Chapter 3 : DC electrical machines

Overview of Electric Machines

Electric Machines are the electromechanical energy conversion devices used to transform
mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice-versa. A variety of electric machines are used in
residential, commercial and industrial applications.
Electric machines are classified into several types depending upon different parameters. Here
some classifications are explained. An electric Machine is a general term used for both motors
and generators. Hence, the first classification is based on the fact that if the electrical power is
converted to mechanical power (motors) or mechanical power is converted to electrical power

(generator),
Another classification of electric machine is based on the type of electric supplies it works on as
shown in Figure below. Hence a machine can be DC or AC. However, there exists a special
machine that operates with both AC and DC, called a universal machine. Universal motors are
most commonly used in Home Appliances for high-speed applications.

DC Machines
1.introduction
DC Machines are an electro-mechanical energy conversion device that uses DC power as input
and/or DC output. A DC machine is a general term that refers to both the DC motor and DC
generator. A DC generator takes DC power as input and generates DC power as output. The DC
motor takes in DC power and outputs mechanical power. DC machine construction has two parts,
a stator and a rotor separated by an air gap.
Any rotating machine has two kinds of magnetic field in order to produce rotation. One is called
the main field and the other is called the armature field. Main field is on the stator and armature
is on the rotor in a DC machine. In case of a DC motor, DC supply is given to both main field
and armature. While in a DC generator, DC power is supplied to the main field and the usable
electrical power is collected from the armature winding and supplied to DC electrical loads.
Hence, the DC electrical load is connected to the armature of the DC generator. The stator has
projected poles where concentrated windings are wound and DC power supply is given to produce
main field. The armature winding is DC that is distributed and placed on rotor. The armature and
main field are either supplied from two separate DC power supplies called separately excited DC
machine or the windings are connected together, called self-excited DC machine and supplied by
a single DC power supply.
• When the field and armature windings are connected in series with the main field winding
, it is called DC series Machine.
• When the main field and armature windings are connected in parallel, it is called DC
shunt Machine.
• When the DC machine has both series and parallel (shunt) field winding, they are called
DC compound machines.
• If the stator contains a permanent magnet, it is called a DC permanent Magnet Machine.
• DC machines has an integral part called a ‘commutator’ (split slip ring structure made of
copper strips) that is used as a mechanical rectifier to convert the internally generated AC
to output DC in a DC generator.
• In a DC motor, the commutator makes the torque unidirectional by changing the direction
of current.
The DC machine is considered a simple machine with flexible and easy control characteristics. DC
machines are used in a variety of applications.
• DC motors are mostly used in applications such as Traction, Lathe Machine, Centrifugal
Pumps, Cranes, Compressors, Vacuum Cleaner, Weaving Machine, Spinning Machine,
Lifts, Conveyors, Pumps, Fans, etc.
• Dc motors are used extensively in many industrial applications because they provide
constant mechanical power output or constant torque, adjustable motor speed over wide
ranges, precise speed or position control, efficient operation over a wide speed range,
rapid acceleration and deceleration, and responsiveness to feedback signals.
• DC generators are rarely used in modern times, because Power Electronic Converters are
readily available that efficiently and effectively convert the AC power to DC Power.
However, there exists a small ripple in the DC voltage obtained using Power Electronic
Converters.

Note : Obviously, dc machine applications are very significant, but the advantages of the
dc machine must be weighed against its greater initial investment cost and the maintenance
problems associated with its brush-commutator system.
This chapter gives a fundamental understanding of DC machines. Construction, operation and
control are discussed in the chapter. Some numerical examples are provided to make understanding
more clear
The major problem with a DC machine is due to commutator and brushes. Due to commutator, a
ripple in power occurs and it also limits the speed of the machine. Brushes cause friction and
electromagnetic interference. Brushes wear out quickly hence, regular maintenance is required.
Further, the size of the DC machine is comparatively bigger.

