PLC Reviewer Modular I/O is divided by compartments into which

separate modules can be plugged. This feature greatly

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) increases your options and the unit’s flexibility.
is an industrial grade computer that is capable of being
programmed to perform control functions. The basic modular controller consists of a rack, power
supply, processor module (CPU), input/output (I/O
Benefits of PLC modules), and an operator interface for programming
 eliminated much of the hardwiring associated and monitoring.
with conventional relay control circuits.
 fast response, easy programming and installation, The modules plug into a rack. When a module is slid into
high control speed, network compatibility, the rack, it makes an electrical connection with a series of
troubleshooting and testing convenience, and high contacts called the backplane, located at the rear of the
reliability. rack. The PLC processor is also connected to the
backplane and can communicate with all the modules in
PLC is capable not only of performing relay switching the rack.
tasks but also of performing other applications such as
timing, counting, calculating, comparing, and the The power supply supplies DC power to other modules
processing of analog signals. that plug into the rack.

PLCs provide many other benefits including: The processor (CPU) is the “brain” of the PLC.
 Increase reliability
 More flexibility The I/O system forms the interface by which field de-
 Lower cost vices are connected to the controller.
 Communication capability
 Faster response time The terms field or real world are used to distinguish
 Easier to troubleshoot actual external devices that exist and must be physically
 Easier to test field devices wired from the internal user program that duplicates the
function of relays, timers, and counters.
A typical PLC can be divided into parts,
These are the central processing unit (CPU), A programming device is used to enter the desired
the input/output (I/O) section, the power supply, and program into the memory of the processor.
the programming device.
A personal computer (PC) is the most commonly used
The term architecture can refer to PLC hardware, to PLC programming device.
software, or to a combination of both.
A program is a user-developed series of instructions
An open architecture design allows the system to be that directs the PLC to execute actions.
connected easily to devices and programs made by other
manufacturers. Open architectures use off-the-shelf A programming language provides rules for combining
components that conform to approved standards. the instructions so that they produce the desired actions.

A system with a closed architecture is one whose design Relay ladder logic (RLL) is the standard programming
is proprietary, making it more difficult to connect to other language used with PLCs. Its origin is based on
systems. electromechanical relay control.

Input/Output (I/O) There are three major types of PLC application:

There are two ways in which I/Os (Inputs/Outputs) are  Single-ended,
incorporated into the PLC: fixed and modular.  multitask,
 control management.
Fixed I/O is typical of small PLCs that come in one
package with no separate, removable units. The processor A single-ended or stand-alone PLC application involves
and I/O are packaged together, and the I/O terminals will one PLC controlling one process.
have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs and
outputs. A multitask PLC application involves one PLC con-
trolling several processes.
The main advantage of this type of packaging is
lower cost. One disadvantage of fixed I/O is its lack of A control management PLC application involves one
flexibility; you are limited in what you can get in the PLC controlling several others.
quantities and types dictated by the packaging.

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Memory is the part of a PLC that stores data, instruc- Examples of addressing schemes include rack/
tions, and the control program. Memory size is usually slot-based, versions of which are used in Allen-Bradley
expressed in K values: 1 K, 6 K, 12 K, and so on. The SLC 500 controllers, tag-based used in Allen-Bradley
measurement kilo, abbreviated K, normally refers to 1000 ControlLogix controllers, and PC-based control used in
units. soft PLCs.

