BCBA EXAM REVIEW STUDY

GUIDE – 5TH EDITION

Alex Faucheux
BCBASTUDY.COM
 Video Review Part 1 (Foundations): https://youtu.be/v2rru8CxvDU

Video Review Part 2 (Application): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y2ZPxLdsYg4

BCBA Exam 5th Edition

A-1 Identify the goals of behavior analysis as a science (i.e., description, prediction, control)
Basic concepts regarding the observation of behavior and events

Description – Facts about the event or behavior that are observable and examinable
Ex. What does the behavior look like? What happens before, during, and after?
Ex. You describe your night to a friend. You tell them where you went, who was there,
and what you ate
Ex. You define hand flapping as “repeated movements of the hands up and down lasting
lasting longer than 5 seconds’

Prediction – Repeated observations show two events correlate with each other. Suggest
possible causal relations, but no functional relation because no variables
Are manipulated
These events correlate with each other. You can predict these events
occurring.
Ex. You leave at 7am to get to work because traffic doesn’t get bad until 745am
Ex. You are sure that if you present your client with a task demand, they will attempt to
elope from the room

Control – The highest level of understanding. A functional relation between the IV and DV
You have control over the behavior occurring or not occurring
Ex. Reinforcement (IV) reliably increases behavior (DV). There is control.
Ex. Your boyfriend always eats your French fries. If you add pepper to your fries,
your boyfriend won’t touch them. You add pepper, and he doesn’t eat your fries.

A-02 Explain the Philosophical Assumptions Underlying the Science of Behavior Analysis
These are shared assumptions regarding “how the world works.”

Selectionism – Behaviors are selected (keep or get rid of) based on environmental factors
3 Types
Phylogenic – Selection by natural evolution of species
Ontogenic – Selection due to interaction with the environment
Cultural – Behavior is passed from one person to the next (imitation/modeling)

Determinism – The universe is lawful and orderly. Things do not happen accidentally. Things
happen for a reason.
Ex. There is an explanation for a vase falling off the shelf even though no one as around

Empiricism – Objective observation of events that are based on data, not thoughts or feelings
 Ex. Recording duration data to empirically determine the length of a behavior

Parsimony – The simplest and most logical explanations should always be considered first
Ex. There is a simple explanation for why your mom did not call you back last night

Pragmatism – Analyze outcomes and procedures based on results. Where the results useful or
not? Interventions should produce meaningful outcomes, and evaluated on those
outcomes.
Ex. Treatment plans should be data-based and individualized. Don’t just use what
worked in the past. Evaluate the interventions, based on the client.

Philosophical Doubt- Question established outcomes and results. Question everything while
looking for better explanations whenever possible

A-03 Describe and Explain Behavior from the Perspective of Radical Behaviorism
Created by B.F. Skinner. Developed after methodological behaviorism.
Radical Behaviorism acknowledges private, internal events as behavior
These private, internal events share the same characteristics of public events (behavior)
Private Events – emotions, thoughts, feelings (these are behaviors)
Public Events - behaviors that are observable and measurable
We do not use private events in ABA because we cannot observe and measure them

Mentalisms: Include Hypothetical constructs, explanatory fictions, and circular reasoning

Hypothetical constructs: unobserved process that is said to be present
Explanatory fiction: a fictional variable used to explain behavior
“He was tired today, so he could not complete his work”
Circular reasoning: faulty logic. The effect is the cause, and the cause is the effect
“He misbehaves because of autism. He has autism so he misbehaves”

A-04 Distinguish Among Behaviorism, the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Applied Behavior
Analysis, and Professional Practice Guide by the Science of Behavior Analysis
What are the differences between branches of behavior studies and applications?

Behaviorism – Guiding philosophy of behavior science. There is an explanation for behavior as a

result of interactions between individuals and the environment
Ex. The client didn’t tantrum because they were “mad.” The tantrum was a result of
Environmental/individual interaction

Experimental Analysis of Behavior (EAB) – The study of behavior principals to be later used
outside of the experimental setting. Not applied research.
Ex. You work in a lab with rats. You do operant behavior research on the rats, but don’t
apply that research outside of your lab.
 Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) – Applying behavior principles to research in offices, clinics,
schools, etc. on human subjects
Ex. You are studying the effects of punishment on your RBTs
Ex. You examine the effects of extinction on your client’s screaming

Practice Guided by Behavior Analysis – The interventions that result from behaviorism, EAB,
and ABA
Ex. The actual interventions used in the real world

A-05 Describe and Define the Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis

7 Dimensions in Total

Applied – Changes are positive and socially significant in the person’s life. Change is meaningful.
Ex. Someone learns to dress themselves

Analytic – A functional relation is demonstrated between what is changed in the environment,

and the behavior we want to change. Are we controlling the behavior?
Ex. Your DRA intervention controls the occurrence and non-occurrence of certain
behaviors

Behavioral – Behavior must be observable and measurable.

Ex. You can observe someone’s writing behavior. You can then measure that behavior.

Conceptually Systematic - Interventions should be consistent with behavior principles

Ex. You want to teach your client how to imitate. You design your intervention so that it
is consistent with basic behavior principles.

Effective – There must be a significant and socially important level of change to the behavior
Ex. You increase your client’s ability to dress themselves to the point where they can do
it fully independently

Generality – The target behavior should change not only in the learning environment, but
outside of the learning environment as well
Ex. The skill should persist across environments, people, times, etc.

Technological – An intervention should be replicable by anyone who reads the intervention

Ex. You are transferring a case to a different BCBA. They should be able to read,
understand, and implement your interventions exactly like you are implementing them
at the moment

B-01 Define and Provide Examples of Behavior, Response, and Response Class
Behavior - anything an organism does
Behavior includes actions that change the environment in some way
Ex. Talking, eating, writing, reading
Dead Man’s Test: If a dead man could do it, it isn’t behavior

Pivotal Behaviors: Behaviors that lead to new, untrained behaviors

Ex. Functional communication training, joint attention

Behavior Cusps: Behaviors that allow the learner to contact new reinforcers or additional
parts of the environment.
Ex. Reading, learning to use transportation

Response – A single instance of a behavior

Ex. Answering 4 in response to “2+2”, screaming to gain a snack

Response Class – A group or set of responses that serve the same function/same impact on
environment
Ex. Writing, saying, or showing 4 in response to “2+2”
Screaming, hitting, or head banging to gain a snack

B-02 Define and Provide Examples of Stimulus and Stimulus Class

Stimulus – A change in the environment that evokes a functional reaction
Ex. The entire class is talking loudly until the teacher walks in the class
You are looking forward to you date until you receive a text message cancelling the date

Stimulus Class - A group or set of stimuli that share similar characteristics

Physical/Formal/Feature – look/sound alike
Ex. Red objects, Types of vegetables
Functional – effect behavior the same way
Ex. Different music that makes you dance, Stimuli that make you stop (stop sign,
holding you hand up to signal “stop,” saying “stop.”
Temporal - when the stimulus occurs in relation to a behavior
Ex. Antecedents to the same behavior
Consequences to the same behavior
Arbitrary – Antecedent stimuli that evoke the same response, but do not resemble each other
Ex. Kit Kats and Dr. Pepper evoke the response “they contain sugar”

Probing
Probing is asking a client to perform a task to assess whether they can perform the task
B-03 Define and Provide Examples of Respondent and Operant Conditioning
Respondent Conditioning – A neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned (US) or conditioned
stimulus (CS) and acquires the properties of that stimulus needed to elicit behavior
Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning (sound of a bell and saliva)
Stimulus-Response (S-R)
Elicits a Reflex
Ex. You were reading a magazine (neutral stimulus) when you heard a loud bang outside (US)
which made your heart rate increase (UR). Now, your heart rate increases (CR) when you see
the magazine (CS).

