of system after impact
(mass) x (velocity of bullet) + 0 = (mass) x (velocity of block + bullet)

0.008kg v  0  9.008kg 0.40ms 1 

9.008x0.4
v  450ms 1
0.008

Example 3.10. A 16g mass is moving in the +x direction at 30 cm/s while a 4g

mass is moving in the –x direction at 50 cm/s. They collide head-on and stick
together. Find their velocity after collision.

Solution:

Applying the law of conservation of momentum to the system consisting of two

masses,
Momentum before impact = momentum after impact

0.016kg 0.30ms 1   0.004kg  0.50ms 1   0.016  0.004kg x v

v
0.016kg 0.30ms 1   0.004kg  0.50ms 1   0.14ms 1
0.020kg
Elastic collision in two-dimensions (Oblique collision)
Oblique collision occurs when the two bodies separate and move at angles to each
other after collision.
Let a body m1 moving with initial velocity v1 collides obliquely with a stationary

body m2 . It is not a head-on collision so their lines of action do not coincide. After

collision, the bodies m1 and m2 travel with velocities v1 and v2 at angles  and 
respectively to the horizontal.
Note that in head-on collisions the lines of action of the bodies involved in the
collision coincide.

v2
m2

m2 
m1
u1 

m1
v1
Figure 3.9 Oblique collision between bodies m1 and m2

In the present case we shall apply the law of conservation of momentum to both
the x-component (horizontal) and the y-component (vertical).
X-component

m1u1  m1v1 cos  m2 v2 cos 3.25

Y-component

0  m1v1 sin   m2v2 sin

or

m1v1 sin   m2v2 sin 3.26

The collision is elastic therefore kinetic energy will be conserved

1 1 1
m1u12  m1v12  m2 v12 3.27
2 2 2

Example 3.11. A 1.0 kg object, A, with a velocity of 4.0 m/s to the right, strikes a
second object, B, of 0.3 kg, originally at rest. In the collision, A is deflected from
its original direction through an angle of 50o; its speed after the collision is 2.0
m/s. Find the angle between B’s velocity after the collision and the original
direction of A, and also find the speed of B after the collision.

Solution:

We choose our x-axis to the right. Let mA=1.0 kg, mB=3.0 kg, uA=4 m/s,
uB=0 m/s,
vA and vB are the magnitudes of the final velocities, and vA=2.0 m/s aimed 50o
above the x-axis.
From conservation of momentum we have
x – direction (Horizontal):
mAu A  0  mAv A cos50o  mB vB cos , where  = angle of vB below the x- axis.

mAu A  mAvA cos50o 1.04  1.02.0cos50o

vB cos    0.907ms 1
mB 3.0

vB cos  0.907ms 1 1

y – direction (vertical):

0  mAv A sin 50o  mB vB sin 

mAvA sin 50o 1.02.0sin 50o

vB sin    0.511ms 1
mB 3.0

vB sin  0.511ms 1 2

Squaring and adding equations 1 and 2 gives

vB sin 2  vB cos 2  0.5112  0.9072

Solving, we get
vB  1.04ms 1

Dividing equation 2 by 1, we get,

vB sin  0.511
tan   
vB cos 0.907

 = 29.4o
Example 3.12. The two spherical balls shown below collide and bounce off each
other. (a) What is the final velocity of the 500g ball if the 800g ball has a speed of
15 cm/s after collision? (b) Is the collision perfectly elastic?

 50cm/s
30cm/s
30o 500g
800g

Solution:

From the law of conservation of momentum,

X – axis:
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision.
0.800.3  0.500.5  0.800.15cos30o   0.5vx

0.800.3  0.500.5  0.800.15cos30o   v

0.5 x

vx  0.228ms 1

Y – axis:
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision.

 
0  0.80 0.15sin 30o  0.5v y
vy 
0.800.15sin 30o   0.120ms 1
0.5

v  vx2  vy2   0.2282  0.1202  0.26ms 1

Also for the angle  shown above

 0.120 
  tan 1    28
o

 0.228 

(b) total KE before collision =

1
0.80.32  1 0.50.52  0.0985J
2 2

total KE before collision

1
0.80.152  1 0.50.262  0.026J
2 2
As KE is lost in the collision, the collision is not perfectly elastic.