2. Construction and Types of DC Generator

The schematic diagram of the construction of a dc machine is shown in Figure below The
construction has two basic parts, namely, the stator (which stands still) and the rotor (which
rotates). The stator has salient poles that are excited by one or more field windings. The
armature winding of a dc machine is located on the rotor with current flowing through it by
carbon brushes making contact with copper commutator segments.
2.1 construction of Dc Machine
Below are the basic construction parts of the DC machine.
i. Yoke: A DC-machine’s external frame is called a yoke. The material of the yoke is with
iron or steel cast iron. It not only provides the entire assembly with mechanical support,
but also carries the magnetic flux generated by the field winding.
ii. Pole shoes and poles: Poles are connected by bolts or welding to the yokes. They are
winding on the field and have pole shoes tied to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes, i.e.
(a) support field coils and
(b) evenly distribute the air gap current.
iii. Winding in the field: The winding of the field is typically made of copper. The field
coils are formerly wound and mounted on each pole in a row. They are wound in such a
way that they form alternating North and South poles when energized.
iv. Armature core: An Armature core is a DC rotor. It is cylindrical with slots to bear the
winding of the armature. The armature is constructed of thin laminated circular steel
disks to reduce the loss. The air ducts can be supplied for axial air flow for cooling
purposes. Armature is connected to the shaft of the rotor.
v. Armature winding: Usually, the armature winding is a wound copper spiral that rests
in armature slots. The armature conductors are insulated both from each other and from
the reinforcement core. Winding of the armature can be done by either of the two
methods, i.e.
lap winding or wave winding.

The armature windings are the windings in which a voltage is induced in a dc machine.
The rotor of a dc machine is called an armature, because the armature windings are
placed in slots of the rotor.
A winding is formed by connecting several coils in series, and a coil is formed by
connecting several turns (loops) in series. Each turn is made up of two conductors
connected to one end by an end connection. In other words, each side of a turn is called
a conductor

A turn consists of two conductors connected to one end by an end connector.

A coil is formed by connecting several turns in series.
A winding is formed by connecting several coils in series
In a lap winding, there are always as many paths in parallel through the armature winding as
there are a number of poles (or brushes). Each path is made up of a series connection between a
number of terminal coils that are approximately equal to the total number of armature coils
divided by the number of poles. In such a lap winding, the current in each armature coil is equal
to the armature terminal current divided by the number of poles.
In Lap winding if machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P
parallel, paths, each path will have Z/P conductors in series. In this case, the number of
brushes is equal to the number parallel paths. Out of which half the brushes are positive and
the remaining (half) are negative.

In a wave winding, there are always two paths in parallel through the armature winding from
one terminal to the other. At any given time, each path is made up of a series connection of
approximately one-half of the total armature coils between the terminals. The current in each
armature coil is one-half of the armature terminal current
In wave winding, the connections are such that the numbers of parallel paths are only two
irrespective of the number of poles. Thus, if machine has Z armature conductors, there will be
only two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in series. In this case, the number of
brushes is equal to two i.e., number of parallel
In lap winding the number of parallel path = number of pole (P) whereas in wave winding the
number of parallel path is always 2 irrespective of number of pole.
The number of conductor (Z) in one path is =total number of conductor / number of pole = Z/P

vi. Commutator and brushes: In a DC generator, the function of the commutator is to collect
the current generated in the armature conductors. For the case of a DC motor, the
commutator helps to provide energy to the armature conductors. A commutator consists
of a set of isolated copper segments separated from each other. Each segment is connected
to an armature coil. Commutator is the one that converts generated alternating voltage and
current to Direct current.

Commutator is an important part of a DC machine and serves the following purposes:

a) It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit
through brushes.
b) It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit in generator action, whereas, it
converts the alternating torque into unidirectional (continuous) torque produced in
the armature in motor action.