Operant Conditioning – Consequences effect the future probability of a behavior occurring or not
occurring
Reinforcement and punishment
Stimulus-Response-Stimulus (S-R-S)
Evokes a Response
Ex. You select blue when told “pick blue.” You are given a Skittle. In the future, you select blue
You call your mom on Sunday. She picks up the phone. You now call your mom every Sunday

B-04 Define and Provide Examples of Positive and Negative Reinforcement Contingencies
Reinforcement INCREASES behavior ----- Punishment DECREASES behavior
Positive reinforcement is a stimulus presented following a response or behavior that will
increase or maintain that response
Negative reinforcement is a stimulus removed following a response that will increase or
maintain that response
Unconditioned Reinforcement – Primary reinforcers, no learning history needed
Ex. Food, water, sleep, sexual activity
Conditioned Reinforcement – A neutral stimuli that becomes a reinforcer through learning
Ex. Token boards, Money
Generalized Reinforcer – A reinforcer that has been paired with other reinforcers and can be
used in a variety of contexts
Contingency – If-then statement

Automaticity – Behavior is modified by consequences whether the person is aware of the

Consequence or not

B-05 Define and Provide Examples of Schedules of Reinforcement

Types of reinforcement include:
Continuous reinforcement (CRF) – reinforcement is provided for each occurrence or behavior
Typically used to learn new behavior
Ex. FR1, or every time a rat presses a lever it gets a pellet
Intermittent Reinforcement (INT) – reinforcement is provided for some occurrences of behavior
Typically used to maintain established behavior
Ex. FR3, the rat must press the lever three times to receive a pellet
Basic schedules of reinforcement include:
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Reinforce at a set number of responses

Variable Ratio (VR)

Reinforce a varying number of responses
Fixed Interval (FI)
Reinforce a response after a set amount of time
Variable Interval (VI)
Reinforce a response after a varying amount of time

Complex schedules of reinforcement include:

Concurrent Schedule – Two or more basic schedules for two or more behaviors at the same
time. Matching law/choice. Choose the schedule with quickest/best reinforcement
Ex. FR1 vs FR 5

Two or more basic schedules of reinforcement in an alternating sequence (can be random)

Multiple – 1 or more behaviors, has SD signaling schedule
Ex. Ed receives a break after FR3 (worksheet is SD), he receives a break after VI10 (cleaning is
SD)
Mixed – 1 or more behaviors, no SD signaling schedule
Ex. Reinforcement for doing math problems on a VR3 schedule or a VI4 schedule

Two or more basic schedule requirements that occur in a row

Chained (successive): SD present
Ex. Sprint for 30 seconds (FI30), walk for 90 seconds (FI90) – receive reinforcement
Tandem: No SD present signaling which schedule is happening
Ex. FI4min, FR3. You must produce 3 responses after 4 minutes have passed

Alternative: Includes a ratio and interval schedule. Either/Or the ratio or interval schedule must
be completed to get R+
Ex. Complete 50 math problems or wait 5 minutes
Conjunctive: Includes a ratio and interval schedule. And/Both schedules to get R+
Ex. Complete 50 math problems and wait 5 minutes

B-06 Define and Provide Examples of Positive and Negative Punishment Contingencies
Reinforcement INCREASES behavior ----- Punishment DECREASES behavior

Positive punishment is a stimulus removed following a response or behavior that will decrease
that response
 Negative punishment is a stimulus removed following a response that will decrease that
response
Unconditioned Punishment – Primary punishers, no learning history needed
Ex. Pain, excessive heat, electric shock
Conditioned Punishment – A neutral stimuli that becomes a punisher through learning
Ex. Time out, reprimands
Generalized Punisher – A punisher that has been paired with other punishers and can be
used in a variety of contexts
Contingency – If-then statement

B-07 Define and Provide Examples of Automatic and Socially Mediated Contingencies
Automatic - produce consequences without needing another individual to change the
environment.
Ex. Sensory/automatic function of behavior, scratching an itch, “stimming”

Socially Mediated – the consequence is delivered through another individual

Ex. A teacher rewarding a student, a parent punishing their child

B-09 Define and Provide Examples of Operant Extinction

Extinction – reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued
Extinction burst – a predictable, temporary increase in intensity of bx during extinction
Spontaneous Recovery – A sudden reemergence of a previously extinct behavior

Response Blocking – Not an effective means of extinction. A person physically blocks as soon as
the learner starts to emit a problem behavior.

B-10 Define and Provide Examples of Stimulus Control

Behaviors and responses occur or don’t occur only in the presence, or more often or less often
in the presence, of a stimulus
Ex. Whenever your college friend comes in town, you tend to drink and party more
Ex. You stop at red lights, and accelerate for green lights

B-11 Define and Provide Examples of Discrimination, Generalization, and Maintenance

See Differential Reinforcement
Differential Reinforcement leads to discrimination
Reinforce the target behavior, put other behavior on extinction
Ex. If you are teaching your client to identify “red.” When you say, “touch red” and your client
does it, you reinforce. If you say, “touch red” and your client touches green, you put it on
extinction
Examples of generalization:
 Settings –occurs at home, school, and community
People – client responds appropriately to parents and teachers
Materials – client can identify “blue” across different shapes and objects
Behaviors – client can open doors using a variety of door handles
Time – client uses toilet day and night

Stimulus Generalization
When a stimulus has a history of evoking a response that has been reinforced
in its presence, the same response is evoked by stimuli that share similar
physical properties of the controlling stimulus
Or
The same response occurs across multiple similar stimuli
Ex. A child screams when he sees a white rat, and also screams when he sees stuffed animals

Response Generalization
When a person performs a variety of functional responses in the presence
of the same stimuli
Or
Different behaviors with the same function occur across one stimulus
Ex. In the presence of your friend, you say “Hi”, “What’s up”, or wave

Ways to mediate generalization and maintenance

Multiple settings, people, and stimuli in a natural context
Use a variety of reinforcement schedules
Teach self-management to the client
Reinforce generalization when it happens

B-12 Define and Provide Examples of Motivating Operations

A motivating operation alters the value of a consequence (effectiveness of a reinforcer or punisher) or
alters the frequency of a behavior that has been reinforced in the past by that consequence
Value Altering Effect
Establishing Operation - Increases the effectiveness of a reinforcer
Ex. Deprivation – withholding an item for a period of time
Abolishing Operation – Decreases the effectiveness of a reinforcer
Ex. Satiation – Having too much of an item

Behavior Altering Effect

Evocative – Increases the current frequency of behavior from the same motivating operation
Ex. You typically drink one cup of coffee, but during exam week staying up late is more
valuable so you drink two or three cups of coffee
Abative – Decreases the current frequency of behavior from the same motivating operation
Ex. You always do three pages of writing in the morning, but on vacation you will only
write one page, because the completion is less valuable
Conditioned Motivating Operations

Reflexive (CMO-R) – A stimulus that gains MO properties because it signals a situation is

getting better/worse (it comes before the situation)
Ex. Your client sees you pull out the homework folder. This increases the value of escape for
your client

Transitive (CMO-T) – A stimulus that establishes or abolishes the need for another stimulus
Ex. If you are given a piece of paper to write with, the value of a pencil goes up

Surrogate (CMO-S) – A stimulus is paired with another motivating operation and

gains its properties
Ex. You always get tired at 9pm, and go to bed around then. Today, you drank a late coffee, and
don’t plan to go to sleep until midnight. Whenever the clock shows 9pm, however, sleep
increases in value even though you aren’t tired.

B-13 Define and Provide Examples of Rule-Governed and Contingency Shaped Behavior
The two types of operant behavior

Rule-governed behavior – Behavior that is under the control of a verbal three-term

contingency, or rule
Ex. You do not eat expired food because you know you could get sick.
Ex. You wear a collared shirt to the fancy restaurant because the sign says “no t-shirts”

Contingency shaped behavior – Behavior is under the control of consequences

Ex. You arrived at work at 8am to find fresh coffee brewed. You now get to work at 8am
everyday

B-14 Verbal Behavior and Verbal Operants

Verbal behavior is reinforced by another person’s behavior. Verbal behavior includes verbal operants.

Mand – A request made by the speaker

Evoked by an MO
Reinforced by the requested item
Ex. A child is hungry and asks for a carrot

Tact – The speaker labels something in the environment

Evoked by a non-verbal SD
Reinforced by a generalized condition reinforcer
Ex. You see a cow on a road trip, and you say “cow”
Impure tact: when the response is evoked by an MO and nonverbal stimulus
 Echoic – The speaker repeats what they hear
Evoked by a verbal SD, point-to-point correspondence, formal similarity
Reinforced by a generalized conditioned reinforcer
Ex. Very common in ASD. Repeating of words, sentences, phrases etc.

