SRI RAMSWAROOP MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY

LUCKNOW – DEVA ROAD, UTTAR PRADESH

INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

CONSTRUCTION
AND
MATERIALS – II
(BAR2002)

MATERIAL REPORT
ON

TOPIC: TIMBER

SUBMITTED BY:
SACHIN KUMAR PATEL

SUBMITTED TO: B. ARCH IIST YEAR IIND SEM

201811101010002
AR. TAHZEEB FATIMA ROZY SESSION: 2018 -19
 TIMBER
The wood is not only one of the oldest natural building materials but has remained
until today the most versatile and the most acceptable material in terms of indoor
comfort and health aspects. Out of all varieties, timber is the healthiest of all building
materials.
Timber is generally obtained from trees with their grit not less than 600 mm. Timber
is an extremely complex material, available in a large variety of species and forms,
suitable for all kinds of applications. Although only a small proportion of the harvested wood is used for
building, the universal concern about the rapid depletion of forests and environmental and economic
consequences has led to a great deal of research into alternative materials and rationalized utilization.

PARTS OF A TREE
The characteristics of timber come from the way it is grown and each piece is unique because it tells part of
the story of the tree that produced it. A timber tree like other plants has three
main parts:
1) CROWN:The crown, which consists of the leaves and branches at the top
of the tree. It plays an important role of filtering dust and other particles
from the air. The leaves use sun’s energy to convert carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and water from the soil into sugar and oxygen and the sugar
is stored in branches, trunk and root.
2) TRUNK: The trunk or stem of a tree supports the crown and gives the
tree its shape and strength. The trunk consists of four layers of tissue. These
layers contain a network of tubes that run between the roots and the leaves
which carry water and minerals up from the roots to the leaves, and they
carry sugar down from the leaves to branches, trunk and root.
3) ROOTS: A trees absorb water and nutrients from the soil, store sugar and
anchor the tree upright in the ground. PARTS OF TREE

STRUCTURE OF TREE
1) PITH: The innermost central portion or core of a tree. It is the first formed part of the stem and it
nourishes the plant in young age. Pith varies in shape and size for different types of trees. This may be
up to 12.5 diameter, but in many trees it is barely visible.
2) HEARTWOOD: The older mature sapwood cells in the center of the tree become inactive and die,
forming heartwood or truewood. It is usually darker in color and is darker than the sapwood. it is
converted from sapwood to heartwood. The boundary between sapwood and heartwood steadily moves
away from the center of the tree.
3) SAPWOOOD: it comprises the youngest layers of
wood. Its network of thick-walled cells brings water
and nutrients from the root to other parts of the tree.
The sap is very high in starch, and remains in
sapwood even after the wood has been milled, dried
and processed. Starch makes sapwood very attractive
to fungal and insects attack. Trees harvested small in
diameter contain a significant amount of sapwood.

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 4) ANNUAL RINGS: Every year, one ring is formed which is concentric circle around the pith. The
total number of such rings determine the age of the tree. The wood near the bark is the youngest.
5) GROWING LAYER: It produces new cells that become either sapwood, inner bark or more
cambium. Every growing season, a tree’s cambium adds a new layer of sapwood to itsOF
STRUCTURE trunk,
WOOD
producing a visible growth ring. It makes the branches, trunk and roots grow larger in diameter.
6) INNER BARK:It is found between growing layer and the outer bark. It acts as a food supply line.
7) BARK : The trunk, branches and the twigs are covered with bark as a armor by protecting the tree
from insects, diseases and extreme temperatures.
8) MEDULLARY RAYS:Their function is to carry sap from outermost to the inner part of the tree,
and to keep the annual rings tightly together. In some trees they are not prominent.