Brushes are usually made from graphite or carbon. They rest on the commutator segments
and slide on the segments when the commutator turns and keeps contact with the current.
So, the commutator and brush unit of the DC motor is concerned with transmitting the
power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor
The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link between the
armature winding and the external circuit. They are usually made of high grade carbon
because carbon is conducting material and at the same time in powdered form provides
lubricating effect on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular position
around the commutator by brush holders and rocker.
The leads of the armature coils are connected to these commutator segments. Current is
conducted to the armature coils by carbon brushes that ride on the commutator segments. The
brushes are fitted to the surface of the commutator and are held in brush holders. These brush
holders use springs to push the brushes against the commutator surface to maintain constant
pressure and problem-free riding
With the exception of a few small machines, the dc machines also have commutating poles(inter
poles) between the main poles of the stator. Each commutating pole has its own winding which is
known as the commutating winding to reduce the armature reaction. As shown in the figure, there
is a special winding located in the slots of the pole faces called the compensating winding which
is also used to reduce armature reaction(weakening of main field flux).

Principle of Operation of DC Generator

Under Faraday’s electromagnetic induction rules, when a conductor is put in a particular magnetic
field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), the conductor produces an emf. The
magnitude of emf induced can be determined from the DC generator emf equation given by emf
equation of DC generator

which is derived from e= dΦ/ dt will be shown in the subsequent sections.

The induced current flows through the conductor if there is a closed path. In a DC generator, field
coils produce an emf and the armature conductors are rotated into the field. The armature
conductors placed in rotor are rotated by means of an external prime mover. Thus, an
electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. Fleming’s right-hand
rule provides the direction of the induced current. According to Fleming’s right-hand rule as shown
in Figure below the direction of induced current changes whenever the direction of motion of the
conductor changes.

When the armature-coil ABCD is rotated clockwise, an emf is induced in the coil and a current
flows in the direction ABCD (Fleming’s right-hand rule), as shown in Figure below. In the external
circuit, the current flows from XX to X. For half the revolution, U is in contact with XX and W
with X as shown in Figure. But as soon as the coil passes the vertical, W comes in contact with
XX and U with X and remains so during the next half revolution (Figure b). Although the induced
emf in the coil is reversed and the current in the coil flows in the direction DCBA, but, in the
external circuit, the current still flows from XX to X, and therefore, a unidirectional current is
obtained at the output terminals

3. emf Equations in a DC Generator

Take a DC generator whose armature coil is excited to produce an air gap flux density distribution
and the armature has a prime mover at a constant speed. Let us assume that
P = Number of poles of DC generator
N = Speed of primary mover in rpm
Z = total number of conductors in the armature = Number of slots × number of conductor
per slot
A = Number of parallel paths
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb)
Total flux produced by all the poles = Φ × P
Time taken for one revolution = 60/N

Therefore, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced emf is

given as
e = dΦ/ dt= total flux/time
Torque Equation

We know that when a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field a force is
exerted on it which exerts turning moment or torque (F × r)
Thus, we conclude that torque produced in the armature is directly proportional to flux per
pole and armature current. Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed in
the armature depends upon the direction of flux or magnetic field and the direction of flow
of current in armature conductors. The direction of torque produced and hence the direction
of rotation is reversed if either of the two is reversed. But when both are reversed the
direction of torque does not change.
Brush Placement in a DC Machine

Each time commutator segment is passed through the brush, the coil is short-circuited, so
the brushes should be placed along the point where the emf induced in the armature is
minimum, and that point is along the Magnetic Neutral Axis or MNA or q-axis. Magnetic
neutral axis may be defined as the axis along which no emf is generated in the armature
conductors as they move parallel to the flux lines.
 Geometrical Neutral Axis (GNA) may be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to
the stator field axis. In older DC machines, the brushes were mounted on an adjustable ring
to change the position of the brushing. It was usually a ‘hit and miss’ test method for the
location of the brush. The brush position in the generator affects terminal voltage and
therefore torque in the motor. Brushes are always placed along the MNA because the
reversal of current in the armature conductors takes place along this axis.
Although in newer DC machines, the brushes are attached to the geometric neutral axis of
the machine. Inter poles are used to achieve good switching, terminal voltage, and torque.
Inter poles compensate for the armature reactions and improve the commutation
Armature Reaction
Armature reaction is the interaction of armature flux (that is produced due to armature current
when machine is loaded) with the main field flux, as shown in Figure below. emf is induced by
cutting the magnetic field lines in the armature conductors. There is an axis (or, you might say, a
plane) along which the armature conductors move parallel to the flux lines and thus do not cut
the flux lines while they are on that plane. MNA may be defined as the axis along which the
armature conductors do not generate emf as they move in parallel with the flux lines. Brushes are
always placed along the MNA because the reversal of current occurs along this axis in the
armature conductors. GNA may be defined as an axis perpendicular to the axis of the stator field.
The flux per pole alone is decided by the field current in an unloaded DC machine. The uniform
distribution of the force lines is upset when the armature carries current due to loading.
When a DC generator is loaded, a current flows through the armature conductor in the same
direction as that of the induced (or generated) emf. The armature conductors carrying current,
produce their own magnetic field called armature field. The effect of armature field produced by
the armature current carrying conductors on the main magnetic field is known as armature
reaction.

