Christian School of Esoteric Wisdom, Philosophy and Theological Beliefs

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CHRISTIAN
SCHOOL OF
ESOTERIC
WISDOM,
PHILOSOPHY
AND
THEOLOGICAL
BELIEFS
Searching for Truth?
HENRY H. EPPS JR
CHRISTIAN SCHOOL OF ESOTERIC WISDOM, PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGICAL BELIEFS
why? Then one night the Lord showed me a

dream were I and my wife Vera was
Founders disciples letter approaching this large beautiful church. One of
my old pastors was standing in front of the
So, why a school of esoteric ministry? With so church saying, “Vera you can come in and enjoy
many schools of ministry on the internet and in the celebration but Henry you are not allowed?
the community why another school of ministry? You must go up those stairs to the upper room?
Well I have studied under several ministries and So, I turned and started up these winding steps
they have provided some good teachings, but and as I ascended the stairs I encountered
there are still many questions I have found several demonic figures trying to hinder my
unanswered? When I read about the ministry of ascent. Finally I reach the top of the steps and
Jesus Christ I am amazed at the wonderful there was these beautiful great door. I open the
awesome work that Jesus did when he walked door and these amazing light poured forward
the earth. I am amazed at the signs, wonders and I could hear the Lord say, Henry stop being
and miracles that our Lord perform, so why a square peg trying to fit in a round hole?” I
don’t we see these same signs and wonders knew then that the traditional religious belief
today? Well I believe that the true disciple of systems were not enough for me. I needed a
Jesus Christ desires a deeper walk with the deeper understanding of my Christian faith.
Lord, and a deeper understanding of spiritual Even today as I pen these books and teaching I
things. Well I believe to receive the deeper am still Hungary for a deeper walk with Jesus
knowledge of the spirit we must learn how to and I am Hungary to teach others of these
communicate in the spirit. This school of wonderful God who loves us so much! This
esoteric wisdom is not a religious school of book is just a basic book with many of Christian
ministry. The first year of training is a year of beliefs, doctrines, ideas and dogmas that have
purging, self-discipline and self-discover phase, been taught over the centuries. This book is
and the second year is for advance studies of design for you to read about the many beliefs of
Christian and esoteric teachings. So much we Christianity and allow the Holy Spirit to teach
understand today is past down from the you and build up your inner man/woman. Some
traditions of religious dogma and beliefs, and things you may have never heard of before and
these beliefs are in conflict with each other, some things you will be surprised to learn. Have
these beliefs such as “ Saved by grace, faith an open mind and teachable heart and this
alone, saved by works, the trinity, Jesus alone book will be a great treasure for you. Be blessed
operating in three offices of the father, son and in the Lord!
Holy Spirit, and on and on, and on?” Yet the
original teachings of the church have been cast
away such as Faith, hope, love service to others,
altruism, humility, feeding the poor or helping
the needy, where have these teaching have
gone? When I was first called to the ministry of
Jesus Christ I was so confused by the many
doctrines and beliefs I would come across? I join
several churches as a minister to be trained as a
minister, but I often would run into stumbling
blocks or dead ends, and I could not understand
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Founders disciples letter...........................1
Table of Contents..............................................3
Module One Discipleship of the Believer. 7
Lesson One................................................7
The Divinity of Jesus Christ?.....................7
Lesson Two..............................................11
Jesus Christ is the vine and the true Branch of God? 11
Chapter Three.........................................16
Total surrender.......................................16
Chapter Four...........................................22
All things are possible in God through Jesus Christ 22
Chapter Five............................................27
Ye are kept by the power of God!..........27
Chapter Six..............................................35
The power of Love..................................35
Chapter Seven.........................................41
Gifts of the Spirit.....................................41
Chapter Eight...........................................49
Gift of Tongues........................................49
Chapter Nine...........................................54
Gift of Prophecy......................................54
Chapter Ten.............................................58
Jesus prophecy of the End-times............58
Module two Esoteric Teachings..............67
Chapter One............................................67
Esoteric Meaning....................................67
Chapter Two............................................69
A Concise History of Esoteric teachings..69
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Chapter Three.........................................71
Methodology of Esoterism.....................71
Chapter Four...........................................72
Theosophy doctrines and beliefs systems?72
Chapter Five............................................76
Blavatskyan Theosophy and the Theosophical Society 76
Chapter Six..............................................78
Christian Cabala / Kabbalah....................78
Chapter Seven.........................................81
Pyhagoras of Samos................................81
Chapter Eight...........................................82
Rosicrucianism........................................82
Chapter Nine...........................................89
The Essenes.............................................89
Chapter Ten.............................................93
Esoteric Cosmology.................................93
Module Three the Study of Eschatology101
Chapter One..........................................102
Christian Eschaology.............................102
Chapter Two..........................................106
Prophecy of the seventy-weeks of Daniel106
Chapter Three.......................................111
Doctrine of millennialism......................111
Chapter Four.........................................116
The Rapture...........................................116
Chapter Five..........................................121
The Trbulation period...........................121
Chapter Six............................................124
Doctrine of the Anti-Christ....................124
Chapter Seven.......................................130
The Messianic Age................................130
Chapter Eight.........................................133
The Second coming!..............................133
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Chapter Nine.........................................138
Dispensationalism.................................138
Chapter Ten...........................................144
Whore of Babylon.................................144
Module Four the study of Gnosticism. .149
Chapter One..........................................149
The meaning of Gnosticism..................149
Chapter Two..........................................153
The One.................................................153
Chapter Three.......................................155
The Absolute of God.............................155
Chapter Four.........................................158
Valentinus Theory.................................158
Chapter Five..........................................159
The Valentinus system..........................159
Chapter Six............................................164
Gnostic Gospels.....................................164
Chapter Seven.......................................166
History of Gnosticism............................166
Chapter Eight.........................................170
Neo-Platonism and Gnosticism............170
Chapter Nine.........................................175
Philanthropy..........................................175
Chapter Ten...........................................179
Dualism.................................................179
Module Five the study of Mysticism.....183
Chapter One..........................................183
What is Mysticism?...............................183
Chapter Two..........................................189
Christian Mysticism...............................189
Chapter Three.......................................196
Islamic Mysticism..................................196
Chapter Four.........................................202
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Jewish Mysticism..................................202
Chapter Five..........................................204
Hindu Mysticism...................................204
Chapter Six............................................206
The Perennial Philosophy.....................206
Chapter Seven.......................................211
Transcendentalism................................211
Chapter Eight.........................................215
Universalism..........................................215
Chapter Nine.........................................221
New Thought.........................................221
Chapter Ten...........................................225
Enlightment...........................................225
Module Six study of Basic Theologies, beliefs and practices of the Christian Faith 234
Chapter One..........................................234
Christian Apologetics............................234
Chapter Two..........................................240
Christian Baptism..................................240
Chapter Three.......................................247
Christian Catholicism............................247
Chapter Four.........................................250
Christology............................................250
Chapter Five..........................................256
Christian Missions.................................256
Chapter Six............................................261
Christian Salvation................................261
Chapter Seven.......................................267
Christian Theology................................267
Chapter Eight.........................................274
Christian doctrine of the Trinity............274
Chapter Nine.........................................279
Christian Reformation...........................279
Chapter Ten...........................................288
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Christian Symbolism.............................288
Module Seven the study of Early Esoteric/Theological/Spiritual teachers of the Christian Faith
...............................................................295
Chapter One..........................................295
Adamantius, Origen..............................295
Chapter Two..........................................299
Emanuel Swedenborg...........................299
Chapter Three.......................................304
Evelyn Underhill....................................304
Chapter Four.........................................312
Jacobus Arminius..................................312
Chapter Five..........................................318
John Calvin............................................318
Chapter Six............................................324
Martin Luther........................................324
Chapter Seven.......................................331
Apostle Paul..........................................331
Chapter Eight.........................................336
Augustine of Hippo...............................336
Chapter Nine.........................................342
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian 342
Chapter Ten...........................................347
Irenaeus.................................................347
Module eight: Major Christian Denominations 351
Chapter One..........................................351
Anabaptist.............................................351
Chapter Two..........................................356
Angelican...............................................356
Chapter Three.......................................359
Baptist...................................................359
Chapter Four.........................................365
Catholic Church.....................................365
Chapter Five..........................................376
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Church of the Latter Day Saint’s...........376

Chapter Six............................................384
Congregational Churches......................384
Chapter Seven.......................................391
Evangelicals...........................................391
Chapter Eight.........................................398
Lutheran................................................398
Chapter Nine.........................................405
Methodist..............................................405
Chapter Ten...........................................412
Pentacost..............................................412
Chapter Eleven......................................421
Presbyteran...........................................421
Chapter Twelve.....................................428
Unitarian...............................................428
Module Nine the works and teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg 437
Chapter One..........................................437
Apocalypse explained...........................437
Chapter Two..........................................444
Arcana Coelestia...................................444
Chapter three........................................454
Earths in the Universe...........................454
Chapter four..........................................464
Charity...................................................464
Chapter Five..........................................472
Divine Love............................................472
Chapter Six............................................479
Divine Wisdom......................................479
Chapter Seven.......................................484
Doctrine of faith....................................484
Chapter Eight.........................................496
Doctrine of life......................................496
Chapter Nine.........................................503
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Doctrine of the Lord..............................503

Chapter Ten...........................................509
The invitation to the New Church.........509
Module Ten: Esoteric/Mystic/Spiritual Healing 520
Chapter..................................................521
Energy Medicine...................................521
Chapter Two..........................................525
Alice Bailey............................................525
Chapter Three.......................................531
Faith Healing.........................................531
Chapter Four.........................................540
Reiki Healing.........................................540
Chapter Five..........................................549
Qigong...................................................549
Chapter Six............................................553
Therupedic touch..................................553
Chapter Seven.......................................555
Magnetic Therapy..................................555
Chapter Eight.........................................557
Pseudoscience.......................................557
Chapter Nine.........................................562
Word of Faith for Healing.....................562
Chapter Ten...........................................567
What is healing?....................................567
Definitions/ Terms/meanings...............571
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revelation for the instruction of the world, and

then die to put away sin by the sacrifice of
himself. The description which he gives of this
glorious personage is elevated beyond all
comparison. Even in his humiliation, his
suffering of death excepted, he is infinitely
exalted above all the angelic host, is the object
of their unceasing adoration, is permanent on
his eternal throne at the right hand of the
Father, and from him they all receive their
commands to minister to those whom he has
redeemed by his blood. in short, this first
chapter, which may be considered the
introduction to the whole epistle is, for
importance of subject, dignity of expression,
harmony and energy of language, compression
and yet distinctness of ideas, equal, if not
superior, to any other part of the New
Testament.
Sundry times—Πολυμερως, from πολυς, many,

and μερος, a part; giving portions of revelation
Module One Discipleship of the at different times.
Believer Divers manners—Πολυτροπως, from πολυς,

Lesson One many, and τροπος, a manner, turn, or form of
speech; hence trope, a figure in rhetoric.
The Divinity of Jesus Christ? Lambert Bos supposes these words to refer to
that part of music which is denominated
God, who at sundry times and in diver’s harmony, viz. that general consent or union of
manners—we can scarcely conceive anything musical sounds which is made up of different
more dignified than the opening of this epistle; parts; and, understood in this way, it may
the sentiments are exceedingly elevated, and signify the agreement or harmony of all the Old
the language, harmony itself! The infinite God is Testament writers, who with one consent gave
at once produced to view, not in any of those testimony to Jesus Christ, and the work of
attributes which are essential to the Divine redemption by him. To him gave all the
nature, but in the manifestations of his love to prophets witness, that, through his name,
the world, by giving a revelation of his will whosoever believeth in him shall receive
relative to the salvation of mankind, and thus remission of sins; Acts 10:43.
preparing the way, through a long train of
But it is better to consider, with Kypke that the
years, for the introduction of that most glorious
words are rather intended to point out the
Being, his own Son. This Son, in the fullness of
imperfect state of Divine revelation under the
time, was manifested in the flesh that he might
Old Testament; it was not complete, nor can it
complete all vision and prophecy, supply all that
without the New be considered a sufficiently
was wanting to perfect the great scheme of
ample discovery of the Divine will. Under the
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Old Testament, revelations were made servants, yet servants; now the Son is much
πολυμερως και πολυτροπως, at various times, better than a servant, verse 4.
by various persons, in various laws and forms of
2. Whereas the body of the Old Testament was
teaching, with various degrees of clearness,
long in compiling, being about a thousand years
under various shadows, types, and figures, and
from Moses to Malachi; and God spoke unto
with various modes of revelation, such as by
the fathers by piecemeal, one while raising up
angels, visions, dreams, mental impressions,
one prophet, another while another, now
etc. See Numbers 12:6, 8. But under the New
sending them one parcel of prophecy or history,
Testament all is done ἁπλως, simply, by one
then another; but when Christ came, all was
person, i.e. JESUS, who has fulfilled the
brought to perfection in one age; the apostles
prophets, and completed prophecy; who is the
and evangelists were alive, some of them, when
way, the truth, and the life; and the founder,
every part of the New Testament was
mediator, and governor of his own kingdom.
completely finished.
One great object of the apostle is, to put the
3. The Old Testament was delivered by God in
simplicity of the Christian system in opposition
divers manners, both in utterance and
to the complex nature of the Mosaic economy;
manifestation; but the delivery of the Gospel
and also to show that what the law could not do
was in a more simple manner; for, although
because it was weak through the flesh, Jesus
there are various penmen, yet the subject is the
has accomplished by the merit of his death, and
same, and treated with nearly the same
the energy of his Spirit.
phraseology throughout; James, Jude, and the
Maximus Tyrius, Diss. 1, page 7, has a passage Apocalypse excepted. See Leigh.
where the very words employed by the apostle
Hebrews 1:2
are found, and evidently used nearly in the
same sense: Τῃ του ανθρωπου ψυχῃ δυο Last days—The Gospel dispensation, called the
οργανων οντων προς συνεσιν, του μεν ἁπλου, last days and the last time, because not to be
ὁν καλουμεν νουν, του δε ποικιλου και followed by any other dispensation; or the
πολυμερους και πολυτροπου, ἁς αισθησεις conclusion of the Jewish Church and state now
καλουμεν. "The soul of man has two organs of at their termination.
intelligence: one simple, which we call mind;
the other diversified, and acting in various By his Son—It is very remarkable that the
modes and various ways, which we term pronoun αὑτου, his, is not found in the text; nor
sense." is it found in any MS. or version. We should not
therefore supply the pronoun as our translators
A similar form of expression the same writer have done; but simply read εν Υἱῳ, BY A SON, or
employs in Diss. 15, page 171: "The city which is IN A SON, whom he hath appointed heir of all
governed by the mob, πολυφωνον τε ειναι και things. God has many sons and daughters, for
πολυμερη και πολυπαθη, is full of noise, and is he is the Father of the spirits of all flesh; and he
divided by various factions and various has many heirs, for if sons, then heirs, heirs of
passions." The excellence of the Gospel above God, and joint heirs with Jesus Christ; but he
the law is here set down in three points: has no Son who is heir of all things, none by
whom he made the worlds, none in whom he
1. God spoke unto the faithful under the Old
speaks, and by whom he has delivered a
Testament by Moses and the prophets, worthy
complete revelation to mankind, but Jesus the
Christ.
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The apostle begins with the lowest state in an apocryphal writer, Wis. 7:26, where,
which Christ has appeared: speaking of the uncreated wisdom of God, he
says: "For she is the splendor of eternal light,
1. His being a SON, born of a woman, and made
απαυγασμα γαρ εστι φωτος αϊδιου, and the
under the law. He then ascends,
unsullied mirror of the energy of God, and the
2. So his being an Heir, and an Heir of all things. image of his goodness." The word αυγασμα is
that which has splendor in itself απαυγασμα is
3. He then describes him as the Creator of all the splendor emitted from it; but the inherent
worlds. splendor and the exhibited splendor are
4. As the Brightness of the Divine glory. radically and essentially the same.
5. as the express Image of his person, or The express image of his person—Χαρακτηρ της
character of the Divine substance. ὑποστασεως αυτου· the character or
impression of his hypostasis or substance. It is
6. as sustaining the immense fabric of the supposed that these words expound the
universe; and this by the word of his power. former; image expounding brightness, and
7. as having made an atonement for the sin of person or substance, glory. The hypostasis of
the world, which was the most stupendous of God is that which is essential to him as God; and
all his works. the character or image is that by which all the
likeness of the original becomes manifest, and
"Taws great to speak a world from naught; is a perfect fac-simile of the whole. It is a
metaphor taken from sealing; the die or seal
'Twas greater to redeem."
leaving the full impression of its every part on
8. As being on the right hand of God, infinitely the wax to which it is applied.
exalted above all created beings; and the object
From these words it is evident,
of adoration to all the angelic host.
1. That the apostle states Jesus Christ to be of
9. as having an eternal throne, neither his
the same essence with the Father, as the
person nor his dignity ever changing or
απαυγασμα, or proceeding splendor, must be
decaying.
the same with the αυγασμα, or inherent
10. As continuing to exercise dominion, when splendor.
the earth and the heavens are no more! It is
2. That Christ, though proceeding from the
only in God manifested in the flesh that all
Father, is of the same essence; for if one αυγη,
these excellences can possibly appear,
or splendor, produce another αυγη, or
therefore the apostle begins this astonishing
splendor, the produced splendor must be of the
climax with the simple Son ship of Christ, or his
same essence with that which produces it.
incarnation; for, on this, all that he is to man,
and all that he has done for man, is built. 3. That although Christ is thus of the same
essence with the Father, yet he is a distinct
Hebrews 1:3
person from the Father; as the splendor of the
The brightness of his glory—Απαυγασμα της sun, though of the same essence, is distinct
δοξης the resplendent out beaming of the from the sun itself, though each is essential to
essential glory of God. Hesychius interprets the other; as the αυγασμα, or inherent
απαυγασμα by ᾑλιου φεγγος, the splendor of splendor, cannot subsist without its
the sun. The same form of expression is used by απαυγασμα, or proceeding splendor, nor the
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proceeding splendor subsist without the 3. The Israelites murmured against Moses and
inherent splendor from which it proceeds. against God, and provoked the heavy
displeasure of the Most High; and would have
4. That Christ is eternal with the Father, as the
been consumed had not Aaron made an
proceeding splendor must necessarily be
atonement for them, by offering victims and
coexistent with the inherent splendor. If the
incense. But Jesus not only makes an
one, therefore, be uncreated, the other is
atonement for Israel, but for the whole world;
uncreated; if the one be eternal, the other is
not with the blood of bulls and goats, but with
eternal.
his own blood: hence it is said that he purged
Upholding all things by the word of his power— our sins δι' αὑτου, by himself his own body and
this is an astonishing description of the infinitely life being the victim. It is very likely that the
energetic and all-pervading power of God. He apostle had all these things in his eye when he
spoke, and all things were created; he speaks, wrote this verse; and takes occasion from them
and all things are sustained. The Jewish writers to show the infinite excellence of Jesus Christ
frequently express the perfection of the Divine when compared with Moses; and of his Gospel
nature by the phrases, He bears all things, both when compared with the law. And it is very
above and below; He carries all his creatures; likely that the Spirit of God, by whom he spoke,
He bears his world; He bears all worlds by his kept in view those maxims of the ancient Jews,
power. The Hebrews, to whom this epistle was concerning the Messiah, whom they represent
written, would, from this and other as being infinitely greater than Abraham, the
circumstances, fully understand that the apostle patriarchs, Moses, and the ministering angels.
believed Jesus Christ to be truly and properly So Rabbi Tanchum, on Isaiah 52:13, Behold my
God. servant shall deal prudently, says, ‫זה מלך‬
‫ המשיח‬Zeh melek hammashiach, this is the
Purged our sins—there may be here some King Messiah; and shall be exalted, and be
reference to the great transactions in the extolled, and be very high. "He shall be exalted
wilderness. above Abraham, and shall be extolled beyond
1. Moses, while in communion with God on the Moses, and shall be more sublime than the
mount, was so impressed with the Divine ministering angels." See the preface.
glories that his iface shone, so that the Israelites The right hand of the Majesty on high—As it
could not behold it. But Jesus is infinitely were associated with the supreme Majesty, in
greater than Moses, for he is the splendor of glory everlasting, and in the government of all
God's glory; and, things in time and in eternity; for the right hand
2. Moses found the government of the is the place of the greatest eminence, 1 Kings
Israelites such a burden that he altogether sank 2:19. The king himself, in eastern countries, sits
under it. His words, Numbers 11:12, are very on the throne; the next to him in the kingdom,
remarkable: Have I conceived all this people? and the highest favorite, sits on his right hand;
Have I begotten them that thou shoulders say and the third greatest personage, on his left.
unto me, CARRY them in thy BOSOM— unto the Hebrews 1:4
land which thou swears unto their fathers? But
Christ not only carried all the Israelites, and all So much better than the angels—another
mankind; but he upholds ALL THINGS by the argument in favor of the Divinity of our Lord.
word of his power. The Jews had the highest opinion of the
transcendent excellence of angels, they even
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associate them with God in the creation of the

world, and suppose them to be of the privy
council of the Most High; and thus they
understand Genesis 1:26: Let us make man in
our own image, in our own likeness; "And the
Lord said to the ministering angels that stood
before him, and who were created the second
day, Let us make man," etc. See the Targum of
Jonathan ben Uzziel. And they even allow them
to be worshipped for the sake of their Creator,
and as his representatives; though they will not
allow them to be worshipped for their own
sake. As, therefore, the Jews considered them
next to God, and none entitled to their
adoration but God; on their own ground the
apostle proves Jesus Christ to be God, because
God commanded all the angels of heaven to
worship him. He, therefore, who is greater than
the angels, and is the object of their adoration,
is God. But Jesus Christ is greater than the
angels, and the object of their adoration;
therefore Jesus Christ must be God.
By inheritance obtained—Κεκληρονομηκεν
ονομα. The verb κληρονομειν signifies generally
to participate, possess, obtain, or acquire; and
is so used by the purest Greek writers: Kypke
has produced several examples of it from Lesson Two
Demosthenes. It is not by inheritance that Jesus Christ is the vine and the
Christ possesses a more excellent name than true Branch of God?
angels, but as God: he has it naturally and
essentially; and, as God manifested in the flesh,
he has it in consequence of his humiliation,
sufferings, and meritorious death. See The vine?
Philippians 2:9.
The Husbandman?
The Branch?
The fruit?
ALL earthly things are the shadows of heavenly

realities—the expression, in created, visible
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forms, of the invisible glory of God. The Life and heart to receive Himself. He must Himself speak
the Truth are in Heaven; on earth we have the word to you and me.
figures and shadows of the heavenly truths.
I am the true Vine. And what am I to do, if I
When Jesus says: "I am the true Vine," He tells
want the mystery, in all its heavenly beauty and
us that all the vines of earth are pictures and
blessing, opened up to me? With what you
emblems of Himself. He is the divine reality, of
already know of the parable, bow down and be
which they are the created expression. They all
still, worship and wait, until the divine Word
point to Him, and preach Him, and reveal Him.
enters your heart, and you feel His holy
If you would know Jesus, study the vine.
presence with you, and in you. The
How many eyes have gazed on and admired a overshadowing of His holy love will give you the
great vine with its beautiful fruit. Come and perfect calm and rest of knowing that the Vine
gaze on the heavenly Vine till your eye turns will do all.
from all else to admire Him. How many, in a
I am the true Vine. He who speaks is God, in His
sunny clime, sit and rest under the shadow of a
infinite power able to enter into us. He is man,
vine. Come and be still under the shadow of the
one with us. He is the crucified One, who won a
true Vine, and rest under it from the heat of the
perfect righteousness and a divine life for us
day. What countless numbers rejoice in the fruit
through His death. He is the glorified One, who
of the vine! Come, and take, and eat of the
from the throne gives His Spirit to make His
heavenly fruit of the true Vine, and let your soul
presence real and true. He speaks—oh, listen,
say: "I sat under His shadow with great delight,
not to His words only, but to Himself, as He
and His fruit was sweet to my taste."
whispers secretly day by day: "I am the true
I am the true Vine. This is a heavenly mystery. Vine! All that the Vine can ever be to its branch,
The earthly vine can teach you much about this "I will be to you."
Vine of Heaven. Many interesting and beautiful
Holy Lord Jesus, the heavenly Vine of God's own
points of comparison suggest themselves, and
planting, I beseech Thee, reveal thyself to my
help us to get conceptions of what Christ
soul. Let the Holy Spirit, not only in thought, but
meant. But such thoughts do not teach us to
in experience, give me to know all that Thou,
know what the heavenly Vine really is, in its
the Son of God, art to me as the true Vine.
cooling shade, and its life-giving fruit. The
experience of this is part of the hidden mystery,
which none but Jesus Himself, by His Holy Spirit,
can unfold and impart. A VINE must have a husbandman to plant and
watch over it, to receive and rejoice in its fruit.
I am the true Vine. The vine is the living Lord, Jesus says: "My Father is the husbandman." He
who Himself speaks, and gives, and works all was "the vine of God's planting." All He was and
that He has for us. If you would know the did, He owed to the Father; in all He only sought
meaning and power of that word, do not think the Father's will and glory. He had become man
to find it by thought or study; these may help to to show us what a creature ought to be to its
show you what you must get from Him to Creator. He took our place, and the spirit of His
awaken desire and hope and prayer, but they life before the Father was ever what He seeks
cannot show you the Vine. Jesus alone can to make ours: "Of him, and through him, and to
reveal Himself. He gives His Holy Spirit to open him are all things." He became the true Vine,
the eyes to gaze upon Himself, to open the that we might be true branches. Both in regard
to Christ and ourselves the words teach us the
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two lessons of absolute dependence and Isaiah said: "A vineyard of red wine; I the Lord
perfect confidence. do keep it, I will water it every moment; lest any
hurt it, I will keep it night and day." Ere we
My Father is the Husbandman. Christ ever lived
begin to think of fruit or branches, let us have
in the spirit of what He once said: "The Son can
our heart filled with the faith: as glorious as the
do nothing of himself." As dependent as a vine
Vine, is the Husbandman. As high and holy as is
is on a husbandman for the place where it is to
our calling, so mighty and loving is the God who
grow, for its fencing in and watering and
will work it all. As surely as the Husbandman
pruning. Christ felt Himself entirely dependent
made the Vine what it was to be, will He make
on the Father every day for the wisdom and the
each branch what it is to be. Our Father is our
strength to do the Father's will. As He said in
Husbandman, the Surety for our growth and
the previous chapter (14:10): "The words that I
fruit.
say unto you, I speak not from myself; but the
Father abiding in me doeth his works." This Blessed Father, we are Thy husbandry. Oh, that
absolute dependence had as its blessed Thou mayest have honor of the work of Thy
counterpart the most blessed confidence that hands! O my Father, I desire to open my heart
He had nothing to fear: the Father could not to the joy of this wondrous truth: My Father is
disappoint Him. With such a Husbandman as His the Husbandman. Teach me to know and trust
Father, He could enter death and the grave. He Thee, and to see that the same deep interest
could trust God to raise Him up. All that Christ is with which Thou cares for and delighted in the
and has, He has, not in Himself, but from the Vine, extends to every branch, to me too.
Father.
Every Branch in me that Beareth Not Fruit, He
My Father is the Husbandman. That is as taketh it away—John 15:2
blessedly true for us as for Christ. Christ is about
HERE we have one of the chief words of the
to teach His disciples about their being
parable—branch. A vine needs branches:
branches. Before He ever uses the word, or
without branches it can do nothing, can bear no
speaks at all of abiding in Him or bearing fruit,
fruit. As important as it is to know about the
He turns their eyes heavenward to the Father
Vine, and the Husbandman, it is to realize what
watching over them, and working all in them. At
the branch is. Before we listen to what Christ
the very root of all Christian life lies the thought
has to say about it, let us first of all take in what
that God is to do all that our work is to give and
a branch is, and what it teaches us of our life in
leave ourselves in His hands, in the confession
Christ. A branch is simply a bit of wood, brought
of utter helplessness and dependence, in the
forth by the vine for the one purpose of serving
assured confidence that He gives all we need.
it in bearing its fruit. It is of the very same
The great lack of the Christian life is that, even
nature as the vine, and has one life and one
where we trust Christ, we leave God out of the
spirit with it. Just think a moment of the lessons
count. Christ came to bring us to God. Christ
this suggests.
lived the life of a man exactly as we have to live
it. Christ the Vine points to God the There is the lesson of entire consecration. The
Husbandman. As He trusted God, let us trust branch has but one object for which it exists,
God, that everything we ought to be and have, one purpose to which it is entirely given up.
as those who belong to the Vine, will be given That is, to bear the fruit the vine wishes to bring
us from above. forth. And so the believer has but one reason
for his being a branch—but one reason for his
16
existence on earth —that the heavenly Vine What a life would come to us if we only
may through him bring forth His fruit. Happy consented to be branches! Dear child of God,
the soul that knows this, that has consented to learn the lesson. You have but one thing to do:
it, and that says, I have been redeemed and I Only be a branch—nothing more, nothing less!
live for one thing—as exclusively as the natural Just be a branch; Christ will be the Vine that
branch exists only to bring forth fruit, I too; as gives all. And the Husbandman, the mighty God,
exclusively as the heavenly Vine exists to bring who made the Vine what it is, will as surely
forth fruit, I too. As I have been planted by God make the branch what it ought to be.
into Christ, I have wholly given myself to bear
Lord Jesus, I pray Thee, reveal to me the
the fruit the Vine desires to bring forth.
heavenly mystery of the branch, in its living
There is the lesson of perfect conformity. The union with the Vine, in its claim on all its
branch is exactly like the vine in every aspect— fullness. And let Thy all-sufficiency, holding and
the same nature, the same life, the same place, filling Thy branches, lead me to the rest of faith
the same work. In all this they are inseparably that knows that Thou works all.
one. And so the believer needs to know that he
THIS is the next great word we have: the Vine,
is partaker of the divine nature, and has the
the Husbandman, the branch, the fruit. What
very nature and spirit of Christ in him, and that
has our Lord to say to us of fruit? Simply this—
his one calling is to yield himself to a perfect
that fruit is the one thing the branch is for, and
conformity to Christ. The branch is a perfect
that if it bear not fruit, the husbandman takes it
likeness of the vine; the only difference is, the
away. The vine is the glory of the husbandman;
one is great and strong, and the source of
the branch is the glory of the vine; the fruit is
strength, the other little and feeble, ever
the glory of the branch; if the branch bring not
needing and receiving strength. Even so the
forth fruit, there is no glory or worth in it; it is
believer is, and is to be, the perfect likeness of
an offense and a hindrance; the husbandman
Christ.
takes it away. The one reason for the existence
There is the lesson of absolute dependence. The of a branch, the one mark of being a true
vine has its stores of life and sap and strength, branch of the heavenly Vine, the one condition
not for itself, but for the branches. The of being allowed by the divine Husbandman to
branches are and have nothing but what the share the life the Vine is—bearing fruit.
vine provides and imparts. The believer is called
And what is fruit? Something that the branch
to, and it is his highest blessedness to enter
bears, not for itself, but for its owner;
upon, a life of entire and unceasing dependence
something that is to be gathered, and taken
upon Christ. Day and night, every moment,
away. The branch does indeed receive it from
Christ is to work in him all he needs.
the vine sap for its own life, by which it grows
And then the lesson of undoubting confidence. thicker and stronger. But this supply for its own
The branch has no cure; the vine provides all; it maintenance is entirely subordinate to its
has but to yield itself and receive. It is the sight fulfillment of the purpose of its existence—
of this truth that leads to the blessed rest of bearing fruit. It is because Christians do not
faith, the true secret of growth and strength: "I understand or accept of this truth, that they so
can do all things through Christ which fail in their efforts and prayers to live the
strengthened me." branch life. They often desire it very earnestly;
they read and meditate and pray, and yet they
fail, they wonder why? The reason is very
17
simple: they do not know that fruit-bearing is Our Father, Thou comest seeking fruit. Teach
the one thing they have been saved for. Just as us, we pray Thee, to realize how truly this is the
entirely as Christ became the true Vine with the one object of our existence, and of our union to
one object, you have been made a branch too, Christ. Make it the one desire of our hearts to
with the one object of bearing fruit for the be branches, so filled with the Spirit of the Vine,
salvation of men. The Vine and the branch are as to bring forth fruit abundantly.
equally under the unchangeable law of fruit-
bearing as the one reason of their being. Christ
and the believer, the heavenly Vine and the
branch, have equally their place in the world
exclusively for one purpose, to carry God's
saving love to men. Hence the solemn word:
Every branch that beareth not fruit, He taketh it
away.
Let us specially beware of one great mistake.