GROWTH
The tree trunk grows upwards and outwards, and in general growth is directed to maximize the light on
the leaves. The tree trunk become thicker by growth of new cells on the outer portion of the trunk. The
oldest wood at any level in a trunk is at the center of the trunk.
MACRO STRUCTURE:Structure of timber visible to naked eye,
that is small magnitude. It is studied by cutting the trunk in three
directions.
MICRO STRUCTURE:It is apparent only at great magnification

MACROSTRUCTURE
CONSTITUENTS OF WOOD
1) CELLULOSE:It comprises about 70% of the wood. Base of paper, textiles, etc.
2) LIGNIN:It comprises about 18 to 30% of the wood. It is the adhesive giving strength and rigidity
3) EXTRACTIVE:though not a part of wood structure, they contribute color and resistance to decay.
4) ASH FORMING MINERALS:They are nutrient plant food element of tree.

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER
Commercial or hardness classification
.

HARDWOOD:They are from deciduous trees which SOFTWOOD:They are found from coniferous
have flat broad leaves and they shed their leaves trees, many of which have evergreen needle-like
annually. The wood is flexible, strong and tough, leaves. Due to weak adhesion of fibers they can be
capable of bearing tension, compression or shear. They split easily. Softwood have distinct annual rings and
have dark colored wood. Annual rings are less distinct are invariably light in color. They Deteriorate in
and narrow and they can resist fire at some extend and outdoor applications and if used must be protected
are stronger than softwoods. Ex. Sal, teak, sheesham, with preservative and paints. Ex. Pines, deodar,
oak, babool. They mainly used as structural wood cedar, fir, yew, etc. they are useful in making masts,
spars, etc.

BABOOL TREE
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 INDIANSHEESHAM
STANDARDTREECLASSIFICATION
CEDAR TREE
PINE TREE
1) CLASS I:Natural durable heartwood timber having average life of 120 months or more
2) CLASS II:Natural durable heartwood timber having average life of 60 months or more, but less than 120
months.
3) CLASS III:Wood timber having average life less than 60 months.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON AVAILABILITY
1) X: Most common grade-1415 m3 or more per year
2) Y: Common grade-335 to 1415 m3
3) Z: Less common grade- less than 335 m3 per year

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE SEASONING PROPERTIES

1) NONREFRACTORYTIMBERS: Those which can be satisfactorily seasoned in open without
developing any defects. Examples of timbers falling under this category are salai, semul, etc.
2) MODERATELY REFRACTORY TIMBERS: Those which can be seasoned with suitable precautions
against rapid drying. Example of timbers falling under this category are teak, tun, semul, etc.
3) EMINENTLY REFRACTORY TIMBERS: Those which require suitable
precautions during seasoning. Heavy structure timbers like sal fall under this
category.

Sal tree Semul tree

Tun tree Salai tree

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TIMBER SPECIES

1) PRIMARY TIMBERS: These are generally slow-grown which provides aesthetically appealing
hardwoods having considerable natural resistance to biological attack, moisture movement and distortion.
As a result, they are expensive and in short supply.
2) SECONDARY TIMBERS: These are fast-grown species with low natural durability. With appropriate
seasoning and preservation treatment, their physical properties and durability can be greatly improved.
With the rising coasts and diminishing supplies of primary timbers, the importance of using secondary
species is rapidly increasing.

COMMON DEFECTS IN WOOD AND TIMBER

1) HEART SHAKES:Due to the shrinkage in the interior of a tree approaching its maturity or over-
matured. It occurs in central part of the stem.
2) STAR SHAKES: It splits from bark towards center of stem. It is confined to sapwood. When a log
containing star shakes is sawn it separates into a number of non-usable pieces.
3) CUP SHAKE: It is a curved split between successive annual rings separating partly one ring from
another. This defect is developed either due to non-uniform growth or due to contraction of wood during
extreme weather conditions.

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4) RING SHAKE:When a cup shake defect occupies a full circumference of the annual ring, it is called
ring shake. It is not visible in green wood.
5) LOOSE KNOT: A knot caused by dead branch that was not fully integrated into the tree before it was
cut down.
6) TIGHT KNOT: A knot fixed by growth in the wood structure so that it firmly retains its place in the
surrounding wood.
7) RIND GALLS: Rind gall is a peculiar swelling on the body of a tree. It occurs due to injuries inflicted at
young age or due to unsuccessful attempts at the formation of branches.
8) TWISTED FIBRES: Twisting of young trees constantly in one direction under the action of strong
winds. It makes timber unsuitable for sawing. This type of wood is mostly used in unsown conditions.
9) UPSETS: Crushing of fibers due to improper felling or exposure of a tree in its young age to fast blowing
wind.