Flux lines are concentrated in one half of the pole and are much less in the other half. One can
argue that flux per pole during loading is the same as in no-loading operation because the
increase in the flux in one half is compensated for by the decrease in the other half. Since the emf
generated and the torque produced by the machine are determined by the flux per pole, there is
apparently no effect as regards machine performance due to an armature reaction. In fact, this is
almost true if the machine is loaded slightly or moderately. However, at rated armature current
the increase of flux in one half of the pole is rather less than the decrease in the other half due to
the presence of saturation. In other words, the flux per pole will decrease during sufficient
loading of the machine. This will have a direct impact on emf as well as the developed torque
affecting the machine’s performance. Apart from this, there is a certain amount of flux along the
q axis (brush axis) of the machine due to distortions in the flux distribution as shown in the
above figure.
Thus the armature magnetic field produces.
a. Cross magnetizing effect which creates a magnetic field in between the two
adjacent opposite poles where brushes are placed for commutation.
b. ) Demagnetizing effect which weaken the main magnetic field and changes the
flux distribution such that at trailing pole tips the flux is strengthened and at
leading pole tips the flux is weakened.
The above two effects caused by the armature reaction lead to poor commutation (increases
sparking at the brushes or at the commutator surface) and increases iron losses.
Let us see how it happens;
i. Sparking at brushes: During commutation i.e., when a coil is short circuited by the
brushes through commutator segments should have zero emf induced in it. That is why the
brushes are usually placed along the interpolar axis where the flux cut by the coil is zero
and no emf is induced in it. But due to armature reaction the magnetic neutral axis (MNA)
are shifted and the coil which undergoes commutation induces some emf causing sparking
at the brushes. At heavy loads, the induced emf in the commutating coil may be so high
that it may produce a spark that may spread around the commutator surface forming a ring
of fire. By all means, it has to be avoided otherwise it would damage the commutator
surface and brushes.
ii. Iron losses: The flux density in the leading and trailing pole tips is changing due to
change in load on the generator or due to armature reaction. This change in flux density
causes more iron losses in the pole shoes.
Commutation Problem (spark) and Solution
To make the commutation satisfactory, one must ensure that the current that flows through the
coil completely reversing during the commutation period reaches its full value. When
commutation takes place, the coil undergoing commutation is short-circuited by the brush. The
brief period when the coil remains short-circuited is known as the commutation period. Three
principal ways to improve commutation are available and discussed below
Method of reducing commutation problem
1. By using interpoles፡ The narrow poles placed in between the main poles of a DC machine
are called interpoles or commutating poles. Interpoles are provided in between the main
poles of DC machine and are energized to such an extent that they must neutralizes the
armature field produced by the armature winding when machine is loaded. At the same
time they must neutralize the emf induced due to inductance in the coil undergoing
commutation. The sparking at the brushes can be avoided by neutralizing the armature
 field. For this, interpoles are provided in the DC machines which are placed in between the
main poles