Many Christians think their own salvation is the
first thing; their temporal life and prosperity,
with the care of their family, the second; and
what of time and interest is left may be devoted
to fruit-bearing, to the saving of men. No
wonder that in most cases very little time or
interest can be found. No, Christian, the one
object with which you have been made a
member of Christ's Body is that the Head may
have you to carry out His saving work. The one
object God had in making you a branch is that
Christ may through you bring life to men. Your
personal salvation, your business and care for
your family, are entirely subordinate to this.
Your first aim in life, your first aim every day,
should be to know how Christ desires to carry
out His purpose in you.
Let us begin to think as God thinks. Let us

accept Christ's teaching and respond to it. The
one object of my being a branch, the one mark
of my being a true branch, the one condition of
my abiding and growing strong, is that I bear
the fruit of the heavenly Vine for dying men to
eat and live. And the one thing of which I can
have the most perfect assurance is that, with
Christ as my Vine, and the Father as my
Husbandman, I can indeed be a fruitful branch.
18
of Israel into the city, and said unto him, Thus

saith Ben-hadad, Thy silver and thy gold is mine;
thy wives also and thy children, even the
goodliest, are mine. And the king of Israel
answered and said, my lord, O king, according
to thy saying, I am thine and all that I have" (1
Kings 20:1-4).
What Ben Hadad asked was absolute surrender;

and what Ahab gave was what was asked of him
—absolute surrender. I want to use these
words: "My lord, O king, according to thy
saying, I am thine, and all that I have," as the
words of absolute surrender with which every
child of God ought to yield himself to his Father.
We have heard it before, but we need to hear it
very definitely — the condition of God's
blessing is absolute surrender of all into His
hands. Praise God! If our hearts are willing for
that, there is no end to what God will do for us,
and to the blessing God will bestow.
Absolute surrender — let me tell you where I

got those words. I used them myself often, and
you have heard them numberless times. But in
Scotland once I was in a company where we
were talking about the condition of Christ's
Church, and what the great need of the Church
and of believers is; and there was in our
company a godly worker who has much to do in
training workers, and I asked him what he
would say was the great need of the Church,
and the message that ought to be preached. He
answered very quietly and simply and
Chapter Three determinedly:
Total surrender
"Absolute surrender to God is the one thing."
The words struck me as never before. And that

man began to tell how, in the workers with
whom he' had to deal, he finds that if they are
"And Ben-hadad the king of Syria gathered all sound on that point, even though they be
his host together: and there were thirty and two backward, they are willing to be taught and
kings with him, and horses, and chariots: and he helped, and they always improve; whereas
went up and besieged Samaria, and warred others who are not sound there very often go
against it. And he sent messengers to Ahab king back and leave the work. The condition for
19
obtaining God's full blessing is absolute prepared to receive Him; but ah! This one lack
surrender to Him. of absolute surrender is just the thing that
hinders God. And now He comes, and as God,
And now, I desire by God's grace to give to you
He claims it.
this message — that you’re God in Heaven
answers the prayers which you have offered for You know in daily life what absolute surrender
blessing on yourselves and for blessing on those is. You know that everything has to be given up
around you by this one demand: Are you willing to its special, definite object and service. I have
to surrender yourselves absolutely into His a pen in my pocket, and that pen is absolutely
hands? What is our answer to be? God knows surrendered to the one work of writing, and
there are hundreds of hearts who have said it, that pen must be absolutely surrendered to my
and there are hundreds more who long to say it hand if I am to write properly with it. If another
but hardly dare to do so. And there are hearts holds it partly, I cannot write properly. This coat
who have said it, but who have yet miserably is absolutely given up to me to, cover my body.
failed, and who feel themselves condemned This building is entirely given up to religious
because they did not find the secret of the services. And now, do you expect that in your
power to live that life. May God have a word for immortal being, in the divine nature that you
all! have received by regeneration, God can work
His work, every day and every hour, unless you
Let me say, first of all, that God claims it from
are entirely given up to Him? God cannot. The
us.
Temple of Solomon was absolutely surrendered
to God when it was dedicated to Him. And
every one of us is a temple of God, in which
God will dwell and work mightily on one
GOD EXPECTS YOUR SURRENDER condition — absolute surrender to Him. God
claims it, God is worthy of it, and without it God
Yes, it has its foundation in the very nature of cannot work His blessed work in us...
God cannot do otherwise. Who is God? He is
the Fountain of life, the only Source of God not only claims it, but God will work it
existence and power and goodness, and Himself.
throughout the universe there is nothing good GOD ACCOMPLISHES YOUR SURRENDER
but what God works, and God has created the
sun, and the moon, and the stars, and the I am sure there is many a heart that says: "Ah,
flowers, and the trees, and the grass; and are but that absolute surrender implies so much!"
they not all absolutely surrendered to God? Do Someone says: "Oh, I have passed through so
they not allow God to work in them just what much trial and suffering, and there is so much
He pleases? When God clothes the lily with its of the self-life still remaining, and I dare not
beauty, is it not yielded up, surrendered, given face the entire giving of it up, because I know it
over to God as He works in it its beauty? And will cause so much trouble and agony."
God's redeemed children, oh, can you think that
Alas! Alas! That God's children have such
God can work His work if there is only half or a
thoughts of Him, such cruel thoughts. Oh, I
part of them surrendered? God cannot do it.
come to you with a message, fearful and
God is life, and love, and blessing, and power,
anxious one. God does not ask you to give the
and infinite beauty, and God delights to
perfect surrender in your strength, or by the
communicate Himself to every child who is
power of your will; God is willing to work it in
20
you. Do we not read: "It is God that worketh in in your heart by His Holy Spirit. You have
us, both to will and to do of his good pleasure"? hindered and hindered Him terribly, but He
And that is what we should seek for — to go on desires to help you to get hold of Him entirely.
our faces before God, until our hearts learn to And He comes and draws you now by His
believe that the everlasting God Himself will message and words. Will you not come and
come in to turn out what is wrong, to conquer trust God to work in you that absolute
what is evil, and to work what is well-pleasing in surrender to Himself? Yes, blessed be God, He
His blessed sight. God Himself will work it in can do it, and He will do it.
you.
God not only claims it and works it, but God
Look at the men in the Old Testament, like accepts it when we bring it to Him.
Abraham. Do you think it was by accident that
GOD ACCEPTS YOUR SURRENDER
God found that man, the father of the faithful
and the Friend of God, and that it was Abraham God works it in the secret of our heart, God
himself, apart from God, who had such faith urges us by the hidden power of His Holy Spirit
and such obedience and such devotion? You to come and speak it out, and we have to bring
know it is not so. God raised him up and and to yield to Him that absolute surrender. But
prepared him as an instrument for His glory. remember, when you come and bring God that
absolute surrender, it may, as far as your
Did not God say to Pharaoh: "For this cause
feelings or your consciousness go, be a thing of
have I raised thee up, for to show in thee my
great imperfection, and you may doubt and
power"?
hesitate and say:
And if God said that of him, will not God say it
"Is it absolute?"
far more of every child of His?
But, oh, remember there was once a man to
Oh, I want to encourage you, and I want you to
whom Christ had said:
cast away every fear. Come with that feeble
desire; and if there is the fear which says: "Oh, "If thou canst believe, all things are possible to
my desire is not strong enough, I am not willing him that believeth."
for everything that may come, and I do not feel
bold enough to say I can conquer everything" — And his heart was afraid, and he cried out:
I pray you, learn to know and trust your God "Lord, I believe, help thou mine unbelief."
now. Say: "My God, I am willing that Thou
should make me willing." If there is anything That was a faith that triumphed over the Devil,
holding you back, or any sacrifice you are afraid and the evil spirit was cast out. And if you come
of making, come to God now, and prove how and say: "Lord, I yield myself in absolute
gracious your God is, and be not afraid that He surrender to my God," even though it be with a
will command from you what He will not trembling heart and with the consciousness: "I
bestow. do not feel the power, I do not feel the
determination, I do not feel the assurance," it
God comes and offers to work this absolute will succeed. Be not afraid, but come just as you
surrender in you. All these searching’s and are, and even in the midst of your trembling the
hungering’s and longings that are in your heart, power of the Holy Ghost will work.
I tell you they are the drawings of the divine
magnet, Christ Jesus. He lived a life of absolute Have you never yet learned the lesson that the
surrender, He has possession of you; He is living Holy Ghost works with mighty power, while on
21
the human side everything appears feeble? That is the great difficulty with many. People
Look at the Lord Jesus Christ in Gethsemane. say: "I have often been stirred at a meeting, or
We read that He, "through the eternal Spirit," at a convention, and I have consecrated myself
offered Himself a sacrifice unto God. The to God, but it has passed away. I know it may
Almighty Spirit of God was enabling Him to do last for a week or for a month, but away it
it. And yet what agony and fear and exceeding fades, and after a time it is all gone."
sorrow came over Him, and how He prayed!
But listen! It is because you do not believe what
Externally, you can see no sign of the mighty
I am now going to tell you and remind you of.
power of the Spirit, but the Spirit of God was
When God has begun the work of absolute
there. And even so, while you are feeble and
surrender in you, and when God has accepted
fighting and trembling, in faith in the hidden
your surrender, then God holds Himself bound
work of God's Spirit do not fear, but yield
to care for it and to keep it. Will you believe
yourself.
that?
And when you do yield yourself in absolute
In this matter of surrender there are two: God
surrender, let it be in the faith that God does
and I — I a worm, God the everlasting and
now accept of it. That is the great point, and
omnipotent Jehovah. Worm, will you be afraid
that is what we so often miss — that believers
to trust yourself to this mighty God now? God is
should be thus occupied with God in this matter
willing. Do you not believe that He can keep you
of surrender. I pray you, be occupied with God.
continually, day by day, and moment by
We want to get help, every one of us, so that in
moment?
our daily life God shall be clearer to us, God
shall have the right place, and be "all in all." And
if we are to have that through life, let us begin
now and look away from ourselves, and look up Moment by moment I'm kept in His love;
to God. Let each believe — while I, a poor worm Moment by moment I've life from above.
on earth and a trembling child of God, full of
failure and sin and fear, bow here, and no one
knows what passes through my heart, and while If God allows the sun to shine upon you
I in simplicity say, O God, I accept Thy terms; I moment by moment, without intermission, will
have pleaded for blessing on myself and others, not God let His life shine upon you every
I have accepted Thy terms of absolute moment? And why have you not experienced
surrender — while your heart says that in deep it? Because you have not trusted God for it, and
silence, remember there is a God present that you do not surrender yourself absolutely to God
takes note of it, and writes it down in His book, in that trust.
and there is a God present who at that very
moment takes possession of you. You may not A life of absolute surrender has its difficulties. I
feel it, you may not realize it, but God takes do not deny that. Yes, it has something far more
possession if you will trust Him... than difficulties: it is a life that with men is
absolutely impossible. But by the grace of God,
God not only claims it, and works it, and accepts by the power of God, by the power of the Holy
it when I bring it, but God maintains it. Spirit dwelling in us, it is a life to which we are
GOD MAINTAINS YOUR SURRENDER destined, and a life that is possible for us, praise
God! Let us believe that God will maintain it.
22
Some of you have read the words of that aged "I give myself absolutely to God, to His will, to
saint who, on his ninetieth birthday, told of all do only what God wants."
God's goodness to him — I mean George
It is God who will enable you to carry out the
Muller. What did he say he believed to be the
surrender.
secret of his happiness, and of all the blessing
which God had given him? He said he believed And, on the other side, come and say: "I give
there were two reasons. The one was that he myself absolutely to God, to let Him work in me
had been enabled by grace to maintain a good to will and to do of His good pleasure, as He has
conscience before God day by day; the other promised to do."
was, that he was a lover of God's Word. Ah, yes,
a good conscience is complete obedience to Yes, the living God wants to work in His children
God day by day, and fellowship with God every in a way that we cannot understand, but that
day in His Word, and prayer — that is a life of God's Word has revealed, and He wants to work
absolute surrender... in us every moment of the day. God is willing to
maintain our life. Only let our absolute
Such a life has two sides — on the one side, surrender be one of simple, childlike, and
absolute surrender to work what God wants unbounded trust.
you to do; on the other side, to let God work
what He wants to do. GOD BLESSES WHEN YOU SURRENDER
First, to do what God wants you to do. This absolute surrender to God will wonderfully
bless.
Give up yourselves absolutely to the will of God.
You know something of that will; not enough, What Ahab said to his enemy, King Ben-hadad
far from all. But say absolutely to the Lord God: — "My lord, O king, according to thy word I am
"By Thy grace I desire to do Thy will in thine, and all that I have" — shall we not say to
everything, every moment of every day." Say: our God and loving Father? If we do say it,
"Lord God, not a word upon my tongue but for God's blessing will come upon us. God wants us
Thy glory, not a movement of my temper but to be separate from the world; we are called to
for Thy glory, not an affection of love or hate in come out from the world that hates God. Come
my heart but for Thy glory, and according to Thy out for God, and say: "Lord, anything for Thee."
blessed will." If you say that with prayer, and speak that into
God's ear, He will accept it, and He will teach
Someone says: "Do you think that is possible?" you what it means.
I ask, what has God promised you, and what can I say again, God will bless you. You have been
God do to fill a vessel absolutely surrendered to praying for blessing. But do remember, there
Him? Oh, God wants to bless you in a way must be absolute surrender. At every tea-table
beyond what you expect. From the beginning, you see it. Why is tea poured into that cup?
ear hath not heard, neither hath the eye seen, Because it is empty, and given up for the tea.
what God hath prepared for them that wait for But put ink, or vinegar, or wine into it, and will
Him. God has prepared unheard-of-things, they pour the tea into the vessel? And can God
blessings much more wonderful than you can fill you, can God bless you if you are not
imagine, more mighty than you can conceive. absolutely surrendered to Him? He cannot. Let
They are divine blessings. Oh, say now: us believe God has wonderful blessings for us, if
23
we will but stand up for God, and say, be it with speak of nominal Christians, or of professing
a trembling will, yet with a believing heart: Christians, but I speak of hundreds and
thousands of honest, earnest Christians who are
"O God, I accept Thy demands. I am thine and
not living a life in the power of God or to His
all that I have. Absolute surrender is what my
glory. So little power, so little devotion or
soul yields to Thee by divine grace."
consecration to God, so little perception of the
You may not have such strong and clear feelings truth that a Christian is a man utterly
of deliverances as you would desire to have, but surrendered to God's will! Oh, we want to
humble yourselves in His sight, and confess the sins of God's people around us, and
acknowledge that you have grieved the Holy to humble ourselves. We are members of that
Spirit by your self-will, self-confidence, and self- sickly body, and the sickliness of the body will
effort. Bow humbly before him in the hinder us, and break us down, unless we come
confession of that, and ask him to break the to God, and in confession separate ourselves
heart and to bring you into the dust before Him. from partnership with worldliness, with
Then, as you bow before Him, just accept God's coldness toward each other, unless we give up
teaching that in your flesh "there dwelled no ourselves to be entirely and wholly for God.
good thing," and that nothing will help you
How much Christian work is being done in the
except another life which must come in. You
spirit of the flesh and in the power of self! How
must deny self once for all. Denying self must
much work, day by day, in which human energy
every moment be the power of your life, and
— our will and our thoughts about the work —
then Christ will come in and take possession of
is continually manifested, and in which there is
you.
but little of waiting upon God, and upon the
When was Peter delivered? When was the power of the Holy Ghost! Let us make
change accomplished? The change began with confession. But as we confess the state of the
Peter weeping, and the Holy Ghost came down Church and the feebleness and sinfulness of
and filled his heart. work for God among us, let us come back to
ourselves. Who is there who truly longs to be
God the Father loves to give us the power of the delivered from the power of the self-life, who
Spirit. We have the Spirit of God dwelling within truly acknowledges that it is the power of self
us. We come to God confessing that, and and the flesh, and who is willing to cast all at
praising God for it, and yet confessing how we the feet of Christ? There is deliverance.
have grieved the Spirit. And then we bow our
knees to the Father to ask that He would I heard of one who had been an earnest
strengthen us with all might by the Spirit in the Christian, and who spoke about the "cruel"
inner man, and that He would fill us with His thought of separation and death. But you do
mighty power. And as the Spirit reveals Christ to not think that, do you? What are we to think of
us, Christ comes to live in our hearts forever, separation and death? This: death was the path
and the self-life is cast out. to glory for Christ. For the joy set before Him He
endured the cross. The cross was the birthplace
Let us bow before God in humility, and in that of His everlasting glory. Do you love Christ? Do
humility confess before Him the state of the you long to be in Christ, and not like Him? Let
whole Church. No words can tell the sad state death be to you the most desirable thing on
of the Church of Christ on earth. I wish I had earth — death to self, and fellowship with
words to speak what I sometimes feel about it. Christ. Separation — do you think it a hard thing
Just think of the Christians around you. I do not
24
to be called to be entirely free from the world,

and by that separation to be united to God and
His love, by separation to become prepared for
living and walking with God every day? Surely Chapter Four
one ought to say: All things are possible in God
"Anything to bring me to separation, to death, through Jesus Christ
for a life of full fellowship with God and Christ."
Come and cast this self-life and flesh-life at the

feet of Jesus. Then trust Him. Do not worry
yourselves with trying to understand all about "And he said, the things which are impossible
it, but come in the living faith that Christ will with men are possible with God" (Luke 18:27).
come into you with the power of His death and
the power of His life; and then the Holy Spirit Christ had said to the rich young ruler, "Sell all
will bring the whole Christ — Christ crucified that thou hast ... and come, follow me." The
and risen and living in glory — into your heart. young man went away sorrowful. Christ then
turned to the disciples, and said: "How hardly
shall they that have riches enter into the
kingdom of God!" The disciples, we read, were
greatly astonished, and answered: "If it is so
difficult to enter the kingdom, who, then, can
be saved?" And Christ gave this blessed answer:
"The things which are impossible with men are

possible with God."
The text contains two thoughts — that in

religion, in the question of salvation and of
following Christ by a holy life, it is impossible for
man to do it. And then alongside that is the
thought — what is impossible with man is
possible with God.
The two thoughts mark the two great lessons

that man has to learn in the religious life. It
often takes a long time to learn the first lesson
that in religion man can do nothing, that
salvation is impossible to man. And often a man
learns that, and yet he does not learn the
second lesson — what has been impossible to
him is possible with God. Blessed is the man
who learns both lessons! The learning of them
marks stages in the Christian's life.
MAN CANNOT
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The one stage is when a man is trying to do his But God leads His children on to a third stage,
utmost and fails, when a man tries to do better when a man comes to take that, It is impossible,
and fails again, when a man tries much more in its full truth, and yet at the same time says: "I
and always fails. And yet very often he does not must do it, and I will do it — it is impossible for
even then learn the lesson: With man it is man, and yet I must do it"; when the renewed
impossible to serve God and Christ. Peter spent will begins to exercise its whole power, and in
three years in Christ's school, and he never intense longing and prayer begins to cry to God:
learned that, it is impossible, until he had "Lord, what is the meaning of this? — How am I
denied his Lord and went out and wept bitterly. to be freed from the power of sin?"
Then he learned it.
It is the state of the regenerate man in Romans
Just look for a moment at a man who is learning 7. There you will find the Christian man trying
this lesson. At first he fights against it; then he his very utmost to live a holy life. God's law has
submits to it, but reluctantly and in despair; at been revealed to him as reaching down into the
last he accepts it willingly and rejoices in it. At very depth of the desires of the heart, and the
the beginning of the Christian life the young man can dare to say:
convert has no conception of this truth. He has
"I delight in the law of God after the inward
been converted, he has the joy of the Lord in his
man. To will what is good is present with me.
heart, he begins to run the race and fight the
My heart loves the law of God, and my will has
battle; he is sure he can conquer, for he is
chosen that law."
earnest and honest, and God will help him. Yet,
somehow, very soon he fails where he did not Can a man like that fail, with his heart full of
expect it, and sin gets the better of him. He is delight in God's law and with his will
disappointed; but he thinks: "I was not watchful determined to do what is right? Yes. That is
enough, I did not make my resolutions strong what Romans 7 teaches us. There is something
enough." And again he vows, and again he more needed. Not only must I delight in the law
prays, and yet he fails. He thought: "Am I not a of God after the inward man, and will what God
regenerate man? Have I not the life of God wills, but I need a divine omnipotence to work it
within me?" And he thinks again: "Yes, and I in me. And that is what the apostle Paul teaches
have Christ to help me, I can live the holy life." in Philippians 2:13:
At a later period he comes to another state of "It is God which worketh in you, both to will and
mind. He begins to see such a life is impossible, to do."
but he does not accept it. There are multitudes
of Christians who come to this point: "I cannot"; Note the contrast. In Romans 7, the regenerate
and then think God never expected them to do man says: "To will is present with me, but to do
what they cannot do. If you tell them that God — I find I cannot do. I will, but I cannot
does expect it, it appears to them a mystery. A perform." But in Philippians 2, you have a man
good many Christians are living a low life, a life who has been led on farther, a man who
of failure and of sin, instead of rest and victory, understands that when God has worked the
because they began to see: "I cannot, it is renewed will, God will give the power to
impossible." And yet they do not understand it accomplish what that will desires. Let us receive
fully, and so, under the impression, I cannot, this as the first great lesson in the spiritual life:
they give way to despair. They will do their best, "It is impossible for me, my God; let there be an
but they never expect to get on very far. end of the flesh and all its powers, an end of
self, and let it be my glory to be helpless."
26
Praise God for the divine teaching that makes The whole of Christianity is a work of God's
us helpless! omnipotence. Look at the birth of Christ Jesus.
That was a miracle of divine power, and it was
When you thought of absolute surrender to
said to Mary: "With God nothing shall be
God were you not brought to an end of
impossible." It was the omnipotence of God.
yourself, and to feel that you could see how you
Look at Christ's resurrection. We are taught that
actually could live as a man absolutely
it was according to the exceeding greatness of
surrendered to God every moment of the day
His mighty power that God raised Christ from
— at your table, in your house, in your business,
the dead.
in the midst of trials and temptations? I pray
you learn the lesson now. If you felt you could Every tree must grow on the root from which it
not do it, you are on the right road, if you let springs. An oak tree three hundred years old
yourselves be led. Accept that position, and grows all the time on the one root from which it
maintain it before God: "My heart's desire and had its beginning. Christianity had its beginning
delight, O God, is absolute surrender, but I in the omnipotence of God, and in every soul it
cannot perform it. It is impossible for me to live must have its continuance in that omnipotence.
that life. It is beyond me." Fall down and learn All the possibilities of the higher Christian life
that when you are utterly helpless, God will have their origin in a new apprehension of
come to work in you not only to will, but also to Christ's power to work all God's will in us.
do.
I want to call upon you now to come and
GOD CAN worship an almighty God. Have you learned to
do it? Have you learned to deal so closely with
Now comes the second lesson. "The things
an almighty God that you know omnipotence is
which are impossible with men are possible
working in you? In outward appearance there is
with God."
often so little sign of it. The apostle Paul said: "I
I said a little while ago that there is many a man was with you in weakness and in fear and in
who has learned the lesson, it is impossible with much trembling, and . . . my preaching was ... in
men, and then he gives up in helpless despair, demonstration of the Spirit and of power."
and lives a wretched Christian life, without joy, From the human side there was feebleness,
or strength, or victory. And why? Because he from the divine side there was divine
does not humble himself to learn that other omnipotence. And that is true of every godly
lesson: With God all things are possible. life; and if we would only learn that lesson
better, and give a wholehearted, undivided
Your religious life is every day to be a proof that surrender to it, we should learn what
God works impossibilities; your religious life is blessedness there is in dwelling every hour and
to be a series of impossibilities made possible every moment with an almighty God. Have you
and actual by God's almighty power. That is ever studied in the Bible the attribute of God's
what the Christian needs. He has an almighty omnipotence? You know that it was God's
God that he worships, and he must learn to omnipotence that created the world, and
understand that he does not need a little of created fight out of darkness, and created man.
God's power, but he needs — with reverence be But have you studied God's omnipotence in the
it said — the whole of God's omnipotence to works of redemption?
keep him right, and to live like a Christian.
Look at Abraham. When God called him to be
the father of that people out of which Christ
27
was to be born, God said to him: "I am God which are impossible with men are possible
Almighty, walk before me and be thou perfect." with God"?
And God trained Abraham to trust Him as the
Remember what we have said about Peter, his
omnipotent One; and whether it was his going
self-confidence, self-power, self-will, and how
out to a land that he knew not, or his faith as a
he came to deny his Lord. You feel, "Ah! There
pilgrim midst the thousands of Canaanites — his
is the self-life, there is the flesh-life that rules in
faith said: This is my land — or whether it was
me!" And now, have you believed that there is
his faith in waiting twenty-five years for a son in
deliverance from that? Have you believed that
his old age, against all hope, or whether it was
Almighty God is able so to reveal Christ in your
the raising up of Isaac from the dead on Mount
heart, so to let the Holy Spirit rule in you, that.
Moriah when he was going to sacrifice him —
The self-life shall not have power or dominion
Abraham believed God. He was strong in faith,
over you? Have you coupled the two together,
giving glory to God, because he accounted Him
and with tears of penitence and with deep
who had promised able to perform.
humiliation and feebleness, cried out: "O God, it
The cause of the weakness of your Christian life is impossible to me; man cannot do it, but, glory
is that you want to work it out partly, and to let to Thy name, it is possible with God"? Have you
God help you. And that cannot be. You must claimed deliverance? Do it now. Put yourself
come to be utterly helpless, to let God work, afresh in absolute surrender into the hands of a
and God will work gloriously. It is this that we God of infinite love; and as infinite as His love is
need if we are indeed to be workers for God. I His power to do it.
could go through Scripture and prove to you
GOD WORKS IN MAN
how Moses, when he led Israel out of Egypt;
how Joshua, when he brought them into the But again, we came to the question of absolute
land of Canaan; how all God's servants in the surrender, and felt that that is the want in the
Old Testament counted upon the omnipotence Church of Christ, and that is why the Holy Ghost
of God doing impossibilities. And this God lives cannot fill us, and why we cannot live as people
today, and this God is the God of every child of entirely separated unto the Holy Ghost; that is
His. And yet we are some of us wanting God to why the flesh and the self-life cannot be
give us a little help while we do our best, conquered. We have never understood what it
instead of coming to understand what God is to be absolutely surrendered to God as Jesus
wants, and to say: "I can do nothing. God must was. I know that many a one earnestly and
and will do all." Have you said: "In worship, in honestly says: "Amen, I accept the message of
work, in sanctification, in obedience to God, I absolute surrender to God"; and yet thinks:
can do nothing of myself, and so my place is to "Will that ever be mine? Can I count upon God
worship the omnipotent God, and to believe to make me one of whom it shall be said in
that He will work in me every moment"? Oh, my Heaven and on earth and in Hell, he lives in
God teach us this! Oh, that God would by His absolute surrender to God?" Brother, sister,
grace show you what a God you have, and to "the things which are impossible with men are
what a God you have entrusted yourself — an possible with God." Do believe that when He
omnipotent God, willing with His whole takes charge of you in Christ, it is possible for
omnipotence to place Himself at the disposal of God to make you a man of absolute surrender.
every child of His! Shall we not take the lesson And God is able to maintain that. He is able to
of the Lord Jesus and say: "Amen; the things let you rise from bed every morning of the week
with that blessed thought directly or indirectly:
28
"I am in God's charge. My God is working out to be cruel. Until I am brought to such a state
my life for me." that the more a man hates and speaks evil of
me, the more unlikable and unlovable a man is,
Some are weary of thinking about
I shall love him all the more; until I am brought
sanctification. You pray, you have longed and
to such a state that the more the obstacles and
cried for it, and yet it appeared so far off! The
hatred and ingratitude, the more can the power
holiness and humility of Jesus — you are so
of love triumph in me — until I am brought to
conscious of how distant it is. Beloved friends,
see that, I am not saying: "It is impossible with
the one doctrine of sanctification that is
men." But if you have been led to say: "This
scriptural and real and effectual is: "The things
message has spoken to me about a love utterly
which are impossible with men are possible
beyond my power; it is absolutely impossible"
with God." God can sanctify men, and by His
— then we can come to God and say: "It is
almighty and sanctifying power every moment
possible with Thee."
God can keep them. Oh, that we might get a
step nearer to our God now! Oh, that the light Some are crying to God for a great revival. I can
of God might shine, and that we might know say that that is the prayer of my heart
our God better! unceasingly. Oh, if God would only revive His
believing people! I cannot think in the first place
I could go on to speak about the life of Christ in
of the unconverted formalists of the Church, or
us — living like Christ, taking Christ as our
of the infidels and skeptics, or of all the
Savior from sin, and as our life and strength. It is
wretched and perishing around me, my heart
God in Heaven who can reveal that in you.
prays in the first place: "My God, revive Thy
What does that prayer of the apostle Paul say:
Church and people." It is not for nothing that
"That he would grant you according to riches of
there are in thousands of hearts yearnings after
his glory" — it is sure to be something very
holiness and consecration: it is a forerunner of
wonderful if it is according to the riches of His
God's power. God works to will and then He
glory — "to be strengthened with might by his
works to do. These yearnings are a witness and
Spirit in the inner man"? Do you not see that it
a proof that God has worked to will. Oh, let us
is an omnipotent God working by His
in faith believe that the omnipotent God will
omnipotence in the heart of His believing
work to do among His people more than we can
children, so that Christ can become an
ask. "Unto him," Paul said, "who is able to do
indwelling Savior? You have tried to grasp it and
exceeding abundantly above all that we ask or
to seize it, and you have tried to believe it, and
think.... unto him be glory." Let our hearts say
it would not come. It was because you had not
that. Glory to God, the omnipotent One, who
been brought to believe that "the things which
can do above what we dare to ask or think!
are impossible with men are possible with
God." "The things which are impossible with men are
possible with God." All around you there is a
And so, I trust that the word spoken about love
world of sin and sorrow, and the Devil is there.
may have brought many to see that we must
But remember, Christ is on the throne, Christ is
have an inflowing of love in quite a new way;
stronger, Christ has conquered, and Christ will
our heart must be filled with life from above,
conquer. But wait on God. My text casts us
from the Fountain of everlasting love, if it is
down: "The things which are impossible with
going to overflow all the day; then it will be just
men"; but it ultimately lifts us up high — "are
as natural for us to love our fellowmen as it is
possible with God." Get linked to God. Adore
natural for the lamb to be gentle and the wolf
29
and trust Him as the omnipotent One, not only

for your own life, but for all the souls that are
entrusted to you. Never pray without adoring
His omnipotence, saying: "Mighty God, I claim
Thine almightiness." And the answer to the
prayer will come, and like Abraham you will
become strong in faith, giving glory to God,
because your account Him who hath promised
able to perform.
Chapter Five
Ye are kept by the power of God!
The words from which I speak, you will find in 1

