Materials and Metallurgy (ME-209)

Week 2 – Mechanical Properties of Metals

Course Instructor:
Shehzaib Yousuf Khan
B.Engg, M.Engg in Mechanical Engineering from NEDUET.
M.P.E. in Mechanical Engineering from Sydney University.
Ph.D. (In Progress)
www.digiomnibus.pk
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Chapter 6 : Mechanical Properties of Metals
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define engineering stress and engineering strain.
2. State Hooke’s law and note the conditions under which it is valid.
3. Define Poisson’s ratio.
4. Given an engineering stress–strain diagram, determine
(a) the modulus of elasticity (b) the yield strength (0.002 strain offset)
(c) the tensile strength (d) estimate the percentage elongation.
5. For the tensile deformation of a ductile cylindrical specimen, describe changes in
specimen profile to the point of fracture.
6. Compute ductility in terms of both percentage elongation and percentage reduction
of area for a material that is loaded in tension to fracture.
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Chapter 6 : Mechanical Properties of Metals
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
7. Describe modulus of resilience and toughness (static).
8. Compute true stress and true strain values for a specimen, provided:
(i) being loaded in tension (ii) given the applied load
(iii) instantaneous cross-sectional dimensions (iv) original and instantaneous lengths.
9. Note difference between two most common hardness-testing techniques.
10. (a) Describe the two different micro-indentation hardness testing techniques
(b) cite situations for which these techniques are generally used.
11. Compute the working stress for a ductile material.

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Stress
𝑃
𝑃
With Axial Loading

The Effect of The Effect of

Internal Forces = External Forces

“Stress is a quantity that describes the

distribution of internal forces within a body”

Internal Force
Stress =
Area

SI Unit: N ∙ m−2 or Pascals (Pa)

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Stress

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Normal Stress
𝑃
Δ𝑁 𝑃
𝜎 = lim
Δ𝐴→0 Δ𝐴

The intensity of the force acting normal to A is referred to as the normal stress.

Let Δ𝐴 → 𝑑𝐴 and Δ𝑁 → 𝑑𝑁 +↑ 𝐹𝑅𝑍 = Σ𝐹𝑧

𝐴
𝜎 න 𝑑𝑁 = න 𝜎 𝑑𝐴
𝐴

𝑁
𝜎=
𝐴 6
 𝑃
Shear Stress

Δ𝑉
𝜏 = lim
Δ𝐴→0 Δ𝐴

The intensity of the force acting tangent to A is referred to as the shear stress.

Let Δ𝐴 → 𝑑𝐴 and Δ𝑁 → 𝑑𝑁 +↑ 𝐹𝑅𝑌 = Σ𝐹𝑦

𝜏
𝐴
න 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝜏 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
𝜏
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴 7
Strain
• When you apply stress to an object, it deforms.
• Deformation is a measure of how much an object is stretched.
• Strain is the ratio between the deformation and the original length.

Two types of strain a material can experience:

1. Normal Strain
2. Shear Strain.

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 The member shows a tensile normal component of strain in the axial
Normal Strain x-direction and contractive normal strains in the transverse directions
(due to the Poisson’s effect).

𝛿𝑦
ൗ
2

1. Axial Strain
𝐿𝑦 Applied
𝛿𝑦
𝜖𝑦 =
𝐿𝑦
𝛿𝑦
ൗ
2
2. Lateral Strain
𝛿𝑥 𝐿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
Resulting
2 2 𝛿𝑥
𝜖𝑥 =
𝐿𝑥
Strain is always dimensionless.
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Source: https://www.w3schools.blog/poissons-ratio

Poisson’s Ratio The negative ratio of transverse strain to axial strain.

𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦
𝜈=− =−
𝜀𝑧 𝜀𝑧
(Isotropic materials only)

Metals: 𝜈~0.33
Ceramics: 𝜈~0.25
Polymers: 𝜈~0.40

−𝜈 < 0.5 : density decreases (voids form)

Auxetics materials:
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have a negative Poisson's ratio. When stretched, they become thicker perpendicular to the applied force.
Shear Strain Shear strain is the measure of shear deformation caused due to shear stress.

𝜃ൗ
2

𝜃ൗ
2

𝛾 = tan 𝜃
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Apparatus Used to Conduct Tensile Stress–strain Tests

Universal Testing Machine

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Standard Material Testing

• One of the most common mechanical stress–strain

tests is performed in tension.

• A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with

a gradually increasing tensile load that is applied
uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen.

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 The Stress–Strain Diagram A: Proportional Limit
σ B: Elastic Limit
C: Yield Strength
D: Ultimate Strength
E: Fracture

D %El – Percentage elongation at fracture

σ𝑢
E
• > 20% ductile materials
σ𝑓
B • < 5% brittle materials
C
σ𝑌 A
σ𝑝𝑙

𝜖
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Elastic Region Yielding Strain Hardening Necking
The Stress–Strain Diagram

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The Stress–Strain Diagram
True Stress–Strain Diagram:
• The values of stress and strain from actual cross-sectional area
and actual specimen length are called true stress and true strain.