Factors affecting the memory size needed for a In general, rack/slot-based addressing elements include:
particular PLC installation include: Type—The type determines if an input or output is
• Number of I/O points used being addressed.
• Size of control program Slot—The slot number is the physical location of the
• Data-collecting requirements I/O module. This may be a combination of the rack
• Supervisory functions required number and the slot number when using expansion
• Future expansion racks.
Word and Slot—The word and slot are used to iden-
The instruction set for a particular PLC lists the dif- tify the actual terminal connection in a particular I/O
ferent types of instructions supported. Typically, this module.
ranges from 15 instructions on smaller units up to 100 in-
structions on larger, more powerful units Every input and output device connected to a discrete I/O
module is addressed to a specific bit in the PLC’s memory.
Typical PLC Instructions Instruction Operation A bit is a binary digit that can be either 1 or 0. Analog I/O
modules use a word addressing format, which allows the
XIC (Examine ON) . . . . . . . . . . . . Examine a bit for an entire words to be addressed.
ON condition
XIO (Examine OFF) . . . . . . . . . . . Examine a bit for an Memory locations are defined by using base and
OFF condition alias tags. A base tag defines a memory location where
OTE (Output Energize) . . . . . . . . . Turn ON a bit data are stored. An alias tag is used to create an alternate
(nonretentive) name (alias) for a tag. The alias tag is often used to create
OTL (Output Latch) . . . . . . . . . . . Latch a bit (retentive) a tag name to represent a real world input or output.
OTU (Output Unlatch) . . . . . . . . . Unlatch a bit
(retentive) Combination I/O modules can have both input and
TOF (Timer Off-Delay) . . . . . . . . . Turn an output ON output connections in the same physical module.
or OFF after its rung has been OFF for a preset time
interval I/O modules can be 8, 16, 32, or 64 point cards. The
TON (Timer On-Delay) . . . . . . . . . Turn an output ON number refers to the number of inputs
or OFF after its rung has been ON for a preset time or outputs available. The standard I/O module has eight
interval inputs or outputs. A high-density module may have up to
CTD (Count Down) . . . . . . . . . . . Use a software counter 64 inputs or outputs. The advantage with the high-density
to count down from a specified value module is that it is possible to install up to 64 inputs or
CTU (Count Up) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use a software outputs in one slot for greater space savings. The only dis-
counter to count up to a specified value advantage is that the high-density output modules cannot
handle as much current per output.
CHAPTER 2: PLC HARDWARE Discrete I/O Modules
COMPONENTS The most common type of I/O interface module is the
discrete type. This type of interface connects
The input/output (I/O) section of a PLC is the section field input devices of the ON/OFF nature such as selec-
towhich all field devices are connected and provides the tor switches, pushbuttons, and limit switches.
interface between them and the CPU.
The classification of discrete I/O covers bit-
A rack is referred to as a remote rack when it is located oriented inputs and outputs. In this type of input or output,
away from the processor module. each bit represents a complete information element in
itself and provides the status of some external contact or
The remote racks are linked to the local rack through a advises of the presence or absence of power in a process
communications module. circuit.

The PLC’s memory system stores information about Backplane power is provided by the PLC
the status of all the inputs and outputs. To keep track of module power supply and is used to power the electronics
all this information, it uses a system called addressing. that reside on the I/O module circuit board.

An address is a label or number that indicates where a

certain piece of information is located in a PLC’s memory.