Peter 1:5. The third, fourth and fifth verses are:
"Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord
Jesus Christ, which ... hath begotten us again
unto a lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus
Christ from the dead, to an inheritance
incorruptible ... reserved in heaven for you, who
are kept by the power of God through faith
unto salvation." The words of my text are: "Kept
by the power of God through faith."
There we have two wonderful, blessed truths

about the keeping by which a believer is kept
unto salvation. One truth is, kept by the power
of God; and the other truth is, kept through
faith. We should look at the two sides — at
God's side and His almighty power, offered to
us to be our Keeper every moment of the day;
and at the human side, we having nothing to do
but in faith to let God do His keeping work. We
are begotten again to an inheritance kept in
Heaven for us; and we are kept here on earth
by the power of God. We see there is a double
keeping — the inheritance kept for me in
Heaven, and I on earth kept for the inheritance
there.
30
Now, as to the first part of this keeping, there is What is kept? You are kept. How much of you?
no doubt and no question. God keeps the The whole being. Does God keep one part of
inheritance in Heaven very wonderfully and you and not another? No. Some people have an
perfectly, and it is waiting there safely. And the idea that this is a sort of vague, general keeping,
same God keeps me for the inheritance. That is and that God will keep them in such a way that
what I want to understand. when they die they will get to Heaven. But they
do not apply that word kept to everything in
You know it is very foolish of a father to take
their being and nature. And yet that is what
great trouble to have an inheritance for his
God wants.
children, and to keep it for them, if he does not
keep them for it. What would you think of a Here I have a watch. Suppose that this watch
man spending his whole time and making every had been borrowed from a friend, and he said
sacrifice to amass money, and as he gets his to me:
tens of thousands, you ask him why it is that he
"When you go to Europe, I will let you take it
sacrifices himself so, and his answer is: "I want
with you, but mind you keep it safely and bring
to leave my children a large inheritance, and I
it back."
am keeping it for them" — if you were then to
hear that that man takes no trouble to educate And suppose I damaged the watch, and had the
his children, that he allows them to run upon hands broken, and the face defaced, and some
the street wild, and to go on in paths of sin and of the wheels and springs spoiled, and took it
ignorance and folly, what would you think of back in that condition, and handed it to my
him? Would not you say: "Poor man? He is friend; he would say:
keeping an inheritance for his children, but he is
not keeping or preparing his children for the "Ah, but I gave you that watch on condition that
inheritance"! And there are so many Christians you would keep it."
who think: "My God is keeping the inheritance "Have I not kept it? There is the watch."
for me"; but they cannot believe: "My God is
keeping me for that inheritance." The same "But I did not want you to keep it in that
power, the same love, the same God doing the general way, so that you should bring me back
double work. only the shell of the watch, or the remains. I
expected you to keep every part of it."
Now, I want to speak about a work God does
upon us — keeping us for the inheritance. I And so God does not want to keep us in this
have already said that we have two very simple general way, so that at the last, somehow or
truths: the one the divine side — we are kept by other, we shall. Be saved as by fire, and just get
the power of God; the other, the human side — into Heaven. But the keeping power and the
we are kept through faith. love of God applies to every particular of our
being.
KEPT BY THE POWER OF GOD
There are some people who think God will keep
Look at the divine side: Christians are kept by them in spiritual things, but not in temporal
the power of God. things. This latter, they say, lies outside of His
KEEPING INCLUDES ALL line. Now, God sends you to work in the world,
but He did not say: "I must now leave you to go
Think, first of all, that this keeping is all- and earn your own money, and to get your
inclusive. livelihood for yourself." He knows you are not
31
able to keep yourself. But God says: "My child, "Love one another as I have loved you." And
there is no work you are to do, and no business when your temper and hasty judgment and
in which you are engaged, and not a cent which sharp words came out, you sinned against the
you are to spend, but I, your Father, will take highest law — the law of God's love. And yet
that up into my keeping." God not only cares for you say: "God will not, God cannot" — no, you
the spiritual, but for the temporal also. The will not say, God cannot; but you say, "God
greater part of the life of many people must be does not keep me from that." You perhaps say:
spent, sometimes eight or nine or ten hours a "He can; but there is something in me that
day, amid the temptations and distractions of cannot attain to it, and which God does not take
business; but God will care for you there. The away."
keeping of God includes all.
I want to ask you, Can believers live a holier life
There are other people who think: "Ah! In time than is generally lived? Can believers
of trial God keeps me, but in times of prosperity experience the keeping power of God all the
I do not need His keeping; then I forget Him and day, to keep them from sin? Can believers be
let Him go." Others, again, think the very kept in fellowship with God? And I bring you a
opposite. They think: "In time of prosperity, message from the Word of God, in these words:
when things are smooth and quiet, I am able to Kept by the power of God. There is no qualifying
cling to God, but when heavy trials come, clause to them. The meaning is, that if you will
somehow or other my will rebels, and God does entrust yourself entirely and absolutely to the
not keep me then." omnipotence of God, He will delight to keep
you.
Now, I bring you the message that in prosperity
as in adversity, in the sunshine as in the dark, Some people think that they never can get so
your God is ready to keep you all the time. far as that every word of their mouth should be
to the glory of God. But it is what God wants of
Then again, there are others who think of this
them, it is what God expects of them. God is
keeping thus: "God will keep me from doing
willing to set a watch at the door of their
very great wickedness, but there are small sins I
mouth, and if God will do that, cannot He keep
cannot expect God to keep me from. There is
their tongue and their lips? He can; and that is
the sin of temper. I cannot expect God to
what God is going to do for them that trust Him.
conquer that."
God's keeping is all-inclusive, and let everyone
When you hear of some man who has been who longs to live a holy life think out all their
tempted and gone astray or fallen into needs, and all their weaknesses, and all their
drunkenness or murder, you thank God for His shortcomings, and all their sins, and say
keeping power. deliberately: "Is there any sin that my God
cannot keep me from?" And the heart will have
"I might have done the same as that man," you to answer: "No; God can keep me from every
say, "if God had not kept me." And you believe sin."
He kept you from drunkenness and murder.
KEEPING REQUIRES POWER
And why do you not need believe that God can
keep you from outbreaks of temper? You Second, if you want to understand this keeping,
thought that this was of less importance; you remember that it is not only an all-inclusive
did not remember that the great keeping, but it is an almighty keeping.
commandment of the New Testament is —
32
I want to get that truth burned into my soul; I father says: "You can have as much money as
want to worship God until my whole heart is you want for your undertaking." All the father
filled with the thought of His omnipotence. God has is at the disposal of the son. And that is the
is almighty, and the Almighty God offers Himself way with God, your Almighty God. You can
to work in my heart, to do the work of keeping hardly take it in; you feel yourself such a little
me; and I want to get linked with Omnipotence, worm. His omnipotence needed to keep a little
or rather, linked to the Omnipotent One, to the worm! Yes, His omnipotence is needed to keep
living God, and to have my place in the hollow every little worm that lives in the dust, and also
of His hand. You read the Psalms, and you think to keep the universe, and therefore His
of the wonderful thoughts in many of the omnipotence is much more needed in keeping
expressions that David uses; as, for instance, your soul and mine from the power of sin.
when he speaks about God being our God, our
Oh, if you want to grow in grace, do learn to
Fortress, our Refuge, our strong Tower, our
begin here. In all your judging’s and meditations
Strength and our Salvation. David had very
and thoughts and deeds and questionings and
wonderful views of how the everlasting God is
studies and prayers, learn to be kept by your
Himself the hiding place of the believing soul,
Almighty God. What is Almighty God not going
and of how He takes the believer and keeps him
to do for the child that trusts Him? The Bible
in the very hollow of His hand, in the secret of
says: "Above all that we can ask or think." It is
His pavilion, under the shadow of His wings,
Omnipotence you must learn to know and trust,
under His very feathers. And there David lived.
and then you will live as a Christian ought to
And oh, we who are the children of Pentecost,
live. How little we have learned to study God,
we who have known Christ and His blood and
and to understand that a godly life is a life full
the Holy Ghost sent down from Heaven, why is
of God, a life that loves God and waits on Him,
it we know so little of what it is to walk
and trusts Him, and allows Him to bless it! We
tremblingly step by step with the Almighty God
cannot do the will of God except by the power
as our Keeper?
of God. God gives us the first experience of His
Have you ever thought that in every action of power to prepare us to long for more, and to
grace in your heart you have the whole come and claim all that He can do. God help us
omnipotence of God engaged to bless you? to trust Him every day.
When I come to a man and he bestows upon
KEEPING IS CONTINUOUS
me a gift of money, I get it and go away with it.
He has given me something of his; the rest he Another thought. This keeping is not only all-
keeps for himself. But that is not the way with inclusive and omnipotent, but also continuous
the power of God. God can part with nothing of and unbroken. I
His own power, and therefore I can experience
the power and goodness of God only so far as I People sometimes say: "For a week or a month
am in contact and fellowship with Himself; and God has kept me very wonderfully: I have lived
when I come into contact and fellowship with in the light of His countenance, and I cannot say
Himself, I come into contact and fellowship with what joy I have not had in fellowship with Him.
the whole omnipotence of God, and have the He has blessed me in my work for others. He
omnipotence of God to help me every day. has given me souls, and at times I felt as if I
were carried heavenward eagle wings. But it did
A son has, perhaps, a very rich father, and as not continue. It was too good; it could not last."
the former is about to commence business the And some say: "It was necessary that I should
33
fall to keep me humble." And others say: "I Will our God, in His tenderhearted love toward
know it was my own fault; but somehow you us, not keep us every moment when He has
cannot always live up in the heights." promised to do so? Oh! if we once got hold of
the thought: Our whole religious life is to be
Oh, beloved, why is it? Can there be any reason
God's doing — "It is God that worketh in us to
why the keeping of God should not be
will and to do of his good pleasure" — when
continuous and unbroken? Just think. All life is
once we get faith to expect that from God, God
in unbroken continuity. If my life were stopped
will do all for us.
for half an hour I would be dead, and my life
gone. Life is a continuous thing, and the life of The keeping is to be continuous. Every morning
God is the life of His Church, and the life of God God will meet you as you wake. It is not a
is His almighty power working in us. And God question: If I forgot to wake in the morning with
comes to us as the Almighty One, and without the thought of. Him, what will come of it? If you
any condition He offers to be my Keeper, and trust you’re waking to God, God will meet you
His keeping means that day by day, moment by in the morning as you wake with His divine
moment, God is going to keep us. sunshine and love, and He will give you the
consciousness that through the day you have
If I were to ask you the question: "Do you think
got God to take charge of you continuously with
God is able to keep you one day from actual
His almighty power. And God will meet you the
transgression?" you would answer: "I not only
next day and every day; and never mind if in the
know He is able to do it, but I think He has done
practice of fellowship there comes failure
it. There have been days in which He has kept
sometimes. If you maintain your position and
my heart in His holy presence, when, though I
say: "Lord, I am going to expect Thee to do Thy
have always had a sinful nature within me, He
utmost, and I am going to trust Thee day by day
has kept me from conscious, actual
to keep me absolutely," your faith will grow
transgression."
stronger and stronger, and you will know the
Now, if He can do that for an hour or a day, why keeping power of God in unbrokenness.
not for two days? Oh! Let us make God's
KEPT THROUGH FAITH
omnipotence as revealed in His Word the
measure of our expectations. Has God not said And now the other side — Believing. "Kept by
in His Word: "I, the Lord, do keep it, and will the power of God through faith." How must we
water it every moment"? What can that mean? look at this faith?
Does "every moment" mean every moment?
FAITH IMPLIES HELPLESSNESS
Did God promise of that vineyard or red wine
that every moment He would water it so that Let me say, first of all, that this faith means
the heat of the sun and the scorching wind utter impotence and helplessness before God.
might never dry it up? Yes. In South Africa they
sometimes make a graft, and above it they tie a At the bottom of all faith there is a feeling of
bottle of water, so that now and then there helplessness. If I have a bit of business to
shall be a drop to saturate what they have put transact, perhaps to buy a house, the
about it. And so the moisture is kept there conveyancer must do the work of getting the
unceasingly until the graft has had time to transfer of the property in my name, and
stroke, and resist the heat of the sun. making all the arrangements. I cannot do that
work, and in trusting that agent I confess I
cannot do it. And so faith always means
34
helplessness. In many cases it means: I can do it "That is the wrong way. You must come down
with a great deal of trouble, but another can do this way; that stair is locked up."
it better. But in most cases it is utter
The gentleman took him downstairs a good
helplessness; another must do it for me. And
many steps, and there an elevator was ready to
that is the secret of the spiritual life. A man
take him to the top; and he said:
must learn to say: "I give up everything; I have
tried and longed, and thought and prayed, but "I have learned a lesson that going down is
failure has come. God has blessed me and often the best way to get up."
helped me, but still, in the long run, there has
been so much of sin and sadness." What a Ah, yes, God will have to bring us very low
change comes when a man is thus broken down down; there will have to come upon us a sense
into utter helplessness and self-despair, and of emptiness and despair and nothingness. It is
says: "I can do nothing!" when we sink down in utter helplessness that
the everlasting God will reveal Himself in His
Remember Paul. He was living a blessed life, power, and that our hearts will learn to trust
and he had been taken up into the third God alone.
Heaven, and then the thorn in the flesh came,
"a messenger of Satan to buffet me." And what What is it that keeps us from trusting Him
happened? Paul could not understand it, and he perfectly?
prayed the Lord three times to take it away; but Many a one says: "I believe what you say, but
the Lord said, in effect: there is one difficulty. If my trust were perfect
"No; it is possible that you might exalt yourself, and always abiding, all would come right, for I
and therefore I have sent you this trial to keep know God will honor trust. But how am I to get
you weak and humble." that trust?"
And Paul then learned a lesson that he never My answer is: "By the death of self. The great
forgot, and that was — to rejoice in his hindrance to trust is self-effort. So long as you
infirmities. He said that the weaker he was the have got your own wisdom and thoughts and
better it was for him, for when he was weak, he strength, you cannot fully trust God. But when
was strong in his Lord Christ. God breaks you down, when everything begins
to grow dim before your eyes, and you see that
Do you want to enter what people call "the you understand nothing, then God is coming
higher life"? Then go a step lower down. I nigh, and if you will bow down in nothingness
remember Dr. Boardman telling how that once and wait upon God, He will become all."
he was invited by a gentleman to go to see
some works where they made fine shot, and I As long as we are something, God cannot be all,
believe the workmen did so by pouring down and His omnipotence cannot do its full work.
molten lead from a great height. This That is the beginning of faith — utter despair of
gentleman wanted to take Dr. Boardman up to self, a ceasing from man and everything on
the top of the tower to see how the work was earth, and finding our hope in God alone.
done. The doctor came to the tower, he FAITH IS REST
entered by the door, and began going upstairs;
but when he had gone a few steps the And then, next, we must understand that faith
gentleman called out: is rest.
35
In the beginning of the faith-life, faith is word is enough; kept by the power of God."
struggling; but as long as faith is struggling, faith That is faith that is rest.
has not attained its strength. But when faith in
When Canon Battersby heard that address, he
its struggling gets to the end of itself, and just
went home that night, and in the darkness of
throws itself upon God and rests on Him, then
the night found rest. He rested on the word of
comes joy and victory.
Jesus. And the next morning, in the streets of
Perhaps I can make it plainer if I tell the story of Oxford, he said to a friend: "I have found it!"
how the Keswick Convention began. Canon Then he went and told others, and asked that
Battersby was an evangelical clergyman of the the Keswick Convention might be begun, and
Church of England for more than twenty years, those at the convention with himself should
a man of deep and tender godliness, but he had testify simply what God had done.
not the consciousness of rest and victory over
It is a great thing when a man comes to rest on
sin, and often was deeply sad at the thought of
God's almighty power for every moment of his
stumbling and failure and sin. When he heard
life, in prospect of temptations to temper and
about the possibility of victory, he felt it was
haste and anger and unlovingness and pride
desirable, but it was as if he could not attain it.
and sin. It is a great thing in prospect of these to
On one occasion. He heard an address on "Rest
enter into a covenant with the omnipotent
and Faith" from the story of the nobleman who
Jehovah, not on account of anything that any
came from Capernaum to Cana to ask Christ to
man says, or of anything that my heart feels,
heal his child. In the address it was shown that
but on the strength of the Word of God: "Kept
the nobleman believed that Christ could help
by the power of God through faith."
him in a general way, but he came to Jesus a
good deal by way of an experiment. He hoped Oh, let us say to God that we are going to prove
Christ would help him, but he had not any Him to the very uttermost. Let us say: We ask
assurance of that help. But what happened? Thee for nothing more than Thou canst give,
When Christ said to him: "Go thy way, for thy but we want nothing less. Let us say: My God,
child lived," that man believed the word that let my life be a proof of what the omnipotent
Jesus spoke; he rested in that word. He had no God can do. Let these be the two dispositions of
proof that his child was well again, and he had our souls every day — deep helplessness, and
to walk back seven hours' journey to simple, childlike rest.
Capernaum. He walked back, and on the way
met his servant, and got the first news that the FAITH NEEDS FELLOWSHIP
child was well, that at one o'clock on the That brings me to just one more thought in
afternoon of the previous day, at the very time regard to faith — faith implies fellowship with
that Jesus spoke to him, the fever left the child. God.
That father rested upon the word of Jesus and
His work, and he went down to Capernaum and Many people want to take the Word and
found his child well; and he praised God, and believe that, and they find they cannot believe
became with his whole house a believer and it. Ah, no! You cannot separate God from His
disciple of Jesus. Word. No goodness or power can be received
separate from God, and if you want to get into
Oh, friends, that is faith! When God comes to this life of godliness, you must take time for
me with the promise of His keeping, and I have fellowship with God.
nothing on earth to trust in, I say to God: "Thy
36
People sometimes tell me: "My life is one of a pardoned sinner can be made." And if that
such scurry and bustle that I have no time for prayer is in your heart, come now, and let us
fellowship with God." A dear missionary said to enter into a covenant with the everlasting and
me: "People do not know how we missionaries omnipotent Jehovah afresh, and in great
are tempted. I get up at five o'clock in the helplessness, but in great restfulness place
morning, and there are the natives waiting for ourselves in His hands. And then as we enter
their orders for work. Then I have to go to the into our covenant, let us have the one prayer —
school and spend hours there; and then there is that we may believe fully that the everlasting
other work, and sixteen hours rush along, and I God is going to be our Companion, holding our
hardly get time to be alone with God." hand every moment of the day; our Keeper,
watching over us without a moment's interval;
Ah! There is the want. I pray you, remember
our Father, delighting to reveal Himself in our
two things. I have not told you to trust the
souls always. He has the power to let the
omnipotence of God as a thing, and I have not
sunshine of His love be with us all the day. Do
told you to trust the Word of God as a written
not be afraid because you have got your
book, but I have told you to go to the God of
business that you cannot have God with you
omnipotence and the God of the Word. Deal
always. Learn the lesson that the natural sun
with God as that nobleman dealt with the living
shines upon you all the day, and you enjoy its
Christ. Why was he able to believe the word
light, and wherever you are you have got the
that Christ spoke to him? Because in the very
sun; God takes care that it shines upon you. And
eyes and tones and voice of Jesus, the Son of
God will take care that His own divine light
God, he saw and heard something which made
shines upon you, and that you shall abide in
him feel that he could trust Him. And that is
that light, if you will only trust Him for it. Let us
what Christ can do for you and me. Do not try
trust God to do that with a great and entire
to stir and arouse faith from within. How often I
trust.
have tried to do that, and made a fool of
myself! You cannot stir up faith from the depths Here is the omnipotence of God, and here is
of your heart. Leave your heart, and look into faith reaching out to the measure of that
the face of Christ, and listen to what He tells omnipotence. Shall we not say: "All that that
you about how He will keep you. Look up into omnipotence can do, I am going to trust my
the face of your loving Father, and take time God for"? Are not the two sides of this heavenly
every day with Him, and begin a new life with life wonderful? God's omnipotence covers me,
the deep emptiness and poverty of a man who and my will in its littleness rests in that
has got nothing, and who wants to get omnipotence, and rejoices in it!
everything from Him — with the deep
restfulness of a man who rests on the living
God, the omnipotent Jehovah — and try God, Moment by moment, I'm kept in His love;
and prove Him if He will not open the windows
of Heaven and pour out a blessing that there Moment by moment, I've life from above;
shall not be room to receive it. Looking to Jesus, the glory doth shine;
I close by asking if you are willing to experience Moment by moment, Oh, Lord, I am Thine!
to the very full the heavenly keeping for the
heavenly inheritance. Robert Murray M'Cheyne
says, somewhere: "Oh, God, make me as holy as
37
Chapter Six
The power of Love
Though I speak, etc.—at the conclusion of the

preceding chapter the apostle promised to
show the Corinthians a more excellent way than
that in which they were now proceeding. They
were so distracted with contentions, divided by
parties, and envious of each other's gifts, that
unity was nearly destroyed. This was a full proof
that love to God and man was wanting; and that
without this, their numerous gifts and other
graces were nothing in the eyes of God; for it
was evident that they did not love one another,
which is a proof that they did not love God; and
consequently, that they had not true religion.
Having, by his advices and directions, corrected
many abuses, and having shown them how in
outward things they should walk so as to please
God, he now shows them the spirit, temper,
38
and disposition in which this should be done, supportable: or it may be taken immediately
and without which all the rest must be from the Anglo-Saxon lofa and
ineffectual.
Love, from lufan and lufian, to desire, to love,
Before I proceed to the consideration of the to favor. It would be ridiculous to look to the
different parts of this chapter, it may be Greek verb φιλειν for its derivation.
necessary to examine whether the word αγαπη
Having said so much about the word love, we
be best translated by charity or love. Wycliffe,
should say something of the word charity,
translating from the Vulgate, has the word
which is supposed to be improper in this place.
charity; and him our authorized version follows.
Charity comes to us immediately from the
But Coverdale, Matthews, Cranmer, and the
French charite, who borrowed it from the Latin
Geneva Bible, have love; which is adopted by
charitas, which is probably borrowed from the
recent translators and commentators in
Greek χαρις, signifying grace or favor, or χαρα,
general; among whom the chief are Dodd,
joy, as a benefit bestowed is a favor that
Pearce, Purver, Wakefield, and Wesley; all these
inspires him who receives it with joy; and so far
strenuously contend that the word charity,
contributes to his happiness. The proper
which is now confined to almsgiving, is utterly
meaning of the word CHARUS, is dear, costly;
improper; and that the word love, alone
and CHARITAS, is dearth, scarcity, a high price,
expresses the apostle's sense. As the word
or dearness. Hence, as in times of dearth or
charity seems now to express little else than
scarcity, many, especially the poor, must be in
almsgiving, which, performed even to the
want, and the benevolent will be excited to
uttermost of a man's power, is nothing if he lack
relieve them; the term which expressed the
what the apostle terms αγαπη, and which we
cause of this want was applied to the
here translate charity; it is best to omit the use
disposition which was excited in behalf of the
of a word in this place which, taken in its
sufferer. Now, as he who relieves a person in
ordinary signification, makes the apostle
distress, and preserves his life by
contradict himself; see 1 Corinthians 13:3:
communicating a portion of his property to him,
Though I give all my goods to feed the poor, and
will feel a sort of interest in the person thus
have not charity, it profited me nothing. That is:
preserved; Hence he is said to be dear to him:
"Though I have the utmost charity, and act in
i.e. he has cost him something; and he values
every respect according to its dictates, yet, if I
him in proportion to the trouble or expense he
have not charity, my utmost charity is
has cost him. Thus charity properly expresses
unprofitable." Therefore, to shun this
that affectionate attachment we may feel to a
contradiction, and the probable misapplication
person whose wants we have been enabled to
of the term, LOVE had better be substituted for
relieve; but originally it signified that want of
CHARITY!
the necessaries of life which produced dearth or
The word αγαπη, love, I have already dearness of those necessaries; and brought the
considered at large in the note on Matthew poor man into that state in which he stood so
22:37; and to that place I beg leave to refer the much in need of the active benevolence of his
reader for its derivation and import. Our English richer neighbor. If the word be applied to God's
word love we have from the Teutonic leben to benevolence towards man, it comes in with all
live, because love is the means, dispenser, and propriety and force: we are dear to God, for we
preserver of life; and without it life would have have not been purchased with silver or gold,
nothing desirable, nor indeed anything even but with the precious (τιμιῳ αἱματι, costly)
39
blood of Christ, who so loved us as to give his whenne I was a maad a mam: I avoydid tho
life a ransom for ours. thingis that weren of a litil chiild. Forsothe we
seen now bi a moror in dercness: thanne
As Christians in general acknowledge that this
forsothe face to face. Nowe I know of partye:
chapter is the most important in the whole New
thanne forsothe I schal know and as I am
Testament, I shall give here the first translation
knowen. Nowe forsothe dwellen feith hoope
of it into the English language which is known to
charite. These three: forsothe the more of hem
exist, extracted from an ancient and noble MS.
is charite.
in my own possession, which seems to exhibit
both a text and language, if not prior to the This is the whole of the chapter as it exists in
time of Wycliffe, yet certainly not posterior to the MS., with all its peculiar orthography,
his days. The reader will please to observe that points, and lines. The words with lines under
there are no divisions of verses in the MS. may be considered the translator's marginal
readings; for, though incorporated with the
THE XIII. CHAPTER OF 1 CORINTHIANS, FROM
text, they are distinguished from it by those
AN ANCIENT MS.
lines.
Gyf I Speke with tungis of men and aungels
I had thought once of giving a literal translation
sotheli I have not charitee: I am maad as brasse
of the whole chapter from all the ancient
sounynge, or a symbale tynking. And gif I schal
versions. This would be both curious and useful;
habe prophecie and habe knowen alle
but the reader might think it would take up too
mysteries and alle hunynge or science. And gif I
much of his time, and the writer has none to
schal have al feith so that I oder bere hills fro oo
spare.
place to another. forsothe gif I schal not have
charite: I am nought. And gif I schal deperte al The tongues of men—All human languages,
my goodid into metis of pore men. And gif I with all the eloquence of the most
schal bitake my body so that I brenne forsothe accomplished orator.
gif I schal not have charite it profitith to me no
And of angels—i.e. though a man knew the
thing. Charite is pacient or suffering. It is
language of the eternal world so well that he
benyngne or of good wille. Charite envyeth not.
could hold conversation with its inhabitants,
It doth not gyle it is not inblowen with pride it is
and find out the secrets of their kingdom. Or,
not ambyciouse or coveitouse of wirschippis. It
probably, the apostle refers to a notion that
seeketh not the thingis that ben her owne. It is
was common among the Jews, that there was a
not stirid to wrath it thinkith not yvil. It joyeth
language by which angels might be invoked,
not on wickedness forsothe it joyeth to gydre to
adjured, collected, and dispersed; and by the
treuthe. It suffreth all thingis. It bileeveth alle
means of which many secrets might be found
thingis. It hopith alle thingis it susteeneth alle
out, and curious arts and sciences known.
things. Charite fallith not doun. Whether
prophecies schuln be bolde eyther langagis There is much of this kind to be found in their
schuln ceese: eyther science schul be distruyed. cabalistic books, and in the books of many
Forsothe of the party we ban knowen: and of called Christians. Cornelius Agrippa's occult
partye prophecien. Forsothe whenne that schal philosophy abounds in this; and it was the main
cum to that is perfit: that thing that is of partye object of Dr. Dee's actions with spirits to get a
schal be avoydid. Whenne I was a litil chiilde: I complete vocabulary of this language. See what
spake as a litil chiilde. I understode as a litil has been published of his work by Dr.
chiilde: I thougte as a litil chiild. Forsothe
40
Casaubon; and the remaining manuscript parts Pitt.

in the Sloane library, in the British museum.
The metal of which the instrument was made is
In Bava Bathra, fol. 134, mention is made of a used again for the instrument itself, in that fine
famous rabbin, Jochanan ben Zaccai, who passage of the same poet, Aeneid, lib. ix. ver.
understood the language of devils, trees, and 603, where he represents the Trojans rushing to
angels. battle against the Volsciane:—
Some think that the apostle means only the At tuba terribilem sonitum procul aere canoro
most splendid eloquence; as we sometimes
Increpuit: sequitur clamor, caelumque remugit.
apply the word angelic to signify anything
sublime, grand, beautiful, etc.; but it is more And now the trumpets, terrible from far,
likely that he speaks here after the manner of
his countrymen, who imagined that there was With rattling clangour rouse the sleepy war.
an angelic language which was the key to many The soldiers' shouts succeed the brazen sounds
mysteries; a language which might be acquired,
and which, they say, had been learned by And heaven from pole to pole their noise
several. rebounds.
Sounding brass—Χαλκος ηχων· That is, like a DRYDEN.

trumpet made of brass; for although; χαλκος And again, in his Battle of the Bees, Geor., lib.
signifies brass, and aes signifies the same, yet Iv. ver. 70:—
we know the latter is often employed to signify
the trumpet, because generally made of this —namque morantes
metal. Thus Virgil, when he represents Misenus
Martius ille aeris rauci canor increpat, et vox
endeavoring to fright away the harpies with the
sound of his trumpet:— Auditur fractos sonitus imitata tubarum.
Ergo, ubi delapsae sonitum per curva dedere With shouts the cowards' courage they excite,
Littora, dat signum specula Misenus ab alta And martial clangours call them out to fight;
Aere cavo: invadunt socii, et nova praelia With hoarse alarms the hollow camp rebounds,
tentant,
That imitate the trumpet's angry sounds.
Obscoenas pelagi ferro faedare volucres.
DRYDEN.
Aeneid, lib. iii. ver. 238.
Examples of the same figure might be
Then as the harpies from the hills once more multiplied; but these are sufficient.
Poured shrieking down, and crowded round the Tinkling cymbal—"The cymbal was a concavo-
shore, convex plate of brass, the concave side of which
being struck against another plate of the same
On his high stand Misenus sounds from far
kind produced a tinkling, inharmonious sound."
The brazen trump, the signal of the war. We may understand the apostle thus: "Though I
possessed the knowledge of all languages, and
With unaccustomed fight, we flew to slay could deliver even the truth of God in them in
The forms obscene, dread monsters of the sea. the most eloquent manner, and had not a heart
41
full of love to God and man, producing piety knowledge—every human art and science; and
and obedience to the ONE, and benevolence though I have all faith—such miraculous faith as
and beneficence to the other, doing unto all as I would enable me even to remove mountains; or
would wish them to do to me were our had such powerful discernment in sacred things
situations reversed, my religion is no more to that I could solve the greatest difficulties, see
my salvation than the sounds emitted by the the note on Matthew 21:21, and have not
brazen trumpet, or the jingling of the cymbals charity—this love to God and man, as the
could contribute intellectual pleasure to the principle and motive of all my conduct, the
instruments which produce them; and, in the characteristics of which are given in the
sight of God, I am of no more moral worth than following verses; I am nothing—nothing in
those sounds are. I have, it is true, a profession; myself, nothing in the sight of God, nothing in
but, destitute of a heart filled with love to God the Church, and good for nothing to mankind.
and man, producing meekness, gentleness, Balaam, and several others not under the
long-suffering, etc., I am without the soul and influence of this love of God, prophesied; and
essence of religion." we daily see many men, who are profound
scholars, and well skilled in arts and sciences,
I have quoted several passages from heathens
and yet not only careless about religion but
of the most cultivated minds in Greece and
downright infidels! It does not require the
Rome to illustrate passages of the sacred
tongue of the inspired to say that these men, in
writers. I shall now quote one from an illiterate
the sight of God, are nothing; nor can their
collier of Paulton, in Somerset; and, as I have
literary or scientific acquisitions give them a
named Homer, Horace, Virgil, and others, I will
passport to glory.
quote Josiah Gregory, whose mind might be
compared to a diamond of the first water, 1 Corinthians 13:3
whose native splendor broke in various places
And though I bestow all my goods to feed the
through its incrustations, but whose brilliancy
poor—this is a proof that charity, in our sense
was not brought out for want of the hand of the
of the word, is not what the apostle means; for
lapidary. Among various energetic sayings of
surely almsgiving can go no farther than to give
this great, unlettered man, I remember to have
up all that a man possesses in order to relieve
heard the following: "People of little religion are
the wants of others. The word ψωμιζω, which
always noisy; he who has not the love of God
we translate to feed the poor, signifies to divide
and man filling his heart is like an empty wagon
into morsels, and put into the mouth; which
coming violently down a hill: it makes a great
implies carefulness and tenderness in applying
noise, because there is nothing in it."
the bounty thus freely given.
1 Corinthians 13:2
And though I give my body to be burned—Ἱνα
And though I have the gift of prophecy—Though καυθησομαι· Mr. Wakefield renders this clause
I should have received from God the knowledge thus:
of future events, so that I could correctly
1. And though I give up my body so as to have
foretell what is coming to pass in the world and
cause of boasting: in vindication of which he,
in the Church:—
first, refers to Daniel 3:28; Acts 15:26; Romans
And understand all mysteries—The meaning of 8:32; Philippians 1:20.
all the types and figures in the Old Testament,
2. He says that there is no such word as
and all the unexplored secrets of nature; and all
καυθησωμαι.
42
3. That καυχησωμαι, that I may boast, is the noblest esteem in the Jewish nation; and also
reading of the Ethiopic and Coptic, and he might that the most precious things that could be
have added of the Codex Alexandrinus; several named by them were compared with this more
Greek and Latin MSS. referred to by St. Jerome; precious, and were of no account in comparison
of Ephraim; and of St. Jerome himself, who of it.
translates the passage thus: Si tradidero corpus
"1. To speak with the tongues of men, among
meum ut glorier: i.e. "If I deliver up my body
the Jewish interpreters, means, to speak the
that I may glory, or have cause of boasting."
languages of the seventy nations. To the praise
4. He adds that burning, though a common of Mordecai, they say that he understood all
punishment in after times, was not prevalent those languages; and they require that the
when this epistle was written. fathers of the Sanhedrin should be skilled in
many languages that they may not be obliged to
Some of the foreign critics, particularly
hear anything by an interpreter. Maim. in Sanh.,
Schulzius, translate it thus: Si traderem corpus,
c. 2.
ut mihi stigma inureretur: "If I should deliver up
my body to receive a stigma with a hot iron;" "2. to speak with the tongues of angels, they
which may mean, If I should, in order to redeem thought to be not only an excellent gift, but to
another, willingly give up myself to slavery, and be possible; and highly extol Jochanan ben
receive the mark of my owner, by having my Zaccai because he understood them: see the
flesh stamped with a hot iron, and have not note on 1 Corinthians 13:1.
love, as before specified, it profits me nothing.
"3. To know all mysteries and all knowledge was
This gives a good sense; but will the passage
not only prized but affected by them. Of Hillel,
bear it? In the MSS. there are several various
the elder, they say he had eighty disciples:
readings, which plainly show the original
thirty who were worthy to have the Holy Spirit
copyists scarcely knew what to make of the
dwell upon them, as it did upon Moses; thirty
word καυθησωμαι, which they found in the text
who were worthy that the sun should stop his
generally. The various readings are,
course for them, as it did for Joshua; and there
καυθησομαι, which Griesbach seems to prefer;
were twenty between both. The greatest of all
καυθησεται; and καυθῃ; all of which give little
was Jonathan ben Uzziel; the least was
variation of meaning. Which should be
Jochanan ben Zaccai. He omitted not (i.e.
preferred I can scarcely venture to say. If we
perfectly understood) the Scripture, the
take the commonly received word, it states a
Mishna, the Gemara, the idiotisms of the law,
possible case; a man may be so obstinately
and the scribes, traditions, illustrations,
wedded to a particular opinion, demonstrably
comparisons, equalities, gematries, parables,
false in itself, as to give up his body to be
etc.
burned in its defense, as was literally the case
with Vanini, who, for his obstinate atheism, was "4. The moving or rooting up of mountains,
burnt alive at Paris, February 19th, A.D. 1619. In which among them signified the removing of
such a cause, his giving his body to be burned the greatest difficulties, especially from the
certainly profited him nothing. sacred text, they considered also a high and
glorious attainment: see the note on Matthew
"We may observe," says Dr. Lightfoot, "in those
21:21. And of his salvation, who had it, they
instances which are compared with charity, and
could not have formed the slightest doubt. But
are as good as nothing if charity be absent, that
the apostle says, a man might have and enjoy
the apostle mentions those which were of the
43
all those gifts, etc., and be nothing in himself, things, and not possess that religion which
and be nothing profited by them." could save his soul! And may we not say that, if
all these could not avail for salvation, a
The reader will consider that the charity or love,
thousand times less surely cannot. How blindly,
concerning which the apostle speaks, is that
therefore, are multitudes of persons trusting in
which is described from 1 Corinthians 13:4-7,
that which is almost infinitely less than that
inclusive: it is not left to the conjectures of men
which the apostle says would profit them
to find it out. What the apostle means is
nothing!
generally allowed to be true religion; but if he
had not described it, this true religion would The charity or love which God recommends, the
have been as various as the parties are who apostle describes in sixteen particulars, which
suppose they have it. Let the reader also are the following:—
observe that, not only the things which are in
the highest repute among the Jews, but the
things which are in the highest repute among
Christians and Gentiles are those which the
apostle shows to be of no use, if the love
hereafter described be wanting. And yet, who
can suppose that the man already described can
be destitute of true religion, as he must be
under an especial influence of God; else, how,
1st, could he speak all the languages of men?