Intraverbal – The speaker responds to another person in conversation

Evoked by a verbal SD, no point-to-point correspondence, may have formal similarity
Social reinforcement

Textual – Reading a sign, a book, etc.

Evoked by a non-verbal SD, point-to-point correspondence, no formal similarity
Generalized conditioned reinforcement
Ex. A stop sign, a passage in a book

Transcription – Writing down something that is spoken

Evoked by a verbal SD, point-to-point correspondence, no formal similarity
Generalized conditioned reinforcement
Ex. Dictating something, taking notes

Autoclitic – Modifies other verbal behaviors

Ex. “I think” “I see” “I hear” modify the phrases that come after them

B-15 Define and Provide Examples of Derived Stimulus Relations

Untrained relationships between stimuli. When a stimulus relationship is formed that was untrained it is
considered stimulus equivalence.

Reflexivity – A=A, matching exact samples

Ex. A blue square to another blue square, the letter A to another letter A

Symmetry – A=B and B=A, matching samples that aren’t exact

Ex. The word “dog” to a picture of a dog, the color red to a stop sign

Transitivity – A=B, B=C, therefore A=C. The highest level of stimulus relations
Ex. The word “dog” (A) to a picture of a dog (B). The picture of a dog (B) to a real dog (C).
The word “dog” (A) to a real dog (C)

C-1 Establish Operational Definitions of Behavior

Describe EXACTLY what you intend to measure
Operationally defined behavior must be directly observable and measurable
Consider what the behavior looks like (topography)
Consider the function (escape/avoidance, attention, tangible, automatic R+)
Do not use subjective language: “The client felt angry today”. Not measurable
 Be specific! “Johnny hit his brother 5 times” INSTEAD OF “Johnny was aggressive today”

C-2 Distinguish Among Direct, Indirect, and Product Measures of Behavior

Three different ways to record behavior data

Direct – Observe the target behavior as it happens. Take data on the behavior as it happens.
Ex. Taking frequency data on how often your client raises their hand

Indirect – Interviews, checklists, rating scales, surveys. Subjective information about the
behavior. You are not observing the behavior as it happens.
Ex. Interviewing a parent about their daughter’s texting behavior

Product – Permanent product. Measuring the result, product, or outcome of a behavior. What
effect did the behavior have on the environment. You are not directly observing the behavior as
it occurs.
Ex. A clean room. A completed test. A hole in the wall.

C-3 Measure Occurrence (Count, Frequency, Rate, Percentage)

How many times a behavior occurs. This is the dimension of repeatability.

Count/Frequency – The number of times a response/behavior occurs. How many.

Ex. You ate 10 peanuts. You drank four drinks. You stood up three times.

Rate – Frequency with a time component added. Frequency per time.

Ex. You ate 10 peanuts PER minute. Adding the minute makes it rate.
Ex. You hit your brother four times PER session. Per session makes it rate.

Percentage – a rate, number, or amount in per hundred (percentage is considered a derivative

measure along with trials-to-criterion)
Ex. You made 6/10 shots, or 60%

C-4 Measure Temporal Dimensions of Behavior (duration, latency, interresponse time)

Temporal Extent – How long; duration
Temporal Locus – Where the behavior occurs at a certain point in time; latency, IRT

Duration – How long the behavior lasts from onset to offset.

Ex. Your trip took four hours. Your order took 10 minutes.

Latency – The time between the presentation of the SD/stimulus and the start of the response
Ex. Your alarm goes off and it takes you three minutes to start to get out of bed
Ex. Your wife tells you to pick up the kitchen, and it takes you 10 minutes to get up
 IRT – The time in between the end of one response to the start of the next
Ex. Two hours passed between putting out the last cigarette, and lighting the next one
SD → R1 → R2
Latency IRT
C-5 Measure the Strength of Behavior (topography, magnitude)
The form of the behavior (differs from the function)

Topography – What the behavior looks like

Ex. “The client struck me with an open palm making contact with my shoulder”
Magnitude – The intensity or severity of the behavior
Ex. – “The client engaged in protest, but the intensity was very low”
Ex. – “The client engaged in severe tantrum behavior today”

C-6 Measure Trials to Criterion

The number of opportunities (trials) needed to achieve the predetermined level of success (criterion)
Ex. The mastery level is 6 correct matches. It takes your client 10 tries to get 6 matches. The
trials to criterion were 10.

C-7 Design and Implement Sampling Procedures (Interval Recording and Time Sampling)
Often referred to as discontinuous measurement
Interval recording – an interval is specific length of time when data will be taken
Partial Interval Recording – If the behavior occurs at all during the interval, it is a response
Ex. 20 second intervals, the behavior happens for 5 seconds, it is a response
Ex. 10 seconds intervals, the behavior doesn’t happen, no response

Whole Interval Recording – If the behavior occurs for the entire interval, it is a response
Ex. 20 second intervals, the behavior happens for 20 seconds, it is a response
Ex. 10 second intervals, the behavior happens for 9 seconds, no response

Time sampling – taking data at a specific moment in time

Momentary Time Sampling – If the behavior happens at the end of the interval, it is a response
Ex. 20 second intervals, the behavior happens at the 20 second mark, response
Ex. 10 second intervals, the behavior happens at the 8 second mark, no response

PLACHECK (Planned Activity Check) – Recording the number of participants engaged in the
activity at the end of an interval
Ex. 5-minute intervals, you look up and 8 out of 10 students are engaged in work

C-8 Evaluate the Validity and Reliability of Measurement Procedures

Data must be Accurate, Valid, and Reliable

Accurate – The collected data truthfully reflects what was measured

Ex. You record frequency data on blueberries eaten. The client ate 10 blueberries, you
recorded 10 blueberries eaten. This data is accurate.
 Valid – The collected data is taken for the correct or intended behavior
Ex. You want to record the length of time it takes for your client to complete a
worksheet, but instead you record how long it takes for them to start the worksheet.
This data is not valid.

Reliable – The collected data is produced repeatedly if the measurement system does not
change
Ex. If your client eats 10 blueberries every day, you reliably record 10 data points every
day. This data is reliable.

C-9 Select a Measurement System to Obtain Representative Data Given the Dimensions of Behavior
and the Logistics of Observing and Recording
BCBAs should chose the most appropriate measurement system that will record the most accurate, valid
and reliable data based on the circumstances surrounding the behavior, and the behavior itself.

Continuous Measurement – Captures every instance of behavior (frequency, duration, rate,

latency, IRT). The truest form of measurement. However, it may not always be possible given
time or resource constraints.

Discontinuous Measurement – Captures only some instances of behavior. Not as true as

continuous measurement (Time sampling, interval recording). Better used in group settings, or
when only recording for a short period of time. Behavior could be over or underestimated.

Event Recording – How many times a behavior occurs. A very simple method of recording
behavior. Behaviors must have a clear beginning and end. Bad for behaviors that are on-going or
continuous.

C-10 Graph Data to Communicate Relevant Quantitative Relations (equal-interval, bar, cumulative
record)
Graphing data is an essential part of visual analysis
Visual analysis is the primary method of data analysis in ABA
Equal-Interval Graph – graphs where the distance between two consecutive points on the X and Y axis
represent the same value
First, data is collected including times, participants, target behaviors, phases, etc
Then, data is graphed based on how you want to analyze the data

Ex. Line graphs, bar graphs, cumulative records, scatterplots

Non-example: Standard Celeration Chart (semilogarithmic)

Line Graph – The most common form of graph in ABA. Based on the cartesian plane.
The x-axis represents the passage of time, and the y-axis represents the behavior. Data points
are connected.
Ex. The most common graph used in ABA
 Bar Graph – Rectangular bars replace individual points representing data
Ex. You want to know what item was chosen the most in your classroom

Cumulative Record – A continuous and ever-increasing data path that accumulates as data
points are recorded. A steeper slope represents an increased response rate.

Scatterplot – A distribution of data points across a data set. X and Y are relative to each other.
Ex. You want to find out what time of day the behavior occurs the most

Semi-logarithmic Graph (standard Celeration) – Used in precision teaching by Ogden Lindsley.

Used to chart fluency.

C-11 Interpret Graphed Data

Graphed data is interpreted via Visual Analysis
Visual analysis is used to read graphs in ABA
Analyze the level, the variability, and the trend

Level – Where data points are relative to the y-axis. Level can be low, moderate, or high
A change in level represents a change in the height of the data points.
 Variability – The amount of variation between data point. The range of data points around the
average of the data points. Variability can be high or low.

