Group 1

LO 1.3 Describe subsurface soil investigation methods

Depending on which categories of structures to be constructed, either one or combined methods

maybe used to explore the soil.

The followings are methods of soil investigations

1.3.1. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
The stratification of soils and rocks can be determined by geophysical methods of exploration
which measure changes in certain physical characteristics of these materials, for example the
magnetism, density, electrical resistivity, elasticity or a combination of these properties.
However, the utility of these methods in the field of foundation engineering is very limited since
the methods do not quantify the characteristics of the various substrata. Vital information on
ground water conditions is usually lacking. Geophysical methods at best provide some missing
information between widely spaced bore holes but they cannot replace bore holes.
Geophysical methods, which are widely used in highway work and in other applications, can be
implemented more quickly and less expensively and can cover greater areas more thoroughly.
They tend, however, to yield less definitive results requiring more subjective interpretation by
the user. Accordingly, a number of borings are still required to obtain soil samples from which
accurate determinations of soil properties can be made in order to verify and complement results
determined by geophysical methods.
Two particular geophysical methods
 Seismic refraction from surface and
 Electrical resistivity - are most commonly used.
However many other geophysical methods are:
 Seismic reflection
 Electrical conductivity
 Gravimeter
 Magnetometer
 Ground-probing radar
 Thermography
In the former, resistance to flow of a seismic wave through soil is measured; in the latter,
resistance of soil to movement of an electrical current is determined. Using values obtained
therefrom, a specialist can interpret the depth to and thickness of different soil strata and
estimate, with the aid of supplemental borings, some of the engineering properties of the
subsurface material.

What is the electrical resistivity method of soil exploration?

The electrical resistivity method consists of measuring the resistivity of the soil strata and
correlating the resistivity to the properties of the soil. The principal application of the electrical
resistivity method is in investigating foundations of dams and other large structures, particularly
in exploring granular river channel deposits or bedrock surfaces. The method is also used for
locating fresh or salt water boundaries.
The electrical resistivity method can be broken down into two types of testing, the 'electrical
profiling method' and the 'electrical sounding method'.

How is the electrical profiling method of soil exploration performed?

In this method, four electrodes, usually in the form of metal spikes, are driven into the ground at
the same spacing. The two outer electrodes are known as current electrodes, and the two inner
electrodes are known as potential electrodes

.
A direct current (DC) of 50-100 milliamperes (mA) is applied between the outer electrodes, and
the voltage drop or the potential difference between the inner electrodes is measured using a
potentiometer. The mean resistivity of the soil up to a depth of D cm below ground surface is
obtained from the equation above, where D is the distance between electrodes in centimetres
(cm), V the voltage drop between inner electrodes in volts (V), and I the current flowing between
outer electrodes in amperes (A).

How is the seismic refraction method of soil exploration performed?

The seismic-refraction method is based on the principle that elastic shock waves travel at
different velocities in different materials. Shock waves are generated at a point on the ground
surface, using a sledge hammer. These waves travel deep into the ground and get refracted at the
interface of two different materials and to the ground surface. The time of arrival of these waves
at different locations on the ground surface are recorded by geophones, which pick up the
refracted waves. The geophones convert the ground vibrations into electrical impulses and trans-
mit them to a recording apparatus.
When the distance between the vibration source and the geophone is short, the arrival time will
be that of a direct wave. When the distance exceeds a certain value (depending on the thickness
of the stratum), the refracted wave will be the first to be detected by the geophone. This is
because the refracted wave, although longer than the direct wave, passes through a stratum of
higher density (and hence higher seismic velocity).

Knowing the time of travel of the primary and refracted waves at various geophones, tune and
distance graphs are drawn based on which it is possible to evaluate the depth of various strata in
the sub-soil. Different materials such as clay, gravel, silt rock, hard rock etc. have characteristics
seismic velocities and hence it is possible to establish their identity in the sub-soil based on time
distance graph.
1.3.2. TEST PIT OR TRENCH EXCAVATION
Trial pit method consists of excavating the ground to a maximum depth of 4-5m. It is simple and
reliable method of investigation.
The test is conducted using generally
 hand
 backhoe
 dozer
 shovels
Before entering the pit, the sides have to be supported to prevent any accident due to soil
collapse. If there is any sign of water table, a dewatering is necessary in a permeable soil. The
use of trial pit allows the in-situ soil condition to be examined visually. Therefore, it is relatively
easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples: in cohesive soil, block samples can be cut
by hand from the sides or bottom of the pit and tube samples can be obtained below the bottom
of the pit. Trial pits are suitable for investigations in all types of soil, including those containing
cobbles or boulders.
1.3.3. TEST BORINGS
Boring is one of the methods used in exploring the soil. It consists of drilling a series of vertical
holes in the ground. These are also known as exploratory borings and are typically 75 to 600mm
in diameter and 3 to 30 m deep.
Drilling is conducted using:
 Hand Operated Augers
 Power Driven Augers /Hollow-Flight Augers
 Wash Boring/ Rock Boring/Coring
 Wash Rotary Drilling
 Percussion Drilling
The main purposes of drilling the exploratory borings is to obtain representative soil “soil
samples” in order to determine the soil profile and also to determine in the laboratory parameters
which will be using for designing foundation, retaining wall etc.
There are no absolute rules to determine the required number, spacing, and depth of exploratory
borings. Such decisions are based on the findings from the field reconnaissance, along with
engineering judgement and knowledge of standards practice. This is a subjective process that
involves many factors, including:
 How large is the site?
 What kinds of soil and rock conditions are expected?
 Is the soil profiles erratic (small building, large building. Bridge. Etc.) ?
 How critical is the proposed project (i.e., what would be the consequences of a failure?)?
 How large and heavy are the proposed structures?
 Are all areas of the site accessible to drill rigs?
Borings generally should extend at least to a depth such that the change in vertical effective
stress due to the new construction is less than 10 percent of the initial vertical effective stress.