For this was allowed to be one of the
extraordinary gifts of God's Spirit.
2. He must have Divine teaching to know the Chapter Seven

language of angels, and thus to get acquainted Gifts of the Spirit
with the economy of the invisible world.
3. Without immediate influence from God he

could not be a prophet, and predict future
Church of Christ because of an awful ignorance
events.
concerning the Spirit of God and the gifts He
4. Without this he could not understand all the has come to bring. God would have us powerful
mysteries of the Divine word, nor those of on all lines because of the revelation of the
Providence. knowledge of His will concerning the power and
manifestation of His Spirit. He would have us
5. All knowledge, suppose this to be confined ever hungry to receive more and more of His
to human arts and sciences, could not be Spirit. In times past I have arranged many
acquired without especial assistance. conventions, and I have found that it is better to
6. And without the most powerful and have a man on my platform who has not
extraordinary assistance, he could not have a received the Baptism but who is hungry for all
faith that could remove mountains, or that God has for him, than a man who has
miraculous faith of any kind: and the apostle received the Baptism and is satisfied and has
supposes that a man might have all these six settled down and become stationary and
stagnant. But of course I would prefer a man
44
that is baptized with the Holy Ghost and is still the reins but the horse did not move. He asked,
hungry for more of God. A man who is not "What do you think is up?" The son answered,
hungry to receive more of God is out of order in "It has got established." God save us from
any convention. becoming stationary.
It is impossible to overestimate the importance God would have us to understand concerning

of being filled with the Spirit. It is impossible for spiritual gifts and to covet earnestly the best
us to meet the conditions of the day, to walk in gifts, and also to enter into the more excellent
the light as He is in the light, to subdue way of the fruit of the Spirit. We must beseech
kingdoms and work righteousness and bind the God for these gifts. It is a serious thing to have
power of satan unless we are filled with the the Baptism and yet be stationary; to live two
Holy Ghost. days in succession on the same spiritual plane is
a tragedy. We must be willing to deny ourselves
everything to receive the revelation of God's
We read that in the early church they continued truth and to receive the fullness of the Spirit.
steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine and Only that will satisfy God, and nothing less must
fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in satisfy us. A young Russian received the Holy
prayers. It is important for us also to continue Spirit and was mightily endued with power from
steadfastly in these same things. For some years on High. Some sisters were anxious to know the
I was associated with the Plymouth Brethren. secret of his power. The secret of his power was
They are very strong on the Word, and are continuous waiting upon God. As the Holy
sound on water baptism, and they do not Ghost filled him it seemed as though every
neglect the breaking of bread service, but have breath became a prayer and so all his ministry
it every Lord's Day morning as they had it in the was on an increasing line.
early church. These people seem to have
I know a man who was full of the Holy Ghost
everything except the match. They have the
and would preach only when he knew that he
wood, but they need the fire and then they
was mightily unctionized by the power of God.
would be all ablaze. Because they lack the fire
He was asked to preach at a Methodist church.
of the Holy Spirit there is no life in their
He was staying at the minister's house and he
meetings. One young man who attended their
said, "You go on to church and I will follow."
meetings received the Baptism with the
The place was packed with people and this man
speaking in other tongues as the Spirit gave
did not turn up and the Methodist minister,
utterance. The brethren were very upset about
becoming anxious, sent his little girl to inquire
this and came to the father and said to him,
why he did not come. As she came to the
"You must take your son aside and tell him to
bedroom door she heard him crying out three
cease." They did not want any disturbance. The
times, "I will not go." She went back and
father told the son and said, "My boy, I have
reported that she heard the man say three
been attending this church for twenty years and
times that he would not go. The minister was
have never seen anything of this kind. We are
troubled about it, but almost immediately after
established in the truth and do not want
this the man came in, and, as he preached that
anything new. We won't have it." The son
night, the power of God was tremendously
replied, "If that is God's plan I will obey, but
manifested. The preacher asked him, "Why did
somehow or other I don't think it is." As they
you tell my daughter that you were not
were going home the horse stood still; the
coming?" He answered, "I know when I am
wheels were in deep ruts. The father pulled at
45
filled. I am an ordinary man and I told the Lord Holy Ghost come upon a man who accepts
that I dared not go and would not go until He these errors. Neither will you see a Romanist
gave me a fresh filling of the Spirit. The moment receive. They put Mary in the place of the Holy
the glory filled me and overflowed I came to the Ghost. I would like you to produce a Romanist
meeting." who knows that he is saved. No man can know
he is saved by works. If you ever speak to a
Yes, there is a power, a blessing, an assurance, a
Romanist you will know that he is not definite
rest in the presence of the Holy Ghost. You can
on the line of the new birth. He cannot be.
feel His presence and know that He is with you.
Another thing, you will never find a Russellite
You need not spend an hour without this inner
baptized in the Holy Ghost; nor a member of
knowledge of His holy presence. With His power
any other cult that does not put the Lord Jesus
upon you there can be no failure. You are above
Christ pre-eminent above all.
par all the time.
The all important thing is to make Jesus Lord:

"Ye know that ye were Gentiles, carried away
unto these dumb idols, even as ye were led." Men can grow lopsided by emphasizing the
This is the Gentile day. When the Jews refused truth of divine healing. Man can get wrong by
the blessings of God He scattered them, and He all the time preaching on water baptism. But we
has grafted the Gentiles into the olive tree never go wrong in exalting the Lord Jesus Christ,
where the Jews were broken off. There never giving Him the pre-eminent place and
has been a time when God has been so magnifying Him as both Lord and Christ, yes, as
favorable to a people who were not a people. very God of very God. As we are filled with the
He has brought in the Gentiles to carry out His Holy Ghost our one desire is to magnify Him.
purpose of preaching the gospel to all nations We need to be filled with the Spirit to get the
and to receive the power of the Holy Ghost to full revelation of the Lord Jesus Christ.
accomplish this task. It is of the mercy of God
God's command is for us to be filled with the
that He has turned to the Gentiles and made us
Spirit. We are no good if we have only a full cup;
partakers of all the blessings that belong to the
we need to have an overflowing cup all the
Jews; and here under this canopy of glory,
time. It is a tragedy not to live in the fullness of
because we believe, we get all the blessings of
overflowing. See that you never live below the
faithful Abraham.
overflowing tide.
Wherefore I give you to understand, that no
"No there are diversities of gifts but the same
man speaking by the Spirit of God calleth Jesus
Spirit." Every manifestation of the Spirit is given
accursed: and that no man can say that Jesus is
that we might "profit withal." When the Holy
the Lord, but by the Holy Ghost." There are
Spirit is moving in an assembly and His gifts are
many evil, deceiving spirits sent forth in these
in operation, everyone will receive profit. I have
last days who endeavor to rob Jesus of his
seen some who have been terribly switched.
Lordship and of His rightful place. Many are
They believe in gifts, in prophecy, and they use
opening the doors to these latest devils, such as
these gifts apart from the power of the Holy
New Theology and New Thought and Christian
Ghost. We must look to the Holy Spirit to show
Science. These evil cults deny eternal
us the use of the gifts, what they are for, and
punishment and all deny the deity of Jesus
when to use them, so that we may never use
Christ. You will never see the Baptism of the
them without the power of the Holy Ghost. I do
46
not know of anything which is as awful today as time. Paul writes, "For whether we be beside
people using a gift without the power. Never do ourselves, it is to God: or whether we be sober,
it. God save us from doing it. it is for your cause" (2 Corinthians 5:13). You
can be beside yourself. You can go a bit further
A man who is filled with the Holy Ghost, while
than being drunk. You can dance, if you will do
he may not be conscious of having any gift of
it at the right time. So many things are
the Spirit, can have the gifts made manifest
commendable when all the people are in the
through him. I have gone to many places to help
Spirit. Many things are very foolish if the people
and have found that under the unction of the
round about you are not in the Spirit. We must
Holy Spirit many wonderful things have
be careful not to have a good time at the
happened in the midst when the glory of the
expense of somebody else. When you have a
Lord was upon the people. Any man who is
good time you must see that the spiritual
filled with God and filled with His Spirit might at
conditions in the place lend themselves to help
any moment have any of the nine gifts made
you and that the people are falling in line with
manifest through him without knowing that he
you. Then you will find it always a blessing.
has a gift. Sometimes I have wondered whether
it was better to be always full of the Holy Ghost While it is right to covet earnestly the best gifts,
and to see signs and wonders and miracles you must recognize that the all important thing
without any consciousness of possessing a gift, is to be filled with the power of the Holy Ghost
or whether it was better to know one has a gift. Himself. You will never have trouble with
If you have received the gifts of the Spirit and people who are filled with the power of the
they have been blessed, you should never Holy Ghost, but you will have a lot of trouble
under any circumstances use them without the with people who have the gifts and have no
power of God upon you pressing the gift power. The Lord wants us to come behind in no
through. Some have used the prophetic gift gift, but at the same time He wants us to be so
without the holy touch, and they have come filled with the Holy Ghost that it will be the Holy
into the realm of the natural, and it has brought Spirit manifesting Himself through the gifts.
ruin, caused dissatisfaction, broken hearts, and Where the glory of God alone is desired you can
upset assemblies. Do not seek the gifts unless look for every needed gift to be made manifest.
you are purposed to abide in the Holy Spirit. To glorify God is better than to idolize gifts. We
They should be manifested only in the power of prefer the Spirit of God to any gift; but we can
the Holy Spirit. look for the Trinity in manifestation, different
gifts by the same Spirit, different
The Lord will allow you to be very drunk in His
administrations but the same Lord, diversities of
presence, but sober among people. I like to see
operation but the same God working all in all.
people so filled with the Spirit that they are
Can you conceive of what it will mean for our
drunk like the 120 on the Day of Pentecost, but
Triune God to be manifesting Himself in His
I don't like to see people drunk in the wrong
fullness in our assemblies?
place. That is what troubles us, somebody being
drunk in a place of worship where a lot of Watch that great locomotive boiler as it is filled
people come in that know nothing about the with steam. You can see the engine letting off
Word. If you allow yourself to be drunk there some of the steam as it remains stationary. It
you send people away; they look at you instead looks as though the whole thing might burst.
of seeing God. They condemn the whole thing You can see saints like that. They start to
because you have not been sober at the right scream, but that is not to edification. But when
47
the locomotive moves on, it serves the purpose emphasize the importance of the fullness of the
for which it was built, and pulls along much Holy Ghost is that I want to get you beyond all
traffic with it. It is wonderful to be filled with human plans and thoughts into the fullness of
the power of the Holy Ghost, and for Him to vision, into the full revelation of the Lord Jesus
serve His own purposes through us. Through Christ. Do you want rest? It is in Jesus. Do you
our lips divine utterances flow, our hearts want to be saved from everything the devil is
rejoice and our tongue is glad. It is an inward bringing up in these last times? Receive and
power within which is manifested in outward continue in the fullness of the Holy Ghost, and
expression. Jesus Christ is glorified. As your faith He will be ever revealing to you that all you
in Him is quickened, from within you there will need for all times is in Christ Jesus your Lord.
flow rivers of living water. The Holy Spirit will
I desire to emphasize the importance of the
pour through you like a great river of life and
Spirit's ministration and of the manifestation of
thousands will be blessed because you are a
the Spirit which is given to every man to profit
yielded channel through whom the Spirit may
withal. As you yield to the Spirit of the Lord He
flow.
has power over your intellect, over your heart,
The most important thing, the one thing that and over your voice. The Holy Spirit has power
counts is to see that we are filled with the Holy to unveil Christ and to project the vision of
Spirit, filled to overflowing. Anything less than Christ upon the canvas of your mind, and then
this is displeasing to God. We are commanded He uses your tongue to glorify and magnify Him
by God to be filled with the Spirit, and in the in a way that you could never do apart from the
measure you fail of this you are that far short of Spirit's power.
the plan of God. The Lord would have us
Never say that when you are filled with the Holy
moving on from faith to faith, from glory to
Ghost you are "obliged" to do this or that.
glory, from fullness to overflowing. It is not
When people say that they are "obliged" to do
good for us to be ever thinking in the past
this or that I know it is not the Spirit of God, but
tense, but we should be moving on to the place
their own spirit moving them on to do that
where we dare believe God. He has declared
which is unseemly and unprofitable. Lots of
that after the Holy Ghost is come upon us we
people spoil meetings because they scream. If
shall have power. I believe there is an avalanche
you want to do that kind of thing you had better
of power from God to be apprehended if we
get into some cellar. That is not to edification. I
will but catch the vision.
believe that, when the Spirit of God is upon you
Paul wrote at one time, "I will now come to and moving you to speak as He gives utterance,
visions and revelations." God has put us in a it will always be to edification. But don't spoil
place where He expects us to have His latest the prayer meeting because when you ought to
revelation, the revelation of that marvelous stop you go on. Who spoils the prayer meeting?
fact, CHRIST IN US, and what this really means. The man who starts in the Spirit and finishes in
We can apprehend Christ fully only as we are the flesh. Nothing is more lovely than prayer,
filled and overflowing with the Spirit of God. but a prayer meeting is killed if you will go on
Our only safeguard from dropping back into our and on in your own spirit when the Spirit of God
natural mind from which we can never get is through with you. You say as you come from
anything, is to be filled and yet filled again with some meetings, "That was a lovely message if
the Spirit of God and to be taken on to visions the preacher only had stopped half an hour
and revelations on a new line. The reason why I before he did." Learn to cease immediately
48
when the unction of the Spirit lifts. The Holy into a divine likeness to Jesus that dares believe
Ghost is jealous. Your body is the temple, the that God Almighty will surely watch over all.
office of the Holy Ghost, but He does not fill the Hallelujah!
temple for human glorification, but only for the
The Holy Ghost is the One who magnifies the
glory of God. You have no license to continue
Lord Jesus Christ, the One who gives
beyond a "Thus saith the Lord."
illumination of Him. If you are filled with the
There is another side to this. God would have Holy Ghost, it is impossible to keep your tongue
the assembly as free as possible, and you must still. Talk about a dumb baptized soul! It is not
not put your hand upon the working of the to be found in the Scriptures or outside of the
Spirit or it will surely bring trouble. You must be Scriptures. We are filled with the Spirit in order
prepared to allow a certain amount of that we may magnify the Lord, and there should
extravagance in young and newly baptized be no meeting in which the saints do not glorify,
souls. You must remember that when you were magnify, praise, and worship the Lord in Spirit
brought into this life of the Spirit you had as and in truth.
many extravagances as anybody, but you have
I would like to give one word of caution, for
now become somewhat sobered down. It is a
failure often comes through our not recognizing
pity that some do get sobered down, for they
the fact that we are always in the body. We will
are not where they were in the early days. We
need our bodies as long as we live. But our body
have to look to God for wisdom that we do not
is to be used and controlled by the Spirit of God.
interfere or dampen the Spirit or quench the
We are to present our bodies, holy and
power of God when He is manifested in our
acceptable unto God, which is our reasonable
meetings. If you want to have an assembly full
service. Every member in our body must be so
of life you must have an assembly full of
sanctified that it works in harmony with the
manifestation. Nobody will come if there is no
Spirit of God. Our very eyes must be sanctified.
manifestation. We need to look to God for
God hates the winking of the eye. From the day
special grace that we do not move back to
that I read in the Proverbs what God had to say
looking at things from a natural viewpoint.
about the winking of the eye (Prov. 6:13 and
The preacher, after he loses his unction, should 10:10) I have never winked. I desire that my
inwardly repent and get right with God and get eyes may be so sanctified that they can always
the unction back. We are no good without the be used for the Lord. The Spirit of God will bring
unction of the Spirit of God. If you are filled with within us a compassion for souls that will be
the grace of God you will not be judging seen in our very eyes.
everybody in the assembly, you will rather be
God has never changed the order of things that
trusting everybody, you will not be frightened
first, there comes the natural, and then the
at what is being done, you will have a heart to
spiritual. For instance, when it is on your heart
believe all things, and to believe that though
to pray, you begin in the natural and your
there may be some extravagances, the Spirit of
second word will probably be under the power
God will take control of things and will see that
of the Spirit. You begin and God will end. It is
the Lord Jesus Christ Himself is exalted,
the same in giving forth utterances under the
glorified, and revealed to hungry hearts that
Spirit's power. You feel the moving of the Spirit
desire to know Him. The Lord would have us
within and you begin to speak and the Spirit of
wise unto that which is good and simple
God will give forth utterance. Thousands have
concerning evil, free from distrust, entertaining
missed wonderful blessings because they have
49
not had faith to move out and begin in the given is through the ministration and
natural, in faith that the Lord would take them manifestation of the Spirit of God. Do you think
into the realm of the supernatural. When you that Peter and John knew what they had when
receive the Holy Ghost you receive God's Gift, in they went up to the temple to pray? They were
whom are all the gifts of the Spirit. Paul limited in thought, and limited in their
counsels Timothy to stir up the gift that was expression. The nearer we get to God the more
within. You have power to stir up God's conscious we are of the poverty of the human,
executive within you. The way you stir up the and we cry with Isaiah, "I am undone, I am
gift within you is by beginning in faith, and then unclean." But the Lord will bring the precious
He gives forth what is needed for the occasion. blood and the flaming coals for cleansing and
You would never begin unless you were full of refining and send us out to labor for Him
God. When we yield to timidity and fear we empowered by His Spirit.
simply yield to Satan. Satan whispers, "It is all
God has sent forth this outpouring that we may
self." He is a liar. I have learned this, if the Spirit
all be brought into a revelation of our son ship
of God is stirring me up, I have no hesitation in
—that we are sons of God, men of power, that
beginning to speak in tongues, and the Spirit of
we are to be like the Lord Jesus Christ, that we
God gives me utterance and gives me the
are to have the powers of son ship, the power
interpretation. I find that every time I yield to
to lay hold of that which is weak and to quicken
the Lord on this line I get a divine touch, I get a
it. The Baptism of the Spirit is to make us sons
leading thought from the Spirit of God and the
of God with power. We shall be conscious of
meeting is moved up on the line of faith.
our human limits, but we shall not limit the Holy
You attend a meeting in faith, believing that the One who has come to dwell within. We must
Lord is going to meet you there. But perhaps believe that since the Holy Ghost has come
the evangelist is not in harmony with God. The upon us we are indeed sons of God with power.
people in the assembly are not getting what Never say that you can't. All things are possible
God wants. The Lord knows it. He knows His to them that believe. Launch out into the deep
people are hungry. What happens? He will take and believe that God has His all for you, and
perhaps the smallest vessels and put His power that you can do all things through Him who
upon them. As they yield to the Spirit they strengthens you.
break forth in a tongue. Another yields to the
Peter and John knew that they had been in the
Spirit and there comes forth the interpretation.
upper room, they had felt the glory, and they
The Lord's church has to be fed, and the Lord
had been given divine utterances. They had
will take this means of speaking to His people.
seen conviction on the people. They knew that
Pentecostal people cannot be satisfied with the
they had come into a wonderful thing. They
natural message. They are in touch with
know that what they had would be every
heavenly things and cannot be satisfied with
increasing and that it would be ever needful to
anything less. They feel when there is
cry, "Enlarge the vessel that the Holy Ghost may
something lacking in a meeting, and they look
have more room within." They knew that all the
to God and He supplies that which is lacking.
old things were moved away and they had
When a man is filled with the Spirit he has no entered into an increasing and ever increasing
conception of what he has. We are so limited in knowledge of God, and that it was their
our conception of what we have received. The Master's wish that they should be filled with the
only way we can know the power that has been Spirit of God and with power every day and
50
every hour. The secret of power is the unveiling I will give you one instance. There is one thing I
of Christ, the all-powerful One within, the am very grateful to the Lord for, and that is that
revelation of God who comes to abide within He has given me grace not to have a desire for
us. As they looked upon the crippled man at the money. The love of money is a great hindrance
Beautiful Gate they were filled with to many; and many a man is crippled in his
compassion. They were prompted by the Spirit ministry because he lets his heart run after
to stop and speak with him. They said to the financial matters. I was walking out one day
lame man, "Look on us." It was God's plan that when I met a godly man who lived opposing me
the man should open his eyes with expectation. and he said, "My wife and I have been talking
Peter said, "Of silver and gold we have none. together about selling our house and we feel
But we have something and we will give it to constrained to sell it to you." As we talked
you. We don't know what it is, but we give it to together he persuaded me to buy his place, and
you. It is all in the name of Jesus." And then before we said good-by I told him that I would
began the ministry of God. You begin in faith take it. We always make big mistakes when we
and you see what will happen. It is hidden from are in a hurry. I told my wife what I had
us at the beginning, but as we have faith in God promised, "How will you manage it?" I told her
He will come forth. The coming forth of the that I had managed things so far, but I did not
power is not of us but of God. There is no limit know how I was going to get through this. I
to what He will do. It is all in a nutshell as you somehow knew that I was out of divine order.
believe God. And so Peter said, "Such as I have I But when a fellow gets out of divine order it
give to thee: in the name of Jesus Christ of seems that the last person he goes to is God. I
Nazareth rise up and walk." And the man who was relying on an architect to help me, but that
had been in that way for forty years stood up, scheme fell through. I turned to my relations
and began to leap, and entered into the temple and I certainly had a wet shirt, as one after
walking and leaping and praising God. another turned me down. I tried my friends and
managed no better. My wife said to me, "Thou
"For to one is given by the Spirit the word of
hast never been to God yet." What could I do?
wisdom." I want you to keep in mind the
importance of never expecting the gifts of the I have a certain place in our house where I go to
Spirit apart from the power of the Spirit. In pray. I have been there very often. As I went I
coveting the best gifts, covet to be so full of God said, "Lord, if you will get me out of this scrape,
and His glory that the gifts in manifestation will I will never trouble Thee on this line again." As I
always glorify Him. We do not know all and we waited on the Lord He just gave me one word. It
cannot know all that can be brought forth in the seemed a ridiculous thing, but it was the wisest
manifestation of the word of wisdom. One word counsel. There is divine wisdom in every word
of wisdom from God, one flash of light on the He speaks. I came down to my wife, saying,
Word of God, is sufficient to save us from a "What do you think? The Lord has told me to go
thousand pitfalls. People have built without a to Brother Webster." I said, “It seems very
word from God, they have bought things ridiculous, for he is one of the poorest men I
without a word from God, and they have been know." He was the poorest man I knew, but he
ensnared. They have lacked that word of was also the richest man I knew, for he knew
wisdom which will bring them into God's plan God. My wife said, "Do what God says, and it
for their lives. I have been in many places where will be right."
I have needed a word of wisdom from God and
this has been vouchsafed.
51
I went off at once to see him, and he said as he

greeted me, "Smith, what brings you so early?" I
answered, "The word of God." I said to him,
"About three weeks ago I promised to buy a
house of a man, and I am short 100 pounds
($500). I have tried to get this money, but
somehow I seem to have missed God." "How is
it," he asked, "that you have come to me only
now?" I answered, "Because I went to the Lord
about it only last night." "Well," he said, "it is a
strange thing; three weeks ago I had 100
pounds. For years I have been putting money
into a cooperative system and three weeks ago I
had to go and draw 100 pounds out. I hid it
under the mattress. Come with me and you
shall have it. Take it. I hope it will bring as great
a blessing to you as it has been a trouble to
me." I had had a word from God, and all my
troubles were ended. This has been multiplied
in a hundred ways since that time. If I had been
walking along filled with the Holy Ghost, I would
not have bought that house and would not have
had all that strain. I believe the Lord wants to
loose us from things of earth. But I am ever
grateful for that word from God. There have
been times in my life when I have been in great
crises and under great weight of intercession. I
have gone to the meeting without the
knowledge of what I would say, but somehow
or other God would vouchsafe the coming forth
under the power of the Spirit of some word of
wisdom, just what some souls in that meeting
needed. As we look to God His mind will be
made known, and His revelation and His word
of wisdom will be forthcoming.
Chapter Eight
Gift of Tongues
"Follow after charity, and desire spiritual gifts,