Trend – The direction the data path is heading on the graph. Trend can be increasing, decreasing
or no trend.

D-1 Distinguish Between Independent and Dependent Variables

Systematically manipulating variables during experimentation
Independent Variable (IV) – the variable that is manipulated, changed, introduced, or removed
Ex. You want to figure out the ideal amount of salt to add to your recipe. Salt is the IV
Ex. You want to increase behavior. You try different reinforcement schedules (IVs)

Dependent Variable (DV) – the variable that is dependent on other factors such as the IV
Ex. The soup is the DV, and the salt is the IV that affects the soup
Ex. The behavior is the DV that changes based on the IV

Extraneous Variables – variables not under investigation (not the IV) that can impact
the outcome of the experiment
 Confounding Variables – A type of extraneous variable that impacts the DV, and is
related to the IV

Experimental Control – The IV controls the DV. We can prove that our manipulation is changing
the dependent variable. We have experimental control in this case.

D-2 Distinguish Between Internal and External Validity

Internal Validity – We are reasonably certain that changes in the DV (behavior, etc.) are a result
of the intervention/manipulation and no other uncontrolled factors. Our systematic
manipulations are affecting the behavior and have control over the behavior.
Ex. Withdrawal designs. When we had the intervention, bx changes. When we remove the
intervention, bx goes back to how it was before.

External Validity – The results of our experiment are generalizable to other

subjects/settings/behaviors

D-3 Identify Defining Features of Single-Subject Experimental Designs

Single-subject designs possess defining characteristics

Steady state responding: a pattern of responding that is low in variability

Steady state strategy: Exposing a learner to the same condition while eliminating extraneous
variables until a steady state of responding is achieved

-Individuals serve as their own control: the results of each condition are compared to the
participant’s own data
-Prediction: the hypothesis related to what the outcome will be when measured
-Verification: showing that baseline data would remain consistent if the IV wasn’t manipulated
-Replication: repeating the IV manipulation to show similar results across multiple phases

D-5 Use Single-Subject Experimental Designs

Reversal/Withdrawal/A-B-A: Record a baseline, introduce an IV, withdraw the IV, baseline
again. This design demonstrates experimental control.

Advantages: demonstrating experimental control

Disadvantages: some behaviors cannot be reversed, ethical concerns, sequence effects,
can you reverse the intervention?

Sequence effects – The impact of a prior condition on the following condition

Multiple Baseline Design: Multiple baselines are used to analyze IV effects across:
Settings
Behaviors
Participants

Advantages: no withdrawal, examine multiple DVs at a time

Disadvantages: no experimental control demonstration
Multiple Probe: Just like multiple baseline, but only certain data points are observed and
measured during baseline. Disconnected data path.
 Delayed Multiple Baseline: A variation where initial baseline begins, but subsequent baselines
are staggered or delayed

Alternating Treatment Design: Rapid and random/semirandom alternating conditions (two or

more). Equal opportunity for conditions to be present during measurement.

Advantages: No withdrawal, multiple IVs rapidly, helps reduce sequence effects, no baseline
needed
Disadvantages: Carry over between alternating IVs can impact measurement, multiple
treatment interference

Changing Criterion Design: after baseline, treatment is delivered in a series of ascending or

descending phases meant to increase or decrease a behavior already in the learner’s repertoire
1) Length of phase: each phase should be long enough to achieve stable responding
2) Magnitude of criterion change: Criterion change should be varied to demonstrate
experimental control
3) Number of criterion changes: the more times the behavior changes to meet a
criterion, the more experimental control is demonstrated

Advantages: Only one target behavior required, does not require reversal
Disadvantages: Target behavior must be in the learner’s repertoire, not appropriate for shaping

D-6 Describe Rationales for Conducting Comparative, Component, and Parametric Analyses
 Comparative Analysis: Comparing two different types of treatments (multielement, alternating
Treatments)
Ex. Comparing DRO to DRA

Component Analysis: Analyzing what part of the treatment package is impacting behavior
change i.e. What medicine is making a difference?
Drop-out Analysis: entire treatment package is presented, then components are
removed systematically
Add-in Analysis: Each component is analyzed before the treatment package is delivered

Parametric Analysis: Analyzing what value of a certain treatment is most effective.

i.e., What dosage of a medicine is most appropriate?

Ethics
The BACB ethics code is dense and lengthy. I have highlighted the major points of each ethics task item.
For the entire BACB ethics code, visit the BACB website: Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2020). Ethics
code for behavior analysts. Littleton, CO: Author. Ethics Code

E-1 Introduction
We have an obligation to act in a way that reflects positively on the field of behavior analysis
- We must continue to educate ourselves
- We must carry ourselves in a professional manner
- We have an obligation to do what is right, and do no harm
Core principles:
1. Benefit others
2. Behave with integrity
3. Treat others with compassion, dignity, and respect
4. Ensure competence

E-2 Responsibility as a Professional

Behavior analysts have an obligation to develop themselves professionally
- Promote truthful behavior and avoid creating fraudulent or illegal situations
- Accountable for their actions while practicing within scope and competence
- Remain aware of current issues, trends, and developments in the field
- Continuing education through conferences, journals, research
- Avoid multiple relationships, exploitative relationships, and discrimination
- Gifts to clients, stakeholders, supervisees, or trainees must be less than $10 in value
- No sexual relationships with clients or stakeholders for a minimum of two years after service
ends
- Must document that professional relationship has ended before engaging in a relationship
with supervisees or trainees
- Do not accept supervisees or trainees with whom they’ve had a relationship with until six
months have passed
E-3 Responsibility in Practice
Provide effective treatment, protect confidential information, ensure accuracy in billing and reporting
- Share information only when consent is obtained, to protect the client, to resolve a
contract, or when compelled by law or court order
- Behavior analysts use non-technical language and ensure the client understands when
explaining assessments, interventions, and plans
- Behavior analysts collaborate with colleagues
- Always consider medical needs first
- Select interventions that are conceptually systematic, based on data, and minimize risk of
harm
- Continually evaluate behavior-change interventions
- Remove or minimize environmental variables that may interfere with service delivery
- Normalization – an approach to intervention where typical settings and procedures that are
socially valid and relevant to the cultural norm are increasingly used to help integrate
individuals into society

E-4 Responsibility to Clients and Stakeholders

The client includes the individual receiving services, and those with a stake in the outcome
- Act in the best interests of clients. Identify stakeholders from the onset.
- Only accept clients within your scope of practice
- A signed service agreement must be in place before service (includes financial agreement)
- Place client welfare above all else when consulting for third-parties
- Document professional activities throughout service delivery
- Make referrals based on needs of clients. Facilitate services to avoid interruption or
disruption
- When to consider discontinuing services:
The client has met all goals
The client is not benefiting from the services
The team is exposed to harmful conditions
The client/stakeholder requests discontinuation
Stakeholders are not complying with interventions
Services are no longer funded

E-5 Responsibility to Supervisees and Trainees

Behavior analysts do not exploit their supervisees and trainees
- Comply with supervision requirements including competence, volume, documentation, and
accountability
- Supervision and training should be behavior-analytic in nature including the use of
reinforcement and feedback
- Address diversity (age, disability, ethnicity, gender, etc.)
- Monitor performance using data collection. Communicate and evaluate and problems that
arise during training or supervision
- Evaluate effectiveness of supervision
- Facilitate continuity of supervision and appropriately terminate supervision
E-6 Responsibility in Public Statements
Behavior analysts represent themselves and the field when making public statements
- Protect the rights of clients, stakeholders, supervisees, and trainees in public statements
- Ensure confidentiality in public statements
- Public statements should be truthful and avoid exaggeration
- Behavior analysts are responsible for public statements made about them even if they
aren’t the ones making the statement
- Do not advertise nonbehavioral services as behavioral services. A disclaimer must be used
when providing non-behavioral services
- Do not solicit testimonials from current clients or stakeholders (unsolicited reviews where
analysts cannot control content are allowed, but content should not be used or shared by
the analyst)
- You can solicit from former clients, but you must identify the statements as solicited or
unsolicited, and disclose the relationship
- Testimonials may be used from former or current clients for non-advertising purposes
- Do not post clients on personal social media accounts. Consent must be obtained for
professional accounts including a disclaimer
E-7 Responsibility in Research
Conduct research within the scope of all policy and law
- Must be approved by a formal research committee
- Client welfare must be prioritized during research
- Prioritize confidentiality in research
- Disclose any conflicts of interest in research and publication
- Give credit where credit is due. Do not plagiarize. Do not falsify data