1. Table 1.1 Recommended boring depth for different structure

Area of investigation Recommended boring depth
1. Spread footing For isolated footings of breadth Lf and width ≤ 2Bf, where Lf ≤ 2Bf, borings
shall extend a minimum of two footing widths below the bearing level.
For isolated footings where Lf≥5Bf, borings shall extend a minimum of four
footing widths below the bearing level.
 For 2Bf ≤ Lf ≤ 5Bf, minimum boring length shall be determined by linear
interpolation between depths of 2Bf and 5Bf below the bearing level.
2. Deep footings In soil, borings shall extend below the anticipated pile or shaft tip elevation a
minimum of 6 m, or a minimum of two times the maximum pile group
dimension, whichever is deeper.
For piles bearing on rock, a minimum of 3 m of rock core shall be obtained at
each boring location to verify that the boring has not terminated on a boulder. For
shafts supported on or extending into rock, a minimum of 3 m of rock core, or a
length of rock core equal to at least three times the shaft diameter for isolated
shafts or two times the maximum shaft group dimension, whichever is greater,
shall be extended below the anticipated shaft tip elevation to determine the
physical characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation influence.
3. Retaining walls Extend borings to depth below final ground line between 0.75 and 1.5 times the
height of the wall. Where stratification indicates possible deep stability or
settlement problem, borings should extend to hard stratum.
For deep foundations use criteria presented above for bridge foundations.
4. Roadways Extend borings a minimum of 2 m below the proposed subgrade level.
5. Cuts Borings should extend a minimum of 5 m below the anticipated depth of the cut
at the ditch line. Borings depths should be increased in locations where base
stability is a concern due to the presence of soft soils, or in locations where the
base of the cut is below groundwater level to determine the depth of the
underlying pervious strata.
6. Embankments Extend borings a minimum depth equal to twice the embankment height unless a
hard stratum is encountered above this depth. Where soft strata are encountered
which may present stability or settlement concerns the borings should extend to
hard material.
7. Culverts Use criteria presented above for embankments.
*Note: Taken from AASHTO Standard Specifications for Design of Highway Bridges

Group 2
1.3.4. IN-SITU TESTING METHODS
A. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
SPT and CPT provide important data in cohesionless soils due to the inability to obtain good
quality, undisturbed samples for laboratory testing. Empirical correlations are widely used to
estimate geotechnical parameters such as relative density, effective angle of shearing resistance
(φ’) and stiffness.

Standard Penetration Test is the most common In-situ test used by Geotechnical Engineers.
The test was standardized in 1920 ‘s and 1930 ‘s to what is known as “Standard Penetration Test
(SPT).
ADVANTAGES OF SPT
 Obtain both a sample & a number
 Simple equipment & Procedure
 Suitable in many soil types
 Can perform in weak rock
DISADVANTAGES OF SPT
 Disturb sample (index & tests only)
 Crude number for analysis
 Not applicable in soft clays & silts
 High variability and uncertainty
Many authors have conducted researches on SPT and found that accurate results are difficult to
reproduce. This is due to important factors that affect the reproducibility which are:
 Variation in the height of fall of the drop weight (hammer) during the test.
 The number of turns of rope around the cathead, and the condition of manila rope
 Length and diameter of drill rod
 Diameter of bore hole
 Overburden pressure