2. By using compensating winding

An armature reaction produces a demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing effect. The demagnetizing
effect is compensated by incorporating a few extra turns to the main-field winding, whereas, to
neutralize the cross-magnetizing effect a compensating winding is used. In this case, a number of
conductors or coils are embedded in the slots of the pole shoes and are connected in series with
the armature winding in such a way that current flowing through these conductors or coils sets up
a magnetic field which neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature field. This winding is
known as compensating winding

When current flows through this winding, it sets up magnetic field which is equal and opposing
to the cross-magnetizing effect of armature field and neutralizes it. Thus, no emf is induced in
the coil passing through MNA and hence sparking at the brushes is eliminated. Thus, a sparkles
or good commutation is obtained.
3. By use of high resistance brushes. High resistance carbon brushes help the current to be
reversed in the coil undergoing commutation and reduces sparking at the brushes.
4. By shifting of brushes. In this method, brushes are shifted to the new position of MNA so
that no emf be induced in the coil undergoing commutation. Thus, the sparking at the
brushes is eliminated. But in this case, the position of MNA changes with the change in
load on the machine and simultaneously the position of brushes cannot be changed. Hence,
this method is employed in the machine which we do not have interpoles and the load on
the machine remain almost constant.
 Types of DC Generator

Based on the placement of the filed winding, the DC generators can be categorized as
i. Separately excited DC generator
ii. Self-excited DC generator
(a) Shunt DC generator
(b) Series DC generator
(c) Compound DC generators – Long-shunt compound DC generator – Short-shunt
compound DC generator
In a separately excited generator field, winding is energized from a separate DC voltage source to
generate main magnetic field. The flux produced is proportional to field current as long as the
machine operates in unsaturated condition. The schematic diagram of the separately excited DC
generator is shown in Figure below .

In the equivalent circuit, Ea is the internal generated voltage, Vt is the terminal voltage, Ia is the
armature current, which is also the load current, If is the field current, Ra is the resistance of the
armature winding, Rf is the resistance of the field winding, Rrheo is the resistance of the shunt-
field rheostat, and Vf is the voltage of a separate source. According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law,

the terminal voltage is

and the field voltage is Vf = If Rf

The terminal characteristic of the separately excited dc generator as shown in Figure below. Notice
that the terminal voltage differs from the no-load voltage by the three voltage drops representing
the armature resistance voltage drop, the brush-contact voltage drop, and the armature reaction
voltage drop. The load characteristic is determined by Vt = RLIa
where RL represents the load resistance. As shown in Figure below , the intersection of the terminal
characteristic and the load characteristic is the operating point for the generator. The operation of
the separately excited generator is stable with any field excitation. Therefore, a wide range of
output voltages are available.

Characteristics of separately excited generator

 The two principal generator characteristics are the generated voltage/field current characteristics,
called the open-circuit characteristic and the terminal voltage/ load current characteristic, called
the load characteristic. A typical separately-excited generator open-circuit characteristic is shown
in Fig. (a) and a typical load characteristic is shown in Fig. b

A separately-excited generator is used only in special cases, such as when a wide variation in
terminal potential drop is required, or when exact control of the field current is necessary. Its
disadvantage lies in requiring a separate source of direct current።
To obtain this characteristics, proceed as follows:
a) Open the field winding of the generator and connect it to a separate DC source through a
rheostat as shown
b) Connect an ammeter in the field circuit and a voltmeter across the armature. Reduce the
field current to zero and run the armature at a specified speed. Get the reading of voltmeter
and mark the point ‘a’ on the graph.
c) To plot the characteristics take field current If along X-axis and no-load generated emf (E0)
along Y-axis. Increase the field current in steps and get the corresponding voltmeter
readings. Plot these values on the graph. The curve thus obtained as shown in Figure below
which shows the no-load characteristics or open circuit characteristics (O.C.C.) of the
generator.
.

Self excited DC generators

In the category of self-excited DC generators, the external DC source for the field winding is
omitted.