F-1 Review records and available data (education, medical, historical) at the outset of the case
Record review is an important form of indirect assessment that should be conducted before designing
interventions and treatments

Education – School records including IEPs, 504 plans, MDTs, grades, and other services including
accommodations
Ex. Your client has an IEP and receives an hour of speech and OT per week in school

Medical – Medications, diagnoses, allergies, and other relevant medical histories

- All medical causes should be ruled out first when behaviors are observed
Ex. If your client wets their bed unexpectedly, consult prior medical needs first
Ex. If your client starts engaging in self-injurious behavior, rule out pain first

Historical – Prior ABA services, and other treatments

- Consult prior behavior plans, treatment plans, and skill acquisition plans
- Understand what worked and didn’t work in the past
- Understand the history of the client (or company if applicable)
F-2 Determine the need for behavior-analytics services
Before accepting a case, analysts must determine several factors including:
- Is there a need for behavior analytic services?
- Does the analyst have time to take on the case?
- Does the analyst have the competency to take on the case?
- Does the need fall within the scope of behavior analysis?
- Does the analyst have resources (RBTs, materials, etc.) to take the case?

Several factors to consider when evaluating the client’s specific needs

- Behaviors of interest and the impact on day-to-day living
- The impact the client has on those around them
- Is ABA the best option? Have medical options been exhausted?
- Are the behaviors socially significant i.e. the behaviors have an impact on the client’s life
and aren’t just “different” or “abnormal”

F-3 Identify and prioritize socially significant behavior-change goals

Skills and behaviors should all be socially significant (remember Applied in the 7 dimensions)
Socially Significant - Behaviors that have immediate or long-term benefits
Behaviors that enable the client to contact the natural environment
Behaviors that are important to the client, the family, and society

Identifying Goals – Indirectly through interviews and surveys, or evaluating developmental

charts
Directly through observations

F-4 Conduct assessments of relevant skill strengths and deficits

There are several assessments available to behavior analysts that help identify strengths and deficits
- VB-Mapp, ABLLS, PDDBI, PEAK, SRS, and many more
- Consider both strengths and weaknesses when designing treatment
- Strengths and deficits help guide your skill acquisition plans

Skill deficit – The client is unable to do it under any circumstances

Ex. You offer a person a million dollars to play the star-spangled banner on the piano, and they
cannot do it without training

Performance problem – The skill is in the client’s repertoire, but they cannot perform it when
needed
Ex. The person is able to play the star-spangled banner at home, but cannot during a recital

F-5 Conduct preference assessments

Preference assessments ARE NOT reinforcer assessments
- Preference assessments identify potential reinforcers
- Just because something is preferred does not make it a reinforcer
Reinforcer assessment: direct method of presenting stimuli contingent on a response and measuring
how the stimuli changes the behavior

Interview – Ask the client, or stakeholders, what they like

Free Operant – observing and timing how long a client engages with an item or items
Ex. You allow a client to roam free in their room, and you record the items they engage
with without giving any direction

Single Stimulus – Presenting one item at a time and recording the response
Ex. You have three items. You present each one at a time and record the response
Remember – one item at a time!

Forced Choice – Presenting two items or activities and asking the client to choose one
Ex. You have items A, B, and C. You present items A and B together, then B and C, then A
and C. You record which one the client selected from each pair, and establish a
hierarchy
Remember – two items at a time!

Multiple Stimulus w/ Replacement – items are presented, learner choose an item, that item is
put back and unchosen items are replaced
Ex. You have four items that you lay on a table. Your learner chooses item A. You put
item A back on the table, and replace items B, C, and D with new items.
Remember – three or more items at a time!
Multiple Stimulus w/o Replacement – items are presented, learner chooses an item, that item
is taken out and the other items are rearranged
Ex. You have five items on the table. Your client selects item B. You remove item B, and then
rearrange the remaining four items. Repeat until all items have been chosen.

F-6 Describe the common functions of problem behavior

Behavior typically occurs to gain something or get rid of something
Why behavior occurs is called the function of the behavior
Escape/Avoidance – individual gets out of, or avoids, doing something they don’t want to do
Ex. Johnny swipes materials when at the table
Attention – individual behaves to get attention from teachers, parents, peers, etc.
Ex. Johnny screams in your face while you are on your phone
Access to a tangible – The individual behaves to gain access to an item or activity
Ex. Johnny slaps his face until mom gives him a cookie
Automatic/Sensory - the individual behaves because it feels good
Ex. Johnny chews on his toys instead of playing with them

F-7 Conduct a descriptive assessment of problem behavior

A descriptive assessment is essentially a direct observation of the problem behavior in the natural
environment
You will record data as the behavior occurs in an uncontrived setting (naturally occurring)
Types of recording – Typically, ABC data will be taken on the observed behavior. Event recording
is also frequently used.
F-8 Conduct a functional analysis of problem behavior
A functional assessment is the highest level of identifying the function of a behavior (after direct, and
indirect FBAs)
A functional assessment involves systematically manipulating antecedents and consequences in order to
determine the function of a target behavior
Conditions:
Alone – Used to assess automatic reinforcement. The participant is left alone. If the behavior
continues at high rates, the function is likely automatic/sensory

Attention – Used to assess attention. When a behavior occurs, attention is given to the
behavior. If the behavior continues to occur, or increases, attention is likely a function.

Escape – Used to assess escape/avoidance. When a behavior occurs, the stimulus is stopped or
removed. If the behavior stops when the stimulus is removed, or resumes when the stimulus is
added again, the function is likely escape/avoidance.

Play/Control – The participant has free access to reinforcement. Low rates of the target
behavior are expected in this condition.

F-9 Interpret functional assessment data

FBA, or functional behavior assessments, help us identify target behaviors and potential functions
Based on FBA data, we can hypothesize, and start to identify functions of behaviors
Indirect – Lowest form of FBA. Interviews, checklists, surveys. Subjective interpretation based
on provided information. You should always use a direct observation in addition to an indirect
observation.

Direct – Observing the person of interest and recording data on the behavioral occurrences. ABC
data, event recording, narrative recording is all applicable. Interpret based on collected data
and observed values. The standard form of FBA. Can help hypothesize a function of behavior.

Anecdotal observation – Observer records a descriptive, sequence account of behaviors,

antecedents, and consequences (also known as ABC recording)

Functional Analysis – The highest form of FBA. Manipulate antecedents and consequences to
determine a function of behavior. Interpret the recorded data. The most accurate, but resource-
intensive, way of identifying functions.

G-1 Use positive and negative reinforcement procedures to strengthen behavior

Reinforcement increases or maintains future behavior
Positive reinforcement – A stimulus presented after a response that increase that response in
the future
Ex. Praise, Tokens, Food,
 Negative reinforcement – A stimulus removed after a response that increases that response in
the future
Ex. Break, reducing the demand, removing the demand

Habilitation – A person’s repertoire has been changed so that reinforcers are maximized and
punishers are minimized

Habituation – A decrease in response to a repeated presentation of a stimulus (often related to

respondent behavior)

G-2 Use interventions based on motivating operations and discriminative stimuli

Motivating operations change the value of a reinforcer, SDs signal they are available
These are antecedent interventions
It is possible that an MO is present, but an SD is not and vice versa
Ex. I may want chicken tacos because I am hungry (MO), but chicken tacos (SD) may not be present

Antecedent – antecedents are manipulated before the bx occurs

Ex. Johnny makes a huge mess with the ball pit. The ball pit is removed before session
MO – altering the value/effectiveness of stimulus, object, or event (deprivation/satiation)
Ex. You haven’t eaten in 12 hours. Food is a more effective reinforcer
Ex. You just ate 30 minutes ago. Food loses its value as a reinforcer.
Discriminative Stimuli – cue or stimulus that is present when a bx is reinforced
Ex. “point to red” is the SD. Client is reinforced for pointing to red.
Stimulus Delta – a stimulus in the presence of which a behavior has not produced
reinforcement in the past

G-3 Establish and use conditioned reinforcers

Conditioned reinforcers are neutral stimuli that are paired with reinforcers to gain reinforcing
properties. They require a learning history
Ex. Tokens, praise, money
Ex. I know my client likes Cheetos, but I want them to not eat so many. I want to use praise instead.
Now, I deliver praise, and then a Cheeto, to my client. Praise eventually takes on reinforcing properties.
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers – GCRs are reinforcers that can be used in a variety of
situations and for a variety of behaviors. Tokens are maybe the most common GCR other than
praise in ABA.