A. Cone penetration test (CPT)

The static cone penetration test normally called the Dutch cone penetration test (CPT). One of
the greatest values of the CPT consists of its function as a scale model pile test. Empirical
correlations established over many years permit the calculation of pile bearing capacity directly
from the CPT results without the use of conventional soil parameters.
The CPT has proved valuable for soil profiling as the soil type can be identified from the
combined measurement of end resistance of cone and side friction on a jacket. The test lends
itself to the derivation of normal soil properties such as density, friction angle and cohesion.
Various theories have been developed for foundation design.
The popularity of the CPT can be attributed to the following three important factors:
1. General introduction of the electric penetrometer providing more precise measurements, and
improvements in the equipment allowing deeper penetration.
2. The need for the penetrometer testing in-situ technique in offshore foundation investigations in
view of the difficulties in achieving adequate sample quality in marine environment.
3. The addition of other simultaneous measurements to the standard friction penetrometer such as
pore pressure and soil temperature.
The main advantages of the CPT are that the testing procedure is relatively simple and
repeatable, and the test results can be used directly for the design purposes. The CPT also gives a
continuous record of soil resistance values throughout the depth of penetration.
The main limitations of the CPT are:
 Penetration depth limitations due to machine reaction capacity
 Technique is rarely effective in gravels and boulder horizons, and also not suited to
weathered rock profiles
 No samples are recovered
The data obtained from the cone penetration test may be employed to:
 Assist in evaluating the soil profile
 Interpolate ground conditions between control boreholes
 Evaluate engineering parameters of soils ( relative density, shear strength, compressibility
characteristics, liquefaction potential)
 Assess drivability, bearing capacity and settlement of pile foundations

One of the important applications of the CPT is to evaluate variations of soil type within the soil
profile. With mechanical and electrical cones, extensive use is made of what is known as the
friction ratio as a means of soil classification. The friction ratio is the ratio between sleeve
friction and the point resistance, and is expressed as a percentage.
 A. Dynamic Cone Penetration Test/Dynamic probing test (DCPT)
Dynamic probing does not require borehole therefore, it is a simple, rapid, and relatively
inexpensive way of profiling a site. It is suitable for a small depth of exploratory work. The
equipment is generally light and compact and is ideal for work on sites with restricted access.

A. Field vane shear test (VST)

The vane shear test is one of the in-situ tests used for obtaining the undrained shear strength of
soft sensitive clays. It is in deep beds of such material that the vane test is most valuable for the
simple reason that there is at present no other method known by which the shear strength of these
clays can be measured.
B. Field plate load test (PLT)
The field plate test is the oldest of the methods for determining either the bearing capacity or
settlement of footings.
Advantages of plate bearing tests

There are several advantages to using a plate bearing test to determine the bearing capacity of a
soil.
Here are a few of the top advantages:
 Plate bearing tests are relatively quick and easy to perform.

 They can be conducted on site.

 This testing method can be used to test a wide range of soil types.

 These tests provide accurate results.

 They’re cost and time-efficient. 

 Plate bearing test equipment is portable and easy to set up

Group 3
LO 1.4. Perform soil sampling

One of the primary purposes of drilling the exploration borings is to obtain representative soil or
soil samples. These samples are to determine the soil profile and to perform laboratory tests.
1.4.1. Categories of samples
Two categories of samples are found during the soil sampling: disturbed and undisturbed
samples.
 Disturbed Sample
A sample is called “disturbed sample “when its in-situ (in-place) structure has not been retained.
This is collected as drilling or digs proceed. Disturbed sample is used for the determination of
the grain size, plasticity characteristics, and specific gravity of the soil.

The collection of disturbed soil samples is done by different methods such as Auger Boring,
Wash Boring, Rotary Drilling, and Percussion Drilling, even if the disturbed soil sample is
collected by hand excavating of soil with picks and shovels.

 Undisturbed sample
A sample is called “undisturbed sample” when the structured, stresses and water content of
the soil are preserved.
It is defined also as a sample taken if the natural structure of the soil and water content does
not disturb, that means the soil retained its natural structure and water content, then these types
of soil samples are called undisturbed soil samples
But we have to remember that it is impossible to get a truly undisturbed soil sample. The top and
bottom of the soil sample were disturbed during the collecting time of soil samples. During the
test time, the engineers ignore the disturbing portion of the samples.

The undisturbed soil samples are used for the determination of engineering properties of soils
such as shear strength, permeability, and compressibility.

1.4.2. Sampling equipment

 SPLIT SPOON SAMPLERS
The split spoon sampler is a tube split into two equal halves lengthwise. The two halves are
locked together during the sampling activities and released to retrieve the samples. At bottom
end of the sampler sits a driving shoe.
One of the unique advantages of this kind of sampling equipment is that it can be used on most
drilling rigs.  The drilling rigs will drill down to a certain level and, at that point, the drilling
team will install the split spoon and insert it down to the bottom of the hole

 PITCHER BARREL SAMPLERS

The Pitcher Sampler is designed specifically to recover accurate samples from formations that
are too hard for thin-wall shelby samplers or too brittle, soft or water-sensitive to permit
satisfactory recovery by conventional core barrel type samplers.