Newton’s Third law

Newton’s third law states that to every action there is equal and opposite reaction.
Whenever a force acts on one body, an equal and opposite force acts on some
other body. It is important to note that the action and reaction forces take place on
different bodies. The two forces act normally to each other at the surface on which
they act.
Examples of the Third Law are:
(i) The recoil of a gun. When a bullet is fired from a gun, equal and opposite
forces are exerted on the bullet and the gun.
(ii) Gases coming out of an inflated balloon. As the gas is forced out of the
nozzle the reactional force propels the balloon in the opposite direction.
 (iii) A rocket in motion. As the hot gases are forced out of the tail the
reactional force propels the rocket forward
.
Inertial frames of reference
An Inertial reference frame is one which is stationary or moves with constant
velocity and therefore does not accelerate. It is a reference frame in which
Newton’s first law holds.
If a bus travels at constant speed on a straight highway, then the bus can be
considered as an inertia frame of reference.
Frames translating at constant velocity along a curved trajectory or rotating at a
constant angular velocity are non-inertia frames due to centripetal acceleration.
This means that a bus accelerating in a straight path or curving at constant speed is
a non-inertia frame of reference. Rotating carousel is also an example of a non-
inertia frame of reference.

Strings, pulleys and inclines

Let us consider two bodies A and B connected with an inextensible string passed
over a pulley system. Body A slides on an inclined plane while body B hangs
vertically downwards. Refer to Figure 3.10.
First, let us consider the motion of body A along the inclined plane.
T   F  Mg sin    Ma 3.28

T is the tension in the string, F is frictional force, M is the mass of body A, m is

mass of body B, R is reactional force and a is the acceleration.
 R a
T
T

A a

F B
Mg
mg

Figure 3.10 The downward movement of body B causes body
A to slide along the inclined plane because of the inextensible
string connecting them.

Resolving the forces acting on body A parallel and perpendicularly to the inclined
plane gives
R  Mg cos  3.29

T  ( Mg cos  Mg sin  )  Ma 3.30

Therefore,
F  R  Mg cos 3.31
Applying the equation of motion to body B,
Mg  T  ma 3.32
Solving Equations 3.30 and 3.32 simultaneously gives,
mg  Mg  cos  sin  
a 3.33
mM
and
mMg 1   cos  sin  
T 3.34
mM
Example 3.13. A body of mass 8kg is on the point of slipping down a plane of
inclination 30o, what force applied parallel to the plane will just move it up the
plane? [Take g=10ms-2]

Solution:
R
P

F  R
30o

30o

Let P be the force required to move the body up the plane.

Let F  R be the limiting frictional force.
Resolving along the plane, for equilibrium:
P  R  mg sin 300 (i)

Resolving perpendicular to plane:

R  mg cos 300 (ii)

Substituting (ii) in (i), we get

P  mg cos 300  mg sin 300

Also since the body was about to slip down the plane of slope by 30o,

1
  tan 300 
3
Therefore,
 3 
   8 x10x   80N
1 1
P   8 x x10x 
 3 2   2

Example 3.14. An inclined plane making an angle of 25o with the horizontal has a
pulley at its top. A 30kg block on the plane is connected to a freely hanging 20kg
block by means of a cord passing over the pulley. Compute the distance the 20kg
block will fall in 2s starting from rest. Neglect friction.

Solution:

A B

25o

The situation is as shown above. We apply Newton’s second law to each block
separately. For block B we choose downward as positive, while for block A we
choose our x-axis along the incline with the positive sense upward. This choice
allows us to use the same symbol, a, for the acceleration of each block.

Then for block B:

WB  T  mB a (i)
where mB = 20kg and WB = 20 x 9.8 = 196N and T is the tension in the cord.
Since the pulley is frictionless, the same tension T will exist on both sides of the
pulley.