Loose knot
Star shake Ring shake Heart shake

Twisted fibres

Cup shake Cup shake

Rind galls Upsets

GENERAL PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD

The general characteristics of timbers are:
1) APPEARANCE: The surface of freshly cut good timber is hard an shining, and planed surface is bright
and smooth. Dull surface is a sign of poor quality of timber.
2) STRUCTURE: The structure of timber should be uniform with regular annual rings.
3) DIMENSIONAL STABILITY: The timber should capable of maintaining its shape and size during
conversion or seasoning and in service. It should not warp, bow, split, swell or expand.
4) COLOR: A timber should be preferable be of dark color. Light color is generally indicative of low
strength. Moreover, the color of timber should be uniform.
5) DEFECTS: The timber should be free from knots, twists, flaws, shakes, blemish, etc.
6) GRAINS: Grains refers to the general direction of the wood fibers relative to the axis of tree. The fibers
of timber should be straight, compact and firmly adhered together.
7) TEXTURE:The texture of timber depends on the structural character of wood. It is generally described
as being coarse, fine, even or uneven. Timbers with small cell produce fine textured timber, those with
large texture produce a coarse texture.
8) POLISHING AND PAINTING: Timber should be able to take good polish, or receive paint or varnish
specially when used for fabrication of doors, windows, furniture, etc.
9) HARDNESS: It refers to the resistance of the timber to scratching or indentation.
10)SOUND:A good timber emits clear ringing sound when two pieces are stuck against each other.

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11)DURRABILITY:The timber should be durable, i.e. capable of resisting rot due to bacteria and fungi;
terminate and insect attack; chemical attack; and actions of physical and mechanical agencies.
13)FIRE RESISTANCE:Fire resistance can be enhanced by various treatments including pressure
application of fire retardants or surface application of intumescing coatings.
14.WORKABILITY:The timber should be able to be cut easily and planed smooth without clogging the
teeth of saw while sawing.
MOISTURE OR WATER CONTENT IN THE WOOD
Timbers are classified according to moisture content as:
1) UNSEASONED OR GREEN TIMBER:Moisture content is higher than the fibre saturation, i.e. 25%.
However, for practical reasons, most timber sold as unseasoned has moisture content greater than 15%
rather than 25%.
2) SEASONED TIMBER: The moisture content between 10 to 15%, and will generally loose very little
further moisture if used in a protected environment, such as indoor application.
3) PARTIALLLY SEASONED TIMBER: The moisture content is between 25 and 15 %. Some shrinkage
has taken place, but further shrinkage will result from additional moisture loose.

TYPES OF TIMBER GRADING

Timber grading is the process by which timber is sorted into groups with ideally, similar appearance or
structural properties in each group. Timber is specified with grades. The grading generally used are:
appearance grading, structural grading, visual strength grading, machine strength grading and strength
classes or grades.
STRENGTH CLASSES:It is based on the characteristic of values for bending strength. The softwoods
strength classes are designed by C (coniferous) and hardwood strength classes by D (deciduous). It is long
sawn timber piece with parallel sides, having its thickness less than 50 mm and width more than 50 mm.

FELLING OF TIMBER TREE

The process of cutting standing tree is called felling. To obtain maximum quality timber following factor
should be considered for felling of timber tree.
AGE OF TREE AT FELLING:For maximum yield quality timber, a tree should be
felled when it is just matured or is near its maturity. A mature or fully grown will yield
maximum quality of strongest tree.
SEASON OF FELLING: In plain area, the mid-winter would be the best time for
felling tree because the cut logs would be subjected to direct sun rays thus preventing
splitting and fungus attack will be prevented. In hilly regions, mid-summer is the best time
for felling the trees because there is usually heavy rainfall in winter.