 OPEN DRIVE SAMPLER/ SHELBY TUBE SAMPLERS

A Shelby Tube Sampler is a thin-walled 3-inch diameter brass tube that can be used to
extrude undisturbed samples that are relatively cohesive and very soft to stiff. The sampler
is pushed into the ground at the bottom of an open drill-hole onto relatively undisturbed in situ
soil.
The wall thickness of the open drive sampler used for sampling may be thin or thick according to
the soil conditions met in the field. The samplers are made of seamless steel pipes. A thin-walled
tube sampler is called as Shelby tube sampler consists of a thin wall metal tube connected to a
sampler head. The sampler head contains a ball check valve and ports which permit the escape of
water or air from the sample tube as the sample enters it.

Figure 1.1.1: Thin walls Shelby tube sampler

 PISTON SAMPLER (After Osterberg 1952)

To improve the quality of samples and to increase the recovery of soft or slightly cohesive soils,
a piston sampler is normally used. Such a sampler consists of a thin walled tube fitted with a
piston that closes the end of the sampling tube until the apparatus is lowered to the bottom of the
bore hole The sampling tube is pushed into the soil hydraulically by keeping the piston
stationary.The presence of the piston prevents the soft soils from squeezing rapidly into the tube
and thus eliminates most of the distortion of the sample. The piston also helps to increase the
length of sample that can be recovered by creating a slight vacuum that tends to retain the sample
if the top of the column of soil begins to separate from the piston.
  MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT (Sample extruder, Auger, sample trimmer,
sample ejection, sampling kits, Wash Sampler, Retractable Plug Sampler, Test Pit
Sampler, Swedish Foil Sampler)

Group 4

1.4.4. Procedure of sampling

1. Divide the field into different homogenous units based on the visual observation and
farmer’s experience.
2. Remove the surface litter/confusion at the sampling spot.
3. Drive the auger to a plough depth of 15 cm and draw the soil sample.
4. Collect at least 10 to 15 samples from each sampling unit and place in a bucket or tray.
5. If auger is not available, make a ‘V’ shaped cut to a depth of 15 cm in the sampling spot
using spade.
6. Remove thick slices of soil from top to bottom of exposed face of the ‘V’ shaped cut and
place in a clean container.

 6 inches (15 cm)

                   1 inch / 2.5 cm                                  

 1. Mix the samples thoroughly and remove foreign materials like roots, stones, pebbles and
gravels.
2. Reduce the bulk to about half to one kilogram by quartering or compartmentalization.
3. Quartering is done by dividing the thoroughly mixed sample into four equal parts. The
two opposite quarters are discarded and the remaining two quarters are remixed and the
process repeated until the desired sample size is obtained.
4. Compartmentalization is done by uniformly spreading the soil over a clean hard surface
and dividing into smaller compartments by drawing lines along and across the length and
breadth. From each compartment a pinch of soil is collected. This process is repeated till
the desired quantity of sample is obtained.
5. Collect the sample in a clean cloth or polythene bag.
6. Label the bag with information like name of the farmer, location of the farm, survey
number, previous crop grown, present crop, crop to be grown in the next season, date of
collection, name of the sampler etc.

1.4.5. Collection of soil samples from a profile

1. After the profile has been exposed, clean one face of the pit carefully with a spade and
note the succession and depth of each horizon.
2. Prick the surface with a knife or edge of the spade to show up structure, colour and
compactness.
3. Collect samples starting from the bottom most horizon first by holding a large basin at
the bottom limit of the horizon while the soil above is loosened by a khurpi.
4. Mix the sample and transfer to a polythene or cloth bag and label it.

1.4.6. Processing and storage of sample

1. Assign the sample number and enter it in the laboratory soil sample register.
2. Dry the sample collected from the field in shade by spreading on a clean sheet of paper
after breaking the large lumps, if present.
3. Spread the soil on a paper or polythene sheet on a hard surface and powder the sample by
breaking the clods to its ultimate soil particle using a wooden mallet.
4. Sieve the soil material through 2 mm sieve.
5. Repeat powdering and sieving until only materials of >2 mm (no soil or clod) are left on
the sieve.
6. Collect the material passing through the sieve and store in a clean glass or plastic
container or polythene bag with proper labeling for laboratory analysis.
7. For the determination of organic matter it is desirable to grind a representative sub
sample and sieve it through 0.2 mm sieve.
8. If the samples are meant for the analysis of micronutrients at-most care is needed in
handling the sample to avoid contamination of iron, zinc and copper. Brass sieves should
be avoided and it is better to use stainless steel or polythene materials for collection,
processing and storage of samples.
9. Air-drying of soils must be avoided if the samples are to be analyzed for NO3-N and
NH4-N as well as for bacterial count.
10. Field moisture content must be estimated in un-dried sample or to be preserved in a
sealed polythene bag immediately after collection.
11. Estimate the moisture content of sample before every analysis to express the results on
dry weight basis.
Group 5
LO 1.5. Perform in situ tests

The followings are soil tests conducted at the site (in Situ) or field

1.5.1. STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)

Purpose
SPT values are correlated with the compactness of granular soils, from which N values are
estimated and correlated with the consistency of cohesive soils