but rather that ye may prophesy. For he that
52
speaketh in an unknown tongue, speaketh not and then was raised up. A lady came up and
unto men, but unto God: for no man asked for a private conversation with him, and
understandeth him; howbeit in the spirit he arranged a time. She asked, "Do you keep a
speaketh mysteries" (1 Corinthians 14:1, 2). diary?" He answered, "Yes," She told him, "It
happened on a certain day that I went to pray;
It is necessary that we have a great desire for
and as soon as I knelt, I had you on my mind.
spiritual gifts. We must thirst afer them and
The Spirit of the Lord took hold of me and
covet them earnestly because the gifts are
prayed through me in an unknown tongue. A
necessary and important, that we, by the grace
vision came before me in which I saw you laid
of God having received the gifts, may be used
out helpless; and I cried out in the unknown
for God's glory.
tongue till I saw you rise up and go out of that
God has ordained this speaking in an unknown room." She had kept a note of the time and
tongue unto Himself as a wonderful, when he turned to his diary he found that it was
supernatural means of communication in the exactly the time when he was raised up. There
Spirit. As we speak to him in the unknown are great possibilities as we yield to the Spirit
tongue we speak wonderful mysteries in the and speak unto God in quiet hours in our
Spirit. In Romans 8:27 we read, "He that bedrooms. God wants you to be filled with the
searched the hearts knoweth what is the mind Holy Ghost so that everything about you shall
of the Spirit, because he maketh intercession be charged with the dynamic of heaven.
for the saints according to the will of God."
He that speaketh in an unknown tongue
Many times as we speak unto God in an
edifieth himself; but he that prophesieth
unknown tongue we are in intercession and as
edifieth the church" (Verse 4). I want you to see
we pray thus in the Spirit we pray according to
that he that speaketh in an unknown tongue
the will of God. And there is such a thing as the
edifieth himself or builds himself up. We must
Spirit making intercession with groanings which
be edified before we can edify the church. I
cannot be uttered.
cannot estimate what I, personally, owe to the
On this line I want to tell you about Willie Holy Ghost method of spiritual edification. I am
Burton, who is laboring for God in the Belgium here before you as one of the biggest
Congo. Brother Burton is a mighty man of God conundrums in the world. There never was a
and is giving his life for the heathen in Africa. He weaker man on the platform. Language? None.
took fever and went down to death. They said, Inability—full of it. All natural things in my life
"He has preached his last; what shall we do?" point exactly opposite to my being able to stand
All their hopes seemed to be blighted, and on the platform and preach the gospel. The
there they stood, with broken hearts, secret is that the Holy Ghost came and brought
wondering what was going to take place. They this wonderful edification of the Spirit. I had
left him for dead; but, in a moment, without been reading this Word continually as well as I
any signal, he stood right in the midst of them; could, but the Holy Ghost came and took hold
and they could not understand it. The of it, for the Holy Ghost is the breath of it, and
explanation he gave was this, that, when he He illuminated it to me. And He gives me
came to himself, he realized a warmth going language that I cannot speak fast enough; it
right through his body; and there wasn't one comes too fast; and it is there because God has
thing wrong with him. How did it come about? given it. When the Comforter is come He shall
It was a mystery until he went to London and teach you ALL things; and He has given me this
was telling the people how he was left for dead, supernatural means of speaking in an unknown
53
tongue to edify myself, so that, after being prophecy. In 1 Corinthians 14:13 we read, "Let
edified, I can edify the church. him that speaketh in an unknown tongue, pray
that he may interpret." This is an important
In 1 John 2:20 we read, "But ye have an unction
word.
from the Holy One, and ye know all things." In
verse 27 we read, "But the anointing which ye After receiving the Baptism in the Holy Ghost
have received of him abideth in you, and ye and speaking in tongues as the Spirit gave
need not that any man should teach you; but as utterance, I did not speak with tongues again
the same anointing teacheth you of all things, for nine months. I was troubled about it
and is truth, and is no lie, and even as it hath because I went up and down laying hands upon
taught you, ye shall abide in him." Even, when people that they might receive the Holy Ghost,
you are baptized in the Spirit you may say, "I and they were speaking in tongues, but I did not
seem so dry, I don't know where I am." The have the joy of speaking myself. God wanted to
Word says you have an unction. Thank God you show me that the speaking in tongues as the
have received the anointing. The Holy Ghost Spirit gave utterance, which I received when I
here says that He is abiding and that He teaches received the Baptism, was distinct from the gift
you of all things. These are great and definite of tongues which I subsequently received.
positions for you. The Holy Ghost would have When I laid hands on other people and they
you stir up your faith to believe that this word is received the Holy Ghost, I used to think, "Oh,
true that you have the unction and that the Lord Jesus, it would be nice if You would let me
anointing abideth. As you rise up in the morning speak." He withheld the gift from me, for He
believe this wonderful truth, and as you yield to knew that I would meet many who would say
the Spirit's presence and power you will find that the Baptism of the Holy Ghost can be
yourself speaking unto God in the Spirit and you received without the speaking in tongues, and
will find that you are personally being edified by that people simply received the gift of tongues
doing this. Let everything about you be a lie, but when they received the Baptism. I did not
let this word of God be true. The devil will say receive the gift of tongues at that time, but nine
you are the driest person and that you will months later I was going out of the door one
never do anything, but you believe God's word, morning, speaking to the Lord in my own heart,
that the anointing which ye have received of when there came a volume of tongues. When
Him abideth in you. the tongues stopped I said to the Lord, "Now,
Lord, I did not do it, and I wasn't seeking it; so
"I would that ye all spake with tongues, but
You have done it, and I am not going to move
rather that ye prophesied: for greater is he that
from this place until you give me the
prophesieth than he that speaketh with
interpretation." And then came an
tongues, except he interpret, that the church
interpretation which has been fulfilled all the
may receive edification." You must understand
world over. Is it the Holy Ghost who speaks?
that God would always have you to be in the
Then the Holy Ghost can interpret. Let him that
place of prophecy, for everyone who has
speaks in a tongue pray that he may interpret,
received the Holy Ghost has a right to prophesy.
and God will give it. We must not rush through
In 1 Corinthians 14:31 we read, "Ye may all
without getting a clear understanding of what
prophesy one by one." Now prophecy is far in
God has to say to us.
advance of speaking in tongues, except that you
have the interpretation of the speaking in "What is it then? I will pray with the spirit, and I
tongues, and then God gets an equivalent to will pray with the understanding also: I will sing
54
with the spirit, and I will sing with the "I thank my God, I speak with tongues more
understanding also" (Verse 15). If you pray in an than ye all: yet in the church I had rather speak
unknown tongue in the Spirit you do not know five words with my understanding, that by my
what you are praying; you have no voice I might teach others also, than ten
understanding of it. It is unfruitful to those thousand words in an unknown tongue" (Verse
round about you; but you have the same power 18, 19). Many people will come round and say
to pray with the understanding under the that Paul said he would rather speak five words
unction of the Spirit as you have to pray in an with the known tongue than ten thousand
unknown tongue. Some say, "Oh, I could do words without understanding. Then will always
that, but it would be myself doing it." If YOU leave out that part of the sentence, "I thank my
pray, it is yourself, and everything you do in the God, I speak with tongues more than ye all."
beginning is yourself. I kneel down to pray and Paul was here correcting the excessive speaking
the first and second sentences may be in the in tongues without interpretation, which was
natural; but as soon as I have finished, the Spirit not for the edification of the assembly. If there
begins to pray through me. The first may be was no interpreter present, they were simply to
yourself. Granted. The next will be the Holy speak to themselves and to God. Suppose we
Ghost, and the Holy Ghost will take you had someone preaching and we had twenty or
through, praise the Lord. Everything but faith thirty people all up and down in tongues, it
will say, "That isn't right." Faith says, "It is would be very serious. There would be
right." The natural man says, "It isn't right." confusion. The people who attend the meeting
Faith says, "It is right." Paul says, "I will pray would rather have five words of edification,
with the spirit, and I will pray with the consolation and comfort than ten thousand
understanding also;" and he does it in faith. The words without understanding.
devil is against it and your own self-life is
Because you feel a touch of the Spirit you are
against it. May God the Holy Ghost bring us into
not obliged to speak in tongues. The Lord will
the blessed place where we may live, walk, pray
give you a sound mind so that you will hold your
and sing in the Spirit, and pray and sing with the
body in perfect order for the edification of the
understanding also. Faith will do it. Faith has a
church. But Paul here says that he spake in
deaf ear to the devil and to the working of the
tongues more than they all; and, as it is evident
natural mind, and a big ear to God. Faith has a
that the Corinthian church was given to this
deaf ear to yourself and an open ear to God.
thing very considerably, he certainly must have
Faith won't take any notice of feelings. Faith
been speaking tremendously in tongues both
says, "You are complete in Him."
day and night. He was so edified by this
It is a wonderful thing to pray in the Spirit and wonderful, supernatural means of being built
to sing in the Spirit, praying in tongues and up, that he could go to the church, and
singing in tongues as the Spirit of God gives you preaching in a manner so that they could all
utterance. I never get out of bed in the morning understand him, he would marvelously edify
without having communion with God in the the saints.
Spirit. It is the most wonderful thing on earth. It
is most lovely to be in the Spirit when you are
dressing and you come out to the world and the "In the law it is written, With men of other
world has no effect on you. You begin the day tongues and other lips will I speak unto this
like that and you will be conscious of the people; and yet for all that will they not hear
guidance of the Spirit right through the day. me, saith the Lord. Wherefore tongues are for a
55
sign, not to them that believe, but to them that We went to bed about eleven o'clock or so and
believe not" (Verses 21, 22). There are many at half-past three in the morning this man came
who call themselves believers who are to the bedroom door. Knock, knock, "May I
extremely unbelieving. One of the unbelieving come in?" "Yes, come in." He opened the door
"believers" was a Methodist minister who lived and said, "He is come, He is come"— holding his
in Sheffield, England. A man gave him a check mouth, for he could hardly speak in English. I
and told him to go and take a rest. This man said, "Go back to bed, tell us tomorrow."
also gave him my name and address; so, when Tongues are for the unbeliever, and this man
he got to Bradford, he began to inquire about was an unbeliever, an unbelieving "believer."
me. He was warned against me as one of the Again and again I have seen conviction come
"tongues people," and was told to be very upon people through the speaking in tongues.
careful and not to be taken in, for the whole
The next morning he came down to breakfast
thing was of the devil. He said, "They will not
and said, "Oh, was not that a wonderful night?"
take ME in; I know too much for them to take
He said, "I know Greek and Hebrew, and those
me in."
two young women were speaking these
He was quite run down and needed rest; and languages, one was saying in Greek, 'Get right
when he came he said, "A friend of yours sent with God,' and the other was saying the same
me, is it all right?" I replied, "Yes, you are thing in Hebrew. I knew it was God speaking,
welcome." But we could do nothing with that and I knew it was not they. I first had to repent.
man. It was impossible. Talk? You never heard I came in an unbeliever, but I found that God
anyone talk like him. It was talk, talk, talk, talk. I was here. In the night God laid me on the floor
said, "Let him alone, he will surely finish some for about two hours. I was helpless. Then God
day." We had dinner, and he talked through broke through." Here he began again to speak
dinner time; we had the next meal and he in tongues, right over the breakfast table.
talked through that.
God will have witnesses of His mighty power
It was our Friday night meeting for those that no man can gainsay. You will have to see
seeking the Baptism and the room began to fill that the Holy Ghost will speak through you in
with people and still he talked. No one could get tongues and interpretation which will bring
an edge in. He lodged himself in a place where conviction to the unbeliever in the open air; and
he could not be disturbed by those coming in. I you will find that God will convict you by this
said, "Brother, you will have to stop now, we means.
are going to pray." As a general thing we had
I will explain to you the most perfect way to
some singing before going to prayer; but this
receive the gift. Come with me to the second
time it was different. It was God's order. We got
chapter of 2 Kings and I will show you a man
straight to prayer and as soon as we began to
receiving a gift. Elijah had been mightily used of
pray two young women, one on this side and
God in calling down fire and in other miracles;
the other on the other side began speaking in
and Elisha is moved with a great spirit of
tongues. And this minister—it was all so strange
covetousness to have this man's gifts. You can
to him—moved from one to the other to hear
be very covetous for the gifts of the Spirit and
what they were saying. In a little while he said,
God will allow it. When Elijah said to him, "I
"May I go to my room?" I said, "Yes, brother, if
want you to stop at Gilgal," Elisha said, "As the
you wish." So he went to his room and we had a
Lord liveth and as thy soul liveth, I will not leave
wonderful time.
thee."
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There was no stopping him. When Elijah wanted ground. And the sons of the prophets said, "The
Elisha to stop at Jericho he said in substance, "I spirit of Elijah doth rest upon Elisha."
am not stopping." The man that stops gets
It is like receiving a gift; you don't know that
nothing. O, don't stop at Jericho; don't stop at
you have it till you act in faith. Brothers and
Jordan; don't stop anywhere when God would
sisters, as you ask, BELIEVE.
have you move on into all of His fullness that He
has for you.
They came to Jordan and Elijah took his mantle

and smote the waters. They divided; and Elijah
and Elisha went over on dry ground. Elijah
turned to Elisha and said in substance, "Look
here, what do you want?" Elisha was wanting
what he was going to have, and you may covet
all that God says that you shall have. Elisha said,
"I pray thee, let a double portion of thy spirit be
upon me." This was the plow-boy, who had
washed the hands of his master; but his spirit
got so big that he purposed in his heart that,
when Elijah stepped off the scene, he would be
put into his place.
Elijah said, "Thou hast asked a hard thing:

nevertheless, if thou see me when I am taken
from thee, it shall be so unto thee." May God
help you never to stop persevering till you get
what you want. Let your aspiration be large and
your faith rise until you are wholly on fire for
God's best.
Onward they go, and as one steps, the other

steps with him. He purposed to keep his eye on
his master until the last. It took a chariot of fire
and horses of fire to part them asunder, and
Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven. I can
fancy I hear Elisha crying out, "Father Elijah,
drop that mantle!" And it came down. Oh, I can
see it lowering, lowering and lowering. Elisha
took all of his own clothes and rent them in two
pieces, and then he took up the mantle of
Elijah. I do not believe that, when he put on
that other mantle, he felt any difference in
himself; but when he came to Jordan, he took Chapter Nine
the mantle of Elijah and smote the waters and Gift of Prophecy
said, "Where is the Lord God of Elijah?" And
the waters parted and he went over on dry
57
uncertain manner concerning that which is

false. In 1 John 4:1 we are told, "Beloved,
believe not every spirit, but try the spirits
whether they are of God: because many false
prophets are gone out into the world." And
In 1 Corinthians 12:10, speaking of the John tells us how we can tell the difference
diversities of gifts by the same Spirit, Paul between the true and the false, "Hereby know
writes, "To another prophecy." We see the ye the Spirit of God: every spirit that confesseth
importance of this gift from 1 Corinthians 14:1, that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is of God:
where we are told to follow after charity, and and every spirit that confesseth not that Jesus
desire spiritual gifts, but rather that we may Christ is come in the flesh is not of God; but this
prophesy. We see also that he that prophesieth is that spirit of anti-christ whereof ye have
speaketh unto man to edification, and heard that it should come." There are voices
exhortation and comfort. How important it is which seem like prophecy and some have got
then that we should have this gift in into terrible darkness and bondage through
manifestation in the church in order that the listening to these counterfeits of the true gift of
saints might be built up and made strong and prophecy. True prophecy is always Christ-
filled with the comfort of God. But with this as exalting, magnifying the Son of God, exalting
all other gifts we should see that it is operated the blood of Jesus Christ, encouraging the saints
by the Spirit's power and brought forth in the to praise and worship the true God. False
unction of the Spirit; so that everyone who shall prophecy deals with things that do not edify
hear prophecy, as it is brought forth by the and is designed to puff up its hearers and to
Spirit of God, shall know that it is GOD who is lead them into error.
bringing forth that which is for the edification of
those who hear. It is the Spirit of God who takes Many picture satan as a great, ugly monster
of the deep things of God and reveals them, and with great ears, eyes and a tail; but the
unctionizes the prophet to give forth that which Scriptures give us no such picture of him. He
is a revelation of the things of God. was a being of great beauty whose heart
became lifted up. He is manifesting himself
Utterance in prophecy has a real lifting power everywhere today as an angel of light. He is full
and gives real light on the truth to those who of pride, and if you don't watch he will try to
hear. Prophecy is never a mind reflection, it is make you think you are somebody. This is the
something far deeper than this. By means of weakness of most preachers and most men—
prophecy we receive that which is the mind of the idea of being somebody! There are none of
the Lord; and as we receive these blessed, fresh us who are anything, and the more we know we
utterances through the Spirit of the Lord the are nothing, the more God can make us a
whole assembly is lifted into the realm of the channel of His power. May the dear Lord save
spiritual. Our hearts and minds and whole us from all these pride side-lines— they are the
bodies receive a quickening through the Spirit- devil's traps. True prophecy will show you that
given word. As the Spirit brings forth prophecy Christ is all in all, and that you are in yourself
we find there is healing and salvation and less than nothing and vanity. False prophecy will
power in every line. For this reason it is one of not magnify Christ but will make you think that
the gifts that we ought to covet. after all you are going to be some great one.
While we appreciate true prophecy, we must You may be sure that such is inspired by "the
not forget that the Scriptures warn us in no chief of the sons of pride."
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I want to warn you against the foolishness of "If you will obey me, I will make you one of the
continually seeking to hear voices. Look in the most wonderful missionaries that ever went
Bible. Here we have the voice of God, who at out." This was just the devil or one of his agents
sundry times and in divers manners, spake in acting as an angel of light. One of these young
time past unto the fathers by the prophets, and women was captured immediately and she
hath in these last days spoken unto us by His became so excited that her sister saw there was
Son. Don't run away with anything else. If you something wrong and asked the overseer to
hear the voice of God it will be on the line of allow them to be free for a time.
the Scriptures of truth given in the inspired
As she took her into a room, the power of satan
Word. In Rev. 22:18, 19 we see the danger of
endeavoring to imitate the Spirit of God,
attempting to add to or take from the prophecy
manifested itself in a voice, and led this young
of this Book. True prophecy, as it comes forth in
woman to believe that the missionary
the power of the Spirit of God, will neither take
enterprise would be unfolded that night if she
from nor add to the Scriptures, but will intensify
would obey. This evil spirit said, "Don't tell
and quicken that which already has been given
anybody but your sister." I reckon that
to us of God. The Holy Ghost will bring to our
everything of God can be told everybody. If you
remembrance all the things that Jesus said and
cannot preach what you live, your life is wrong.
did. True prophecy will bring forth things new
If you are afraid of telling what you do in secret.
and old out of the Scriptures of truth and will
Some day it will be told from the housetop.
make them living and powerful to us.
Don't think you will get out of it. That which is
Some may ask, "If we have the Scriptures, why pure cometh to the light. He that doeth truth
do we need prophecy?" The Scriptures cometh to the light that his deeds may be made
themselves answer this question. God has said manifest, that they are wrought in God.
that in the last days He will pour out of His Spirit
The evil power went on to say to this girl, "You
upon all flesh," and your sons and your
go to the railroad station tonight, and there will
daughters shall prophecy." The Lord knew that
be a train coming in at 7:32. Buy a ticket for
in these last days prophecy would be a real
yourself and your sister. Then you will have six
means of blessing to us, and that is why we can
pence left. You will find a woman in a carriage
count on Him giving us, by means of the Spirit,
dressed as a nurse, and opposite her will be a
through his servants and his handmaids, true
gentleman who has all the money you need."
prophetic messages.
She bought her ticket and had just six pence
I want to give you a warning concerning left. The first thing came right. Next, the train
listening to voices. I was at a meeting in Paisley came in at exactly 7:32. But the next thing did
in Scotland and came in touch with two young not come. They ran from the top to the bottom
women. One of them wore a white blouse but it of that railroad train before it moved out and
was smeared with blood. They were in a great nothing turned out as they had been told. As
state of excitement. These two girls were soon as the train moved out the same voice
telegraph operators and were precious young came and said, "Over on the other platform."
women, having received the Baptism in the All that night until 9:30 these two young women
Spirit. They were both longing to be were rushed from platform to platform. As soon
missionaries. But whatever our spiritual state is as it was 9:30 this same evil power said, "Now
we are subject to temptations. An evil power that I know you will obey me, I will make you
came to one of these young women and said, the greatest missionaries." Always something
59
big! They might have known it was all wrong. Holy Ghost prompted them, and so today the
The evil power said, "This gentleman will take prophet who can be trusted is a man that is full
you to a certain bank at a certain corner in of goodness, that goodness which is the fruit of
Glasgow where he will put all that money in for the Spirit. But when he gets out of this position,
you." Banks are not open at that time of night in and rests upon his own individuality, he is in
Glasgow. If she had gone to the street this evil danger of being puffed up and becoming an
spirit mentioned, there probably would not instrument for the enemy.
have been a bank there. All they needed was a
I know some people who had a wonderful farm,
little common sense and they would have seen
very productive, in a very good neighborhood.
that it was not the Lord. If you have your heart
They listened to voices telling them to sell
open for these kind of voices you will soon get
everything and go to Africa. These voices so
into a trap. We must ever remember that there
unhinged them that they had scarcely had time
are many evil spirits in the world.
to sell out. They sold their property at a
Were these two people delivered? Yes, after ridiculous price. The same voices told them of a
terrible travail with God, they were perfectly certain ship they were to sail on. When they got
delivered. Their eyes were opened to see that to the port they found there wasn't a ship of
this thing was not of God but of the devil. These that name. The difficulty was this, to get them
two sisters are now laboring for the Lord in not to believe these false voices. They said
China and doing a blessed work for Him. If you perhaps it was the mind of the Lord to give
do get into error on these lines, praise God them another ship, and the voice soon gave
there is a way out. I praise God that He will them the name of another ship. When they
break us down till all pride leaves us. The worst reached Africa they knew no language that was
pride we can have is the pride of exaltation of spoken there. But the voice did not let them
self. stop. They had to come back, brokenhearted,
shaken through, and having lost all confidence
Paul wrote at the commandment of the Lord,
in everything. If these people had had sense to
"Let the prophets speak two or three, and let
go to some men of God who were filled with
the others judge. If anything be revealed to
the Spirit and seek their counsel, they would
another that sitteth by, let the first hold his
soon have been persuaded that these voices
peace. For ye may all prophesy one by one, that
were not of God. But listening to these voices
all may learn, and all may be comforted." If you
always brings about a spiritual pride that makes
are not humble enough to allow your prophecy
a man or woman think that they are superior to
to be judged, it is as surely wrong as you are
their brethren, and that they are above taking
wrong. Prophecy has to be judged. A meeting
counsel of men who they think are not so filled
such as this one that Paul suggests would
with the Spirit as they are. If you hear any
certainly be the greatest meeting you ever had.
voices that make you think that you are
Praise God, the tide will rise to this. It will all
superior to those whom God has put in the
come into perfect order when the church is
church to rule the church, watch out, that is
bathed and lost in the great ideal of only
surely the devil.
glorifying Jesus. Then things will come to pass
that will be worth while.
Coupled with prophecy you will have the fruit of We read in the Revelation that the testimony of
the Spirit that is goodness. They were holy men Jesus is the spirit of prophecy. You will find that
who spoke in prophecy in days of old as the
60
true prophetic utterance always exalts the Lamb

of God.
No prophetic touch is of any good unless there

is fire in it. I never expect to be used of God till
the fire burns. I feel that if I ever speak, it must
be by the Spirit. At the same time remember
that the prophet must prophesy according to
the measure of faith. If you rise up in your
weakness, but rise up in love because you want
to honor God, and just begin, you will find the
presence of the Lord upon you. Act in faith and
the Lord will meet you.
May God take us on and on into this glorious

fact of faith, that we may be so in the Holy
Ghost that God will work through us on the line
of the miraculous and on the lines of prophecy,
where we shall always know that it is no longer
we but He who is working through us, bringing
forth that which is in His own divine good
pleasure.
61
Chapter Ten the wall, it was laid so completely even with the
ground, by those who dug it up to the
Jesus prophecy of the End-times
foundation, that there was left nothing to make
those that came thither believe it had ever been
inhabited." Maimonides, a Jewish rabbin, in
Tract. Taanith, c. 4, says, "That the very
foundations of the temple were digged up,
And Jesus went out, and departed from, the according to the Roman custom." His words are
temple—Or, And Jesus, going out of the temple, these: "On that ninth day of the month Ab, fatal
was going away. This is the arrangement of the for vengeance, the wicked Turnus Rufus, of the
words in several eminent manuscripts, versions, children of Edom, ploughed up the temple, and
and fathers; and is much clearer than that in the the places round about it, that the saying might
common translation. The Jews say the temple be fulfilled, Zion shall be ploughed as a field."
was built of white and green-spotted marble. This Turnus, or rather Terentius Rufus, was left
See Lightfoot. Josephus says the stones were general of the army by Titus, with commission,
white and strong; fifty feet long, twenty-four as the Jews suppose, to destroy the city and the
broad, and sixteen thick. Antiq. b. 15. c. xi. See temple, as Josephus observes.
Mark 13:1.
The temple was destroyed,
Matthew 24:2
1st. Justly; because of the sins of the Jews.
See ye not all these things?—The common text,
2dly. Mercifully; to take away from them the
and many manuscripts, have ου βλεπετε, Do ye
occasion of continuing in Judaism: and
not see, or consider? But the negative particle is
omitted by several excellent manuscripts, by 3dly. Mysteriously; to show that the ancient
the Coptic, Sahidic, Armenian, Ethiopic, sacrifices were abolished, and that the whole
Slavonic, Vulgate, and Itala versions, and by Jewish economy was brought to an end, and the
some of the primitive fathers, who all read it Christian dispensation introduced.
thus, see, or consider all these things.
Matthew 24:3
There shall not be left here one stone—These
seem to have been the last words he spoke as Tell us, when shall these things be?—There
he left the temple, into which he never appear to be three questions asked here by the
afterwards entered; and, when he got to the disciples.
mount of Olives, he renewed the discourse. 1st. When shall these things be? viz. the
From this mount, on which our Lord and his destruction of the city, temple, and Jewish
disciples now sat, the whole of the city, and state.
particularly the temple, were clearly seen. This
part of our Lord's prediction was fulfilled in the 2dly. What shall be the sign of thy coming? viz.
most literal manner. Josephus says, War, book to execute these judgments upon them, and to
vii. c. 1: "Caesar gave orders that they should establish thy own Church: and
now demolish the whole city and temple, τε 3dly. When shall this world end? When wilt
πολιν απασαν και τον νεων κατασκεπτειν, thou come to judge the quick and the dead?
except the three towers, Phaselus, Hippicus,
and Mariamne, and a part of the western wall, But there are some who maintain that these are
and these were spared; but, for all the rest of but three parts of the same question, and that
62
our Lord's answers only refer to the destruction 3. About twelve years after the death of our
of the Jewish state, and that nothing is spoken Lord, when Cuspius Fadus was procurator of
here concerning the LAST or judgment day. Judea, arose an impostor of the name of
Theudas, who said he was a prophet, and
End of the world—Του αιωνος; or, of the age,
persuaded a great multitude to follow him with
viz. the Jewish economy, which is a frequent
their best effects to the river Jordan, which he
accommodated meaning of the word Αιων, the
promised to divide for their passage; and saying
proper meaning of which is, as Aristotle (De
these things, says Josephus, he deceived many:
Caelo) observes, ETERNAL. Αιων, quasi αει ων
almost the very words of our Lord.
continual being: and no words can more forcibly
point out eternity than these. See the note on 4. A few years afterwards, under the reign of
Genesis 21:33. Nero, while Felix was procurator of Judea,
impostors of this stamp were so frequent that
Matthew 24:4
some were taken and killed almost every day.
Take heed that no man deceive you—The world Josephus. Ant. b. xx. c. 4. and 7.
is full of deceivers, and it is only by taking heed
The SECOND sign, wars and commotions.
to the counsel of Christ that even his followers
can escape being ruined by them. From this to Matthew 24:6
Matthew 24:31, our Lord mentions the signs
The next signs given by our Lord are wars and
which should precede his coming.
rumors of wars, etc.—These may be seen in
The FIRST sign is false Christs. Josephus, Ant. b. xviii. c. 9; War, b. ii. c. 10;
especially as to the rumors of wars, when
Matthew 24:5
Caligula ordered his statue to be set up in the
For many shall come in my name— temple of God, which the Jews having refused,
had every reason to expect a war with the
1. Josephus says, (War, b. ii. c. 13), that there Romans, and were in such consternation on the
were many who, pretending to Divine occasion that they even neglected to till their
inspiration, deceived the people, leading out land.
numbers of them to the desert, pretending that
God would there show them the signs of liberty, Matthew 24:7
meaning redemption from the Roman power:
Nation shall rise against nation—This portended
and that an Egyptian false prophet led 30,000
the dissensions, insurrections and mutual
men into the desert, who were almost all cut off
slaughter of the Jews, and those of other
by Felix. See Acts 21:38. It was a just judgment
nations, who dwelt in the same cities together;
for God to deliver up that people into the hands
as particularly at Caesarea, where the Jews and
of false Christs who had rejected the true one.
Syrians contended about the right of the city,
Soon after our Lord's crucifixion, Simon Magus
which ended there in the total expulsion of the
appeared, and persuaded the people of Samaria
Jews, above 20,000 of whom were slain. The
that he was the great power of God, Acts 8:9,
whole Jewish nation being exasperated at this,
10; and boasted among the Jews that he was
flew to arms, and burnt and plundered the
the son of God.
neighboring cities and villages of the Syrians,
2. Of the same stamp and character was also making an immense slaughter of the people.
Dositheus, the Samaritan, who pretended that The Syrians, in return, destroyed not a less
he was the Christ foretold by Moses. number of the Jews. At Scythopolis they
63
murdered upwards of 13,000. At Ascalon they xx. c. 2). many died for lack of food. Pestilences
killed 2,500. At Ptolemais they slew 2000, and are the usual attendants of famines: as the
made many prisoners. The Tyrians also put scarcity and badness of provisions generally
many Jews to death, and imprisoned more: the produce epidemic disorders.
people of Gadara did likewise; and all the other
The FOURTH sign, earthquakes or popular
cities of Syria in proportion, as they hated or
commotions.
feared the Jews. As Alexandria the Jews and
heathens fought, and 50,000 of the former Earthquakes, in divers places—If we take the
were slain. The people of Damascus conspired word σεισμοι from σειω to shake, in the first
against the Jews of that city, and, assaulting sense, then it means particularly those popular
them unarmed, killed 10,000 of them. See commotions and insurrections which have
Bishop Newton, and Dr. Lardner. already been noted; and this I think to be the
true meaning of the word: but if we confine it
Kingdom against kingdom—This portended the
to earthquakes, there were several in those
open wars of different tetrarchies and provinces
times to which our Lord refers; particularly one
against each other.
at Crete in the reign of Claudius, one at Smyrna,
1st. That of the Jews and Galileans against the Miletus, Chios, Samos. See Grotius. One at
Samaritans, for the murder of some Galileans Rome, mentioned by Tacitus; and one at
going up to the feast of Jerusalem, while Laodicea in the reign of Nero, in which the city
Cumanus was procurator. was overthrown, as were likewise Hierapolis
and Colosse. See Tacit. Annal. lib. xii. and lib.
2dly. That of the whole nation of the Jews
xiv. One at Campania, mentioned by Seneca;
against the Romans and Agrippa, and other
and one at Rome, in the reign of Galba,
allies of the Roman empire; which began when
mentioned by Suetonius in the life of that
Gessius Florus was procurator.
emperor. Add to all these, a dreadful one in
3dly. That of the civil war in Italy, while Otho Judea, mentioned by Josephus (War, b. iv. c. 4).
and Vitellius were contending for the empire. accompanied by a dreadful tempest, violent
winds, vehement showers, and continual
It is worthy of remark, that the Jews themselves lightnings and thunders; which led many to
say, "In the time of the Messiah, wars shall be believe that these things portended some
stirred up in the world; nation shall rise against uncommon calamity.
nation, and city against city." Sohar Kadash.
"Again, Rab. Eleasar, the son of Abina, said, The FIFTH sign, fearful portents.
When ye see kingdom rising against kingdom,
To these St. Luke adds that there shall be fearful
then expect the immediate appearance of the
sights and great signs from heaven (Luke 21:11).
Messiah." Bereshith Rabba, sect. 42.
Josephus, in his preface to the Jewish war,
The THIRD sign, pestilence and famine. enumerates these.
It is farther added, that There shall be famines, 1st. A star hung over the city like a sword; and a
and pestilences—There was a famine foretold comet continued a whole year.
by Agabus, (Acts 11:28), which is mentioned by
2d. The people being assembled at the feast of
Suetonius, Tacitus, and Eusebius; which came to
unleavened bread, at the ninth hour of the
pass in the days of Claudius Caesar, and was so
night, a great light shone about the altar and
severe at Jerusalem that Josephus says (Ant. b.
the temple, and this continued for half an hour.
64
3d. At the same feast, a cow led to sacrifice Matthew 24:8

brought forth a lamb in the midst of the
All these are the beginning of sorrows—Ωδινων,
temple!
travailing pains. The whole land of Judea is
4th. The eastern gate of the temple, which was represented under the notion of a woman in
of solid brass, and very heavy, and could hardly grievous travail; but our Lord intimates, that all
be shut by twenty men, and was fastened by that had already been mentioned were only the
strong bars and bolts, was seen at the sixth first pangs and throes, and nothing in
hour of the night to open of its own accord! comparison of that hard and death-bringing
labor, which should afterwards take place.
5th. Before sun-setting there were seen, over all
the country, chariots and armies fighting in the From the calamities of the nation in general,
clouds, and besieging cities. our Lord passes to those of the Christians; and,
indeed, the sufferings of his followers were
6th. At the feast of pentecost, when the priests
often occasioned by the judgments sent upon
were going into the inner temple by night, to
the land, as the poor Christians were charged
attend their service, they heard first a motion
with being the cause of these national
and noise, and then a voice, as of a multitude,
calamities, and were cruelly persecuted on that
saying, LET US DEPART HENCE!
account.
7th. What Josephus reckons one of the most
Matthew 24:9
terrible signs of all was, that one Jesus, a
country fellow, four years before the war Then shall they deliver you up to be afflicted—
began, and when the city was in peace and Rather, Then they will deliver you up to
plenty, came to the feast of tabernacles, and affliction, εις θλιψιν. By a bold figure of speech,
ran crying up and down the streets, day and affliction is here personified. They are to be
night: "A voice from the east! a voice from the delivered into affliction's own hand, to be
west! a voice from the four winds! a voice harassed by all the modes of inventive torture.
against Jerusalem and the temple! a voice
Ye shall be hated of all nations—Both Jew and
against the bridegrooms and the brides! and a
Gentile will unite in persecuting and tormenting
voice against all the people!" Though the
you. Perhaps παντων των εθνων means all the
magistrates endeavored by stripes and tortures
Gentiles, as in the parallel places in Mark 13:9-
to restrain him, yet he still cried, with a
11, and in Luke 21:12-15, the Jewish
mournful voice, "Wo, wo to Jerusalem!" And
persecution is mentioned distinctly. Ye shall be
this he continued to do for several years
delivered up to COUNCILS and be beaten in
together, going about the walls and crying with
SYNAGOGUES, and ye shall stand before
a loud voice: "Wo, wo to the city, and to the
governors and kings for my name's sake—be
people, and to the temple!" and as he added,
not anxiously careful beforehand what ye shall
"Wo, wo to myself!" a stone from some sling or
speak—for ye are not the speakers, but the
engine struck him dead on the spot!
Holy Spirit will speak by you—I will give you
It is worthy of remark that Josephus appeals to utterance and wisdom, which all your
the testimony of others, who saw and heard adversaries shall not be able to contradict or
these fearful things. Tacitus, a Roman historian, resist. We need go no farther than the Acts of
gives very nearly the same account with that of the Apostles for the completion of these
Josephus. Hist. lib. v. particulars. Some were delivered to councils, as
Peter and John, Acts 4:5. Some were brought
65
before rulers and kings, as Paul before Gallio, Matthew 24:12

