Chapter 3

Electric fields and electric potential

Eng. Abdullah Bani Domi

Physics 301
 ❑ Electric Charge
⚫ Electric
charge: is an intrinsic characteristic of the fundamental particles
making up objects (such as electrons & protons).
Types: Two types of charges
Positive: Lack of electrons )‫(تفتقد لاللكترونات‬
Negative: surplus of electrons (‫ )فائض بالكترونات‬+ + - -
Unit : Coulomb C /‫وحدة الشحنه الكولوم‬

❑ Charges in any object is hidden? ❑ If +ve ≠ -ve charge

Because +ve = -ve charge ‫مجموع الشحنات الموجبة يساوي‬
‫محموع الشحنات السالبة‬
object is charged
✓ object is electrically neutral; object has a charge imbalance, or has
✓ object has no net charge net charge
 ❑ Electric Charge
⚫ What happens if you rub:

❑ Plus signs (+) indicates +ve net

charge.
‫االجسام المشحونة تؤثر على بعضها البعض‬
❑ Minus signs (-) indicates -ve net ‫بقوى كهربائيه‬
charge.
‫الشحنات المتشابهة تتنافر‬
❑ Charged objects exert electrical
forces on each other.
‫الشحنات المختلفة تتجاذب‬
❑ Similar charges produce repulsive
force, like charges repel.
❑ Dissimilar charges produce
Charges with the same electrical sign repel each
attractive force (opposite charges
other, and charges with opposite electrical signs
attract).
attract each other.
 ❑ Conductors and Insulators
Materials are classified into 4 kinds according to the ability of charge to
move through them:
1) Conductors: materials that a significant amount of electrons are free
to move, e.g., metals (such as copper), human body, and tap water
2) Non-conductor (insulators): materials that a significant amount of
electrons are not free to move; e.g., rubber (such as lamp wire),
plastic, glass
3) Semiconductors: materials that are intermediate between conductors
and insulators, sometimes behave like insulators and sometimes like
conductors; e.g., silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge)
4) Superconductors: materials that almost all electrons are free to
move, they are perfect conductors
❑ Neutral and Charged Atoms

❑ The mobile electrons are called conduction electrons

❑—Only conduction electrons can move; +ve ions are
fixed
✓ Magnitude of charge: Charge of electron is 1.6022 x 10-19
Coulomb.
✓ Magnitude of charge: Charge of proton is 1.6022 x 10-19
coulomb.
✓ neutron charge: It is a neutral particle because it has no
charge.
❑ Coulomb`s Law
❑ Electrostatic force: the force of repulsion or attraction due
to the charge properties of objects.
❑ If particle 1 has charge q1 and particle 2 has charge q2, the + +
force on particle 1 is r

If q1 & q2 have the same signs

is a unit vector along an axis extending through the two
F on particle 1 is in the
particles
direction of
r is the distance between them,
k is the electrostatic constant = If q1 & q2 have opposite signs
F on particle 1 is in opposite
K= 8.89 x109Nm2/C2 direction of
‫قانون كولوم‬
❑ Superposition principle: If we have n charged particles, they interact independently in
pairs, and the force on any one of them, let us say particle 1, is given by the vector sum
 ‫ملخص قانون كولوم‬

‫قانون كولوم‬

‫المسافة بالمتر‪ ،‬لذلك انتبه للتحويل اذا‬

‫كانت الوحدة بغير المتر‬ ‫قيمة الثابت‪ K‬تساوي تقريبا‬
‫ملخص قانون كولوم‬ ‫تمثل مقدار القوة الكهروستاتيكية‬
‫على الجسم األول الذي له شحنه‪q1‬‬
‫من الجسم الثاني الذي له شحنة ‪q2‬‬

‫الحظ أيضا إتجاه‬

‫القوى‬
‫في حالة الشحنات المتشابه تكون‬
‫قوى تنافر‬
‫وفي المختلفة تكون قوى اجاذب‬
‫ملخص قانون كولوم‬
 ❑ Example.1:
❑ Two charges 4 μC and - 3 μC are separated by 2 cm. Calculate the force between them?

⚫ Solution: Since the signs of the charges are different, they produce an attractive force. The
magnitude of this force is
 ‫المطلوب ايجاد المسافة بين الشحنات‬
❑ Example.2: r ‫النقطية‬

⚫ Calculate the distance between two point charges 2.4 μC and – 1.8 μC for the electrostatic force
to be of magnitude 10.8 N?