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Analog I/O Modules  The BASIC or ASCII module runs user-written
BASIC and C programs. These programs are
analog devices represent physical quantities that can have independent of the PLC processor and provide an
an infinite number of values. Typical analog inputs and easy, fast interface between remote foreign devices
outputs vary from 0 to 20 mA, 4 to 20 mA, or 0 to 10 V. and the PLC processor. Typical applications include
interfaces to bar code readers, robots, printers, and
Analog input modules normally have multiple input displays.
channels that allow 4, 8, or 16 devices to be interface to  The stepper-motor module provides pulse trains to a
the PLC. The two basic types of analog input modules are stepper-motor translator, which enables control of a
voltage sensing and current sensing. step-per motor
 The BCD-output module enables a PLC to operate
Analog voltage input modules are available in two types: devices that require BCD-coded signals such as
unipolar and bipolar. seven- segment displays
 The proportional-integral-derivative (PID) module
Unipolar modules can accept an input signal is used in process control applications that
that varies in the positive direction only. incorporate PID algorithms.
 Motion and position control modules are used in
The resolution of an analog input channel refers to the applications involving accurate high-speed machining
smallest change in input signal value that can be sensed and packaging operations.
and is based on the number of bits used in the digital  COMMUNICATION MODULES-Serial
representation. communications modules are used to establish point-
to-point connections with other intelligent devices for
A transducer converts a field device’s vari- the exchange of data.
able (e.g., pressure, temperature etc.) into a very low-level
electric signal (current or voltage) that can be amplified I/O SPECIFICATIONS
by a transmitter and then input into the analog module.
Typical Discrete I/O Module
The analog output interface module receives from Specifications
the processor digital data, which are converted into a
proportional voltage or current to control an analog field  NOMINAL INPUT VOLTAGE This discrete input
device. The transition of a digital signal to analog values module voltage value specifies the magnitude (e.g., 5,
is accomplished by a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter, 24, 230 V) and type (AC or DC) of user-supplied
the main element of the analog output module. voltage that a module is designed to accept.
 INPUT THRESHOLD VOLTAGES This discrete
Scaling refers to changing a quantity from one notation to input module specification specifies two values: a
another and involves: minimum ON-state voltage that is the minimum
 Engineering units: The units a human uses and voltage at which logic 1 is recognized as absolutely
understands ON;and a maximum OFF-state voltage which is the
 Transducer units: Either a voltage or current voltage at which logic 0 is recognized as absolutely
 Binary, raw, or machine units: The units the OFF.
processor requires  NOMINAL CURRENT PER INPUT This value
specifies the minimum input current that the discrete
SPECIAL I/O MODULES input devices must be capable of driving to operate
the input circuit.
Many different types of I/O modules have been  AMBIENT TEMPERATURE RATING This value
developed to meet special needs. These include: specifies what the maximum temperature of the air
surrounding the I/O modules should be for best
 The high-speed counter module is used to provide operating conditions.
an interface for applications requiring counter speeds  INPUT ON/OFF DELAY Also known as response
that surpass the capability of the PLC ladder program. time, this value specifies the maximum time duration
 The thumbwheel module allows the use of required by an input module’s circuitry to recognize
thumbwheel switches for feeding information to the that a field device has switched ON (input ON-delay)
PLC to be used in the control program. or switched OFF (input OFF-delay).
 The TTL module allows the transmitting and  OUTPUT VOLTAGE This AC or DC value
receiving of TTL (Transistor-Transistor-Logic) specifies the magnitude (e.g., 5 V,115 V, 230 V) and
signals. This module allows devices that produce type (AC or DC) of user-supplied voltage at which a
TTL-level signals to communicate with the PLC’s discrete output module is designed to operate.
processor.  OUTPUT CURRENT These values specify the
 An encoder-counter module allows the user to read maximum current that a single output and the module
the signal from an encoder on a real-time basis and as a whole can safely carry underload (at rated
stores this information so it can be read later by the voltage).
processor.
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 INRUSH CURRENT An inrush current is a Memory Types
momentary surge of current that an AC or DC output
circuit encounters when energizing inductive, Memory can be placed into two general categories: vola-
capacitive, or filament loads. tile and nonvolatile.
 SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION Short circuit
protection is provided for AC and DC output Volatile memory will lose its stored information if all
modules by either fuses or some other current- operating power is lost or removed. Volatile memory is
limiting circuitry. easily altered and is quite suitable for most applications
 LEAKAGE CURRENT This value specifies the when supported by battery backup.
amount of current still conducting through an output Nonvolatile memory has the ability to retain stored
circuit even after the output has been turned off. information when power is removed accidentally or in-
 ELECTRICAL ISOLATION Recall that I/O tentionally.
module circuitry is electrically isolated to protect the
low-level internal circuitry of the PLC from high  Random Access Memory (RAM), sometimes
voltages that can be encountered from field device referred to as read-write (R/W) memory, is designed
connections. so that information can be written into or read from
 POINTS PER MODULE This specification defines the memory.RAM is used as a temporary storage area
the number of field inputs or outputs that can be of data that may need to be quickly changed.
connected to a single module. Most (Volatile)
 BACKPLANE CURRENT DRAW This value  Read Only Memory (ROM) stores programs, and
indicates the amount of current the module requires data cannot be changed after the memory chip has
from the backplane. been manufactured. ROM is normally used to store
the programs and data that define the capabilities of
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT the PLC.ROM memory is nonvolatile, meaning that
its contents will not be lost if power is lost.
A processor module can be divided into two sections: the  Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
CPU section and the memory section. (EPROM) provides some level of security against
The CPU section executes the program and makes the unauthorized or unwanted changes in a program.
decisions needed by the PLC to operate and communicate EPROMs are designed so that data stored in them can
with other modules. be read, but not easily altered without special
equipment.
The memory section electronically stores the PLC pro-  Electrically erasable programmable read-
gram along with other retrievable digital information. onlymemory (EEPROM) is a nonvolatile memory
that offers the same programming flexibility as does
Memory Design RAM. The EEPROM can be electrically overwritten
with new data instead of being erased with ultraviolet
Memory is the element that stores information, pro- light.
grams, and data in a PLC.  Flash EEPROMs are similar to EEPROMs in that
they can only be used for backup storage. The main
The user memory of a PLC includes space for the user difference comes in the flash memory: they are
program as well as addressable memory locations for extremely fast at saving and retrieving files.
storage of data. Data are stored in memory locations by a
process called writing. Data are retrieved from memory
by what is referred to as reading. FUNDAMENTALS OF LOGIC
Memory elements store individual Binary principle refers to the idea that many things can
pieces of information called bits (for binary digits). be thought of as existing in only one of two states. These
states are 1 and 0. The 1 and 0 can represent ON or OFF,
Memory location refers to an address in the CPU’s open or closed, true or false, high or low, or any other two
memory where a binary word can be stored. A word usu- conditions.
ally consists of 16 bits. Each binary piece of data is a bit
and eight bits make up one byte. Logic gate is a circuit with several inputs but only
one output that is activated by particular combinations of
Memory utilization refers to the number of memory input conditions.
locations required to store each type of instruction.