Acts 18:12, before Felix, Acts 24, before Festus
The love of many shall wax cold—By reason of
and Agrippa, Acts 25. Some had utterance and
these trials and persecutions from without, and
wisdom which their adversaries were not able
those apostasies and false prophets from
to resist: so Stephen, Acts 6:10, and Paul, who
within, the love of many to Christ and his
made even Felix himself tremble, Acts 24:25.
doctrine, and to one another, shall grow cold.
Some were imprisoned, as Peter and John, Acts
Some openly deserting the faith, as Matthew
4:3. Some were beaten, as Paul and Silas, Acts
24:10; others corrupting it, as Matthew 24:11;
16:23. Some were put to death, as Stephen,
and others growing indifferent about it,
Acts 7:59, and James the brother of John, Acts
Matthew 24:12. Even at this early period there
12:2. But if we look beyond the book of the Acts
seems to have been a very considerable
of the Apostles, to the bloody persecutions
defection in several Christian Churches; see
under Nero, we shall find these predictions still
Galatians 3:1-4; 2 Thessalonians 3:1, etc.; 2
more amply fulfilled: in these, numberless
Timothy 1:15.
Christians fell, besides those two champions of
the faith Peter and Paul. And it was, as says Matthew 24:13
Tertullian, nominis praelium, a war against the
very name of Christ; for he who was called But he that shall endure—The persecutions that
Christian had committed crime enough, in shall come—unto the end; to the destruction of
bearing the name, to be put to death. So true the Jewish polity, without growing cold or
were our Savior's words, that they should be apostatizing—shall be saved, shall be delivered
hated of all men for his NAME'S sake. in all imminent dangers, and have his soul at
last brought to an eternal glory. It is very
But they were not only to be hated by the remarkable that not a single Christian perished
Gentiles, but they were to be betrayed by in the destruction of Jerusalem, though there
apostates. were many there when Cestius Gallus invested
the city; and, had he persevered in the siege, he
Matthew 24:10
would soon have rendered himself master of it;
Then shall many be offended, and shall betray but, when he unexpectedly and unaccountably
one another—To illustrate this point, one raised the siege, the Christians took that
sentence out of Tacitus (Annal. l. xv). will be opportunity to escape. See Eusebius, Hist.
sufficient, who, speaking of the persecution Eccles lib. iii. c. 5, and Mr. Reading's note there;
under Nero, says, At first several were seized, and see the note here on Matthew 24:20 (note).
who confessed, and then by THEIR DISCOVERY a
Matthew 24:14
great multitude of others were convicted and
executed. And this Gospel of the kingdom shall be
preached in all the world—But, notwithstanding
Matthew 24:11
these persecutions, there should be a universal
False prophets—Also were to be raised up; such publication of the glad tidings of the kingdom,
as Simon Magus and his followers; and the false for a testimony to all nations. God would have
apostles complained of by St. Paul, 2 the iniquity of the Jews published every where,
Corinthians 11:13, who were deceitful workers, before the heavy stroke of his judgments should
transforming themselves into the apostles of fall upon them; that all mankind, as it were,
Christ. Such also were Hymeneus and Philetus, might be brought as witnesses against their
2 Timothy 2:17, 18.
66
cruelty and obstinacy in crucifying and rejecting Then shall the end come—When this general
the Lord Jesus. publication of the Gospel shall have taken place,
then a period shall be put to the whole Jewish
In all the world, εν ολη τη οικουμενη. Perhaps
economy, by the utter destruction of their city
no more is meant here than the Roman empire;
and temple.
for it is beyond controversy that πασαν την
οικουμενην, Luke 2:1, means no more than the Matthew 24:15
whole Roman empire: as a decree for taxation
The abomination of desolation, spoken of by
or enrolment from Augustus Caesar could have
Daniel—This abomination of desolation, St.
no influence but in the Roman dominions; but
Luke, (Luke 21:20, 21), refers to the Roman
see on Luke 2:1 (note). Tacitus informs us,
army; and this abomination standing in the holy
Annal. l. xv., that, as early as the reign of Nero,
place is the Roman army besieging Jerusalem;
the Christians were grown so numerous at
this, our Lord says, is what was spoken of by
Rome as to excite the jealousy of the
Daniel the prophet, in the ninth and eleventh
government; and in other parts they were in
chapters of his prophecy; and so let every one
proportion. However, we are under no
who reads these prophecies understand them;
necessity to restrain the phrase to the Roman
and in reference to this very event they are
empire, as, previously to the destruction of
understood by the rabbins. The Roman army is
Jerusalem, the Gospel was not only preached in
called an abomination, for its ensigns and
the lesser Asia, and Greece, and Italy, the
images, which were so to the Jews. Josephus
greatest theatres of action then in the world;
says, (War, b. vi. chap. 6), the Romans brought
but was likewise propagated as far north as
their ensigns into the temple, and placed them
SCYTHIA; as far south as ETHIOPIA; as far east as
over against the eastern gate, and sacrificed to
PARTHIA and INDIA; and as far west as SPAIN
them there. The Roman army is therefore fitly
and BRITAIN. On this point, Bishop Newton goes
called the abomination, and the abomination
on to say, That there is some probability that
which maketh desolate, as it was to desolate
the Gospel was preached in the British nations
and lay waste Jerusalem; and this army
by St. Simon the apostle; that there is much
besieging Jerusalem is called by St. Mark, 13:14,
greater probability that it was preached here by
standing where it ought not, that is, as in the
St. Paul; and that there is an absolute certainty
text here, the holy place; as not only the city,
that it was planted here in the times of the
but a considerable compass of ground about it,
apostles, before the destruction of Jerusalem.
was deemed holy, and consequently no profane
See his proofs. Dissert. vol. ii. p. 235, 236. edit.
persons should stand on it.
1758. St. Paul himself speaks, Colossians 1:6,
23, of the Gospel's being come into ALL THE Matthew 24:16
WORLD, and preached TO EVERY CREATURE
under heaven. And in his Epistle to the Romans, Then let them which be in Judea flee into the
Romans 10:18, he very elegantly applies to the mountains—This counsel was remembered and
lights of the Church, what the psalmist said of wisely followed by the Christians afterwards.
the lights of heaven. Their sound went into ALL Eusebius and Epiphanius say, that at this
THE EARTH, and their words unto the END of juncture, after Cestius Gallus had raised the
the WORLD. What but the wisdom of God could siege, and Vespasian was approaching with his
foretell this? and what but the power of God army, all who believed in Christ left Jerusalem
could accomplish it? and fled to Pella, and other places beyond the
river Jordan; and so they all marvellously
67
escaped the general shipwreck of their country: by the soldiers, in hunger, rage, and despair,
not one of them perished. See on Matthew killed and boiled her own sucking child, and had
24:13 (note). eaten one half of him before it was discovered.
This shocking story is told, WAR, b. vi. c. 3, with
Matthew 24:17
several circumstances of aggravation.
Let him which is on the house top—The houses
Matthew 24:20
of the Jews, as well as those of the ancient
Greeks and Romans, were flat-roofed, and had But pray ye that your flight be not in the winter
stairs on the outside, by which persons might —For the hardness of the season, the badness
ascend and descend without coming into the of the roads, the shortness of the days, and the
house. In the eastern walled cities, these flat- length of the nights, will all be great
roofed houses usually formed continued impediments to your flight. Rabbi Tanchum
terraces from one end of the city to the other; observes, "that the favor of God was
which terraces terminated at the gates. He, particularly manifested in the destruction of the
therefore, who is walking on the house top, let first temple, in not obliging the Jews to go out in
him not come down to take any thing out of his the winter, but in the summer." See the place in
house; but let him instantly pursue his course Lightfoot.
along the tops of the houses, and escape out at
Neither on the Sabbath-day—That you may not
the city gate as fast as he can.
raise the indignation of the Jews by travelling
Any thing—Instead of τι, any thing, we should on that day, and so suffer that death out of the
read τα, the things; which reading is supported city which you had endeavored to escape from
by all the best MSS., versions, and fathers. within. Besides, on the Sabbath-days the Jews
not only kept within doors, but the gates of all
Matthew 24:18
the cities and towns in every place were kept
Neither let him which is in the field return back shut and barred; so that their flight should be
—Because when once the army of the Romans on a Sabbath, they could not expect admission
sits down before the city, there shall be no into any place of security in the land.
more any possibility of escape, as they shall
Our Lord had ordered his followers to make
never remove till Jerusalem be destroyed.
their escape from Jerusalem when they should
Matthew 24:19 see it encompassed with armies; but how could
this be done? God took care to provide amply
And wo unto them (alas! for them) that are with for this. In the twelfth year of Nero, Cestius
child, etc.—For such persons are not in a Gallus, the president of Syria, came against
condition to make their escape; neither can Jerusalem with a powerful army. He might, says
they bear the miseries of the siege. Josephus Josephus, WAR, b. ii. c. 19, have assaulted and
says the houses were full of women and taken the city, and thereby put an end to the
children that perished by the famine; and that war; but without any just reason, and contrary
the mothers snatched the food even out of to the expectation of all, he raised the siege and
their own children's mouths. See WAR, b. v. c. departed. Josephus remarks, that after Cestius
10. But he relates a more horrid story than this, Gallus had raised the siege, "many of the
of one Mary, the daughter of Eliezar, illustrious principal Jewish people, πολλοι των επιφανων
for her family and riches, who, being stripped Ιουδαιων, forsook the city, as men do a sinking
and plundered of all her goods and provisions ship." Vespasian was deputed in the room of
68
Cestius Gallus, who, having subdued all the were fulfilled in the most terrible manner on
country, prepared to besiege Jerusalem, and that generation.
invested it on every side. But the news of Nero's
2. These were the days of vengeance in
death, and soon after that of Galba, and the
another sense, as if God's judgments had
disturbances that followed, and the civil wars
certain periods and revolutions; for it is
between Otho and Vitellius, held Vespasian and
remarkable that the temple was burned by the
his son Titus in suspense. Thus the city was not
Romans in the same month, and on the same
actually besieged in form till after Vespasian
day of the month, on which it had been burned
was confirmed in the empire, and Titus was
by the Babylonians. See Josephus, WAR, b. vi. c.
appointed to command the forces in Judea. It
4.
was in those incidental delays that the
Christians, and indeed several others, provided Matthew 24:22
for their own safety, by flight. In Luke 19:43, our
Lord says of Jerusalem, Thine enemies shall cast Except those days should be shortened—
a trench about thee, and compass thee round, Josephus computes the number of those who
and keep thee in on every side. Accordingly, perished in the siege at eleven hundred
Titus, having made several assaults without thousand, besides those who were slain in
success, resolved to surround the city with a other places, WAR, b. vi. c. 9; and if the Romans
wall, which was, with incredible speed, had gone on destroying in this manner, the
completed in three days! The wall was thirty- whole nation of the Jews would, in a short time,
nine furlongs in length, and was strengthened have been entirely extirpated; but, for the sake
with thirteen forts at proper distances, so that of the elect, the Jews, that they might not be
all hope of safety was cut off; none could make utterly destroyed, and for the Christians
his escape from the city, and no provisions particularly, the days were shortened. These,
could be brought into it. See Josephus, WAR, partly through the fury of the zealots on one
book v. c. 12. hand, and the hatred of the Romans on the
other; and partly through the difficulty of
Matthew 24:21 subsisting in the mountains without houses or
provisions, would in all probability have been all
For then shall be great tribulation—No history
destroyed, either by the sword or famine, if the
can furnish us with a parallel to the calamities
days had not been shortened. The besieged
and miseries of the Jews:—rapine, murder,
themselves helped to shorten those days by
famine, and pestilence within: fire and sword,
their divisions and mutual slaughters; and by
and all the horrors of war, without. Our Lord
fatally deserting their strong holds, where they
wept at the foresight of these calamities; and it
never could have been subdued, but by famine
is almost impossible for any humane person to
alone. So well fortified was Jerusalem, and so
read the relation of them in Josephus without
well provided to stand a siege, that the enemy
weeping also. St. Luke, Luke 21:22, calls these
without could not have prevailed, had it not
the days of vengeance, that all things which
been for the factions and seditions within.
were written might be fulfilled.
When Titus was viewing the fortifications after
1. These were the days in which all the the taking of the city, he could not help
calamities predicted by Moses, Joel, Daniel, and ascribing his success to God. "We have fought,"
other prophets, as well as those predicted by said he, "with God on our side; and it is God
our Savior, met in one common center, and who pulled the Jews out of these strong holds:
for what could machines or the hands of men
69
avail against such towers as these?" WAR, b. vi.

c. 9.
70
Although Esotericism refers to the exploration

of the inner meanings and symbolism of various
philosophical, historical and religious texts,
these texts themselves are often central to
mainstream religions. For example the Bible
and the Torah are examples of esoteric
material.
Plato, in his dialogue Alcibíades (circa 390 BC),

uses the expression ta esô meaning "the inner
Module two Esoteric Teachings things", and in his dialogue Theaetetus (circa
360 BC) he uses ta exô meaning "the outside
things". Aristotle applied this distinction to his
Chapter One own writings. The probable first appearance of
Esoteric Meaning the Greek adjective esôterikos is in Lucian of
Samosata's "The Auction of Lives", § 26, written
around AD 166.
Esotericism or Esoterism signifies the holding of
esoteric opinions or beliefs, that is, ideas The term esoteric first appeared in English in
preserved or understood by a small group of the 1701 History of Philosophy by Thomas
those specially initiated, or of rare or unusual Stanley, in his description of the mystery-school
interest. The term derives from the Greek of Pythagoras; the Pythagoreans were divided
ἐσωτερικός (esôterikos), a compound of ἔσω into "exoteric" (under training), and "esoteric"
(esô): "within", thus pertaining to interiority or (admitted into the "inner" circle). The
mysticism. Its antonym is "exoteric". corresponding noun "esotericism" was coined
in French by Jacques Matter in 1828 and
The term can also refer to the academic study
popularized by Eliphas Levi in the 1850s. It
of esoteric religious movements and
entered the English language in the 1880s via
philosophies, and religious movements or
the works of theosophist Alfred Sinnett.
philosophies whose proponents distinguish
their beliefs, practices, and experiences from Definition
mainstream exoteric and more dogmatic
institutionalized traditions.
Among the competing understandings of what
Examples of esoteric religious movements and
unites the various currents designated by
philosophies include Alchemy, Astrology,
"Esotericism" in the scholarly sense, perhaps
Anthroposophy, early Christian Mysticism,
the most influential has been proposed by
Freemasonry, Gnosticism, Kabbalah,
Antoine Faivre. His definition is based on the
Neoplatonism, Magic, Merkabah mysticism,
presence in the esoteric currents of four
Mesmerism, Rosicrucianism, Taoism,
essential characteristics: a theory of
Numerology, Swedenborgianism, Spiritualism,
correspondences between all parts of the
the Alawites, the Theosophy of Jacob Böhme
invisible and the visible cosmos, the conviction
and his followers, and the Theosophical
that nature is a living entity owing to a divine
revivalist movement associated with Helena
presence or life-force, the need for mediating
Blavatsky.
elements (such as symbols, rituals, angels,
visions) in order to access spiritual knowledge,
71
and, fourthly, an experience of personal and religion is right and that all the others are false;
spiritual transmutation when arriving at this it could mean also that all are false. In reality, it
knowledge. To this are added two non-intrinsic means that all are right, not in their dogmatic
characteristics. Esotericists frequently suggest exclusivism, but in their unanimous inner
that there is a concordance between different signification, which coincides with pure
religious traditions: best example is the belief in metaphysics, or in other terms, with the
prisca theologia (ancient theology) or in philosophia perennis.” (F. Schuon, 1995).
philosophia perennis (perennial philosophy).
After all, the esoteric tradition may be
Finally, esotericism sometimes suggests the
recovered if the seeker undergoes initiation.
idea of a secret transmission of spiritual
teachings, through initiation from master to “Initiation is essentially the transmission of a
disciple. It should, however, be emphasized that spiritual influence, a transmission that can only
Faivre's definition is one of several divergent take place through a regular, traditional
understandings of the most appropriate use of organization, so that one cannot speak of
the term. initiation outside of an affiliation with an
organization of this kind. We have explained
The “perennialist” or “traditionalist” school is
that 'regularity' must be understood to exclude
represented by authors like the French René
all pseudo-initiatic organizations, which,
Guénon (1886–1951), the Indian Ananda
regardless of pretention and outward
Coomaraswamy (1877–1947), the Swiss Frithjof
appearance, in no way possess any spiritual
Schuon (1907–1998), the Italian Julius Evola
influence and thus are incapable of transmitting
(1898–1974), the Iranian Seyyed Hossein Nasr
anything.”
(born in 1933), both scholars and esotericists.
They postulate that there exists a Primordial
Tradition of non-human origin.
“We say that it [the origin of the traditions] is

polar, and the pole is nomore Western than it is
Eastern. It is only in a later epoch that the seat
of the primordial tradition, transferred to other
regions, was able to become either Western or
Eastern. We consider the origin of the traditions
to be Nordic, and even more to be polar, since
this is expressly affirmed in the Veda as well as
in other sacred books.”
In perennialist usage, esotericism is a

metaphysical concept referring to a supposed
“transcendent unity” of all great religious
traditions. Esotericism is the metaphysical point
of unity where exoteric religions are believed to
converge.
“Our starting point is the acknowledgment of

the fact that there are diverse religions which
exclude each other. This could mean that one
72
these are often seen as precursors to esoteric

movements in the scholarly sense of the word.
Non-Western traditions can also display the

characteristics of esoteric movements. The
Ismaili Muslims also stress a distinction
between the inner and the outer. It is believed
that spiritual salvation is attained by receiving
the 'Nur' (light) through the "esoteric", that is,
spiritual search for enlightenment. Ismaili Islam
also has some of the characteristics associated
with esotericism as defined by Faivre, e.g. the
belief in an intermediate spiritual sphere
mediating between humans and the divine.
Esoteric movements in Buddhism, which fall
Chapter Two under the general category of Vajrayana
A Concise History of Esoteric Buddhism, employ esoteric training into
teachings Buddha's teachings, through use of symbols,
mantra and hand-gestures, or mudra. Initiation
rituals are typically given to students as they
progress along these paths, and care is taken
Since the field of esotericism is not a single not to discuss specific rituals to those lacking
tradition but a vast array of often unrelated the right empowerment.
figures and movements, there is no single
In order to distinguish esoteric currents based
historical thread underlying them all. The
primarily on sources from late Antiquity and the
developments that one might wish to
European Middle Ages, from e.g. Islamic or
emphasize in drawing up a history of
Jewish currents with similar features, the more
esotericism furthermore depends on whether
precise term "Western esotericism" is often
esotericism in the dictionary (non-scholarly) or
employed.
the scholarly sense is intended.
Western esoteric movements in the scholarly
Several historically attested religions emphasize
sense thus have roots in Antiquity and the
secret or hidden knowledge, and are thus
Middle Ages. A major phase in the development
esoteric in the dictionary sense, without
of Western esotericism begins in the
necessarily being esoteric movements in the
Renaissance, partly as the result of various
scholarly sense of the word. Thus, the Roman
attempts to revive such earlier movements.
Empire had several mystery religions which
During the Italian Renaissance, for example,
emphasized initiation. Some saw Christianity,
translators such as Ficino and Pico Della
with its ritual of baptism, as a mystery religion.
Mirandola turned their attention to the classical
None of these are "esoteric" in the scholarly
literature of Neoplatonism, and what was
sense. The terms "Gnosticism" and "Gnosis"
thought to be the pre-Mosaic tradition of
refer to a family of religious movements which
Hermeticism. Other pursuits of Antiquity that
claimed to possess secret knowledge (gnosis).
entered into the mix of esoteric speculation
Another important movement from the ancient
were astrology and alchemy. Beside such
world was Hermeticism or Hermetism. Both of
revived currents from late Antiquity, a second
73
major source of esoteric speculation is the Theosophy is also considered a major influence
Kabbalah, which was lifted out of its Jewish on the many less institutionally organized
context and adapted to a Christian framework varieties of esotericism in metaphysical milieus,
by people such as Johannes Reuchlin. Outside "Ascended Master Activities", and within the
the Italian Renaissance, yet another major New Age.
current of esotericism was initiated by
Finally, it can be noted that Carl Gustav Jung
Paracelsus, who combined alchemical and
can be seen as an exponent of esotericism: his
astrological themes (among others) into a
writings concern esoteric subject matter such as
complex body of doctrines.
alchemy, and rephrased the concept of
In the early 17th century, esotericism is correspondences in a modern, psychologizing
represented by currents such as Christian terminology in his theory of synchronicity.
theosophy and Rosicrucianism. A century later,
esoteric ideas entered various strands of
Freemasonry. Later in the 18th century, as well
as in the early 19th century, the diffuse
movement known as Mesmerism became a
major expression of esotericism. In the 19th
century, esotericism is also represented by
certain aspects of the philosophy, literature and
science associated with Romanticism, by
spiritualism, and by a notable French wave of
occultism.
The major exponent of esotericism in the latter

part of the 19th century is the Theosophy of H.
P. Blavatsky, not to be confused with the
Christian Theosophy mentioned above. In the
20th century, Theosophy was further developed
by Annie Besant and Charles Webster
Leadbeater, while people like Alice Bailey,
Rudolf Steiner and many others, became the
source for a whole range of post-theosophical
movements such as The Summit Lighthouse.
The post-theosophical Anthroposophical
movement is a synthesis of occultist, Christian
and Neoplatonic ideas with Western esoteric
concepts as formulated in the wake of
Theosophy. Anthroposophy, which was founded
by Rudolf Steiner in the early part of the 20th
century, includes esoteric versions of education,
agriculture, and medicine.
Yet another notable esoteric strain stems from

the teachings of G. I. Gurdjieff and P. D.
Ouspensky.
74
Secondly, Hanegraaff follows a distinction

between an “emic” and an “etic” approach to
religious studies. The emic approach is that of
the alchemist or theosopher as an alchemist or
theosopher. The etic approach is that of the
scholar as an historian, a researcher, with a
critical look. An empirical study of esotericism
needs “emic material and etic interpretation”.
“The principal theoretical tool to safeguard

scientific legitimity in this situation is the
distinction between emic and etic. Emic
denotes the believer’s point of view. On the
part of the researcher, the reconstruction of
this emic perspective requires an attitude of
empathy which excludes personal biases as far
Chapter Three as possible. Scholarly discourse about religion,
on the other hand, is not emic but etic. Scholars
Methodology of Esoterism
may introduce their own terminology and make
theoretical distinctions which are different from
those of the believers themselves.”
Wouter J. Hanegraaff is Professor of “History of Pierre A. Riffard (Ph.D., University of the French
Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents” at West Indies) studies the method used by
the University of Amsterdam (1999). The esotericists themselves (alchemists, magicians,
Universiteit van Amsterdam (UvA) is the world's Rosicrucians, Anthroposophists...). He examines
first academic institution to have created a some of their procedures. 1) Mythological
complete program for research and teaching in origins. The esotericists trace the origins of their
the field of Western Esotericism. He is also doctrine or practice to an extremely distant
president of the European Society for the Study past. They situate the life of Hermes in times
of Western Esotericism. Essential to immemorial. 2) Cosmic cycles. For Gaston
Hanegraaff’s methodology is what he calls an Georgel, “history is governed by cycles of 540,
“empirical” approach, with an informed, open, 1080 and 2160 years”. 3) The chains of
and, so much as possible, neutral mind. He initiation. Some Rosicrucians include Francis
makes a sharp division between a “religionist” Bacon among their masters and trace their
perspective and an “empiricist” one. origins back to the time of Thutmosis III. 4) The
secret books. Esotericists prefer to base their
“Empirical research must be based on
beliefs on secret writings, unknown to the
methodological agnosticism with regard to
majority of people and inaccessible to the
religious and philosophical ‘first principles’, and
uninitiated: for instance, among the
must fully recognize the historicity of religious
Theosophists, The Book of Dzyan. 5) Spiritual
phenomena. This empirical perspective is
interpretations. The esotericists are able to
applied to the newly emerging academic field of
endow the most profane texts with an occult
esotericism.”
meaning. The alchemists discover within the
Greek and Roman myths the Great Work of
75
alchemy. 6) Magical uses. A book can be used as

a talisman, a divinatory machine... The Sortes
Sanctorum (Lots of the saints) were, in early
Christianity, a divination which consists in taking
passages of the Bible at chance, and drawing
conclusions from them concerning future. [6]
Arthur Versluis (Professor, Ph.D., Michigan State

University) proposes the term “sympathetic
empiricism” as the approach that he finds most
amenable in the study of Western Esotericism.
“While I am convinced of the critical importance

of historiography in the study of esotericism
(and for this reason all of my academic books
are firmly grounded in historical method) I do
not believe that historiography is adequate in
itself to convey the complex, multivalent nature
of esoteric thought, traditions, or most of all,
experience. Esotericism, given all its varied
forms and its inherently multidimensional Chapter Four
nature, cannot be conveyed without going Theosophy doctrines and beliefs
beyond purely historical information: at systems?
minimum, the study of esotericism, and in
particular mysticism, requires some degree of
imaginative participation in what one is
studying.”
Theosophy (from Greek θεοσοφία theosophia,

from θεός theos, divine + σοφία sophia,
wisdom; literally "divine wisdom"), refers to
systems of esoteric philosophy concerning, or
investigation seeking direct knowledge of,
presumed mysteries of being and nature,
particularly concerning the nature of divinity.
Theosophy is considered a part of the broader

field of esotericism, referring to hidden
knowledge or wisdom that offers the individual
enlightenment and salvation. The word esoteric
dates back to the 2nd century CE. The
theosophist seeks to understand the mysteries
of the universe and the bonds that unite the
universe, humanity and the divine. The goal of
76
theosophy is to explore the origin of divinity Judaic texts, incorporating its system into their
and humanity, and the world. From different philosophies, where it remains a
investigation of those topics theosophists try to central component of Western esotericism.
discover a coherent description of the purpose Gershom Scholem, the founder of Jewish
and origin of the universe. mysticism academia, saw Medieval and Lurianic
Kabbalah as the incorporation into Judaism of
Antiquity and Medieval ending c. 1450 Ce
Gnostic motifs, though interpreted strictly
The term theosophy was used as a synonym for monotheistically. At the centre of Kabbalah are
theology as early as the 3rd century CE the 10 Sephirot powers in the divine realm,
their unification being the task of man. In
Hellenistic Alexandrian culture expressed Lurianism, man redeems the sparks of holiness
religion through a syncretism that included in materiality, rectifying the divine persona
influences from Egypt, Chaldea, Greece etc. It from its primordial exile.
became a "philosophizing and systematizing"
culture containing mythology, theosophy and Theosophy in early modern Europe beginning in
gnosis of the East. the 1500s
The 12th-century philosopher Al-Shahrastānī Modern theosophy arose in Germany in the

(died 548 AH / 1153 CE) explored theosophy in 16th century.
the context of Islamic thought. In the 13th
In the 16th century Johannes Arboreus'
century a clear distinction was made between
Theosophia (volumes published 1540-1553)
classical philosophers, modern (to the people
provided a lengthy exposition that included no
then) philosophers, theosophers, and
mention of esotericism.[5] In contrast fellow
theologians in the work Summa philosophiae
Germans Paracelsus (1493–1541), Aegidius
attributed to Robert Grosseteste. In Summa
Gutmann (1490–1584), Valentin Weigel (1533–
theosophists were described as authors inspired
1588), Heinrich Khunrath (1560–1605), Johann
by holy books while theologians were described
Arndt (1555–1621), and Caspar Schwenckfeld
as persons whose task was to teach theosophy.
(1490–1584) demonstrated an interest in
During that time the term theosopher was
theosophy.
applied retroactively to include earlier people
including Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, The 17th-century philosopher and self-
Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Origen. identified theosophist Jakob Boehme (1575–
1624) produced a complete explanation of
In Jewish mysticism, the theosophical doctrinal
theosophy that included esotericism. Boehme's
system of Kabbalah (Hebrew: "received
system of philosophical speculation bases
tradition") emerged in late 12th-century
knowledge of nature upon knowledge of the
southern France (the book Bahir), spreading to
divine nature. During that time the Aristotelian
13th-century Spain (culminating in the late
method had lost favor among intellectuals.
13th-century book Zohar). Kabbalah became
Boehme presented his system as an alternative
the basis of later Jewish mystical development.
to the Aristotelian method which he believed
The theosophical Kabbalah in Judaism was
could provide a more profound knowledge and
recast into its second version, Lurianic
more control of nature than the Aristotelian
Kabbalah, in 16th-century Ottoman Palestine.
method did.
From the Renaissance onwards, syncretic non-
Jewish traditions of theological Christian Cabala Other notable contributors to the theosophical
and magical Hermetic Qabalah studied the literature of the 16th and 17th centuries hailed
77
from Holland, England, and France. They In France, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin (1743–
included both theosophists and historians and 1803) and Jean-Philippe Dutoit-Membrini (alias
theologians with a strong interest in theosophy. Keleph Ben Nathan, 1721-1793) contributed to
This group includes Jan Baptist van Helmont a resurgence of theosophy in the late 18th
(1618–1699), Robert Fludd (1574–1637), John century. Other theosophical thinkers of this
Pordage (1608–1681), Jane Leade (1623–1704), period include Karl von Eckartshausen (1752–
Henry More (1614–1687), Pierre Poiret (1646– 1803), Johann Heinrich Jung-Stilling (1740–
1719), and Antoinette Bourignon (1616–1680). 1817), Frederic-Rodolphe Salzmann (1749–
1821), Michael Hahn (1758–1819), and Franz
Theosophists of this period often inquired into
von Baader (1765–1841). Denis Diderot gave
nature using a method of interpretation
the word theosophie a permanent place in the
founded upon a specific myth or revelation,
French language by including it in an article in
applying active imagination in order to draw
his Encyclopédie, published during the French
forth symbolic meanings and further their
Enlightenment.
pursuit of knowledge toward a complete
understanding of these mysteries. The 19th century
Enlightenment theosophy, 1650-1775 During the late 19th century, theosophical

initiate societies emerged. In 1875 Helena
In the 18th century, the word theosophy came
Blavatsky (1831–1891) and others founded The
into widespread use in philosophy. Johann
Theosophical Society, an organization related to
Jakob Brucker (1696–1770) included a long
earlier theosophical ideas and also departed
chapter on theosophy in his monumental work
from them significantly by including concepts
Historia critica philosophia (1741). He included
from eastern esotericism. The Esoteric Society,
all the theosophists in what was then a
a theosophical initiate society, was founded by
standard reference in the history of philosophy.
the Theosophical Society.
German philosophers produced major works of
theosophy during this period: Theophilosophia Meanwhile outside of the initiate societies
theoritica et practica (1710) by Samuel Richter others such as the Martinist Order founded by
(alias Sincerus Renatus) and Opus Papus in 1891 followed a prior theosophical
magocabalsticum et theosophicum (1721) by current which was closely linked to the Judeo-
Georg von Welling (alias Salwigt, 1655-1727). Christian-Islamic tradition and Western
Other notable theosophists of the period esotericism. Theosophists outside of the initiate
include Johann George Gichtel (1638–1710), societies included people such as Vladimir
Gottfried Arnold (1666–1714), Friedrich Solovyov (1853–1900). According to the
Christoph Oetinger (1702–1782), William Law Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Solovyov
(1686–1761), and Dionysius Andreas Freher thought, "Although empiricism and rationalism
(1649–1728). By the 18th century the word (= idealism) rest on false principles, their
theosophy was often used in conjunction with respective objective contents, external
panosophy, i.e., a knowledge of divine things experience, qua the foundation of natural
that is acquired by deciphering the supposed science, and logical thought, qua the foundation
hieroglyphics of the concrete universe. The of pure philosophy, are to be synthesized or
term theosophy is more properly reserved for encompassed along with mystical knowledge in
the reverse process of contemplating the divine 'integral knowledge,' what Solovyov terms
in order to discover the content of the concrete 'theosophy.'"
universe.
78
The 20th century to present Antoine Faivre notes, "the theosophist

dedicates his energy to inventing (in the word's
Several organizations developed from the
original sense of 'discovering') the articulation
popularization of Blavatsky's ideas and are
of all things visible and invisible, by examining
considered new religious movements.
both divinity and nature in the smallest
Theosophical Society lodges also continue to
detail."[3] The knowledge that is acquired
exist in many places. Anthroposophy was
through meditation is believed to change the
founded by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925) as a
being of the meditator.
schism of the Theosophical Society.
Theosophical concepts can be seen in the work Antoine Faivre successfully created a taxonomy
of Sergei Bulgakov (1877–1945), Nikolai approach as a means to comparing the various
Berdyaev (1874–1945), Leopold Ziegler (1881– traditions. He proceeded by taking the
1958), Valentin Tomberg (1901–1973), Auguste- concordance of neoplatonism, Hermeticism,
Edouard Chauvet (1885–1955), Wassily Kaballah, astrology, alchemy, magic etc. and
Kandinsky (1866–1944), Sarvepalli deduced six fundamental characteristics of
Radhakrishnan (1888–1975) and Henry Corbin esoteric spirituality. He discovered that the first
(1903–1978).[18] four characteristics of esotericism are always
present, while the latter two are sometimes
present. Along with these six characteristics of
esotericism, he identified three characteristics
of theosophy.
Common characteristics
Esotericism:
Correspondence: Everything in Nature is a sign.