SPT Equipment
 Split spoon sampler (Head, Split barrel & shoe).
 Drive Monkey weight 63.5 kg
 Sampling drill A-rod 1.5 meter long.
 Guide Pipe Assembly
 Tripod 5 meter long with pulley assembly
 Rope for hammer

SPT equipment setup

Perform SPT/Test Procedure

This test consists of a standard 51mm diameter split-spoon sampler, known as a Raymond
Spoon, driven into the soil at the bottom of a borehole by the driving force from a hammer of
63.5kg (140-lb), falling through a height of 762mm (30 in). The number of blows required to
drive the sampler each 150mm increment of a total of 450mm penetration is recorded. The blow
count for the first 150mm increment is discarded (ignored) and the sum of the blow counts for
the second and third 150mm increments is known as the SPT “N” value. The data obtained is
used to estimate both strength and stiffness parameters for bearing capacity and settlement
analysis of foundations. Some code of practice states that if “N” value exceeds 100, it is
concluded as refusal and the test is stopped if even if the 300 mm depth of penetration has not
yet reached. The SPT is conducted normally at 1 to 2 m intervals.

Standard Penetration Test

Result interpretation
The energy delivered to STP split spoon is theoretically the free-fall energy of a 63.6 kg mass
falling through 762mm as mentioned above, which is expressed as
E (Energy) = W*h
Where W= weight or mass of the hammer
H = Height of fall
Theoretically the energy (E) delivered to the SPT is 475, however, in practice, the energy
transferred to the driving head and then to the sampler is about 30-80%. Taking an average, up to
65% of this free-fall energy may be lost.
To correct results from SPT so that they can be accurate, coefficient of corrections have been
introduced to standardize the SPT N by using energy ratio Re. Bowles (1996) suggests that the
SPT N values observed during the test be reduced to a standard blow count corresponding to
70% of standard energy whereas, Terzaghi suggests 60%. The standard energy ratio is expressed
as:
 Actualhammerenergytosampler , E a
Res =
Inputenergy , Ein
Operational Factors Affecting N Values
Driving energy
Drill Rods and Casing
Hole bottom conditions
Corrections to the observed SPT value
Three types of corrections are normally applied to the observed N values. They are:
1. Hammer efficient correction
2. Drill rod sampler and borehole corrections
3. Correction due to overburden pressure
1. Hammer efficiency correction, Eh
Different types of hammer are:
 Donut hammer with a hammer efficient Eh=0.45 (c)
 Safety hammer with a hammer efficient as follows (b):
Rope pulley or cathead=0.7-0.8
Trip or automatic hammer=0.8-1.0

2. Drill Rod, Sampler and Borehole Corrections

Correction factors are used to correct the effects of length of drill rods, use of split spoon sampler
with or without liner, and size of bore holes. Following are tables of correction factors

a) Drill rod length correction factors Cd

2. Table 1.2 Drill rod length correction factors
Length (m) Correction factor (Cd)
>10 m 1.0
4-10 m 0.85-0.95
<4.0 m 0.75

b) Sampler correction factor, Cs

 Without liner Cs=1.00
With liner,
Dense sand, clay Cs =0.80
Loose sand Cs =0.90
b) Bore hole diameter correction factor, Cb
3. Table 1.3 Bore hole diameter correction factor
Bore hole diameter Correction factor, (Cb)
60-120 mm 1.0
150 mm 1.05
200 mm 1.15

3. Correction factor for overburden pressure in granular soil, CN

Many empirical relations proposed for correction factor for overburden (CN) and the most
common used, which is express as:

Where 𝜌′𝑜= effective overburden pressure in kN/m2

N corrected will be expressed as

Ncor=CNNEhCdCsCb
Where Ncor is related to the standard energy ratio used by the designer.
Ncor may be expressed as N70 or N60 according to the designer’s choice.

Example 1
The observed standard penetration test value in a deposit of fully submerged sand was 45 at a
depth of 6.5 m. The average effective unit weight of the soil is 9.69kN/m 3. The other data given
are (a) hammer efficiency = 0.8, (b) drill rod length correction factor = 0.9, and (c) borehole
correction factor = 1.05. Determine the corrected SPT value for standard energy (a) R es = 60 %,
and (b) Res = 70 %.
Solution
Per Eq (1.5), the equation for N60 may be written as

(i)
N cor =C N NEh C d C s C b
Where N = observed SPT value
CN = overburden correction
Per Eq (1.4) we have

'
Where ρo = effective overburden pressure
= 6.5 x 9.69 = 63 kN/m2
'
Substituting for ρo ,
95 .67 1/2
[ ]
CN= 63 =1.233
Substituting the known values, the corrected N60 is
N60 = 1.233 x 45 x 0.8 x 0.9 x 1.05 = 42
For 70 percent standard energy
0.6
N70 =42x 0.7 = 36
SPT values related to relative density of cohesionless soils
Although the SPT is not considered as a refined and completely reliable method of investigation,
the Ncor values give useful information with regard to consistency of cohesive soils and relative
density of cohesionless soils. The correlation between Ncor values and relative density of granular
soils suggested by Peck, et al., (1974) is given in Table 1.4

4. Table 1.4 N and φ Related to Relative Density

Meyerhof (1956) suggested the following approximate equations for computing the angle of

friction φ from the known value of Df.