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AND gate is a device with two or more in- The NOT symbol placed at the output of an AND gate
puts and one output. The AND gate output is 1 only would invert the normal output result. An AND gate with
if all inputs are 1. an inverted output is called a NAND gate.

Logic gate truth tables show each possible input to the

gate or circuit and the resultant output depending upon the
combination of the input(s).

The same rule about inverting the normal output result

applies if a NOT symbol is placed at the output of the OR
gate. The normal output is inverted, and the function is
The basic rules that apply to an AND referred to as a NOR gate.
gate are:
• If all inputs are 1, the output will be 1.
• If any input is 0, the output will be 0.
The AND logic gate operates similarly to control
devices connected in series, as illustrated in Figure 4-5.
The light will be on only when both switch A and switch
B are closed.

OR GATE
An OR gate can have any number of inputs but only one The Exclusive-OR (XOR) Function
output. The OR gate output is 1 if one or more inputs are 1. An often-used combination of gates is the exclusive-OR
(XOR) function. The output of this circuit is HIGH
only when one input or the other is HIGH, but not both.
The exclusive-OR gate is commonly used for the com-
parison of two binary numbers.

The basic rules that apply to an OR gate are:

• If one or more inputs are 1, the output is 1.
• If all inputs are 0, the output will be 0.
The OR logic gate operates similarly to control devices
connected in parallel. The light will be on if switch A or
switch B or both are closed. Boolean Algebra
The mathematical study of the binary number system
and logic.
NOT FUNCTION
The NOT function can have only one input. The NOT Hardwired logic refers to logic control functions
output is 1 if the input is 0. The output is 0 if the input is 1. that are determined by the way devices are electrically
The result of the NOT operation is always the inverse of interconnected.
the input, and the NOT function is, therefore, called an
inverter. Hardwired logic is fixed; it is changeable only by
altering the way devices are electrically interconnected. In
contrast, programmable control is based on the basic logic
functions, which are programmable and easily changed.
The form in which
these instructions are implemented to convey commands
to the PLC is called the language. The most common
PLC language is ladder logic.

A rung is the contact symbolism required to control an

output.

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An understanding of the technique of writing simpli-
fied Boolean equations for complex logical statements is
a useful tool when creating PLC control programs. Some
laws of Boolean algebra are different from those of ordi-
nary algebra. These three basic laws illustrate the close
comparison between Boolean algebra and ordinary alge-
bra, as well as one major difference between the two:
Commutative Law
A+B=B+A A∙B=B∙A
Associative Law
(A+B)+C=A+(B+C)
(A∙B)∙C=A∙(B∙C)
Distributive Law
A∙(B+C)=(A∙B)+(A∙C)
A+(B∙C)=(A+B)∙(A+C)

Ladder Diagram (LD)—a symbolic depiction of

instructions arranged in rungs similar to ladder-formatted
schematic diagrams.
Function Block Diagram (FBD)—a graphical de- piction
of process flow using simple and complex interconnecting
blocks.
Sequential Function Chart (SFC)—a graphical
depiction of interconnecting steps, actions, and transitions.
Instruction List (IL)-a low-level, text-based language
that uses mnemonic instructions.
Structured Text (ST)—a high-level, text-based language
such as BASIC, C, or PASCAL specifically developed for
industrial control applications.