• One category of the self-excited DC generator is the series winding connected DC

generator. The field winding is intended to be connected in series and naturally designed
for the rated armature current. The winding of the series field consists of a few turns and
a large cross-sectional area (since the series field carries a large armature current, the
resistance should be low). Obviously, due to a residual field, there will be virtually no
voltage or very small voltage under no load conditions (Ia =0). However, the field is
strengthened because the load develops rated voltage across the armature, and the voltage
is increasing. Series DC generators are not used to delivering continuous power as the field
current in this type of generator depends on the armature current. The series generator
found application in the DC transmission system to boost voltage. The configuration of

the series generator is shown in Figure below.

 Series Dc generator

Characteristic of series DC generator

The load characteristic is the terminal voltage/current characteristic. The generated e.m.f. E, is
proportional to ω and at constant speed ω(=2πn) is a constant. Thus E is proportional to  . For
values of current below magnetic saturation of the yoke, poles, air gaps and armature core, the flux
is proportional to the current, hence E ∝ I. For values of current above those required for magnetic
saturation, the generated e.m.f. is approximately constant. The values of field resistance and
armature resistance in a series wound machine are small, hence the terminal voltage V is very
nearly equal to E. A typical load characteristic for a series generator is shown in Fig below .

In a series-wound generator, the field winding is in series with the armature and it is not possible
to have a value of field current when the terminals are open circuited, thus it is not possible to
obtain an open-circuit characteristic.
 • Another category of the self-excited DC generator is shunt DC generator in which the
field winding is in parallel to the armature circuit. The shunt DC generator is shown in
Figure below. As the field winding is in parallel to the armature circuit, the generated
voltage appears across it. The shunt field winding consists of a coil with a large number
of turns and a smaller cross-sectional area.

Shunt Dc generator

In the self-excited shunt generator, the field winding is connected directly across the armature
winding. Therefore, the armature voltage can provide the field current. However, any change in
the armature current results in a change in the Ia Ra voltage drop
Characteristics of shunt Dc generator
The generated e.m.f., E, is proportional to  ω, hence at constant speed, since ω = 2πn, E ∝ ..
Also the flux is proportional to field current If until magnetic saturation of the iron circuit of the
generator occurs. Hence the open circuit and load characteristic is as shown in Fig a and b.

below.

As the load current on a generator having constant field current and running at constant speed
increases, the value of armature current increases, hence the armature volt drop, IaRa increases.
The generated voltage E is larger than the terminal voltage V and the voltage equation for the
armature circuit is
V = E − IaRa. Since E is constant, V decreases with increasing load.
In practice, the fall in voltage is about 10 per cent between no-load and full-load for many d.c.
shunt-wound generators. The shunt-wound generator is the type most used in practice, but the load
current must be limited to a value that is well below the maximum value. This then avoids
excessive variation of the terminal voltage. Typical applications are with battery charging and
motor car generators
 • In the compound type of DC generator, two independent field coils are wound on the
field poles in a compound generator and act as series and shunt-field winding to have the
advantage of both.. When the magnetic flux produced by the series winding supports the
flux produced by the shunt winding, the compound generator is termed as cumulatively
compound as shown in Figure below.

Cumulative compound DC generator

The cumulative compounded generators may be over compounded, flat compounded and under
compounded depending up on compensation level (number of turn of series winding). We can
obtain the desired terminal voltage by compensating the drop due to the armature reaction and
ohmic drop in the line. Cumulative compound generators are generally used for lighting, power
supply purpose and for heavy power services because of their constant voltage property.
 • When the series field flux opposes the shunt-field flux, then the generator works as
differentially compounded system as shown in Figure below.

Differential compound DC generator

This differential process of flux has a net effect of producing a much lower terminal electromotive
force (emf) than any generator of comparable size or number of poles and windings.
• Both types of compound generators, i.e. cumulative compound and differential compound
can be constructed in two ways. One is a generator of short-shunt compound in which
the series winding is connected to the combination of shunt generator, and another a
generator of long-shunt compound, in which the series generator is made parallel through
a shunt winding. The long- and short-shunt generators are shown in Figures below