For granular soil with fine sand and more than 5 percent silt,

φ0 = 25 + 0.15Dr
For granular soils with fine sand and less than 5 percent silt,
0
φ = 30 + 0.15Dr
Where Dr is expressed in percent

SPT values related to consistency of clay soil

Peck et al., (1974) have given for saturated cohesive soils, correlations between N cor value and
consistency. This correlation is quite useful but has to be used according to the soil conditions
met in the field. Table 1.1.6 gives the correlations.
The Ncor value to be used in Table 1.6 is the blow count corrected for standard energy ratio Res.
The present practice is to relate qu with Ncor as follows,
qu
k=
qu = k Ncor (kPa) or N cor

Where, k is the proportionality factor

A value of k = 12 has been recommended by Bowles (1996).
5. Table 1.1.6 Relation between NCor and qu

Example 1.2
For the corrected N values in example 1, determine the (a) relative density, and (b) the angle of
friction. Assume the percent of fines in the deposit is less than 5%.
Solution

Per Table 1.1.5 the relative density and φ are

Example 1.3
For the corrected values of N given in Ex 1.1, determine the unconfined compressive strength q u
in a clay deposit.
Solution
 a) From table 1.6

Group 6
1.5.2. CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT)

Purpose
The cone penetration test (CPT) is a common in situ testing method used to determine the
geotechnical engineering problems, properties of soils and assessing subsurface stratigraphy. The
test is also called, Dutch Cone test. Due to its simplicity and efficiency, the cone penetration test
is one of the most commonly accepted and used in-situ testing methods in geotechnical
investigation worldwide.
The static cone penetration test is carried out to determine the characteristics of specific soils
(soft sensitive silt, sand, clay and some coarse cohesionless soil) such as:
 Soil type
 Relative soil density
 In-situ stress conditions
 Shear strength parameters
CPT equipment
 A steel cone
 A friction jacket
 Sounding rod
 Mantle tube
 A driving mechanism
 Measuring equipment
Perform CPT
Step 1: The cone and friction jacket assembly is put vertically touching the ground.
Step 2: The cone is then pushed down at a constant speed of penetration ranging from 1.5 to
2.5cm/sec to a depth a (say 40 mm). Then, cone tip resistance (qc) is recorded.
Step 3: Now the sounding rod is pushed further to a depth b (say 40 mm). Then, sleeve friction
(qf) is recorded.
Step 4: Then, the mantle tube is pushed down to a+b=80mm depth. This brings the cone and
jacket assembly to step 1.
Step 5: Then the friction ratio is calculated

Result interpretation
Cone Resistance qc and Local Side Friction fc
Cone penetration resistance qc is obtained by dividing the total force Qc acting on the cone by
the base area Ac of the cone.
qc =𝑄𝑐/𝐴𝑐
In the same way, the local friction fc is
fc=𝑄𝑓/𝐴𝑓
Where,
Qf = Qt - Qc= force required to push the friction jacket,
Qt = the total force required to push the cone and friction jacket together in the case of a
mechanical penetrometer
 Af = surface area of the friction jacket.
Friction ratio, Rf is expressed as
Rf=𝑓𝑐/𝑞𝑐
Where fc and qc are measured at the same time depth. Rf is expressed as a percentage. Friction
ratio is an important parameter for classifying soil.

Figure Soil classification using CPT results

Pa = atmospheric pressure=100kPa
6. Table 1.5 Type of soil behavior as in situ test is performed
Research carried out by many indicates that a unique relationship between cone resistance,
relative density and friction angle valid for all sands does not exist. Robertson and Campanella
have provided a set of curves which may be used to estimate Dr based on q c and effective
overburden pressure.

Figure: Relationship between relative density Dr and penetration resistance q c for uncemented
quartz sands

These curves are supposed to be applicable for normally consolidated clean sand.
 Figure Relationship between cone point resistance qc and angle of internal friction φ for
uncemented quartz sands

Relationship Between qc and Undrained Shear Strength, cu of Clay

The cone penetration resistance qc and cu may be related as
qc −p o
c u=
q c=N k c u + po or Nk

Where, Nk = cone factor, po = γ z = overburden pressure.

