Lesson

Methods of Organizing and

3 Presenting Data

3.1 Organizing Data

There are two ways of organizing numerical data, ungrouped data or raw data
that are not too many, can be organized by making counts or constructing a stem
leaf plot. While for large set of data, use of frequency distribution table is
necessary. One way of organizing raw data is to prepare an array.

An array is a process of arranging data in order of magnitude, either

descending or increasing manner. From an array, one can easily identify the
range, which is the difference between the largest and smallest numbers.
Moreover, the mid-value and the most frequently occurring value are determined
by mere inspection.

Example 1.

In an exam of 100 items the ten students scored as follows: 23, 60, 79, 32,
47, 74, 52, 70, 80, and 36.

The array can be done as follows: 23, 32, 36,47, 52, 57, 60, 70, 74, 79,
and 80.

The above data can be described as follows.

“The highest score is 80 and the lowest score is 23. Only seven
students scored above 50% of the 100 items of examination. Some three
students obtained scores below the 50% passing.”
 Stem leaf plot- is a table which sorts the data according to certain pattern.
This is a process of separating a number into two parts. For a two digit number,
the stem comprises the tens digit and the leaf consist of the units digits. While for
a three digit number the stem consist of the hundred and the leaf comprise the
unit digits.

Example 2.

The number of automatic mufflers installed each day in 31 consecutive

days by an auto mobile muffler shop are record as follows:

41, 37, 41, 46, 50, 47, 36, 44, 51, 37,

38, 44, 56, 30, 34, 28, 40, 38, 36, 49,

43, 46, 31, 31, 43, 29, 31, 33, 46, 37, and 35.

Construct a stem – leaf plot..

Solution: Draft (record the units digits by line so not to miss any single
observation)

Stem : Leaves

First Line Second Line Third Line

2 : 8 9

3 : 767 80486 111375

4 : 11674 409 3636

5 : 01 6

The Final Stem-leaf plot for the 31 days automobile shop

Stem Leaves

2 : 89
 3 : 01113456677788

4 : 011334466679

5 : 016

To described the above record:

“The 31 day record shows that the automobile muffler shop installed
as high as 56 automobile mufflers. The lowest was 28 mufflers. The plot
also manifest that mostly the shop was able to installed as much as 30 to
50 automobile mufflers.”

Example 3.

List down the data that corresponds to the following items of the stem-and
leaf plots:

a) 9 : 11589 91, 91, 95, 98, and 99

b) 25 : 04889 250, 254, 258, 258, and 259

c) 2.1 : 456778 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.17, 2.18

Arranging mass of data manually requires a lot of time hence, considered

to be tedious. However, if the researcher can have an access of a computer then
he or she can still manage to prepare the above table. But for those who do not
have a computer, the process is made easy by constructing a frequency
distribution table.

3.2 The Frequency Distribution

An ungrouped frequency distribution is merely an arrangement of the data

usually from the highest to the lowest that shows the frequency of occurrence of
the different values of the variable. It is used when there is small number of
observations.
 Table 3.1
Ages of Contractual Employees of FoodChain in Malolos

Age Frequency

22 3

21 5

20 5

19 11

18 6

Total 30

A grouped frequency distribution is an arrangement of data that shows the

frequency of occurrence of values falling within arbitrarily defined ranges of the
variable known as class intervals.

Example 4. Table 3.2 Frequency distribution of heights of 100 female in

BSU
Table 3.2
Heights of 100 Male Students at BSU
Height (in) Number of Students

60-62 5
63-65 18
66-68 42
69-71 27
72-74 8

Total 100
Let us define some terms necessary for constructing frequency distribution table.
Class Interval – refers to the grouping bounded by the lower limit and the upper
limit.
A class interval 11-15 would mean to include the values 11, 12, 13, 14,
and 15. Where 11 and 15 are called limits and 11 refers to the lower limit (LL)
while 15 represents upper limit (UL).
Class Mark or Class Midpoint – refers to the representative of every class
interval. This value can be obtained by adding the lower limit and upper limit then
divided by 2. It is denoted by x.
Example 5.
For the class interval 11 – 15 the class mark or midpoint is derived by
(11+15)/2 = 13
Example 6.
For the class interval 20 – 23 the class mark or midpoint is
(20+23)/2 = 21.5
Class Boundaries – refers to the true boundaries of a class interval.
Example 7.
For a class interval 16 – 20, the true boundaries or true limit 15.5 – 20.5
Class size – refers to the length or width of the class interval.
Example 8.
For a class interval 11 – 15 the class size is 5.
For a class interval 20 – 23 the class size is 4.
To compute the class size one can use any of the following formulas:
c = upper class boundary – lower class boundary (formula 1)
c = upper limit – lower limit + 1 (formula 2)

Example 9. For the class interval 11 – 15

c = 15.5 – 10.5 = 5 or c = 15-11 + 1 = 5
Class Frequency – refers from the numbers of observations belonging to a class
interval.
Example 10.
For a class interval 11 – 15 with 4 observations, say 11, 11, 15, and 13,
hence the class frequency is 4.

Frequency Distribution Table – is a table comprising the class intervals with their
associated frequencies.