Long shunt DC generator

Short shunt DC generator

Characteristics compound wound DC

generator
In cumulative-compound machines the magnetic flux produced by the series and shunt fields are
additive. Included in this group are over-compounded, level compounded and under-compounded
machines — the degree of compounding obtained depending on the number of turns of wire on
the series winding. A large number of series winding turns results in an over-compounded
characteristic. in which the full-load terminal voltage exceeds the no-load voltage. A level-
compound machine gives a full-load terminal voltage which is equal to the no-load voltage, as
shown in Figure below. An under-compounded machine gives a full-load terminal voltage which
is less than the no-load voltage.
However even this latter characteristic is a little better than that for a shunt generator alone.
Compound-wound generators are used in electric arc welding, with lighting sets and with marine

equipment.
Losses in DC machine
As stated in previous sections a generator is a machine for converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy and a motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical
energy. When such conversions take place, certain losses occur which are dissipated in the form
of heat.
The principal losses of machines are:
a) Copper loss, due to I2 R heat losses in the armature and field windings.
b) Iron (or core) loss, due to hysteresis and eddycurrent losses in the armature. This loss can
be reduced by constructing the armature of silicon steel laminations having a high
resistivity and low hysteresis loss. At constant speed, the iron loss is assumed constant.
 c) Friction and windage losses, due to bearing and brush contact friction and losses due to
air resistance against moving parts (called windage). At constant speed, these losses are
assumed to be constant.
d) Brush contact loss between the brushes and commutator. This loss is approximately
proportional to the load current. The total losses of a machine can be quite significant and
operating efficiencies of between 80 per cent and 90 per cent are common.
Voltage Regulation of a DC Shunt Generator
At no-load, the voltage at the terminals of a shunt generator is maximum and is called no-load
generated emf When load is applied on the generator, the terminal voltage decreases due to drop
in the armature circuit.

Efficiency of a d.c. generator

The efficiency of an electrical machine is the ratio of the output power to the input power and is
usually expressed as a percentage. The Greek letter, ‘η’ (eta) is used to signify efficiency and
since the units are, power/power, then efficiency has no units. Thus efficiency,

If the total resistance of the armature circuit (including brush contact resistance) is Ra, then the
total loss in the armature circuit is I2a Ra. If the terminal voltage is V and the current in the
shunt circuit is If, then the loss in the shunt circuit is IfV If the sum of the iron, friction and
windage losses is C then the total losses is given by: I 2 a Ra + IfV + C (I 2 a Ra + IfV is, in fact,
the ‘copper loss’). If the output current is I, then the output power is VI. Total input power = VI
+ I2 a Ra + IfV + C. Hence efficiency, η = output input , i.e
Voltage Build-Up in self exited shunt DC Generator
When a DC shunt generator is powered at a constant speed without closing its shunt circuit, a very
low residual voltage (1 to 5 V) occurs at its terminals due to the residual magnetism inherent in
the iron. When the field circuit is properly connected, the residual voltage pushes a small exciting
current through the field circuit and thus increases the field strength. The voltage produced
increases due to the increased field strength. This process will be repeating until the actual terminal
voltage is reached. Once the terminal voltage is reached, then the winding will be saturated and
hence there will not be any further increase in flux also, the voltage gets constant.
To summarize, for any of the following reasons a generator may fail to build up:
• Too high a resistance to field-circuiting; including open circuit, which will reduce the field
current to a very small value.
• Low speed.
• Loss of the remaining magnetism.
• Incorrect rotation direction.
• Connected generator terminals with too low resistance to external circuit.
• Reversed Shunt-field terminals
DC motors
A machine that converts mechanical power into DC electrical power is called a DC generator.
The same machine when used to convert DC electrical power into mechanical power, it known
as a DC motor. From construction point of view there is no difference between a DC generator
and motor. The DC motors are very useful where wide range of speeds and perfect speed
regulation is required such as electric traction.
A d.c. series motor takes a large current on starting and the characteristic shown in Fig. shows
that the series-wound motor has a large torque when the current is large. Hence these motors are
used for traction (such as trains, milk delivery vehicles, etc.), driving fans and for cranes and
hoists, where a large initial torque is required.