Lunne and Kelven (1981) investigated the value of the cone factor N k for both normally
consolidated and overconsolidated clays. The values of Nk as obtained are given table below:
7. Table 1.6: Cone factor for types of clay

Possibly a value of 20 for Nk for both types of clays may be satisfactory. Sanglerat (1972)
recommends the same value for all cases where an overburden correction is of negligible value.
Example 1.4
If a deposit at a site happens to be a saturated over consolidated clay with a value of q c = 8.8
MN/m2, determine the unconfined shear strength of clay given po= 127 kN/m2

Solution
qc −p o
c u=
q c=N k c u + po or Nk

Use Nk= 20. Substituting the known values and simplifying

8800−127
Cu = = 433.65 kN/m2
20
If we neglect the overburden pressure po
8800
Cu = = 440 kN/m2
20
It is clear that, the value of Cu is little affected by neglecting the overburden pressure
Group 7

1.5.3. DYNAMIC CONE PENETRATION TEST (DCPT)

CPT equipment setup

Perform CPT
A dynamic probing test (DPT), known as Light Weight dynamic penetrometer (DPL) or
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT) in Rwanda, consist of driving a solid steel cone
vertically into the ground, via am anvil and extension rods, with successive blows of a free-fall
hammer. Light hammers can be raised by hand, but in most cases, a motorised device,
incorporating an automatic latch and release mechanism, is used. Depending of configurations
(see Table below),
The number of blows required to drive the cone a fixed distance (10 or 20 cm depending on the
test specification) is recorded. Driving is halted (take a pause) every meter to add a further
extension rod. The probing results are recorded as blows for 10 cm (N10) or 20 cm (N20)
penetration.

Result interpretation
The number of blows required to drive the cone a fixed distance (10 or 20 cm depending on the
test specification) is recorded. Driving is halted (take a pause) every metre to add a further
extension rod.
The probing results are recorded as blows for 10 cm (N10) or 20 cm (N20) penetration. The N10
values can be recorded into unit cone resistance (rd) or dynamic cone resistance (qd), and this
can allow different configurations of equipment to be brought to a common basis:

Where:
rd and qd are resistance values in Pa,
M is the mass of hammer in kg
g is the acceleration due to gravity m/s2
h is the height of fall of hammer in meters
A is the projected area of the cone in m2
e is the average penetration in meters per blow (0.1/N10 or 0./N20)
M’ is the total mass of the extension rods, the anvil, and the guiding rods in kg

8. Table 1.7 Details of dynamic probing test specifications (after Burland, 2012)
Factor DPL or DPT
Hammer mass, kg 10±0.1
Height of fall, m 0.5±0.01
Mass of anvil and guide rod (max), kg 50
Rod length, m 1±0.1%
 Mass of rod (max), kg 3
Cone area (norminal) A, cm2 10
Cone diameter new (D), mm 35.74±0.3
Number of blows per x cm penetration (Nx) N10:10
Standard range of blows 3-50
Specific work per blow (Mgh/A), kj/m 50

Group 8
1.5.4. VANE SHEAR TEST (VST) (ASTM D2573-01)

Purpose
The vane shear test is an in-situ geotechnical testing methods used to estimate the undrained
shear strength of fully saturated clays without disturbance. The test is relatively simple, quick,
and provides a cost-effective way of estimating the soil shear strength; therefore, it is widely
used in geotechnical investigations. The results of the test are not reliable if clay contains silt or
sand. Under special condition, the vane shear test can be also carried out in the laboratory on
undisturbed soil specimens; however, the use of the vane shear test in in-situ testing is much
more common.
Apparatus
The vane shear test apparatus consists of a four-blade stainless steel vane attached to a steel rod
that will be pushed into the ground. The height of vane is usually twice its overall widths and is
often equal to 10 cm or 15 cm.
A typical vane shear test kit usually contains the following items:
 Torque wrench
 Drive head
 Extension rods, usually D20/D22x1000 mm
 Spanner for extension rod
 2 or 3 Vane sizes. Commin sizes: 19x38 mm, 25x50mm, 30x60mm, 75.8x151.5 mm
  Transport Case

Procedure
The test can be conducted either from the ground surface or from the bottom of a borehole or a
test pit. If conducted from the bottom of a bore hole, the test area should be should be at the
depth of least three times the borehole diameter lower that the borehole bottom in order to avoid
the borehole disturbance effects.
The test starts by pushing the vane and the rod vertically into the soft soil. The vane is then
rotated at a slow rate of 6° to 12° per minute. The torque is measured at regular time intervals
and the test continues until a maximum torque is reached and the vane rotates rapidly for several
revolutions.
At this time, the soil fails in shear on a cylindrical surface around the vane. The rotation is
usually continued after shearing and the torque is measured to estimate the remoulded shear
strength.

Result interpretation
Undrained shear strength calculation
The undrained shear strength of the saturated soil is proportional to the applied torque and the
dimensions of the vane. The undrained shear strength is calculated by equating the torque to the
moments corresponding to the total shear strength over the sides and the ends of the cylindrical
shear failure surface:
Torque = Ts + Te
Ts = moment of shear resistance force on the side of the cylindrical failure surface
Te = moment of shear resistance force at the two ends of the cylindrical failure surface

Replacing the above equation with the test parameters, and solving for the undrained shear
strength, we obtain:
 Cu=T / [πd2(h/2 + d/6)]
Where:
Cu: Undrained shear strength of the soil
T: Maximum torque at failure
h: height of the vane
d: diameter of the vane

Group 9
1.5.5. PLATE LOAD TEST (PLT)
Purposes
This test method is used to estimate the bearing capacity of a soil under field loading conditions
for a specific loading plate and depth of embedment (ASTM D1194). It is also used for load tests
of soil and flexible pavement components for use in evaluation and design of airport and
highway pavements.