The use of the term theosophy has changed The signs of Nature can be read. The microcosm
over time. As such, the use of the term in and macrocosm interplay. Synchronicity exists,
antiquity, or even using a strictly etymological and can be found as signs from Nature and may
definition, is not common in the academy. lead to the understanding of the divine.
Theosophy actually designates a specific flow of
thought, current, stream or tradition within the Nature is Alive: It is not just correlations
modern study of esotericism. Thus it follows the between pieces of matter. It is a living entity
path starting from the more modern period of that will, and does, surge and evolve through its
the 15th century onward (e.g. neo-Alexandrian, expanding self, replete with dynamic flows of
hermeticism, Christian Kaballah, Rosicrucianism, energy and light.
Alchemy etc.). The usage here is not intended
Imagination and mediations: Imaginations as a
to be inclusive of the concept as used in The
power that provides access to worlds and levels
Theosophical Society.
of reality intermediary between the material
Theosophists engage in analysis of the universe, world and the divine.
humanity, divinity, and the reciprocal effects of
Experience of Transmutation: The Gnosis and
each on the other. The starting point for
illuminations of self and mind performing a
theosophists may be knowledge of external
transmutation of consciousness. The birth of an
things in the world or inner experiences and the
awareness, a second new life becomes born.
aim of the theosophist is to discover deeper
meanings in the natural or divine realm.
79
Practice of Concordance: Primordial Tradition.

Studying traditions, religions etc. seeking the
common one Root from which all esoteric
knowledge grows.
Transmission: Master-Disciple, master-Initiate,

initiation into the Occult.
The three characteristics of theosophy are listed

below.
Theosophy:
Divine/Human/Nature Triangle: The inspired

analysis which circles through these three
angles. The intradivine within; the origin, death
and placement of the human relating to Divinity
and Nature; Nature as alive, the external,
intellectual and material. All three complex
correlations synthesize via the intellect and
imaginative processes of Mind.
Primacy of the Mythic: The creative

Imagination, an external world of symbols,
glyphs, myths, synchronicities and the myriad, Chapter Five
along with image, all as a universal reality for Blavatskyan Theosophy and the
the interplay conjoined by creative mind.
Theosophical Society
Access to Supreme Worlds: The awakening
within, inherently possessing the faculty to
directly connect to the Divine world(s). The
existence of a special human ability to create In 1875 Helena Blavatsky, Henry Steel Olcott,
this connection. The ability to connect and and William Quan Judge co-founded The
explore all levels of reality; co-penetrate the Theosophical Society. Blavatsky combined
human with the divine; to bond to all reality Eastern religious traditions with Western
and experience a unique inner awakening. esoteric teachings to create a synthesis she
called the Perennial Religion. She developed
this in Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret
Doctrine (1888), her major works and
exposition of her Theosophy.
Eventually the Theosophical Society became

virtually synonymous with Theosophy in the
vernacular sense. There are many differences
between traditional Western theosophy and
the Theosophical movement begun by Helena
Blavatsky, though the differences "are not
80
important enough to cause an insurmountable that Blavatsky had acquired all her knowledge
barrier." When referring to the ideas related to from reading books, and not from any
Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society, the supernatural masters. Guenon pointed out that
word "Theosophy" is capitalized; otherwise it is Blavatsky was a regular visitor to a library in
not. New York, where she had easy access to the
works of Jacob Boehme, Eliphas Levi, the
Overview of Blavatsky's teachings
Kabbala and other Hermetic treatises. Guenon
The three fundamental propositions expounded also wrote that Blavatsky had borrowed
in The Secret Doctrine are: passages from extracts of the Kanjur and
Tanjur, translated by the eccentric orientalist
That there is an omnipresent, eternal, Sándor Kőrösi Csoma, published in 1836 in the
boundless, and immutable reality of which spirit twentieth volume of the Asiatic Researchers of
and matter are complementary aspects. Calcutta .
That there is a universal law of periodicity or K. Paul Johnson suggests in his book The
evolution through cyclic change. Masters Revealed: Madam Blavatsky and Myth
That all souls are identical with the universal of the Great White Brotherhood that the
oversoul which is itself an aspect of the Masters that Madam Blavatsky claimed she had
unknown reality. personally met are idealizations of certain
people she had met during her lifetime.
Helena Blavatsky taught that Theosophy is
neither revelation nor speculation. Blavatsky The article "Talking to the Dead and Other
stated that Theosophy was an attempt at a Amusements" by Paul Zweig New York Times
gradual, faithful reintroduction of a hitherto October 5, 1980, maintains that Madame
hidden science called the occult science in Blavatsky's revelations were fraudulent.
Theosophical literature. According to Blavatsky Robert Todd Carroll in his book The skeptic's
occult science provides a description of reality dictionary (2003) wrote that Blavatsky used
not only at a physical level but also on a trickery into deceiving others into thinking she
metaphysical one. Blavatsky said occult science had paranormal powers. Carroll wrote that
had been preserved and practiced throughout Blavatsky had faked a materialization of a
history by carefully selected and trained teacup and saucer as well as writing the
individuals. messages from her masters herself.Blavatsky's
The Theosophical Society believes its precepts Theosophy connected to antisemitism, racism
and doctrinal foundation will be verified when a Jackson Spielvogel and David Redles of the
Theosophist follows prescribed disciplines to Simon Wiesenthal Center's Museum of
develop metaphysical means of knowledge that Tolerance analyze Blavatsky's racial ideas in her
transcend the limitations of the senses. book Secret Doctrine. According to Spielvogel
Criticisms of Helena Blavatsky and The and Redles, Blavatsky labeled some races
Theosophical Society superior and others inferior. They clarify that
Helena Blavatsky's skeptics Blavatsky did not advocate "domination of one
race over another" and that she was against
René Guénon wrote a detailed critique of violence. They comment that Blavatsky's work
Theosophy entitled Theosophism: history of a "helped to foster antisemitism, which is perhaps
pseudo-religion (1921), in which he claimed one of the reasons her esoteric work was so
81
rapidly accepted in German circles." They state

Blavatsky "sharply differentiated Aryan and
Jewish religion" and believed "The Aryans were
the most spiritual people on earth." They quote
Blavatsky's writing in Secret Doctrine as stating
Aryans used religion as an "everlasting lodestar"
in contrast to Judaism which Blavatsky claimed
was based on "mere calculation" while
characterizing it as a "religion of hate and
malice toward everyone and everything outside
itself."
Post-Blavatskyan Theosophy and New Religious

Movements
Notes: Reasons regarding the division of

traditional theosophy from the Theosophical
Society.
G.R.S. Mead was an early Theosophist. In 1909

he resigned from the Theosophical Society Chapter Six
which was Orientalist. Prior to his break from Christian Cabala / Kabbalah
the Society Mead had already begun
emphasizing sources from the Western esoteric
tradition in his writing. Mead was among the
first Theosophists to explicate a "'Western'
The Renaissance saw the birth of Christian
theosophy deriving from Alexandrian and
Kabbalah/Cabala (From the Hebrew ‫קַ ָּב לָה‬
Hellenistic sources in the early centuries A.D."
"reception", often transliterated with a 'C' to
distinguish it from Jewish Kabbalah and
Hermetic Qabalah), also spelled Cabbala.
Interest grew among some Christian scholars in
what they saw to be the mystical aspects of
Judaic Kabbalah, which were compatible with
Christian theology. Although somewhat
obscure, the tradition of Christian Cabala or
Catholic Cabala still persists today.
The movement was influenced by a desire to

interpret aspects of Christianity even more
mystically than current Christian Mystics. Greek
Neo-Platonist documents came into Europe
from Constantinople in the reign of Mehmet II.
Neo-Platonism had been prevalent in Christian
Europe and had entered into Scholasticism
82
since the translation of Greek and Hebrew texts appreciate Kabbalah as a tool of conversion",
in Spain in the 13th century. The Renaissance though he was "not a Kabbalist, nor was he
trend was a relatively short-lived phenomenon, versed in any particular Kabbalistic approach".
ending by 1750. Not interested in the possibilities of scholarly
Jewish influence, which began later in the
Christian Cabala "reinterpreted Kabbalistic
Renaissance, his reading of newly emergent
doctrine from a distinctly Christian perspective,
Kabbalah was for the possibilities of theological
linking Jesus Christ, His atonement, and His
debate with the Jews.
resurrection to the Ten Sefirot", linking the
upper three Sephirot to the hypostases of the Spanish conversos
Trinity and the last seven "to the lower or
An early expression of Christian Kabbalah was
earthly world", or "would make Kether the
among the Spanish conversos from Judaism,
Creator (or the Spirit), Hokhmah the Father, and
from the late 1200s to the Expulsion from Spain
Binah—the supernal mother—Mary", which
of 1492. These include Abner of Burgos and
"places Mary on a divine level with God,
Pablo de Heredia. Heredia's "Epistle of Secrets"
something the orthodox churches have always
is "the first recognizable work of Christian
refused to do".[ Christian Cabalists sought to
Kabbalah", and was quoted by Pietro Galatino
transform Kabbalah into "a dogmatic weapon to
who influenced Athanasius Kircher. However,
turn back against the Jews to compel their
Heredia’s Kabbalah consists of quotes from
conversion—starting with Ramon Llull", whom
non-existent Kabbalistic works, and distorted or
Harvey J. Hames called "the first Christian to
fake quotes from real Kabbalistic sources.
acknowledge and appreciate kabbalah as a tool
of conversion", though Llull was not a Kabbalist Christian Kabbalist
himself nor versed in Kabbalah. Later Christian
Cabala is mostly based on Pico Della Mirandola,
Johann Reuchlin and Paolo Riccio. Christian Kabbalah fully arose during the
After the 18th century, Kabbalah became Renaissance as a result of continuing studies of
blended with European occultism, some of Greek texts and translations by Christian
which had a religious basis; but the main thrust Hebraists.[citation needed] The invention of the
of Christian Kabbalah was by then dead. A few printing press also played its part in the wider
attempts have been made to revive it in recent dissemination of texts.
decades, particularly in relation to the Neo- Pico Della Mirandola
Platonism of the first two chapters of the
Gospel of John, but it has not entered into Among the first to promote the knowledge of
mainstream Christianity. Kabbalah beyond exclusively Jewish circles was
Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola (1463–1494) a
Medieval precursors student of Marsilio Ficino at his Florentine
Academy. His syncretic world-view combined
Platonism, Neo-Platonism, Aristotelianism,
Blessed Raymond Llull Hermeticism and Kabbalah.
Main article: Ramon Llull Mirandola's work on Kabbalah was further
developed by Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), a
The Franciscan Ramon Llull (ca. 1232-1316) was
Jesuit priest, Hermeticist and polymath; in 1652,
"the first Christian to acknowledge and
Kircher wrote on the subject in Oedipus
83
Aegyptiacus. Though they both worked from Kabbalah both by his contemporaries and by
within the Christian tradition, both were more modern scholars". According to Giulio Busi, he
interested in the syncretic approach. Their work was the most important Christan Cabalist
led directly into Occult and Hermetic Qabalah. second to its founder Giovanni Pico Della
Mirandola. His, De harmonia mundi, was "a
That could not be said of Reuchlin, Knorr von
massive and curious book, all Hermetic,
Rosenroth and Kemper.
Platonic, Cabalistic, and Pinchian".
Johann Reuchlin
Paolo Riccio
Paolo Riccio (1506–1541) "unified the scattered

dogmas of the Christian Cabala into an
internally consistent system",[10] based on Pico
Title of Reuchlin's De arte cabalistica libri tres, and Reuchlin and adding "to them through an
iam denua adcurate revisi, 1530. original synthesis of Kabbalistic and Christian
Johann Reuchlin sources".
Johann Reuchlin, (1455–1522), was "Pico's most Balthasar Walther

important follower". His main sources for
Kabbalah were Menahem Recanati
(Commentary on the Torah, Commentary on Balthasar Walther, (1558 - before 1630), was a
the Daily Prayers) and Joseph Gikatilla (Sha'are Silesian physician. In 1598-1599, Walther
Orah, Ginnat 'Egoz). Reuchlin argued that undertook a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in
human history divides into three periods: a order to learn about the intricacies of the
natural period in which God revealed Himself as kabbalah and Jewish mysticism from groups in
Shaddai (‫)שדי‬, the period of the Torah in which Safed and elsewhere, including amongst the
God "revealed Himself to Moses through the followers of Isaac Luria. Despite his claim to
four-lettered name of the Tetragrammaton" ( have spent six years in these travels, it appears
‫)יהוה‬, and the period of redemption. The five- that he only made several shorter trips. Walther
letter name associated with this period is the himself did not author any significant works of
tetragrammaton with the additional letter shin ( Christian kabbalah, but maintained a
‫)ש‬. This name, YHShVH (‫ יהשוה‬for 'Jesus', voluminous manuscript collection of magical
though the name's Hebrew version would be and Kabbalistic works. His significance for the
‫)יהושוע‬, is also known as the pentagrammaton. history of Christian Kabbalah is that his ideas
The first of Reuchlin's two books on Cabala, De and doctrines exercised a profound influence on
verbo mirifico, "speaks of the […] miraculous the works of the German theosopher, Jakob
name of Jesus derived from the Böhme, in particular Böhme's Forty Questions
tetragrammaton". His second book, De arte on the Soul (c.1621).
cabalistica, is "a broader, more informed
Athanasius Kircher
excursion into various Kabbalistic concerns".
Main article: Athanasius Kircher
Francesco Giorgi
The following century produced Athanasius
Francesco Giorgi, (1467–1540) was a Venetian
Kircher, a German Jesuit priest, scholar and
Franciscan friar and "has been considered a
polymath. He wrote extensively on the subject
central figure in sixteenth-century Christian
in 1652, bringing further elements such as
84
Orphism and Egyptian mythology to the mix in attempted to show that the Zohar contained
his work, Oedipus Aegyptiacus. It was illustrated the Christian doctrine of the Trinity.
by Kircher's own adaptation of the Tree of Life.
This belief also drove him to make a literal
[15] Kircher's version of the Tree of Life is still
translation of the Gospel of Matthew into
used in Western Kabbalah.
Hebrew and to write a Kabbalistic commentary
Christian Knorr von Rosenroth on it.
Sephirotic diagram from Knorr von Rosenroth's

Kabbala Denudata.
Main article: Christian Knorr von Rosenroth
Christian Knorr von Rosenroth, (1636–1689),

became well known as a translator, annotator,
and editor of Kabbalistic texts; he published the
two-volume Kabbala denudata ('Kabbalah
Unveiled'), "which virtually alone represented
authentic (Jewish) kabbalah to Christian Europe
until the mid-nineteenth century". The Kabbala
denudata contains Latin translations of, among
others, sections of the Zohar, Pardes Rimmonim
by Moses Cordovero, Sha’ar ha-Shamayim and
Beit Elohim by Abraham Cohen de Herrera,
Sefer ha-Gilgulim (a Lurianic tract attributed to
Hayyim Vital), with commentaries by Knorr von
Rosenroth and Henry More; some later editions
include a summary of Christian Cabala
(Adumbratio Kabbalæ Christianæ) by F. M. van
Helmont.
Johan Kemper
Johan Kemper (1670–1716) was a Hebrew

teacher, whose tenure at Uppsala University
lasted from 1697 to 1716. He was Emanuel
Swedenborg's probable Hebrew tutor.
Kemper, formerly known as Moses ben Aaron

of Cracow, was a convert to Lutheranism from
Judaism. During his time at Uppsala, he wrote
his three-volume work on the Zohar entitled
Matteh Mosche ('The Staff of Moses'). In it, he
85
eventually led to their downfall. The

Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and
Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said
to have died in Metapontum.
Pythagoras made influential contributions to

philosophy and religious teaching in the late 6th
century BC. He is often revered as a great
mathematician, mystic and scientist, but he is
best known for the Pythagorean theorem which
bears his name. However, because legend and
obfuscation cloud his work even more than that
of the other pre-Socratic philosophers, one can
give only a tentative account of his teachings,
and some have questioned whether he
contributed much to mathematics and natural
philosophy. Many of the accomplishments
credited to Pythagoras may actually have been
accomplishments of his colleagues and
successors. Whether or not his disciples
believed that everything was related to
Chapter Seven mathematics and that numbers were the
Pyhagoras of Samos ultimate reality is unknown. It was said that he
was the first man to call himself a philosopher,
or lover of wisdom, and Pythagorean ideas
exercised a marked influence on Plato, and
Pythagoras of Samos (Ancient Greek: through him, all of Western philosophy.
Πυθαγόρας ὁ Σάμιος [Πυθαγόρης in Ionian
Accurate facts about the life of Pythagoras are
Greek] Pythagóras ho Sámios “Pythagoras the
so few, and most information concerning him is
Samian”, or simply Πυθαγόρας; c. 570 BC – c.
of so late a date, and so untrustworthy, that it is
495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher,
impossible to provide more than a vague
mathematician, and founder of the religious
outline of his life. The lack of information by
movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of the
contemporary writers, together with the
information about Pythagoras was written
secrecy which surrounded the Pythagorean
down centuries after he lived, so very little
brotherhood, meant that invention took the
reliable information is known about him. He
place of facts. The stories which were created
was born on the island of Samos, and might
were eagerly sought by the Neoplatonist writers
have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt
who provide most of the details about
and other places seeking knowledge. Around
Pythagoras, but who were uncritical concerning
530 BC, he moved to Croton, in Magna Graecia,
anything which related to the gods or which
and there set up a religious sect. His followers
was considered divine. Thus many myths were
pursued the religious rites and practices
created – such as that Apollo was his father;
developed by Pythagoras, and studied his
that Pythagoras gleamed with a supernatural
philosophical theories. The society took an
brightness; that he had a golden thigh; that
active role in the politics of Croton, but this
86
Abaris came flying to him on a golden arrow; Fraternitatis (The Confession of the
that he was seen in different places at the same Brotherhood of RC). The influence of these
time.[5] With the exception of a few remarks by documents, presenting a "most laudable Order"
Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Herodotus, Plato, of mystic-philosopher-doctors and promoting a
Aristotle, and Isocrates, we are mainly "Universal Reformation of Mankind", gave rise
dependent on Diogenes Laërtius, Porphyry, and to an enthusiasm called by its historian Dame
Iamblichus for the biographical details. Aristotle Frances Yates the "Rosicrucian Enlightenment".
had written a separate work on the
Rosicrucian’s was associated with
Pythagoreans, which unfortunately has not
Protestantism, Lutheranism in particular, and
survived.[6] His disciples Dicaearchus,
the manifestos opposed Roman Catholicism and
Aristoxenus, and Heraclides Ponticus had
its preference for dogma over empiricism. They
written on the same subject. These writers, late
also rejected Muhammad,[citation needed]
as they are, were among the best sources from
though they traced their philosophy and science
whom Porphyry and Iamblichus drew, besides
to the Moors, asserting that it had been kept
the legendary accounts and their own
secret for 120 years until the intellectual
inventions. Hence historians are often reduced
climate might receive it.
to considering the statements based on their
inherent probability, but even then, if all the Early seventeenth century occult philosophers
credible stories concerning Pythagoras were such as Michael Maier, Robert Fludd and
supposed true, his range of activity would be Thomas Vaughan interested themselves in the
impossibly vast. Rosicrucian world view. According to historian
David Stevenson it was also influential to
Chapter Eight Freemasonry as it was emerging in Scotland. In
Rosicrucianism later centuries, many esoteric societies have
claimed to derive their doctrines, in whole or in
part, from the original Rosicrucians. Several
modern societies have been formed for the
study of Rosicrucian’s and allied subjects.
Rosicrucian’s is a generic term referring to
studies or membership within a philosophical
secret society said to have been founded in late The Fama Fraternitatis presented the legend of
medieval Germany by Christian Rosenkreuz. It a German doctor and mystic philosopher
holds a doctrine or theology "built on esoteric referred to as "Frater C.R.C." (later identified in
truths of the ancient past", which, "concealed a third manifesto as Christian Rosenkreuz, or
from the average man, provide insight into "Rose-cross"). The year 1378 is presented as
nature, the physical universe and the spiritual being the birth year of "our Christian Father",
realm." Rosicrucian’s is symbolized by the Rosy and it is stated that he lived 106 years. After
Cross. studying in the Middle East under various
masters, possibly adhering to Sufism,[6] he was
Between 1607 and 1616, two anonymous unable to spread the knowledge he had
manifestos were published, first in Germany acquired to any prominent European figures.
and later throughout Europe. These were the Instead, he gathered a small circle of
Fama Fraternitatis RC (The Fame of the friends/disciples and founded the Rosicrucian
Brotherhood of RC) and the Confessio
87
Order (this can be deduced to have occurred generally as media through which to publicize
around 1407). their opinions and beliefs.
During Rosenkreuz's lifetime, the Order was In his autobiography, Johann Valentin Andreae
said to consist of no more than eight members, (1586–1654) claimed the anonymously
each a doctor and a sworn bachelor. Each published the Chymical Wedding of Christian
member undertook an oath to heal the sick Rosenkreutz as one of his works, and he
without payment, to maintain a secret subsequently described it as a ludibrium. In his
fellowship, and to find a replacement for later works, he makes alchemy an object of
himself before he died. Three such generations ridicule and places it with music, art, theatre
had supposedly passed between c.1500 and and astrology in the category of less serious
c.1600, a time when scientific, philosophical and sciences. According to some sources, his role in
religious freedom had grown so that the public the origin of the Rosicrucian legend is
might benefit from the Rosicrucian’s controversial. It is generally accepted according
knowledge, so that they were now seeking good to others.
men.
The Rosicrucian Enlightenment
Reception
In the early 17th century, the manifestos caused
excitement throughout Europe by declaring the
existence of a secret brotherhood of alchemists
The manifestos were and are not taken literally
and sages who were preparing to transform the
by many but rather regarded either as hoaxes
arts, sciences, religion, and political and
or as allegorical statements. The manifestos
intellectual landscape of Europe. Wars of
directly state: "We speak unto you by parables,
politics and religion ravaged the continent. The
but would willingly bring you to the right,
works were re-issued several times and
simple, easy, and ingenuous exposition,
followed by numerous pamphlets, favorable
understanding, declaration, and knowledge of
and otherwise. Between 1614 and 1620, about
all secrets."
400 manuscripts and books were published
It is evident that the first Rosicrucian manifesto which discussed the Rosicrucian documents.
was influenced by the work of the respected
The peak of the so-called "Rosicrucian’s furor"
hermetic philosopher Heinrich Khunrath, of
was reached when two mysterious posters
Hamburg, author of the Amphitheatrum
appeared on the walls of Paris in 1622 within a
Sapientiae Aeternae (1609), who was in turn
few days of each other. The first said, "We, the
influenced by John Dee, author of the Monas
Deputies of the Higher College of the Rose-
Hieroglyphica (1564). The invitation to the royal
Croix, do make our stay, visibly and invisibly, in
wedding in the Chymical Wedding of Christian
this city (...)" and the second one ended with
Rosenkreutz opens with Dee's philosophical
the words "The thoughts attached to the real
key, the Monas Hieroglyphica symbol. The
desire of the seeker will lead us to him and him
writer also claimed the brotherhood possessed
to us".[10]
a book that resembled the works of Paracelsus.
The legend inspired a variety of works, among
Some say the writers were moral and religious
them the works of Michael Maier (1568–1622)
reformers. They used the techniques of
of Germany; Robert Fludd (1574–1637) and
chemistry (alchemy) and of the sciences
Elias Ashmole (1617–1692) of England;
Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens,
88
Gotthardus Arthusius, Julius Sperber, Henricus author of the 19th century, Arthur Edward
Madathanus, Gabriel Naudé, Thomas Vaughan Waite, presents arguments that contradict this
and others.[11] In Elias Ashmole's Theatrum idea.[13] It was in this fertile field of discourse
Chimicum britannicum (1650) he defends the that many "Rosicrucian" societies arose. They
Rosicrucians. Some later works with an impact were based on the occult tradition and inspired
on Rosicrucian’s were the Opus by the mystery of this "College of Invisibles".
magocabalisticum et theosophicum by George
von Welling (1719), of alchemical and
paracelsian inspiration, and the Aureum Vellus
oder Goldenes Vliess by Hermann Fictuld in
1749. Frater C.R.C. – Christian Rose Cross (symbolical
representation)
Michael Maier was ennobled with the title
Pfalzgraf (Count Palatine) by Rudolf II, Emperor The literary works of the 16th and 17th
and King of Hungary and King of Bohemia. He centuries are full of enigmatic passages
also was one of the most prominent defenders containing references to the Rose Cross, as in
of the Rosicrucians, clearly transmitting details these lines (somewhat modernised):
about the "Brothers of the Rose Cross" in his For what we do presage is not in grosse,
writings. Maier made the firm statement that
the Brothers of R.C. exist to advance inspired For we are brethren of the Rosie Crosse;
arts and sciences, including alchemy. We have the Mason Word and second sight,
Researchers of Maier's writings point out that
he never claimed to have produced gold, nor Things for to come we can foretell aright.
did Heinrich Khunrath or any of the other
Rosicrucianists. Their writings point toward a
symbolic and spiritual alchemy, rather than an — Henry Adamson, The Muses' Threnodie
operative one. In both direct and veiled styles, (Perth, 1638).
these writings conveyed the nine stages of the
involutive-evolutive transmutation of the
threefold body of the human being, the The idea of such an order, exemplified by the
threefold soul and the threefold spirit, among network of astronomers, professors,
other esoteric knowledge related to the "Path mathematicians, and natural philosophers in
of Initiation". 16th-century Europe and promoted by men
such as Johannes Kepler, Georg Joachim
In his 1618 pamphlet, Pia et Utilissima
Rheticus, John Dee and Tycho Brahe, gave rise
Admonitio de Fratribus Rosae Crucis, Henrichus
to the Invisible College. This was a precursor to
Neuhusius writes that the Rosicrucians left for
the Royal Society which was founded in 1660.
the East due to the instability in Europe caused
[citation needed] It was constituted by a group
by the start of the Thirty Years' War. In 1710,
of scientists who began to hold regular
Sigmund Richter, founder of the secret society
meetings to share and develop knowledge
of the Golden and Rosy Cross, also suggested
acquired by experimental investigation. Among
the Rosicrucians had migrated to the East. In
these were Robert Boyle, who wrote: "the
the first half of the 20th century, René Guénon,
cornerstones of the Invisible (or as they term
a researcher of the occult, presented this same
themselves the Philosophical) College, do now
idea in some of his works.[12] An eminent
and then honour me with their company...";[14]
89
John Wilkins and John Wallis, who described The Gold und Rosenkreuzer (Golden and Rosy
those meetings in the following terms: "About Cross) was founded by the alchemist Samuel
the year 1645, while I lived in London (at a time Richter who in 1710 published Die warhhaffte
when, by our civil wars, academical studies und vollkommene Bereitung des
were much interrupted in both our Philosophischen Steins der Brüderschaft aus
Universities), ... I had the opportunity of being dem Orden des Gülden-und Rosen-Creutzes
acquainted with divers worthy persons, (The True and Complete Preparation of the
inquisitive natural philosophy, and other parts Philosopher's Stone by the Brotherhood from
of human learning; and particularly of what the Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross) in
hath been called the New Philosophy or Breslau under the pseudonym Sincerus
Experimental Philosophy. We did by Renatus[17] in Prague in the early 18th century
agreements, divers of us, meet weekly in as a hierarchical secret society composed of
London on a certain day and hour, under a internal circles, recognition signs and alchemy
certain penalty, and a weekly contribution for treatises. Under the leadership of Hermann
the charge of experiments, with certain rules Fictuld the group reformed itself extensively in
agreed amongst us, to treat and discourse of 1767 and again in 1777 because of political
such affairs..."[15] pressure. Its members claimed that the leaders
of the Rosicrucian Order had invented
Rose-Cross Degrees in Freemasonry[edit]
Freemasonry and only they knew the secret
18° Knight of the Rose Croix jewel (from the meaning of Masonic symbols. The Rosicrucian
Masonic Scottish Rite) Order had been founded by Egyptian
“Ormusse” or “Licht-Weise” who had emigrated
According to Jean Pierre Bayard,[16] two to Scotland with the name “Builders from the
Rosicrucian-inspired Masonic rites emerged East”. Then the original Order disappeared and
towards the end of 18th century, the Rectified was supposed to have been resurrected by
Scottish Rite, widespread in Central Europe Oliver Cromwell as “Freemasonry”.[citation
where there was a strong presence of the needed] In 1785 and 1788 the Golden and Rosy
"Golden and Rosy Cross", and the Ancient and Cross group published the Geheime Figuren or
Accepted Scottish Rite, first practised in France, “The Secret Symbols of the 16th and 17th
in which the 18th degree is called Knight of the century Rosicrucians”.
Rose Croix.
Led by Johann Christoph von Wöllner and
The change from "operative" to "speculative" General Johann Rudolf von Bischoffwerder, the
Masonry occurred between the end of the 16th Masonic lodge (later: Grand Lodge) Zu den drei
and the beginning of the 18th century. Two of Weltkugeln (The Three Globes) was infiltrated
the earliest speculative Masons for whom a and came under the influence of the Golden
record of initiation exists were Sir Robert Moray and Rosy Cross. Many Freemasons became
and Elias Ashmole. Robert Vanloo states that Rosicrucianists and Rosicrucianism was
earlier 17th century Rosicrucianism had a established in many lodges. In 1782 at the
considerable influence on Anglo-Saxon Convent of Wilhelmsbad the Alte schottische
Masonry. Hans Schick sees in the works of Loge Friedrich zum goldenen Löwen (Old
Comenius (1592–1670) the ideal of the newly Scottish Lodge Friedrich at the Golden Lion) in
born English Masonry before the foundation of Berlin strongly requested Ferdinand, Duke of
the Grand Lodge in 1717. Comenius was in Brunswick-Lüneburg and all other Freemasons
England during 1641.
90
to submit to the Golden and Rosy Cross, met the four Brothers later to be associated
without success. with him in the founding of the Rosicrucian
Brotherhood. Magre's account supposedly
After 1782, this highly secretive society added
derives from oral tradition.
Egyptian, Greek and Druidic mysteries to its
alchemy system.[18] A comparative study of Around 1530, more than eighty years before
what is known about the Gold and the publication of the first manifesto, the
Rosenkreuzer appears to reveal, on the one association of cross and rose already existed in
hand, that it has influenced the creation of Portugal in the Convent of the Order of Christ,
some modern Initiatic groups and, on the other home of the Knights Templar, later renamed
hand, that the Nazis (see The Occult Roots of Order of Christ. Three bocetes were, and still
Nazism) may have been inspired by this German are, on the abóboda (vault) of the initiation
group. room. The rose can clearly be seen at the center
of the cross. At the same time, a minor writing
According to the writings of the Masonic
by Paracelsus called Prognosticatio Eximii
historian E.J. Marconis de Negre,[19] who
Doctoris Paracelsi (1530), containing 32
together with his father Gabriel M. Marconis is
prophecies with allegorical pictures surrounded
held to be the founder of the "Rite of Memphis-
by enigmatic texts, makes reference to an
Misraim" of Freemasonry, based on earlier
image of a double cross over an open rose; this
conjectures (1784) by a Rosicrucian scholar
is one of the examples used to prove the
Baron de Westerode[20] and also promulgated
"Fraternity of the Rose Cross" existed far earlier
by the 18th century secret society called the
than 1614.[24]
"Golden and Rosy Cross", the Rosicrucian Order
was created in the year 46 when an Alexandrian Modern groups
Gnostic sage named Ormus and his six followers
were converted by one of Jesus' disciples, Mark.
Their symbol was said to be a red cross During the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
surmounted by a rose, thus the designation of various groups styled themselves Rosicrucian.
Rosy Cross. From this conversion, The diverse groups who link themselves to a
Rosicrucianism was supposedly born, by "Rosicrucian Tradition" can be divided into
purifying Egyptian mysteries with the new three categories: Esoteric Christian Rosicrucian
higher teachings of early Christianity. groups, which profess Christ; Masonic
Rosicrucian groups such as Societas
According to Maurice Magre (1877–1941) in his
Rosicruciana; and initiatory groups such as the
book Magicians, Seers, and Mystics,
Golden Dawn and the Ancient Mystical Order
Rosenkreutz was the last descendant of the
Rosae Crucis (AMORC).
Germelshausen, a German family from the 13th
century. Their castle stood in the Thuringian Esoteric Christian Rosicrucian schools provide
Forest on the border of Hesse, and they esoteric knowledge related to the inner
embraced Albigensian doctrines. The whole teachings of Christianity.
family was put to death by Landgrave Conrad of
Thuringia, except for the youngest son, then The Rosicrucian Fellowship, 1909/11. Teachings
five years old. He was carried away secretly by a present the mysteries, in the form of esoteric
monk, an Albigensian adept from Languedoc, knowledge, of which Christ spoke in Matthew
and placed in a monastery under the influence 13:11 and Luke 8:10. The Fellowship seeks to
of the Albigenses, where he was educated and prepare the individual through harmonious
91
development of mind and heart in a spirit of Initiatory groups which follow a degree system
unselfish service to mankind and an all- of study and initiation include:
embracing altruism. According to it the
The Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis
Rosicrucian Order was founded in 1313 and is
(AMORC), incorporated in the U.S. in 1915
composed of twelve exalted Beings gathered
around a thirteenth, Christian Rosenkreuz. Rosicrucian Order of the Golden Dawn, U.S.
These great Adepts have already advanced far based Order, 2008
beyond the cycle of rebirth; their mission is to
prepare the whole wide world for a new phase The Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose +
in religion—which includes awareness of the Cross, established in the Philippines in 1930
inner worlds and the subtle bodies, and to Chronological list of groups formed for the
provide safe guidance in the gradual awakening study of Rosicrucianism and related subjects
of man's latent spiritual faculties during the
next six centuries toward the coming Age of
Aquarius. Many of these groups generally speak of a lineal
According to Masonic writers, the Order of the descent from earlier branches of the ancient
Rose Cross is expounded in a major Christian Rosicrucian Order in England, France, Egypt, or
literary work that molded the subsequent other countries. However, some groups speak
spiritual views of the western civilisation, The of a spiritual affiliation with a true and invisible
Divine Comedy (ca. 1308–1321) by Dante Rosicrucian Order. Note there are other
Alighieri. Rosicrucian groups not listed here. Some do not
use the name "Rosicrucian" to name
Other Christian-Rosicrucian oriented bodies themselves. Some groups listed may have been
include: dissolved and are no longer operating.
Anthroposophical Society, 1912 Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross, 1750s
Lectorium Rosicrucianum, 1924 French Rite, 1786
Archeosophical Society, 1968 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 1801
Freemasonic Rosicrucian bodies providing Fraternitas Rosae Crucis, 1861
preparation either through direct study and/or
through the practice of symbolic-initiatic Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (SRIA). ca. 1860–
journey. 1865
French Rite, 1786 Societas Rosicruciana in America (SRIA), 1878
Ancient and Accepted Scottish rite, 1801 Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis
(SRICF), 1879
Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, 1866, in Scotia
(SRIS; Scotland), in Civitatibus Foederatis Cabalistic Order of the Rosicrucian
(MSRICF/SRICF; United States) etc. This Masonic (Kabbalistique de la Rose Croix), 1888
esoteric society reprinted the Rosicrucian Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, 1888
manifestos in 1923. A well-known member was
Arthur Edward Waite. Rose Cross Order, 1889
92
Order of the Temple & the Graal and of the ConFraternity Rosae + Crucis (CR+C), 1989
Catholic Order of the Rose-Croix (l'Ordre de la
Ancient Rosae Crucis (ARC),
Rose Croix Catholique et Esthetique, du Temple
et du Graal) (CRC) ('Catholic', as in 'Universal'), Rosicrucian Order of the Golden Dawn, 2008
1890
The Knights of the Militia Crucifera Evangelica
Alchemical Rose-Croix Society (Association (KMCE), Alchemical Order dela Rosé-Croix
Alchimique de France), 1896
Rose-Croix de l'Orient (Rose-Cross of the East)