Then for block A:

T  WA sin 250  mA a (ii)
where mA = 30kg and WA = 30 x 9.8 = 294N. the tension T is eliminated by
adding Equations (i) and (ii), which yields
WB  WA sin 250  mB  mA a

196  294sin 250  20  30a

a  1.44ms 2

1
The equation for fall from rest is S y  u y t  a y t 2 .
2
S y  (0 x 2)  1.442   2.88m
1 2

2
The distance covered by the 20kg block in 2s is 2.88m.

Friction
Friction is the retarding force which is called to play when a body actually moves
or tend to move over the surface of another body. The surfaces of the bodies in
contact are rough and therefore have irregular projections. Some surfaces appear
to be smooth when viewed with the naked eye but a powerful microscope can
expose all the irregularities. The resisted motion is caused by the interlocking of
the large number of irregularities on the surfaces in contact. The opposing force
called friction is always directed oppositely to the direction of motion.

Static friction – It is the force of friction which exactly balances the applied force
during the stationary state of the body. This means that static friction exists only
when the bodies in contact are at rest relative to each other, but with a tendency to
move.

P
Fs

W
Figure 3.11 A small force P is applied to move the block
but it is opposed by the static friction Fs.

Consider a block of wood resting on a horizontal surface. Let a small force P be

applied to try moving the block as shown in Figure 3.11. Also let Fs be the
resulting force of static friction. Then in the equilibrium position, the weight W of
the block will be balanced by the reaction force R and the pulling force P will be
balanced by Fs.
Limiting friction – It is the maximum value of static friction which is called into
play when a body is just about to start sliding over the surface of another body.
When the applied force P increases there is a corresponding increase in the static
friction Fs. However, there is a particular limit up to which the static friction Fs
can increase. Beyond this limit, the applied force P will overcome the opposing
force and produce motion in the body.

Dynamic or kinetic friction – This opposing force comes into play when the two
surfaces in contact are in relative motion. It acts in a direction opposite to the
direction of the instantaneous velocity. There are two types of dynamic or kinetic
friction namely Sliding and Rolling frictions.
(1) Sliding friction comes into play when a solid body slides over
the surface of another body.
(2) Rolling friction comes into play when a body rolls over the
surface of another body.

Coefficient of static friction

For any two surfaces in contact, µ is the ratio of the limiting friction Fls and the
normal reaction R between them. It is denoted by s. s has no units and its value
depends upon the state of polish of the two surfaces in contact. s is small for a
highly polished surface and large for rough surfaces and also 0    1 .
Fls
s  3.35
R
The force of static friction Fs is equal to the applied force. So Fs can have any
value from 0 to Fls. Therefore Fs  Fls . The equality sign holds only when Fs has
its maximum value.
 Fs   s R 3.36

Coefficient of kinetic friction

It is defined as the ratio of the kinetic friction and the normal reaction. It is
denoted by k.
Fk
k  3.37
R
Now,
 s Fls R Fls
 x  3.38a
k R Fk Fk

Fls R Fls
s  x  k 3.38b
R Fk Fk

Since  s   k , then from equation 3.38a,

s
 1, and Fls  Fk
k
Therefore, Fls > Fk and  s >  k

Example 3.15. A body of mass 8kg is on the point of slipping down a plane
which is inclined at 30o to the horizontal. What force parallel to the inclined force
will just move it up the plane?
 F

30o

Solution
At point of slipping, Fls (= µR) must be balanced by mgsinθ
i.e. µR – mgsinθ = 0
But R = mgcosθ
so that
µmgcosθ – mgsinθ = 0
mg sin 
µ=  tan 
mg cos
Resolving along the plane for equilibrium
T = R + mg sin 30o … … (1)
Resolving perpendicular to the plane
R = mg cos 300 … … (2)
Substituting equation (2) into (1)
T =  mg cos 300 + mg sin 30o
Since the body is about to slip down the plane at 30o,
 = tan 30o = 0.5774
therefore,
T = (0.5774 x 8 x 10 x 0.866) + ( 8 x 10 x 0.5 )
= 40.0 + 40.0 = 80.0N
 Example 3.16. Suppose that in the figure below the block is at rest. The angle
of inclination of the plane is slowly increased until the block begins to slide at
 = 42o. What is the coefficient of static friction between the block and the
incline?

Solution
At the point when the block begins to slide, F (= R) just balances mgsinθ
Along the plane R = mgsinθ so that
µmgcosθ – mgsinθ = 0
mg sin 
µ=  tan 
mg cos
F
therefore,    tan 
R
= tan 42o = 0. 90