SEASONING

Freshly felled tree contains log of water in the form of free sap of more than 35% of total weight. The
process of removing moisture from the timber is known as seasoning of timber.A seasoned timber is dry
and hard having lesser tendency to shrink and warp or bond. A well-seasoned timber may contain on
average about 10 to 12% moisture. Seasoning is carried out to achieve the following objectives:
1) Seasoning provides superior dimensional stability.
2) Seasoning makes the wood more resistance to biological decay, e.g. fungal attack.
3) The seasoned timbers have improved mechanical properties, typically the strength, which generally
increases as the moisture content decreases below 25 to 30%.
4) The seasoned timber is lighter than green timber and hence easier to handle and transport.
5) Seasoned timbers are easily workable to sawing, cutting, planning and chiseling.

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6) Seasoning improves the electrical insulation properties.
7) Seasoned timbers help in preventing the corrosion of metal fixtures.
8) Seasoned timber provides a smoother finish after machining and it can be effectively glued, painted,
stained, filled and polished.

METHOD OF SEASONING

For successful seasoning a balance between evaporation of water from the surface of timber and movement
of water from interior to the surface should be maintained.
Seasoning before felling the tree:the process of seasoning begins before the tree is felled. A common
method of seasoning the tree in-situ consists in girdling the tree i.e. completely cutting off strip of bark and
wood encircling the stem a few years before felling. This enables the tree to loose significant moisture
before felling.
Seasoning of converted timber:by which converted timber can be seasoned or dried: There are two
methods
1) Natural drying or air drying: In this traditional method, seasoning of timber is achieved by circulation
of natural air. The air seasoning is effective if drying of timber takes place gradually and uniformly. This
method is not very effective for the wood in log form; logs are converted into suitable sections on felling
the tree.

Natural drying or air drying

DISADVANTAGES OF AIR DRYING

I. As such there is no control over drying rate as it will determine by prevailing weather conditions,
which will vary considerably between winter and summer, so drying degrade cannot be controlled.
II. The seasoning may not be uniform and even for differ surfaces.
III. Moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain in most cases.
IV. Air-drying is necessarily a slow process, particularly for hardwoods which typically take six to nine
months to reach moisture content in the range 20 to 25%
V. The stacks of timber require a lot land and represent a potential fire hazard.
2) Artificial seasoning:In order to overcome the problems or shortcomings of natural air seasoning,
artificial method is frequently used. Some of the objectives of artificial seasoning are to:
I. Achieve considerable reduction in the seasoning time.
II. Obtain desired moisture content.
III. Obtain better finishing characteristics of the timber.
IV. Minimize the commonly encountered problems or defects such as shrinkage, cracking and warping
etc.
V. Obtain crack free surfaces for very high value applications.
Artificial seasoning can be achieved by: 1) normal water seasoning 2) boiling water seasoning 3) kiln
seasoning 4)solar seasoning 5) microwave seasoning 6) electrical seasoning 7) chemical seasoning
It is more economical to air-drying timber to 25 to 30 % moisture content.

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 Artificial seasoning
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

Seasoning along is not always sufficient to protect timbers, particularly the secondary species, from fungal
decay and insects attack. Protection from these biological hazards and fire is effectively achieved by the
preservative treatments with certain chemicals.
Preservatives Timber in exposed applications should be treated to minimize fungal attack and decay by
insects. Preservatives fall into three main groups:
1) CREOSTE: The most commonly used type. However, its, smell, dark color and tendency to bleed out of
the treated wood, make it generally suitable only for outside use such as fence posts and transmission
poles.
2) WATER BORNE PRESERVATIVES: The most common formulations are based on copper chrome
arsenate (CCA) salts. Though toxic to insects and fungi, CCA treated timber is non-toxic to humans and
animals under normal conditions of use. In those cases, where CCA treated timber is already in use, the
following precautions should be observed:
I. After handling CCA treated timber wear proactive equipment.
II. After handling CCA treated timber, wash hands thoroughly, particularly before handling food.
III. Food should not be allowed to come into contact with CCA treated timber.
3) ORGANIC SOLVENT PRESERVATIVES: There is a wide range of formulations. They are toxic if
ingested by humans. Widely used for prefabricated joinery since they do not wet the timber and cause
swelling, they can be painted over or sealed. Once dried, finishes can be applied and the chemicals or
odorless. The preservatives of this category available for the treatment of timber are:
I. Boron
II. Pyrethroid and metal-based light organic solvent preservatives (LOSPs).