G-4 Use stimulus and response prompts and fading (errorless, most to least, least to most)
Prompts are based on a hierarchy.
Stimulus prompts act on the stimulus being used
Ex. Positional prompts, changing the shape or size of a stimulus
Response prompts act on the desired response. You evoke the response you want to see
Ex. Verbal, modeling, gestural prompts, physical
 Errorless prompts – You block and redirect a response before the response is incorrect
Ex. If you say “point to blue,” you would block and redirect any attempts at pointing to red
Useful when first teaching a skill, or for young learners

Most to least – Start with the most intrusive prompt, and slowly fade to less intrusive
Ex. Start with physical prompts, then model, then gesture, then verbally prompt

Least to most – Start with the least intrusive prompt, and increase the prompt intensity
Ex. Start with a verbal prompt, slowly make your way to a physical prompt

Graduated guidance – A type of physical prompting. Add as much physical prompting is needed,
and then fade immediately

Prompt delay – Increase the time between the SD and the prompt

Prompt fading – Removing the prompt systematically to transfer control to the real SD.
Prevents prompt dependency.

G-5 Use modeling and imitation training

Modeling is demonstrating a skill or ability for a learner
Ex. “Here, let me show you how to dice this onion”
Imitating is the learner copying a skill or ability
Ex. The learner observes me dicing the onion, and then does it themselves
- Imitation is evoked by a nonverbal SD
- True imitation is not evoked by “copy me”
Shaping is an important part of modeling and imitation

G-6 Use instructions and rules

Instructions and rules both inform a learner of what they should or shouldn’t be doing
Instructions and rules can be vocal, written, typed, etc.
Instructions – A response prompt that tells you what to do
Ex. Instructions on the back of a brownie box
Ex. Instructions on a worksheet

Rules – A verbal statement of a contingency

Behavior is not maintained by the actual consequence, but rather the stated contingency
Ex. No Loitering
Ex. Wait 30 minutes before going in the pool after you eat

G-7 Use shaping

Using differential reinforcement on successive approximations of behavior
Shaping is excellent for functional communication training
Successive approximations – steps or smaller responses that lead to a final or terminal response
 The final response is what we are teaching
Ex. If I am teaching the word firetruck, I would first reinforce the just the sound “fi”, then I
would only reinforce for “fire”, then only “firetr”, and finally “firetruck”
- As the skill builds, put earlier versions of the skill on extinction. Only reinforcer versions
closer to the terminal behavior

G-8 Use chaining

A behavior chain is created using a task analysis. A task analysis breaks down a complex behavior into
steps which creates the behavior chain
Cooper et al. recommends three ways to conduct a task analysis:
1) Observe someone competent performing the sequence
2) Consult with experts or persons skilled in performing the task
3) Perform the behavior yourself

Forward Chaining – Teaching and reinforcing the first step first, and prompting through the rest
of the chain. Teach and reinforce starting from the beginning
Ex. Hand washing: I first teach you to turn on the water, and reinforce for that. I prompt through
the rest of the steps.

Backwards Chaining – Teaching and reinforcing the last step first, and prompting the other
steps. Teach and reinforce from the end.
Ex. Shoe tying: I prompt you through the process, and reinforce for pulling the strings tightly.
Escape often functions as the reinforcer here.

Total Task Chaining – Performing the entire chain, and only teaching specific steps.
Useful when most of the chain is known, or the ability level is high for the client.
Ex. Making a sandwich, but the client forgets the cheese which is a middle step

Behavior Chain Interruption Strategy – Purposely changing or interrupting a chain in order to

evoke a new or novel response.
Behavior Chain with a Limited Hold – A behavior chain that involves one or more steps that
must be completed within a certain amount of time (the limited hold)

G-9 Use discrete-trial, free-operant, and naturalistic teaching arrangements

Discrete trial teaching is traditional ABA teaching with a clear beginning middle and end
DTT: SD -> P -> Response -> Consequence -> Pause -> Reintroduce SD
- DTT is great for teaching and strengthening behaviors
- Many targets can be ran very quickly
- Not great for generalizing skills
Distractor trial – one target, two unknown choices
Random rotation – one mastered target, and one trial target
Maintenance – run mastered targets

Naturalistic: Taking advantage of naturally occurring teaching opportunities

 - Also known as incidental teaching
- Great for generalization
- Use the environment to your advantage (people, places, things)

Free-operant: No SD is necessary for the response to occur. The response can happen multiple times

G-10 Teach simple and conditioned discriminations

Discrimination is simply the ability to identify a stimulus amongst other stimuli
Discrimination is taught through differential reinforcement
Simple – A single stimulus has control over a response
Ex. You grab a sprite instead of a coke
Ex. You buy the red shirt and not the green shirt

Conditional – An additional stimulus is present when a response comes under the control of an
SD
Ex. You grab a sprite only after your friend says, “can you grab me a sprite?”
Ex. You buy the red shirt because your date said her favorite color is red

G-11 Use Skinner’s analysis to teach verbal behavior

Skinner says that verbal behavior is reinforced by another person’s behavior (socially mediated)
Verbal behavior is defined by its function, and not its form
- Verbal behavior does not only mean vocal behavior. Sign language, AAC devices, written
word, picture exchanges, etc. are all examples of verbal behavior
- What function does the behavior serve?

Mediating verbal behavior

Mands: Reinforce requests with the requested item. Use prompts and differential
reinforcement to teach appropriate manding.
Tacts: Tacting is labeling in the presence of a nonverbal stimulus. Transfer control of a tact
from a verbal SD to a nonverbal SD using prompts, MOs, and reinforcement.
Echoics: Echoics are the repetition of words, phrases, or sentences by a speaker.
Reinforce with general conditioned reinforcers.
Intraverbals: Intraverbals are conversational verbal behaviors under the control of verbal
SDs. Reinforce with verbal reinforcement, or GCRs.

G-12 Use equivalence-based instruction

Equivalence-based instruction is the use of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity to teach concepts
For example, if I want to teach the category of fruit to students, I would first teach them that a picture of
an apple goes with an identical picture of an apple (A=A). Then, have them match the picture of an apple
to a picture of a group of fruits (A=B) all while labeling these items. The idea is that the student would
derive that the picture of an apple equals the spoken word fruit.
G-13 Use the high-probability instructional sequence
Presenting the learner with multiple easy requests before presenting the difficult request
- Also known as the high-p sequence, or the high-p low-p request sequence
Ex. You want your learner to answer “2+2.” You say “clap your hands”, “touch your nose”,
“what’s 2+2”
- The behaviors in high-p sequence should be in the learner’s repertoire
- Targets behavior momentum which describes the rate of responding and resistance to
change due to reinforcement conditions

Premack principle – using access to a highly preferred behavior as a reinforcer for a non-
preferred behavior

G-14 Use reinforcement procedures to weaken behavior (DRA, FCT, DRO, DRL, NCR)
Differential Reinforcement – reinforcing a desired bx while withholding R+ for an undesirable bx
Ex. You reinforce a child asking nicely for an apple, but put screaming on extinction
DRI – DR of incompatible behaviors. Replacement bx can’t occur at the same time as old bx
Ex. Kevin elopes from his seat. Kevin is only reinforced if he is sitting in his seat.
Kevin can’t be in his seat, and out of his seat, at the same time. (incompatible)
DRA - DR of alternate behaviors. Replacement bx can occur at same time as old bx
Ex. Karen screams the answer, instead of raising her hand. She is only reinforced when
She raises her hand. Karen can scream and raiser her hand at the same time (alt bx)
DRO – DR of other behaviors. Reinforcement occurs in the absence of target bx
Ex. Julie pulls hair. If Julie doesn’t pull hair for 3 minutes she is reinforced
FCT – Functional communication training. Reinforcing functional communication in place of
maladaptive behavior
Ex. You teach your client to ask for a break, instead of eloping
DRL – DR of lower rates of behavior. You are not eliminating the behavior. Reinforce if the bx
happens less than a specified amount. You can use IRT or a criterion and interval for DRL
Ex. If Timmy gets up less than 3 times during class, he gets 10-minute break on the
computer
DRH – DR of higher rates of behavior. Reinforce if the bx happens more than a specified
amount after a set interval
Ex. If your client answers more than 10 math problems within 5 minutes, they earn a
cookie
DRD – DR of diminishing rates of behavior. Lowering rates of behavior reinforced only if
behavior occurs less than a set criterion during a set interval
G-15 Use extinction
Discontinuing reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior
- Make all parties aware of the potential effects of extinction including extinction bursts
- Ensure that it is ethical to put behaviors on extinction (self-injurious, safety, etc.)
- Plan for spontaneous recovery
- Extinction should occur as close to 100% of the time as possible in order to be effective