PLT equipment set up

The following plate load test apparatus is necessary for performing the test.
1. A steel plate is at least 300 mm square and 6 mm thick.
2. Hydraulic jack & pump
3. A hydraulic jack with a capacity of at least 1.5 times the anticipated test load.
4. A set of steel shims, at least 6 mm thick.
5. Reaction beam or reaction truss
6. A dial gauge, with a range of 0-250 mm and an accuracy of 0.02 mm.
7. Pressure gauge
8. A loading frame with a capacity of at least 1.5 times the anticipated test load. The frame
should be designed so that it can be firmly attached to the ground, and so that the load
can be applied to the center of the plate.
9. Necessary equipment for the loading platform.
10. A steel rule or tape measure is at least 3 m long.
11. Tripod, Plumb bob, spirit level, etc.
12. A hammer.
13. A set of wrenches.
14. A clean, dry cloth

Load test set up

PLT conduction
The necessary steps to perform a plate load test is written below-
1. Excavate test pit up to the desired depth. The pit size should be at least 5 times the size of
the test plate (Bp).
2. At the center of the pit, a small hole or depression is created. The size of the hole is the
same as the size of the steel plate. The bottom level of the hole should correspond to the
level of the actual foundation. The depth of the hole is created such that the ratio of the
depth to width of the hole is equal to the ratio of the actual depth to the actual width of
the foundation.
3. A mild steel plate is used as a load-bearing plate whose thickness should be at least 25
mm thickness and size may vary from 300 mm to 750 mm. The plate can be square or
circular. Generally, a square plate is used for square footing and a circular plate is used
for circular footing.
4. A column is placed at the center of the plate. The load is transferred to the plate through
the centrally placed column.
5. The load can be transferred to the column either by gravity loading method or by truss
method.
 Figure: Test Setup for Plate Load Test
6. For gravity loading method a platform is constructed over the column and load is applied
to the platform by means of sandbags or any other dead loads. The hydraulic jack is
placed in between column and loading platform for the application of gradual loading.
This type of loading is called reaction loading.
7. At least two dial gauges should be placed at diagonal corners of the plate to record the
settlement. The gauges are placed on a platform so that it does not settle with the plate.
8. Apply seating load of 7 T/m2 and release before the actual loading starts.
9. The initial readings are noted.
10. The load is then applied through the hydraulic jack and increased gradually. The
increment is generally one-fifth of the expected safe bearing capacity or one-tenth of the
ultimate bearing capacity or any other smaller value. The applied load is noted from the
pressure gauge.
11. The settlement is observed for each increment and from dial gauge. After increasing the
load-settlement should be observed after 1, 4, 10, 20, 40, and 60 minutes and then at
hourly intervals until the rate of settlement is less than .02 mm per hour. The readings are
noted in tabular form.
12. After completing the collection of data for a particular loading, the next load increment is
applied and readings are noted under new load. This increment and data collection is
repeated until the maximum load is applied. The maximum load is generally 1.5 times the
expected ultimate load or 3 times of the expected allowable bearing pressure.

 Result interpretation
The plate load test is a field test, which is performed to determine the ultimate bearing capacity
of the soil and the probable settlement under a given load. This test is very popular for the
selection and design of the shallow foundation.

For performing this test, the plate is placed at the desired depth, then the load is applied
gradually and the settlement for each increment of the load is recorded. At one point a settlement
occurs at a rapid rate, the total load up to that point is calculated and divided by the area of the
plate to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil at that depth. The ultimate bearing
capacity is then divided by a safety factor (typically 2.5~3) to determine the safe bearing
capacity.

Soil Bearing Capacity Calculation

Following is the equation to determine soil bearing capacity for clay from the plate load test.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity = Ultimate Load for the Plate.

For sand; Ultimate bearing capacity=Ultimate load for plate × (Width of Pit/Size of Plate)
Safe bearing capacity=Ultimate Bearing Capacity/Factor of Safety
Typically, the range for the factor of safety varies from 2 to 3.

Foundation settlement calculation

The following equations can be used for
9. Clayey Soil
Following is the equation to determine foundation settlement for clay from the plate load test.
Settlementofthefoundation=Settlementofplate×WidthofPit/SizeofPlate

Sandy Soil
Following is the equation to determine foundation settlement for sand from the plate load test.

Settlementofthefoundation=Settlementofplate×(WidthofPit×(SizeofPlate+0.3))/
(SizeofPlate×(WidthofPit+0.3)2)