STORAGE OF TIMBER

The structural member obtained after the conversion of wood log should be
stored in sacks as in case of air seasoning. Timbers should be stored in an
enclosed building space that is well ventilated. There should be adequate
room space for good air circulation around stacks of timber. For kiln dried
timber, packing of timber should be removed before installation. Store the
timbers in stacks upon well treated and even surfaced beams sleepers or
bricks pillars so as above the ground. Store members of different length and
material separately. Place the longer pieces in bottom layer and shorter
pieces in the top layer. Suitable width and height of a stack are
recommended to be about 1.5 m to 2.0 m. distance between adjacent stacks is recommended to be at least
450mm.

ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

1) It can easily be sawn, cut and joined, and thus can be formed into any shape and size with ordinary
carpentry tools.
2) Timber can be used both in load bearing and non-load bearing applications.
3) If properly seasoned and preserved, timber is quite durable.

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 4) Alternations and repairs to timber construction can be easily carried out.
5) Timber is compatible with traditional skills and working equipment.
6) Timber is renewable and at least secondary species are available in all but the most arid regions,
provided that re-forestation is well planned and implanted.
7) The wastage is minimum as even the smallest section can be utilized in one or other application.
8) The use of fast growing species helps to conserve the slow growing primary species, thus reducing the
serious environmental problems caused by excessive timber harvesting.

MARKET SURVEY

Shop name:
Address:

MARKET FORMS OF TIMBER

1) LOG: It is the trunk of a timber tree obtained after the removal of branches etc.
2) DEAL: Deals are the sawn pieces of soft wood with parallel side 50 to 100 mm thick and 200 to 250
mm wide.
3) BAULK: It is a roughly squared timber piece obtained by removing bark and sap wood. The cross-
sectional dimensions exceed 50 mm in one direction and 200 mm on one direction.
4) BOARDS:These are the sawn pieces or planks of timber with parallel sides, having thickness less than
50 mm and width exceeding 200 mm.
5) PLANK: It is long sawn timber piece with parallel sides, having its thickness less than 50 mm and
width more than 50 mm.
6) BATTERN: These are pieces of sawn timber with breadth and thickness not exceeding 50 mm.
7) END: This is small piece of batten, deal or scantling.
8) SCANTLING: Scantling are the timber pieces of miscellaneous size sawn out of log; their breadth and
thickness exceed 50 mm but less than 200 mm in length.
9) POLE: A pole or a spar is a long log of wood whose diameter does not exceed 200 mm.
10)POST: It is round or rectangular wooden member having diameter or side of 150 mm and which is
generally used in vertical position as a compression member in building.

LOGS
Sal log timber price: 700 / piece
Length: 3000 millimeter
Minimum Diameter: 200 millimeter SAWN
Teak logs price: 350/cubic meter Pine sawn timber price: 500/cubic feet
Length: 3000 millimeter Thickness: 50 millimeter
minimum diameter: 200 millimeter Length: 2100 millimeter
Width: 200 millimeter
Teak sawn timber price: 700/cubic feet
Thickness: 50 millimeter
Length: 2100 millimeter

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 POST BATTEN
Pine wood post price: 400/square feet Price range Rs. 300 to 350 square feet
Length: 2100 millimeter

Himalayan cypress Banjh oak Himalayan cedar

This tree is ideal for construction as it Its wood is used in building Extensively used for construction of
is very rot resistant. purposes. Found in Himalayan barracks, public buildings, bridges,
area. canals and railways cars.

Teak tree Rosewood

used in the manufacture of outdoor furniture,
Rosewood is used in the construction of luxury
boat decks, indoor flooring and countertops.
furniture , paneling, veneer and various small
objects.

Pine tree