G-16 Use positive and negative punishment (time out, response cost, overcorrection)
Punishment reduces the future occurrence of behavior. Punishment is not permanent
Time out: Temporary removal or restriction to a reinforcer
- Exclusionary time out: the child is removed from the environment all together
- Non-exclusionary time out: the child stays in the environment, but R+ is removed
- Partition time out: exclusion procedure where the person remains within in the setting, but
stays behind a wall, shield, or barrier that restricts the view
- Time out ribbon: a child wears a ribbon or wristband that becomes discriminative for
receiving reinforcement

Response cost: Removing reinforcement in the presence of a maladaptive behavior

Ex. You remove a token when your client protests their work

Positive practice overcorrection: Have the client practice the correct behavior repeatedly after
engaging in the maladaptive behavior
Ex. Your client throws their plate in the trash. You have them practice throwing the plate in the
sink

Negative practice overcorrection: Have the client perform the maladaptive behavior repeatedly
after engaging in maladaptive behavior

Restitution overcorrection: Have the client return the environment to a better condition than
before the behavior was displayed

G-17 Use token Economies

Token economies are one of the most common interventions in ABA
Tokens are given value based on pairing with back-up reinforcers
Back-up reinforcers are what clients exchange tokens for
Response Cost: removing a token in response to a maladaptive behavior (form of negative
punishment)
Tokens are generalized conditioned reinforcers. They can be used in a variety of situations with a variety
of behaviors
Once tokens are obtained, they are exchanged for back-up reinforcers

Level system – participants move up or down through levels contingent on behavior. Higher levels are
more difficult or require more response but allow access to more preferred reinforcement
G-18 Use group contingencies
Group contingencies involve one person in the group, the whole group, or each individual in the group
Dependent – This group contingency is met when one person, or a select few people, engage in
the target behavior. This is often called the “hero” contingency.
- Can lead to bullying and other negative social implications

Independent – This group contingency rewards each individual in the group when they engage
in the target behavior. They do not rely on other members of the group.
- If the person doesn’t care about the reinforcer, there might be no motivation
Interdependent – This group contingency rewards the group when the entire group engages in
the target behavior. This hinges on the whole group performing the response.
- Individuals who meet the criteria may not get rewarded

G-19 Use contingency contracting

Commonly referred to as a behavior contract
Required items:
- Description of the task (what needs to be done by who and when)
- What is the reward (when is it delivered, how big)
- Task record (routine assessment of the task progress)
- Consequence of not completing the task’
- Signatures by all involved parties

G-20 Use self-management strategies

Self-management is the personal application of behavior change that produces a change in behavior
Sometimes referred to as “self-control”
Self-control: delaying gratification by engaging in a response that will produce a larger reward
later on a delayed schedule or behavior in a certain way to change subsequent behavior
Self-monitoring: a person observes and responds to their behavior they are trying to change
Self-evaluation: a person evaluates their own performance relative to another standard
Self-instruction: self-talk, an individual prompts themselves to engage in a response
Mass Practice: performing the undesired behavior repeatedly in an effort to reduce the
behavior
Habit reversal
Desensitization
Self-management: Personal application of behavior change that produces a desired change in
behavior
Mass practice: Self-directed technique where a person forces themselves to perform an
undesired behavior in order to reduce that behavior

G-21 Use procedures to promote stimulus and response generalization

Generalization is essential to good ABA practice.
Generalization is preforming a skill in an untrained environment
Train loosely: noncritical aspects of the environment are varied
Ex. Keep the environment unstructured and ever-changing
 Indiscriminable contingencies: the learner does not know when reinforcement will come
Ex. Fade reinforcement schedules, keep schedules thin
Multiple exemplars: Practice with many different stimuli and response variations
Ex. The client says their phone number to many different people, and can also write it, or text it
Program common stimuli: Make the teaching setting similar to the generalized setting
Ex. Make the home similar to the classroom
Natural contingencies: Contingencies that occur naturally
Ex. Natural consequences
General case: systematic process for identifying and selecting teaching examples that represent
the full range of what the generalization setting might contain

G-22 Use procedures to promote maintenance

Maintenance is the continued ability to engage in the target response even after teaching is withdrawn
- Fading prompts, instructions, and other antecedent manipulations
- Thinning reinforcement schedules, or removing contrived consequences entirely

H-1 State intervention goals in observable and measurable terms

What do you want to teach? What do you want to reduce? What do you want to accomplish?
Goals should be Objective: Based on data and set criteria. Avoid being subjective.
Observable: Public events. Behaviors and skills that we can see.
Measurable: Public events. Behaviors and skills that we can measure.
Clear: Technological. Easily read and understood by others.
Non-examples: State examples of what you ARE NOT measuring
Ex. “Task avoidance does not include looking up from work for less than 10 seconds”
Plan for the short-term and the long-term.

H-2 Identify potential interventions based on assessment results and the best available scientific
evidence
Use all available information to design your interventions and treatment plans
Client preference: Always take into consideration what the client wants and doesn’t want
Assessment results: What did the FBA say? Indirect, direct, and functional analysis data
Scientific evidence: On-going research. You are obligated to remain up-to-date on research in
our field. You can also consult other experts and other practitioners.
Other factors: Preference assessments, medical assessments, prior intervention history

H-3 Recommend intervention goals and strategies based on such factors as client preferences,
supporting environment, risk constraints, and social validity
Consider the client and the client’s environment. What is possible? What isn’t? What do they prefer?
Client preference: The client should always be involved in treatment planning to the fullest
extent possible. This is part of maintaining client dignity
Support environment: Where does treatment take place? Is the environment set-up to handle
your intervention? Will caregivers follow through on the designed interventions?
 Risk constraints: Will anyone be put in harms way due to an intervention?
Social validity: Behaviors and skills are important to the client, the family, and society

H-4 Select acceptable alternative behaviors when target behaviors are decreased
All behavior serves a function. If you get rid of a behavior, you are removing a functional action from the
learner’s repertoire. It is an obligation to replace that behavior with one that is functionally equivalent.
Fair-pair rule: Whenever a behavior is decreased, another behavior must increase in its place
Functional equivalence: The behavior must serve the same function
Ex. If you remove aggression for gaining access to the bathroom, you need to replace it with a
functional equivalent such as communication

H-5 Plan for possible unwanted effects when using reinforcement, extinction, and punishment
Always consider the possible consequences of the interventions you design
Reinforcement: satiating on the reinforcer, a decrease in other functionally equivalent
behaviors that are not receiving reinforcement, reinforcing an undesirable behavior on accident
Difficulty transitioning away from a reinforcer
Ways to avoid: Fade reinforcement quickly, reinforce all functionally-equivalent behaviors, self-
management, use incidental teaching, use a variety of reinforcers

Extinction: The intensity of the extinction burst could be high, it could be unethical and
dangerous to put a behavior on extinction, if a behavior is reinforced during extinction the
reinforcement schedule may change
Resistance to extinction: the frequency at which behavior is emitted during extinction

Ways to avoid: Plan for extinction bursts and spontaneous recovery. Ensure treatment fidelity
before implementing extinction. Ignore the behavior and not the child to avoid emotional
repercussions.