Constructing Frequency Distribution Table

To construct a frequency distribution table, some rules and guidelines are
followed. Consider the test scores of 50 students in Math 313, the scores are
recorded as follows:

Table 3.3
Test Score of 50 students in Statistics

53 30 58 67 46

41 25 44 42 40

31 42 15 73 47

39 51 33 79 56

64 43 65 80 54

47 35 25 54 52

20 44 58 52 48

62 46 44 43 55

66 37 65 48 75

67 36 63 51 40
Steps in construction the Group Frequency distribution for the Math 313
test scores:

Step 1. Determine the range ( R ) of the distribution

The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores
Range = Highest Score – Lowest Score
= 80 – 15
Range = 65
Step 2. Determine the class size (c) by dividing the range by the desired
numbers of class intervals. Normally the number of class intervals is not less
than 5 but more than 15, so as not have class intervals with zero frequency.
Supposed we desired to use 10 class intervals.
Class Size = Range / 10 = 65 / 10 = 6.5 or 7
For a class size that is not exact, round it off to the nearest whole number.
Step 3. Unless otherwise specified, always start the lowest class limit by the
lowest value of the raw data, then for the second lower limit just add the class
size and so on.
For the first upper limit, subtract 1 from the second lower limit.

Starting with the lowest score

LL UL
15 21
22 28
29 35
36 42
43 49
50 56
57 63
64 70
71 77
78 84
 With lower limit divisible by 7
LL UL
14 20
21 27
28 34
35 41
42 48
49 55
56 62
63 69
70 76
77 83

Step 4. Tally the frequencies for each class, until the highest value is reached.
Class Interval

LL – UL Tally Freq

15 – 21 II 2

22 – 28 II 2

29 – 35 IIII 4

36 – 42 IIII-III 8

43 – 49 IIII-IIII-I 11

50 – 56 IIII-IIII 9

57 – 63 IIII 4

64 – 70 IIII-I 6

71 – 77 II 2
 78 – 84 II 2

C=7 n=50

Relative Frequency Distribution

The relative frequency distribution table is another table which describes
the distribution of the frequencies in terms of percentages. This can be derived
by simply dividing each individual frequency then multiply by 100 %.
Example 10. For the test scores data the frequency distribution is as follows:

CI f RF%
15-21 2 2/50= 4%
22-28 2 4%
29-35 4 8%
36-42 8 16%
43-49 11 22%
50-56 9 18%
57-63 4 8%
64-70 6 12%
71-77 2 4%
78-84 2 4%
n= 50

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

The cumulative frequency is obtained by adding the successive
frequencies from the smallest to the largest class interval, referred to as the less
than cumulative frequency distribution , <cf. When the frequencies are cumulated
starting from that of the largest class interval, the result is a greater that
cumulative frequency distribution, >cf.
Example 11. Consider the frequency distribution in example 10.
Class Interval

LL – UL Freq <cf >cf

15 – 21 2 2 50
 22 – 28 2 4 48

29 – 35 4 8 46

36 – 42 8 16 42

43 – 49 11 27 34

50 – 56 9 36 23

57 – 63 4 40 14

64 – 70 6 46 10

71 – 77 2 48 4

78 – 84 2 50 2

C=7 n=50

3.3 Methods of Presenting Data

Collected data remains useless and invalid unless presented effectively for
analysis and interpretations. Data are presented in three general methods as
enumerated below:
1. Textual Method
By textual or paragraph method, the reader gets information by merely
reading the gathered data. Readers are directed to pay particular attention on
specific data such as comparisons, contrasts, synthesis, generalizations, or
findings. This method, however, when employed alone elicit its boredom. It is a
weak means of showing the quantitative comparisons or relations among
quantitative or numerical data attractively and interestingly. This method of
presenting data is the simple when there are only a few numbers to be
presented. However, it is not desirable to include a big mass of quantitative data
in a “text” or paragraph as the presentation becomes almost incomprehensible.
Example 12.
The present enrollment of the Don Hilario High School is 19,900 students.
About 12,077 or 63.56% are female and 6923 or 36.44% are male. Of the 19,900
students, 950 or 5% are scholars sponsored by different benefactors.
Tabular Method
The tabular method is a more effective way of showing relationships or
comparisons of numerical data. It gives a more precise, systematic and orderly
presentation of data in rows and columns. This makes comparison of figures
easy and comprehensive.

Example 13.

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Semi-tabular Method
The semi-tabular method employs both the textual and tabular methods. This
method is used only if there are few figures to be tabulated. The tables are
followed by narrative explanations to make the facts more understandable.

3. Graphical Presentation
The use of graphs is the most effective method of presenting statistical
result or findings. It gives the relationships of data in pictorial form. Presentations
of facts are made attractive and meaningful especially if colors are made and
pictures are used, making it easy for important information to be grasped by the
reader. It is only limitations are as follows:
Graphs are not as precise as the tables.
1. Graphs require more skillful and time to prepare.
2. Graphs can only be made after data have been presented in
tabular forms.
Kinds of graphs are as follows:
1. Line or curve graphs – frequency polygon

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2. Bar Graph
The bar graph is used to represent discrete data, so instead of being
joined, like in the histogram the bars are separated. The length of each bar also
represents the frequency within the given class. The width of the bar is arbitrary.
The bars, however, must be of the same width. Thus, the bar graph is almost the
same as the histogram the only difference is that the bars of the histogram are
joined.