⚫ Solution: The magnitude of the electrostatic force is given by

 ‫ المطلوب‬/‫ من شحنه نقطيه أخرى (مجهول مقدارها‬4cm ‫ وضعت على بعد‬2.0 μC ‫شحنة نقطية مقدارها‬
❑ Example.3: . 56.25 N‫ كانت قيمة قوى التجاذب بينها‬/)‫ايحاد قيمة هذه الشحنه‬

⚫ A point charge 2.0 μC is placed at a distance 4 cm from another point charge q. If the attractive
force between them is 56.25 N, find q.

⚫ Solution: The magnitude of the electrostatic force is given by

‫طبق قانون كولوم مباشرة‬
q2‫المجهول الوحيد هو‬

⚫ since the force is attractive, the signs of the charges are different. Therefore the
unknown charge is negative -5.0 μC . ‫االشارة سالبه الن نص السؤال يشير الى قوى تجاذب‬
‫والشحنه األخرى المعطاه موجبة‬
 ❑ The shell theorem
❑ A shell of uniform charge attracts or repels a charged particle that is outside the shell as if all the
shell’s charge were concentrated at its center.

❑ If a charged particle is located inside a shell of uniform charge, there is no net electrostatic force
on the particle from the shell.

❑ Spherical Conductors
❑ If excess charge is placed on a spherical shell that is made of conducting
material, the excess charge spreads uniformly over the (outer) surface.
 ‫المعطيات‬
‫جسمين لهما شحنه موجبه‬
‫‪q1= 1.6 * 10 -19‬‬
‫‪q2= 3.2 * 10 -19‬‬
‫المسافه ‪R= 0.02 m‬‬
‫المطلوب‬
‫مقدار واتجاه القوى التي يؤثر بها الجسم ‪ ٢‬على األول ‪F12‬‬
 ‫المعطيات‪ -‬تابع للسؤال السابق‬
‫تم وضع جسم له شحنه ‪q3‬‬
‫‪q3= -3.2 * 10 -19‬‬
‫على بعد ‪ ¾ R‬من الجسم األول‬
‫المطلوب محصلة القوى على الجسم األول من الجسم الثاني والثالث‬

‫خطوات الحل‬
‫القوة الكلية المؤثرة على شحنة‬
‫تعطى بجمع المتجهات القوى بين هذه الشحنه والشحنه الثانيه والثالثه‬
‫بمعنى آخر جد القوى من الشحنه رقم ‪ ٢‬على الشحنه رقم واحد‬
‫وكذلك األمر بالنسبه للشحنه رقم ‪ ٣‬على الشحنه رقم واحد‬
 ‫الحل‬
‫قانون كولوم‬
‫طبق ‪9‬‬
‫قيمة الثابت ‪K= 8.99 * 10‬‬

‫االتجاه بالسالب النها قوى تنافر‬

 ‫في هذا السؤال تم وضع شحنه ‪ q4‬لكن مائله بزاوية مقدارها ‪ .60‬مقدار الشحنه معلوم‬
‫واشارتها والمسافه عن الشحنه األولى‪.‬‬
‫المطلوب حساب محصلة القوى على الشحنه األولى؟‬

‫بما أنها مائله بزاوية الشحنه الرابعه لذلك يجب األخذ بعين االعتبار تحليل او ايجاد احداثيات‬
‫هذه الشحنه على المحور ‪ x‬والمحور ‪.y‬‬
‫بمعنى آخر اليجاد القوى التى تؤثر بها الشحنه رقم ‪ ٤‬على الشحنه رقم ‪:١‬‬
‫يجب حساب القوى منها في اتحاه ‪ x‬وبذلك يمكن تطبيق قانون كولوم مع الضرب ب ‪cos‬‬
‫اليجاد احداثيات القوى على ‪.x‬‬
‫وبالنسبه باتجاه ‪ y‬يضرب ب ‪.sin‬‬
 ‫المسافه هي ¾ من قيمة ‪/ R‬‬
‫حيث ‪R= 0.02 m‬‬

‫تم حسابها في الجزء ‪a‬‬

‫جمع متجهات‬
❑ Note that:
✓ Magnitude of charge: Charge of electron is
1.6022 x 10-19 Coulomb.
✓ Magnitude of charge: Charge of proton is
1.6022 x 10-19 coulomb.
✓ neutron charge: It is a neutral particle
because it has no charge.
 ❑ Charge is Quantized
❑ Charge is Conserved

❑ Electric charge is quantized:

Quantized quantity: a physical quantity, such as charge, that have only discrete values rather than
any value
❑ Any +ve or –ve charge q that can be detected can be written as

in which e, the elementary charge, has the value

❑ it is possible to find a particle that has no charge at all or a charge of e-10 or +6e, but not a particle
with a charge of 3.57e.
❑ Electric charge is conserved: the net charge of any isolated system cannot change.
 ❑ Example.1:
❑ 5 ×1020 electrons pass between two points in 4sec, Calculate the current.
current ‫التيار‬
⚫ Solution:

❑ How many electrons would be removed from a metal to have a charge of 4.8μC?
 ❑ Example.2:
❑ Three point charges 2.0, 3.0, and -4.0 μC are located as shown in the figure. Find the magnitude
of the force acting on the 2 μC charge due to the others. K=9*10 ^9

⚫ Solution:
 ❑ Example.2:
❑ Three point charges 2.0, 3.0, and -4.0 μC are located as shown in the figure. Find the magnitude
of the force acting on the 2 μC charge due to the others.

⚫ Solution:
 ❑ Example.3:
❑ Three point charges 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 μC are arranged as shown in the figure. Find the magnitude
of the force acting on the 2 μC charge due to the others.

Cos theta= ‫الوتر‬/‫المجاور‬

 ❑ Example.4:
❑ Two charges 9.0 and 16.0 μC are separated by a distance of 2 m. Where should a third charge 2
μC be placed between them for a zero net force on it?
⚫ Solution:
⚫ As the charges are of same sign, the third charge must be placed between them and close to the
smaller charge in order to have a zero net force
 ❑ Example.5:
❑ Four identical charges (2 μC) are located at the vertices of a square of side 5 cm. Calculate the
magnitude of the electric force on a 5 μC located at the center of the square.

⚫ Solution: The electric forces on the 5 μC due to the other

charges have the same magnitude. Each charge along the
diagonal will experience equal and opposite force on the
5 μC charge, therefore, the resultant force is zero.
 ❑ Electric Fields
❑ How does q1 “know” the presence of q2?
Answer: each charge creates electric field
❑ Field: distribution of a quantity in space

Example: temperature (measured by thermometer )

▪ the distribution of temperatures in a region is a temperature
field (scalar fields )
❑ The electric field: is a region where electric charges can interact
to each other.
➢ It is a vector field.

➢ It is a distribution of vectors for each point in the region around

a charged object.
 ❑ Electric Fields
❑ How electric field is defined at a point P near a charged object?
1) Place +ve test charge q0, at that point P
2) Measure the electrostatic force F that acts on q0
3) The electric E field at point P due to the charged object is:

❑ The magnitude of E is E = F/q0

❑ The direction of E is the direction of F

❑ E represented with a vector whose tail is at P

❑ The SI unit for E is the newton per coulomb (N/C).

‫ملخص‬
‫ملخص‬
‫ملخص‬
‫ملخص‬
‫ملخص‬
 ❑ Electric Fields Lines
❑ Electric field lines: lines of force around a charge
• Importance of electric field lines: to visualize patterns of electric fields

❑ The relation between the field lines & electric field vectors E:

▪ The direction of E: straight for a straight line or

tangent for a curved field line

❑ The magnitude of E: proportional to the number of lines per unit area

❑ E is large when lines are close together and small when they are far
apart
❑ The magnitude of E decreases with distance from the charged object

❑ If the charged object has +ve charge

E directed away from the object

❑ Types Electric Fields Lines

Uniform E Nonuniform E Electric dipole

✓ Electric field lines extend away from

Fields lines positive charge (where they originate)
and toward negative charge (where
never cross
they terminate).
‫ملخص‬
‫ملخص‬
 ❑ The Electric Fields Due to a Point Charges
❑ We put a +ve test charge q0 at a distance r from the point charge q
• The electrostatic force acting on q0 is:

• The electric field vector is:

• The direction of E is the same as F on the +ve test charge:

If q is +ve away from the point charge q
If q is –ve toward the point charge q
• The net (resultant) E due to more than one point charge:
 ❑ Example.1:
❑ Calculate the electric field at a distance 5cm from a point charge of 2.5 nC

⚫ Solution:

❑ Example.2:
⚫ A point charge at 2cm produces an electric field of 180N/C. Calculate the magnitude of the
electric field at 4 cm
⚫ Solution:
 ❑ Example.1:
❑ Calculate the electric field at a distance 5cm from a point charge of 2.5 nC

⚫ Solution:

❑ Example.2:
⚫ A point charge at 2cm produces an electric field of 180N/C. Calculate the magnitude of the
electric field at 4 cm
⚫ Solution:
 ❑ Example.3:
❑ (a) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at the point A.