Punishment: Punishment-induced aggression, resistance to punishment, ethical and legal

violations, harm to a client or others

H-6 Monitor client progress and treatment integrity

Treatment integrity/fidelity is the extent to which the treatment is being implemented correctly
Interobserver Agreement (IOA): Empirical way of measuring integrity. Two or more observers
take data on the treatment and then compare their observed values. IOA should be collected for
25%-33% of sessions.
Total Count IOA: Simplest. IOA = smaller count/larger count *100
Ex. Observer 1: 3 instances of bx, Observer 2: 5 instances of bx
IOA – 3/5*100 = 60% IOA

Mean count-per-interval IOA: Break up the observation into intervals. Calculate the
total count IOA for each interval. Add up the IOAs for all intervals and divide by total
number of intervals.
 Interval Observer A Observer B IOA
1 4 3 3/4=75%
2 1 2 1/2=50%
3 5 5 5/5=100%
75% + 50% + 100% = 225%/3 = 75% IOA

Exact count-per-interval IOA: Most strict. Percentage of intervals in which observers

recorded the same count.
Exact IOA/Total trials * 100
Interval 1 A: 1 B: 2 Exact? No
Interval 2 A: 3 B: 3 Exact? Yes
Interval 3 A: 2 B: 3 Exact? No
1 out of 3 intervals have an exact IOA = 1/3 *100% = 33% IOA

Trial-by-trial IOA: The number of intervals or trials in which the observers recorded the
same occurrence or non-occurrence. Either recorded a response or did not record a
response. The total data does not matter, only whether or not there was a response.
Trials in agreement/total trials * 100
Interval 1 A: 0 (no response) B: 0 (no response) Agree? Yes
Interval 2 A: 1 (response) B: 0 (no response) Agree? No
Interval 3 A: 1 (response) B: 1 (response) Agree? Yes
2 trials in agreement/3 total trials * 100 = 67%

H-7 Make data-based decisions about the effectiveness of the intervention and the need for
treatment revision
Effective means producing the desired or intended result
Just because something changes, does not necessarily mean it was the intended result, and that it was
effective
After consulting the data you have three options:
Continue with the intervention (unchanged): there is progress, the treatment is effective, you
want to give it more time without changing it
Continue with the intervention (changed): there may or may not be progress, you like the
treatment, but you want to modify it in some way
Discontinue the intervention: the data indicates the treatment is ineffective. You stop the
treatment, and start to design and implement another
REMEMBER: treatment should be organic. Do not get married to a treatment. If it is ineffective, change
it ASAP.

H-8 Make data-based decisions about the need for ongoing services
The decision to continue services should be data-driven and needs-based
 Data-driven: Does the data indicate that interventions are still needed to increase or decrease
target behaviors? Everything we do should be based on data!!
Needs-based: There are several factors that go into a needs-based assessment. We should
never search for behaviors that need modification. Once goals are met, and no other goals are
identified, it is time to transition services. Things to consider:
- Are services benefiting the client and stakeholders?
- Are we targeting socially significant behaviors?
- Have we failed to achieve any goals?
- Have we failed to make progress?
- Are stakeholders failing to uphold their responsibility to services?

Do not abandon clients: We never abandon clients. If the decision to leave a client is made, a
transition plan should be in place. We should not transition clients based on our personal
preferences.

H-9 Collaborate with others who support and/or provide services to clients
Collaboration is working with others to produce something. In our case, we want to produce positive
and beneficial outcomes.
Multidisciplinary team: a group of individuals who each provide a specific service to clients
Ex. Your client receives ABA, speech, occupational therapy, and attends school. This is their
team.

Share information: While upholding confidentiality agreements, you should share data and
progress information with the rest of the team. You want to be on the same page as his other
practitioners.

Obtain information: Seek out information from other practitioners when necessary.

Attend meetings: If allowed, attend IEP meetings, and outside services that your client receives

Parent training: Parents are part of the team. We must ensure that they are properly trained.

Accept feedback and input: We do not know everything. It is our obligation to accept feedback
and input from others. If the input is not conceptually systematic, offer to take data on the
intervention, and provide the results.

I-1 State the reasons for using behavior-analytics supervision and the potential risks of ineffective
supervision (poor client outcomes, poor supervisee performance)
Behavior-analytic supervision ensures treatment is being provided properly, supervisees are well-
trained, and provides the best chance of optimal outcomes
Treatment drift: when the intervention differs from the original design
 Ex. The reinforcement schedule was FR2 in the beginning. The supervisees are now
implementing VR3 reinforcement schedules. Treatment has started to drift.

Observer drift: the way the outcomes are measured start to change (data collection)
Ex. The supervisees should be measuring protest, but instead they start measuring self-
stimulatory behavior
Ex. Originally, frequency data was the target, but you are now receiving duration data

Reactivity: the treatment or measurement changes when the person being observed is aware
that they are being observed

Procedural integrity: 1. Specify 2. Train 3. Monitor 4. Reinforcer

I-2 Establish clear performance expectations for the supervisor and the supervisee
Supervisees should have clear goals and expectations from the outset of supervision
Supervisors should also have goals in terms of how they will provide supervision
Data collection: Everything should be data-driven. Supervisors and supervisees should have a
data recording system in place to ensure targets are being met, and goals are being mastered.
If goals and expectations are not set, supervision is not appropriate

I-4 Train personnel to competently perform assessment and intervention procedures

Competency-based training ensures service providers are capable of delivery proper service
RBTs are ESSENTIAL in the service-delivery system. The RBT plays a tremendous role in the outcome of
clients.
Describe the skill: What skill are you training? What is the goal when training is over?
Written plan: Outline a plan for your supervisees. What do you hope to accomplish?
Model the skill: Perform the skill for your supervisee
Role play: Act out the skill with your supervisee
Observe: Observe the supervisee implementing the skill in a real scenario
Provide feedback: Provide constructive feedback regarding the skill

I-5 Use performance monitoring, feedback, and reinforcement systems

Performance monitoring can be direct or indirect
Direct: Observation of implementation in the field or during role play (be aware of reactivity)
- Knowledge of the treatment plan
- Treatment integrity
- Understanding of ABA concepts
- Interactions with stakeholders
Indirect: Supervisees report their experiences, or fill out rating scales for themselves
Performance monitoring should happen routinely (at least once a month, if not more)
Performance monitoring uses the same data collection that we use with clients
(continuous/discontinuous/permanent product)

Feedback should be direct, constructive, and based on implementation of services

- Identify what was done correctly and incorrectly
- Identify what can be improved upon
- Identify how to improve
- Give the opportunity for the supervisee to ask questions
- Try to keep it positive

Reinforce correct supervisee behavior with praise, conditioned reinforcers, or unconditioned reinforcers
Reinforcement: REMEMBER, supervisee monitoring is very similar to client monitoring. Use
reinforcement to strengthen behaviors you want to see more of in the future.

I-6 Use a functional assessment approach

I-3 Select supervision goals based on assessment of the supervisee’s skills
Establish goals the same way we would set goals for clients
Ex. Does your client need work on behavior modification? Data collection? Parent rapport? Etc.
Indirect: Interview your supervisee before the onset of supervision
Direct: Directly observe your supervisee with clients, with parents, and with other staff
Create: Create your skill acquisition plan based on your behavior assessment of your supervisee
REMEMBER: supervision is always behavior-analytic. We should take the same necessary steps to ensure
proper supervision that we take to ensure proper service delivery

I-7 Use function-based strategies to improve personnel performance

Performance should be observable and measurable (avoid thinks like emotions and feelings)

Prevention (antecedent intervention): What can you do to prevent poor treatment from
occurring in the first place
This is a reactive strategy. For example, demonstrating ways to manipulate the environment
can help with treatment implementation.

Implementation (function): Why is the poor treatment occurring? Is the supervisee attempting
to escape from a behavior, gain attention from the client, gain access to something, or for
automatic reasons?

Reactive (consequence interventions): How will you react to the implementation?

If implementation is good you want to reinforce that implementation
If implementation is poor then you want to design an intervention to correct the
implementation
I-8 Evaluate the effects of supervision
Supervisors should be open to, and request, feedback from their supervisees
If you are not receiving supervisee feedback, you have no way of knowing how you are handling
supervision
Data collection: Establish when supervision started. Take data before and after. Compare data
to evaluate the effects of supervision.
Feedback: Meet with your supervisees and request honest feedback. If you are unsure if the
feedback is honest, allow for anonymous feedback.

References:
Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2017). BCBA task list (5th ed.). Littleton, CO: Author.

Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2019a). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.