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Simple Column Chart

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Grouped Column Chart

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3.Pie graph
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EXPENSES AMOUNT PERCENTAGE

RENT 7000 7000/15000 X 100%
= 46.67 OR 47%
GROCERY 3000 3000/15000 X100%
= 20%
TRANSPORT 800 800/15000 X 100% =
5%
CURRENT 300 2%
SCHOOL FEE 2000 13%
SAVING 1900 13%
TOTAL 15000 100%
 4.Statistical maps or pictorial form

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Illustration of shaded map

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Constructing the Frequency Histogram

The histogram is composed of vertical bars that are joined together,

making it an appropriate graph for continuous data. The base of each bar or
rectangle is equal to the class boundaries, with the height corresponding to its
class frequency.
The column of the class boundaries are obtained by subtracting point 5
from all the lower limits and adding point 5 to all upper limits. The amount to be
subtracted or added is exactly half the gap between to class intervals. For
instance, the intervals 15-21 and 22-28 is 1, so half of 1 is .5.
Constructing a histogram involves the following steps:

Step 1. Lay of the x-axis and the y-axis to represent the class intervals and the
class
Frequencies, respectively.
Step 2. Determine the most appropriate scale for the class frequencies. A well
balanced histogram must have a height that is 60%, or 75% of its width and
seldom below 50%.
Step 3. Draw each bar with a height equal to the class frequency of each class
boundary. Class marks may replace the class boundaries. So just enter the base
of each bar on its corresponding class mark.
Step 4. Label the x and y-axis correctly.
To illustrate a histogram, let us use the frequency distribution for the 50 scores.
 Frequency Distribution of the 50 scores data in Table 3.3

CI f CM (x)
15-21 2 18
22-28 2 25
29-35 4 32
36-42 8 39
43-49 11 46
50-56 9 53
57-63 4 60
64-70 6 67
71-77 2 74
78-84 2 81
C=7 n=50

Constructing the Frequency Polygon

The frequency polygon is commonly known as the linear graph. It is useful
device to show changes in values over successive periods of time.
upper limit then dividing by two: (15+21) / 2 = 18, For the next class mark just
add the class size to the first class mark. For the third add the class size to the
second class mark, and so on.
To construct the frequency polygon, the following steps are involved.

Step 1. Represent the x-axis by using the class marks of the intervals.
Step 2. Represent the y-axis using the frequencies of the class intervals.
Step 3. Plot each class frequency directly above the class marks of its class
interval.
Step 4. Connect the points by means of lines.
Step 5. Create an additional class at both end of the distribution to close the
polygon.

Frequency Distribution of the 50 scores data in Table 3.3

CI f CM (x)
15-21 2 18
22-28 2 25
29-35 4 32
36-42 8 39
43-49 11 46
50-56 9 53
57-63 4 60
64-70 6 67
71-77 2 74
78-84 2 81
C=7 n=50
Constructing the Cumulative Frequency Polygon
The cumulative frequency polygon is the graph of a cumulative frequency
distribution.
To construct the graph, the steps are as follows:

Step 1. Represent the units on the x-axis by the exact upper limit of each class
interval.
Step 2. Represent the y-axis by the cumulative frequency.
Step 3. Plot the point above the exact upper limit, which corresponds to its
Cumulative frequency.
Step 4. Connect the points by straight lines.
To illustrate a cumulative frequency polygon, let us use the 50 score data
and change it into s frequency cumulative distribution by adding a column for
cumulative frequency or cf. If the raw frequencies are converted to percentages
the cumulative frequencies will sum up to 100 percent. This is done by dividing
every cumulative frequency by the total number of cases and then multiplying the
result by 100. These polygon or ogive curve. This graph is used to find the
percentage of cases less than or greater than a given value.
 CI f CB <cf >cf
15-21 2 14.5-21.5 2 50
22-28 2 21.5-28.5 4 48
29-35 4 28.5-35.5 8 46
36-42 8 35.5-42.5 16 42
43-49 11 42.5-49.5 27 34
50-56 9 49.5-56.5 36 23
57-63 4 56.5-63.5 40 14
64-70 6 63.5-70.5 46 10
71-77 2 70.5-77.5 48 4
78-84 2 77.5-84.5 50 2

Less than Cumulative Frequency Polygon

(Less than 0give)

CI f CB <cf >cf
15-21 2 14.5-21.5 2 50
22-28 2 21.5-28.5 4 48
29-35 4 28.5-35.5 8 46
36-42 8 35.5-42.5 16 42
43-49 11 42.5-49.5 27 34
50-56 9 49.5-56.5 36 23
57-63 4 56.5-63.5 40 14
64-70 6 63.5-70.5 46 10
71-77 2 70.5-77.5 48 4
78-84 2 77.5-84.5 50 2
Greater than Cumulative Frequency Polygon
(Greater than 0give)