⚫ Solution:

⚫ (b) If a third charge 2μC is placed at A, calculate the force on it.

⚫ Solution:
 ❑ Example.4:
⚫ Two charges 9 and 16μC are separated by a distance of 2m. Where should a third charge q3
be placed between them for a net electric field on q3 to be zero?

⚫ Solution:
 ❑ Example.5:
⚫ Two charges 2μC & -2μC are located at the two corners of a square of side 5m as shown in
the figure. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at one of the other corners of the
square?
⚫ Solution:
Taking the upper corner, the magnitude of the electric field due to each charge are
similar but the direction are different. The electric field of one of them is:

Since the electric field of these charges are perpendicular, the magnitude is:
 ❑ Example.3:
❑ (a) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at the point A.

⚫ Solution:

⚫ (b) If a third charge 2μC is placed at A, calculate the force on it.

⚫ Solution:
❑ Example:
 ❑ The Electric Fields Due to a Electric Dipole
❑ Electric dipole: two charged particles of the same magnitude q but opposite sign, separated
by a distance d.
❑ Dipole axis: the axis through the particles

❑ Electric dipole moment p : vector quantity, its magnitude

p = qd, its direction from the –ve to +ve end of the dipole

❑ E direction (for distant points on the dipole axis) = p direction

 ❑ The Electric Fields Due to a Electric Dipole
❑ Electric dipole: two charged particles of the same magnitude q but opposite sign, separated
by a distance d.
❑ Dipole axis: the axis through the particles

❑ Electric dipole moment p : vector quantity, its magnitude

p = qd, its direction from the –ve to +ve end of the dipole

❑ E direction (for distant points on the dipole axis) = p direction

 ❑ Example:
⚫ Two equal and opposite charges 6μC and -6μC are separated by a distance of 2cm. What is the
magnitude of the electric field at 30cm from their midpoint?

⚫ Solution:
 ❑ The Electric Fields Due to a Line of Charge
Continuous distributions of charges ≠ discrete distributions of charges
many closely spaced point charges that are spread along a line, over a surface, or within a volume
❑ We express the continuous distribution of charges on an object as a charge density
 How to find E due to line of charge (ring) at point P?
How to find E due to line of charge (ring) at point P?

❑ at large distance from center z >> R

charged ring at large distance

✓ Charged ring at large distance looks like a point charge

❑ At the center of the ring z = 0 E=0

▪ At the center of conductor there is no net force No E
 ❑ Example:
⚫ A ring of radius 5cm carries a linear charge density of 5 × 10-6 C/m. Calculate the electric
field at (a) 6cm, and (b) 6m from its center
⚫ Solution:
 ❑ The Electric Fields Due to a a Charged Disk
❑ The disk is divided into flat rings with radius r and radial width dr

❑ E at large distance from center z >> R, E = 0

❑ E at the center z =0
❑ If R ∞, the second term in the parentheses zero
 ❑ Example:
⚫ The magnitude of the electric field at 5cm from an infinite sheet is 200N/C, what is its
surface charge density?

⚫ Solution:
 The Electric Fields at point P due to
Point charge Electric dipole Line of charge Electric dipole
 A Point Charge in an Electric Field
What happens if a charged particle is placed in an external electric field?
• Electrostatic force will act on the particle:

• q: the charge of the particle

• E: electric field from another charges, it is called external field.

⚫ The electrostatic force 𝑭 acting on a charged particle located in an external electric field 𝐸
has the direction of 𝐸 if the charge q of the particle is positive and has the opposite direction
if q is negative.
 A Dipole in an Electric Field
▪ E is a uniform external electric field
▪ q & -q, separated by a distance d are connected rigidly
▪ Dipole moment has magnitude p = qd
direction θ with E
F (on each q) has same magnitude qE, and opposite directions
• Net force on the dipole = zero
• The center of mass of the dipole does not move
• Forces on the ends of charges produce a net torque τ on the dipole about its center of mass (com)
• Magnitude of torque = tangential component of F × distance from com

▪ τ rotates p (& dipole) into E direction

▪ Clockwise rotation
▪ θ is reducing
 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole
▪ Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole

▪ The dipole has its least potential energy at its equilibrium orientation (p is lined
up with E)

▪ The zero- potential-energy configuration could be defined arbitrarily? because only differences in
potential energy have physical meaning
▪ We choose the potential energy to be zero when the angle θ = 90°
▪ The dipole potential energy (U ): is calculated by the work W done on the E

• The unit of U is joule (J)

 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole

• If dipole is rotated from θi to θf, the work W done by E is:

• The work Wa done on the dipole by the applied torque (external agent) is–ve of W:
 ❑ Example:
⚫ Calculate the magnitude of the torque and the work needed to complete align a dipole of 5 ✕
10-6C.m in a uniform electric field of 5000N/C, where the dipole initially was at an angle of
30o with the field.
⚫ Solution:
 Introduction
Coulomb`s Law GAUSS’ LAW
 Flux of an Electric Field

▪ Electric field can be described by lines of force.

▪ A line of force is an imaginary line drawn in such a way that its direction at any point is the
same as the direction of the field at that point.
▪ Field lines never intersect, since only one line can pass through a single point.
⚫ The Electric flux (Φ) is a measure of the number of electric field lines penetrating
some surface of area A.
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Plan Surface case:
⚫ The electric flux for a plan surface perpendicular to a uniform electric field.

❑ To calculate the electric flux:

⚫ The number of lines per unit area is proportional to
the magnitude of the electric field.
⚫ Therefore, the number of lines penetrating the
surface of area A is proportional to the product EA.
⚫ The product of the electric filed E and the surface
area A perpendicular to the field is called the electric
flux (Φ).
The electric flux Φ has a unit
⚫ Φ=E.A
of N.m 2/C
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Plane Surface- angle θ Case :
⚫ The electric flux for a plan surface make an angle θ to a uniform electric field.

⚫ Note that the number of lines that cross-area is

equal to the number that cross the projected
area A'. Which is perpendicular to the field.
⚫ From the figure we see that the two area are
related by A`=A cos θ.The flux is given by:
⚫ Φ=E. A’=E A cos θ

Where θ is the angle between the electric field E

and the normal to the surface A
‫الحظ بإنه يمكن تطبيق القانون في الحاله‬
‫الثانيه على الحاله األولى‬
‫حيث أن الزاويه تساوي صفر‬
‫وسينتج نفس نفس القانون الذي تم‬
‫اشتقاقه في الحالة األولى‬
‫في حال كانت المساحة موازية لخطوط المجال‬
‫الزاوية ثيتا المحصورة بين المجال الكهربائي‬
‫‪90‬والعمودي على المساحه=‬
‫‪cos 90= 0‬‬
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ General Case:
⚫ In general the electric field is nonuniform over the surface (figure 4.3)

⚫ The flux is calculated by integrating the normal

component of the field over the surface in
question.

The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net

number of lines penetrating the surface
 Flux of an Electric Field

▪ An arbitrary (asymmetric) Gaussian surface immersed in a

nonuniform electric field.
▪ The surface is divided into small squares of flat area ΔA.

▪ Each element of area has an area vector ΔA:

❑ Magnitude: the area ΔA.

❑ Direction: perpendicular and away to Gaussian surface.

⚫ E is constant for any given square area.

⚫ The vectors ΔA & E make angle θ with each other.

⚫ The flux of the electric field for the Gaussian surface is:
→ →

E 
= E . d A
•When 0 ≤ q < 90˚, the flux is
positive (out of the surface).
•when q = 90˚, the flux is 0.
•when q > 90˚, the flux is
negative.
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Example.1:
⚫ What is electric flux for closed cylinder of radius R immersed in a uniform electric
field as shown in figure 4.4?
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Example.1:
⚫ What is electric flux for closed cylinder of radius R immersed in a uniform electric
field as shown in figure 4.4?
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Example.1:
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Example.2:
⚫ Example.2: Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Example.2: Flux of an Electric Field
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Example.2:

 The field lines pass through

two surfaces perpendicularly
and are parallel to the other
four surfaces
 Flux of an Electric Field
⚫ Example.2:

 The field lines pass through

two surfaces perpendicularly
and are parallel to the other
four surfaces
 For side 1, ΦE = -El 2
 For side 2, ΦE = El 2
 For the other sides,
ΦE = 0
 Therefore, Φtotal = 0
 The Electric Flux due to a point charge
⚫ To calculate the electric flux due to a point charge we consider an
imaginary closed spherical surface with the point charge in the center figure, this
surface is called gaussian surface. Then the flux is given by:
 The Electric Flux due to a point charge
⚫ To calculate the electric flux due to a point charge we consider an
imaginary closed spherical surface with the point charge in the center figure, this
surface is called gaussian surface. Then the flux is given by:

Note that the net flux through a spherical gaussian

surface is proportional to the charge q inside the surface.
 Gaussian surface
⚫ Consider several closed surfaces as shown in figure below.
⚫ Surrounding a charge Q as in the figure below.
⚫ The flux that passes through surfaces S1, S2 and S3all has a value q/ε0.
⚫ Therefore we conclude that the net flux through any closed surface is
independent of the shape of the surface.
 Gaussian surface

⚫ Consider a point charge located outside a closed surface as shown in figure below.
⚫ We can see that the number of electric field lines entering the surface equal the
number leaving the surface.
⚫ Therefore the net electric flux in this case is zero, because the surface surrounds no
electric charge.
 Gaussian surface
❑ Example.1:
⚫ In the following figure, two equal and opposite charges of 2Q and -2Q. what is the
flux Φ for the surfaces S1, S2, S3 and S4.

❖ Solution:
⚫ For S1 the flux Φ = zero
⚫ For S2 the flux Φ = zero

⚫ For S3 the flux Φ = +2Q/ε0

⚫ For S4 the flux Φ = -2Q/ε0

 GAUSS’ LAW
▪ Gaussian Law:
⚫ Gauss law is a very powerful theorem, which relates any charge distribution to the resulting
electric field at any point in the vicinity of the charge.
⚫ As we saw the electric field lines means that each charge q must have q/ ε0 flux lines coming
from it.
⚫ This is the basis for an important equation referred to as Gauss’s law.

❑ Note the following :

⚫ If there are charges q1, q2, q3, ......qn inside a closed (gaussian) surface, the total number of
flux lines coming from these charges will be:

⚫ (q1 + q2 +q3 +......+qn ) / ε0

⚫ The number of flux lines coming out of a closed surface is the integral of A.dE. over the surface:
 GAUSS’ LAW
⚫ Equate both equations to get Gauss law which state that the net electric flux through a
closed gaussian surface is equal to the net charge inside the surface divided by ε0

▪ Where qin is the total charge inside the gaussian surface.

▪ Gauss’ law relates the electric fields at points on a (closed) Gaussian surface to the net
charge enclosed by that surface.
▪ Gauss’ law states that the net electric flux through any closed gaussian surface is equal
to the net electric charge inside the surface divided by the permittivity.
 GAUSS’ LAW and Coulomb’s law

⚫ Gauss’ Law and Coulomb’s law relate q & E un static situation

⚫ We can deduce Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s law by assuming a point charge q.

⚫ To find the electric field at point or points a distance r from the charge we imagine a
spherical gaussian surface of radius r and the charge q at its center as shown in figure .
❑ Deriving Coulomb’s law from Gauss' law:

⚫ A spherical Gaussian surface of radius r is drawn around +q

⚫ Gaussian surface is divided into differential areas dA

⚫ Vector dA is perpendicular to the surface & directed outward

⚫ E is also perpendicular to the surface and directed outward

⚫ θ between E & dA = zero

 GAUSS’ LAW and Coulomb’s law

⚫ θ between E and dA = zero.

▪ (a) equal.
▪ (b) equal.
▪ (c) equal.
 Flux of an Electric Field

▪ An arbitrary (asymmetric) Gaussian surface immersed in a

nonuniform electric field.
▪ The surface is divided into small squares of flat area ΔA.

▪ Each element of area has an area vector ΔA:

❑ Magnitude: the area ΔA.

❑ Direction: perpendicular and away to Gaussian surface.

⚫ E is constant for any given square area.

⚫ The vectors ΔA & E make angle θ with each other.

⚫ The flux of the electric field for the Gaussian surface is:
 GAUSS’ LAW

▪ Gaussian surface:
1. hypothetical (imaginary).
2. closed surface
3. .enclosing the charges Can have.
4. any shape (better to be symmetry)
⚫ For example: if the charge is spread uniformly over a sphere: spherical Gaussian surface

▪ Gauss’ law relates the electric fields at points on a (closed) Gaussian surface to the net
charge enclosed by that surface.
 GAUSS’ LAW

To find E using Gauss’ law ?

• 1. Choose a Gaussian surface
• 2. Find electric flux Φ
• 3. Find enclosed charge qenc
• 4. Calculate E