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The Stress–Strain Diagram
• Engineering Stress
The load divided by the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen.

• Engineering Strain
The amount of deformation in the direction of the applied force divided by the
initial length of the material.

• True Stress
The applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing area
with respect to time) of the specimen at that load.

• True Strain
The instantaneous elongation per unit length of the specimen.
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 𝑃 𝛿
The Stress–Strain Diagram 𝜎′ = ′
𝜖 =
𝐴 𝐿
Constant Volume Assumption: 𝐴0 𝐿0 = 𝐴𝐿
• Assuming volume of the sample conserves and
deformation happens uniformly.
𝑃 𝐴0
True Stress: 𝜎′ = ×
𝐴 𝐴0

𝑃 𝐴0
𝜎′ =
𝐴0 𝐴

𝐿 𝐿0 + 𝛿
𝜎′ =𝜎 =𝜎
𝐿0 𝐿0

𝜎′ = 𝜎 1 + 𝜖
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The Stress–Strain Diagram
True Strain: 𝐿
𝑑𝐿
𝜖′ = න
𝐿
𝐿0

𝐿
𝜖′ = ln
𝐿0

𝐿0 + 𝛿
𝜖′ = ln
𝐿0

𝜖 ′ = ln 1 + 𝜖

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The Stress–Strain Diagram
The elastic region of the curve has been shown
in green using an exaggerated strain scale.

𝜎𝑝𝑙 241 106 Pa

𝐸= =
𝜖𝑝𝑙 0.0012 mm/mm

𝐸 = 200 GPa

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The Stress–Strain Diagram
Although steel alloys have different carbon
contents, most grades of steel, from the
softest rolled steel to the hardest tool steel,
have about this same modulus of elasticity.

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The Stress–Strain Diagram
• Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it fractures is
called a ductile material.
• Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are referred to
as brittle materials.

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Stress–Strain Behaviour of
Ductile and Brittle Materials

Brittle fracture in hardened steel

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Stress–Strain Behaviour of Ductile Material
• Ductile material is capable of absorbing shock or energy and even if overloaded it
exhibits large deformation before failure.
• The ductility of a material is specified by its percentage elongation or percentage
reduction in area at the time of fracture.
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0
Percentage Elongation = (100%)
𝐿𝑓
Since 𝜖 = 0.380, this value would be 38% for a mild steel specimen.

Percentage Reduction of Area

𝐴0 − 𝐴𝑓
= (100%)
𝐴0
Mild steel has a typical value of 60% area reduction. 25
Stress–Strain Behaviour of Ductile Material
Ductility measures the degree of plastic deformation sustained at fracture
A Ductile material is one that exhibits a large amount of plastic deformation before failure.
• It shows necking before fracture.
• Example: Steel %El > 20%
A Brittle material exhibits little or no yielding before
fracture.
• Usually defined as materials having
%EL < 5% at fracture.
• Its shows little or no necking before fracture.
• It is much stronger in compression than in tension.
• Examples: Gray cast iron & Glass.

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Stress–Strain Behaviour of Ductile Material
• Other metals such as brass, molybdenum, and zinc may also exhibit ductile stress–strain
characteristics similar to steel.
• In most metals and some plastics, constant yielding will not occur beyond the elastic range.

Offset Method

• Aluminium does not have a well-defined yield point.

• Therefore, for structural design a 0.2% strain is chosen.
𝜖𝑌𝑆 = 0.002 mm/mm
• Parallel to Proportional Limit line intersecting the curve.
𝜎𝑌𝑆 = 352 MPa 27
Stress–Strain Behaviour of Ductile Material
• Yield strength is not a physical property of the material, it is a stress that
causes a specified permanent strain.
• Natural rubber does not even have a proportional limit, exhibits nonlinear
elastic behaviour.

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Stress–Strain Behaviour of Brittle Material
• Fracture occurring due to a microscopic crack, which
then spread rapidly across the specimen, causing
complete fracture.

• Brittle materials do not have a well-defined tensile

fracture stress due to random appearance of initial
cracks.

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Stress–Strain Behaviour of Ductile Material

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Stress–Strain Behaviour of Brittle Material
• Most materials exhibit both ductile and brittle
behaviour.

• Steel has brittle behaviour when it contains a

high carbon content, and it is ductile when the
carbon content is reduced.

• Materials become harder and more brittle at low

temperatures and when the temperature rises
they become softer and more ductile.

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Strain Energy Density
Strain Energy:
1
𝑈 = 𝜎𝜖𝑉
2

Modulus of Resilience:
• The strain energy density when the stress in a
material reaches the proportional limit.
• This property becomes important when
designing bumpers or shock absorbers.

2
1 𝜎𝑝𝑙
𝑢𝑟 = 𝜎𝑝𝑙 𝜖𝑝𝑙 =
2 2𝐸

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Strain Energy Density
Modulus of Toughness:
• The strain energy density when the stress in a
material reaches the point of fracture.
• It is the entire area under stress strain diagram.
• This becomes important when designing
members that may be accidentally overloaded.

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