(RCO)
The Elder Brothers of the Rose-Croix (Les Freres

Aînés de la Rose-Croix)
Antiquus Arcanus Ordo Rosæ Rubæ Aureæ

Crucis (AAORRAC)
Ordo Aureæ & Rosæ Crucis (Antique Arcanæ

Ordinis Rosæ Rubeæ et Aureæ Crucis)(OARC) ?
Rosicrucian Fellowship (Association of Christian

Mystics) 1909
Anthroposophical Society, 1912
Order of the Temple of the Rosy Cross, 1912
Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis, (AMORC),

1915
Fellowship of the Rosy Cross, 1915
Corona Fellowship of Rosicrucians (CFR), c. 1918
Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship, 1924

Chapter Nine
Lectorium Rosicrucianum, 1924
The Essenes
Fraternitas Rosicruciana Antiqua (FRA), 1927
The Saint Paul Rosicrucian Fellowship

(Fraternidade Rosacruciana São Paulo), 1929
The Essenes (in Modern but not in Ancient
The Order of the Hermetic Gold and The Rose + Hebrew: ‫אִ ִּס י ִים‬, Isiyim; Greek: Εσσήνοι, Εσσαίοι,
Cross (OHGRC), 1930 or Οσσαίοι, Essḗnoi, Essaíoi, Ossaíoi) were a
sect of Second Temple Judaism that flourished
The Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose +
from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE
Cross, established in the Philippines in 1930
which some scholars claim seceded from the
Fraternitas Rosicruciana Antiqua, 1932 Zadokite priests. Being much fewer in number
than the Pharisees and the Sadducees (the
Archeosophical Society, 1968
93
other two major sects at the time), the Essenes concerning piety, celibacy, the absence of
lived in various cities but congregated in personal property and of money, the belief in
communal life dedicated to asceticism, communality and commitment to a strict
voluntary poverty, daily immersion, and observance of Sabbath. He further adds that the
abstinence from worldly pleasures, including Essenes ritually immersed in water every
(for some groups) celibacy. Many separate but morning, ate together after prayer, devoted
related religious groups of that era shared themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade
similar mystic, eschatological, messianic, and the expression of anger, studied the books of
ascetic beliefs. These groups are collectively the elders, preserved secrets, and were very
referred to by various scholars as the "Essenes." mindful of the names of the angels kept in their
Josephus records that Essenes existed in large sacred writings.
numbers, and thousands lived throughout
Pliny, also a geographer and explorer, located
Roman Judæa.
them in the desert near the northwestern shore
The Essenes have gained fame in modern times of the Dead Sea, where the Dead Sea Scrolls
as a result of the discovery of an extensive were discovered in the year 1947 by
group of religious documents known as the Muhammed edh-Dhib and Ahmed Mohammed,
Dead Sea Scrolls, which are commonly believed two Bedouin shepherds of the Ta'amireh tribe.
to be Essenes' library—although there is no
Josephus uses the name Essenes in his two
proof that the Essenes wrote them. These
main accounts as well as in some other contexts
documents include preserved multiple copies of
("an account of the Essenes"; "the gate of the
the Hebrew Bible untouched from as early as
Essenes"; "Judas of the Essene race"; but some
300 BCE until their discovery in 1946. Some
manuscripts read here Essaion; "holding the
scholars, however, dispute the notion that the
Essenes in honour"; "a certain Essene named
Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls.[2] Rachel
Manaemus"; "to hold all Essenes in honor"; "the
Elior questions even the existence of the
Essenes"). In several places, however, Josephus
Essenes.
has Essaios, which is usually assumed to mean
The first reference is by the Roman writer Pliny Essene ("Judas of the Essaios race" "Simon of
the Elder (died c. 79 CE) in his Natural the Essaios race"; "John the Essaios" "those
History.Pliny relates in a few lines that the who are called by us Essaioi"; "Simon a man of
Essenes do not marry, possess no money, and the Essaios race"). Philo's usage is Essaioi,
had existed for thousands of generations. although he admits this Greek form of the
Unlike Philo, who did not mention any original name that according to his etymology
particular geographical location of the Essenes signifies "holiness" to be inexact. Pliny's Latin
other than the whole land of Israel, Pliny places text has Esseni. Josephus identified the Essenes
them in Ein Gedi, next to the Dead Sea. as one of the three major Jewish sects of that
period.
A little later Josephus gave a detailed account of
the Essenes in The Jewish War (c. 75 CE), with a Gabriele Boccaccini implies that a convincing
shorter description in Antiquities of the Jews (c. etymology for the name Essene has not been
94 CE) and The Life of Flavius Josephus (c. 97 found, but that the term applies to a larger
CE). Claiming first hand knowledge, he lists the group within Palestine that also included the
Essenoi as one of the three sects of Jewish Qumran community.
philosophy alongside the Pharisees and the
Sadducees. He relates the same information
94
It was proposed before the Dead Sea Scrolls Pliny locates them "on the west side of the
were discovered that the name came into Dead Sea, away from the coast… [above] the
several Greek spellings from a Hebrew self- town of Engeda".
designation later found in some Dead Sea
Some modern scholars and archaeologists have
Scrolls, 'osey hatorah, "observers of torah."
argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at
Though dozens of etymology suggestions have
Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along
been published, this is the only etymology
the Dead Sea, citing Pliny the Elder in support,
published before 1947 that was confirmed by
and giving credence that the Dead Sea Scrolls
Qumran text self-designation references, and it
are the product of the Essenes. This view,
is gaining acceptance among scholars. It is
though not yet conclusively proven, has come
recognized as the etymology of the form Ossaioi
to dominate the scholarly discussion and public
(and note that Philo also offered an O spelling)
perception of the Essenes.
and Essaioi and Esseni spelling variations have
been discussed by VanderKam, Goranson and Josephus' reference to a "gate of the Essenes"
others. In medieval Hebrew (e.g. Sefer in his description of the course of "the most
Yosippon) Hassidim ("the pious ones") replaces ancient" of the three walls of Jerusalem, in the
"Essenes". While this Hebrew name is not the Mount Zion area, perhaps suggests an Essene
etymology of Essaioi/Esseni, the Aramaic community living in this quarter of the city or
equivalent Hesi'im known from Eastern Aramaic regularly gathering at this part of the Temple
texts has been suggested. Others suggest that precincts.
Essene is a transliteration of the Hebrew word
Chitzonim (chitzon=outside), which the Mishna Rules, customs, theology and beliefs
(e.g. Megila 4:8) uses to describe various
sectarian groups. Another theory is that the
name was borrowed from a cult of devotees to The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that
Artemis in Asia Minor, whose demeanor and the Essenes led a strictly communal life – often
dress somewhat resembled those of the group compared by scholars to later Christian
in Judaea. monastic living. Many of the Essene groups
appear to have been celibate, but Josephus
speaks also of another "order of Essenes" that
observed the practice of being engaged for
three years and then becoming married.
According to Josephus, they had customs and
observances such as collective ownership,
electing a leader to attend to the interests of
the group, obedience to the orders from their
leader. Also, they were forbidden from
According to Josephus, the Essenes had settled
swearing oaths[ and from sacrificing animals.
"not in one city" but "in large numbers in every
[43] They controlled their tempers and served
town". Philo speaks of "more than four
as channels of peace,[42] carrying weapons only
thousand" Essaioi living in "Palestine and Syria",
for protection against robbers.[44] The Essenes
more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in
chose not to possess slaves but served each
many villages and grouped in great societies of
other[45] and, as a result of communal
many members".
ownership, did not engage in trading.[46]
Josephus and Philo provide lengthy accounts of
95
their communal meetings, meals and religious After this Nazarean sect in turn comes another
celebrations. closely connected with them, called the
Ossaeans. These are Jews like the former…
After a total of three years' probation,[47]
originally came from Nabataea, Ituraea,
newly joining members would take an oath that
Moabitis and Arielis, the lands beyond the basin
included the commitment to practice piety
of what sacred scripture called the Salt Sea…
towards "the Deity" (το θειον) and
Though it is different from the other six of these
righteousness towards humanity, to maintain a
seven sects, it causes schism only by forbidding
pure lifestyle, to abstain from criminal and
the books of Moses like the Nazarean.
immoral activities, to transmit their rules
uncorrupted and to preserve the books of the If it is correct to identify the community at
Essenes and the names of the Angels. Their Qumran with the Essenes (and claim that the
theology included belief in the immortality of community at Qumran are the authors of the
the soul and that they would receive their souls Dead Sea Scrolls), then according to the Dead
back after death. Part of their activities included Sea Scrolls the Essenes' community school was
purification by water rituals, which was called "Yahad" (meaning "community") in order
supported by rainwater catchment and storage. to differentiate themselves from the rest of the
Jews who are repeatedly labeled "The Breakers
Ritual purification was a common practice
of the Covenant".
among the peoples of Palestine during this
period and was thus not specific to the Essenes. Scholarly discussion
Ritual baths are found near many Synagogues
of the period.
The Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the

4th century CE) seems to make a distinction This section needs additional citations for
between two main groups within the Essenes: verification. Please help improve this article by
"Of those that came before his [Elxai, an adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
Ossaean prophet] time and during it, the material may be challenged and removed.
Ossaeans and the Nazarean."Epiphanius (November 2007)
describes each group as following:
The Essenes are discussed in detail by Josephus
The Nazarean – they were Jews by nationality – and Philo. Most scholars believe that the
originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the community at Qumran that allegedly produced
Transjordan… They acknowledged Moses and the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the
believed that he had received laws – not this Essenes; however, this theory has been
law, however, but some other. And so, they disputed by some, for example, by Norman
were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, Golb:
but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat.
They considered it unlawful to eat meat or Golb argues that the primary research on the
make sacrifices with it. They claim that these Qumran documents and ruins (by Father Roland
Books are fictions, and that none of these de Vaux, from the École Biblique et
customs were instituted by the fathers. This Archéologique de Jérusalem) lacked scientific
was the difference between the Nazarean and method, and drew wrong conclusions that
the others… comfortably entered the academic canon. For
Golb, the amount of documents is too extensive
96
and includes many different writing styles and legal positions retain a link with Sadducean
calligraphies; the ruins seem to have been a tradition.
fortress, used as a military base for a very long
The Saint Thomas Christians ("Nasrani") of
period of time – including the 1st century – so
southwestern India may have connections with
they could not have been inhabited by the
the Essenes, according to the Manimekalai, one
Essenes; and the large graveyard excavated in
of the great Tamil epic poems, which refers to a
1870, just 50 metres east of the Qumran ruins
people called "Issani". The high presence of
was made of over 1200 tombs that included
Cohen DNA amongst today's Nazareans make
many women and children – Pliny clearly wrote
further support to the full or part Essene origin
that the Essenes that lived near the Dead Sea
of the Malabar Nazareans. The Essenes were
"had not one woman, had renounced all
often of Levite or Cohen heritage and this may
pleasure ... and no one was born in their race".
further explain the frequent 'priestly heritage'
Golb's book presents observations about de
claims of several Nazerean families of India.
Vaux's premature conclusions and their
uncontroverted acceptance by the general Connections with Kabbalah
academic community. He states that the
documents probably stemmed from various
libraries in Jerusalem, kept safe in the desert According to a Jewish legend, one of the
from the Roman invasions. Essenes, named Menachem, had passed at least
Other scholars refute these arguments— some of his mystical knowledge to the Talmudic
particularly since Josephus describes some mystic Nehunya ben HaKanah, to whom the
Essenes as allowing marriage. Kabbalistic tradition attributes Sefer HaBahir
and, by some opinions, Sefer HaKanah, Sefer
Another issue is the relationship between the HaPeliah and Sefer HaTemunah. Some Essene
Essaioi and Philo's Therapeutae and rituals, such as daily immersion in the mikveh,
Therapeutrides. It may be argued that he coincide with contemporary Hasidic practices;
regarded the Therapeutae as a contemplative some historians have also suggested that the
branch of the Essaioi who, he said, pursued an name "Essene" is a Hellenized form of the word
active life. "Hasidim" or "Hasid" ("pious ones"). However,
the legendary connections between Essene and
One theory on the formation of the Essenes
Kabbalistic tradition are not verified by modern
suggests that the movement was founded by a
historians.
Jewish high priest, dubbed by the Essenes the
Teacher of Righteousness, whose office had
been usurped by Jonathan (of priestly but not
of Zadokite lineage), labeled the "man of lies"
or "false priest". Others follow this line and a
few argue that the Teacher of Righteousness
was not only the leader of the Essenes at Essenes in modern times
Qumran, but was also identical to the original
Jesus [Essa] about 150 years before the time of
the Gospels.[36] Lawrence Schiffman has There are several modern Essene movements
argued that the Qumran community may be that sprung up before and after the discovery of
called Sadducean, and not Essene, since their the Dead Sea Scrolls that are modeled on the
Ancient Essene Order. The Order of the Essenes
97
founded by Grace ann Brown at the turn of the Chapter Ten

19th-20th century, Rosicrucianism took it under
Esoteric Cosmology
its curriculum.
The Order of the Nazoreans Essenes, founded in

the United States by Abba Yesai Nasrai (Davied
Asia Israel) in 1981, is a syncretic school of In esoteric cosmology, a plane, other than the
religious thought which draws on Nazarean, physical plane is conceived as a subtle state of
Gnostic Christian, Buddhist, and Manichaean consciousness that transcends the known
beliefs and practices. physical universe.
In Quebec, Canada and in France there is a The concept may be found in religious, and
French movement named The Essene Spirit esoteric teachings—e.g. Vedanta (Advaita
which was founded by Olivier Manitara. Vedanta), Ayyavazhi, shamanism, Hermeticism,
Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Kashmir Shaivism,
In the United States there are several new Sant Mat/Surat Shabd Yoga, Sufism, Druze,
Essene movements and Essene churches. Kabbalah, Theosophy, Anthroposophy,
Rosicrucianism (Esoteric Christian), Eckankar,
Ascended Master Teachings, etc.—which
propound the idea of a whole series of subtle
planes or worlds or dimensions which, from a
center, interpenetrate themselves and the
physical planet in which we live, the solar
systems, and all the physical structures of the
universe. This interpenetration of planes
culminates in the universe itself as a physical
structured, dynamic and evolutive expression
emanated through a series of steadily denser
stages, becoming progressively more material
and embodied.
The emanation is conceived, according to

esoteric teachings, to have been originated, at
the dawn of the universe's manifestation, in The
Supreme Being Who sent out—from the
unmanifested Absolute beyond comprehension
—the dynamic force of creative energy, as
sound-vibration ("the Word"), into the abyss of
space. On the other hand, it states that this
dynamic force is being sent forth, through the
ages, framing all things that constitute and
inhabit the universe.
The concept of planes of existence might be

seen as deriving from shamanic and traditional
98
mythological ideas of a vertical world-axis — for Kabbalah. In Kabbalah, each of the four or five
example a cosmic mountain, tree, or pole (such worlds are themselves divided into ten sefirot,
as Yggdrasil or Mount Meru) — or a or else divided in other ways.
philosophical conception of a Great Chain of
Esoteric conceptions
Being, arranged metaphorically from God down
to inanimate matter. The alchemists of the Middle Ages proposed
ideas about the constitution of the universe
However the original source of the word
through a hermetic language full of esoteric
"plane" in this context is the late Neoplatonist
words, phrases, and signs designed to cloak
Proclus, who refers to to platos, "breadth",
their meaning from those not initiated into the
which was the equivalent of the 19th century
ways of alchemy. In his "Physica" (1633), the
theosophical use. An example is the phrase en
Rosicrucian alchemist Jan Baptist van Helmont,
to psychiko platei.
wrote: "Ad huc spiritum incognitum Gas voco"
Conceptions in ancient traditions q.e., "This hitherto unknown Spirit I call Gas."
Further on in the same work he says, "This
vapor which I have called Gas is not far
Directly equivalent concepts in Indian thought removed from the Chaos the ancients spoke
are lokas and bhuvanas. In Hindu cosmology, of." Later on, similar ideas would evolve around
there are many lokas or worlds, that are the idea of aether.
identified with both traditional cosmology and
In the late 19th century, the metaphysical term
states of meditation.
"planes" was popularised by the theosophy of
Planes of existence may have been referred to H.P. Blavatsky, who in The Secret Doctrine and
by the use of the term corresponding to the other writings propounded a complex
word "egg" in English. For example, the Sanskrit cosmology consisting of seven planes and
term Brahmanda translates to "The Egg of subplanes, based on a synthesis of Eastern and
Creation". Certain Puranic accounts posit that Western ideas. From theosophy the term made
the Brahmanda is the superset of a set of fractal its way to later esoteric systems such as that of
smaller Eggs, as is seen in the assertion of the Alice Bailey, who was very influential in shaping
equivalence of the Brahmanda and the Pinda. the worldview of the New Age movement. The
term is also found in some Eastern teachings
The ancient Norsemen and the Teutonic that have some Western influence, such as the
mythology called "Ginnungagap" to the cosmology of Sri Aurobindo and some of the
primordial "Chaos," which was bounded upon later Sant Mat, and also in some descriptions of
the northern side by the cold and foggy Buddhist cosmology. The teachings of Surat
"Niflheim"—the land of mist and fog—and upon Shabd Yoga also include several planes of the
the south side by the fire "Muspelheim." When creation within both the macrocosm and
heat and cold entered into space which was microcosm, including the Bramanda egg
occupied by Chaos or Ginnungagap, they caused contained within the Sach Khand egg. Max
the crystallization of the visible universe. Theon used the word "States" (French Etat)
In the medieval West and Middle East, one finds rather than "Planes", in his cosmic philosophy,
reference to four worlds (olam) in Kabbalah, or but the meaning is the same.
five in Sufism (where they are also called
tanazzulat; "descents"), and also in Lurianic
99
The planes in Theosophy were further summit, what Greek philosophy called The One,
systematized in the writings of C.W. Leadbeater until the lowest and most material world is
and Annie Besant. reached.
In the early 20th century, Max Heindel According to Rosicrucians, another difference is
presented in The Rosicrucian Cosmo- that there is no such thing as empty or void
Conception a cosmology related to the scheme space.
of evolution in general and the evolution of the
"The space is Spirit in its attenuated form; while
solar system and the Earth in particular,
matter is crystallized space or Spirit. Spirit in
according to the Rosicrucians. He establishes,
manifestation is dual, that which we see as
through the conceptions presented, a bridge
Form is the negative manifestation of Spirit--
between modern science (currently starting
crystallized and inert. The positive pole of Spirit
research into the subtler plane of existence
manifests as Life, galvanizing the negative Form
behind the physical, the etheric one) and
into action, but both Life and Form originated in
religion, in order that this last one may be able
Spirit, Space, Chaos! On the other hand, Chaos
to address man's inner questions raised by
is not a state which has existed in the past and
scientific advancement.
has now entirely disappeared. It is all around us
The spiritual teacher Meher Baba proposed that at the present moment. Were it not that old
there are six planes of consciousness that must forms--having outlived their usefulness--are
be experienced before one can attain God- constantly being resolved back into that Chaos,
realization on the seventh plane: "Each definite which is also as constantly giving birth to new
stage of advancement represents a state of forms, there could be no progress; the work of
consciousness, and advancement from one evolution would cease and stagnation would
state of consciousness to another proceeds side prevent the possibility of advancement."
by side with crossing the inner planes. Thus six
The Planes
intermediate planes and states of consciousness
have to be experienced before reaching the In occult teachings and as held by psychics and
seventh plane which is the end of the journey other esoteric authors there are seven planes of
and where there is final realisation of the God- existence.
state."
Most occult and esoteric teachings are in
Emanation vs. Big Bang agreement that seven planes of existence exist;
however many different occult and
Emanationism
metaphysical schools label the planes of
Most cosmologists today believe that the existence with different terminology.
universe exploded into being some 13.8 billion
Physical plane
years ago in a 'smeared-out singularity' called
the Big Bang, meaning that space itself came The physical plane or physical universe, in
into being at the moment of the big bang and emanationist metaphysics taught in
has expanded ever since, creating and carrying Neoplatonism, Hermeticism, Hinduism, and
the galaxies with it. Theosophy, refers to the visible reality of space
and time, energy and matter: the physical
However, in esoteric cosmology expansion
universe in Occultism and esoteric cosmology is
refers to the emanation or unfolding of steadily
denser planes or spheres from the spiritual
100
the lowest or densest of a series of planes of Yetzirah" in Lurianic Qabala are related
existence. concepts.
According to Theosophists after the physical According to occult teachings the astral plane
plane is the etheric plane and both of these can be visited consciously through astral
planes are connected to make up the first projection, meditation, and mantra, near death
plane. Theosophy also teaches that when the experience, lucid dreaming, or other means.
physical body dies the etheric body is left Individuals that are trained in the use of the
behind and the soul forms into an astral body astral vehicle can separate their consciousness
on the astral plane. in the astral vehicle from the physical body at
will.
The psychical researcher F. W. H. Myers
proposed the existence of a “metetherial The Theosophist author Curuppumullage
world”, which he wrote to be a world of images Jinarajadasa wrote that "When a person dies,
lying beyond the physical world. He wrote that they [sic] become fully conscious in the astral
apparitions have a real existence in the body. After a certain time, the astral body
metetherial world which he described as a disintegrates, and the person then becomes
dream-like world. conscious on the mental plane."
Astral plane Occultist George Arundale wrote:
The astral spheres were thought to be planes of In the astral world exist temporarily all those
angelic existence intermediate between earth physical entities, men and animals, for whom
and heaven sleep involves a separation of the physical body
for a time from the higher bodies. While we
The astral plane, also known as the emotional
"sleep", we live in our astral bodies, either fully
plane is where consciousness goes after
conscious and active, or partly conscious and
physical death. According to occult philosophy
semi-dormant, as the case may be, according to
man possesses an astral body. The astral plane
our evolutionary growth; when we "wake", the
(also known as the astral world) was postulated
physical and the higher bodies are interlocked
by classical (particularly neo-Platonic),
again, and we cease to be inhabitants of the
medieval, oriental, and esoteric philosophies
astral world.”
and mystery religions. It is the world of the
planetary spheres, crossed by the soul in its Some writers have claimed the astral plane can
astral body on the way to being born and after be reached by dreaming. Sylvan Muldoon and
death, and generally said to be populated by psychical researcher Hereward Carrington in
angels, spirits, or other immaterial beings. In their book The Projection of the Astral Body
the late 19th and early 20th century the term (1929) wrote:
was popularised by Theosophy and neo-
"When you are dreaming you are not really in
Rosicrucianism.
the same world as when you are conscious — in
Throughout the renaissance, philosophers, the physical — although the two worlds merge
Paracelsians, Rosicrucians, and alchemists into one another. While dreaming, you really
continued to discuss the nature of the astral are in the astral plane, and usually your astral
world intermediate between earth and the body is in the zone of quietude."
divine. The Barzakh, olam mithal or
intermediate world in Islam and the "World of
101
Astral projection author Robert Bruce describes In the mental world one formulates a thought
the astral as seven planes that take the form of and it is instantly transmitted to the mind of
planar surfaces when approached from a another without any expression in the form of
distance, separated by immense coloured words. Therefore on that plane language does
"buffer zones". These planes are endlessly not matter in the least; but helpers working in
repeating ruled Cartesian coordinate system the astral world, who have not yet the power to
grids, tiled with a single signature pattern that is use the mental vehicle.
different for each plane. Higher planes have
Annie Besant wrote that "The mental plane, as
bright, colourful patterns, whereas lower planes
its name implies, is that which belongs to
appear far duller. Every detail of these patterns
consciousness working as thought; not of the
acts as a consistent portal to a different
mind as it works through the brain, but as it
kingdom inside the plane, which itself
works through its own world, unencumbered
comprises many separate realms. Bruce notes
with physical spirit-matter.
that the astral may also be entered by means of
long tubes that bear visual similarity to these A detailed description of the mental plane,
planes, and conjectures that the grids and tubes along with the mental body, is provided by
are in fact the same structures approached Arthur E. Powell, who has compiled information
from a different perceptual angle. in the works of Besant and Leadbeater in a
series of books on each of the subtle bodies.
In his book Autobiography of a Yogi,
Paramhansa Yogananda provides details about According to Hindu occultism the mental plane
the astral planes learned from his resurrected consists of two divisions, the lower division is
guru. Yogananda reveals that nearly all known as heaven (swarglok) and the upper
individuals enter the astral planes after death. division is known as the causal plane
There they work out the seeds of past karma (maharlok).
through astral incarnations, or (if their karma
requires) they return to earthly incarnations for Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami wrote:
further refinement. Once an individual has "The causal plane is the world of light and
attained the meditative state of nirvikalpa blessedness, the highest of heavenly regions,
samadhi in an earthy or astral incarnation, the extolled in the scriptures of all faiths. It is the
soul may progress upward to the "illumined foundation of existence, the source of visions,
astral planet" of Hiranyaloka. After this the point of conception, the apex of creation.
transitionary stage, the soul may then move The causal plane is the abode of Lord Siva and
upward to the more subtle causal spheres His entourage of Mahadevas and other highly
where many incarnations allow them to further evolved souls who exist in their own self-
refine until final unification.[18] effulgent form--radiant bodies of centillions of
Mental plane quantum light particles."
The mental plane, also known as the causal Sri Aurobindo developed a very different
plane is the third lowest plane according to concept of the mental plane, through his own
Theosophy. The mental plane is divided into synthesis of Vedanta (including the Taittiriya
seven sub-planes. Upanishad), Tantra, Theosophy, and Max Théon
ideas (which he received via The Mother, who
Charles Leadbeater wrote: was Theon's student in occultism for two years).
In this cosmology, there are seven cosmic
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planes, three lower, corresponding to relative Divine plane

existence (the Physical, Vital, and Mental), and
According to some occult teachings, all souls are
four higher, representing infinite divine reality
born on the divine plane and then descend
(Life Divine bk.1 ch.27) The Aurobindonian
down through the lower planes; however souls
Mind or Mental Plane constitutes a large zone
will work their way back to the divine plane. On
of being from the mental vital to the
the divine plane souls can be opened to
overmental divine region (Letters on Yoga, Jyoti
conscious communication with the sphere of
and Prem Sobel 1984), but as with the later
the divine known as the Absolute and receive
Theosophical concept it constitutes an objective
knowledge about the nature of reality.
reality of sheer mind or thought.
Rosicrucianism teaches that the divine plane is
Buddhic plane (also known as Unity Plane)
where Jesus dwelt in Christ consciousness.
Logoic plane (also known as Monadic Plane)

The buddhic plane is described as a realm of
The logoic plane is the highest plane, it has
pure consciousness. According to Theosophy
been described as a plane of total oneness, the
the buddhic plane exists to develop buddhic
"I AM Presence". Joshua David Stone describes
consciousness which means to become
the plane as complete unity with God.
unselfish and solve any problems with the ego.
Charles Leadbeater wrote that in the buddhic The monadic plane (hyperplane) or
plane man casts off the delusion of the self and continuum/universe, enclosing and
enters a realization of unity. interpenetrating grosser hyperplanes,
respectively is the plane in which the monad or
Annie Besant defined the buddhic plane as
holy spirit or oversoul is said to exist.
Persistent, conscious, spiritual awareness. This
31 planes
is the full consciousness of the buddhic or
intuitional level. This is the perceptive Buddhist cosmology
consciousness which is the outstanding
characteristic of the Hierarchy. The life focus of In Buddhism, the world is made up of 31 planes
the man shifts to the buddhic plane. This is the of existence that one can be reborn into,
fourth or middle state of consciousness. separated into 3 realms.
Sri Aurobindo calls the level above the mental The Summerland
plane the supermind.
The Summerland is the name given by

Spiritual plane Theosophists, Spiritualists, Wiccans, and some
earth-based contemporary pagan religions to
George Winslow Plummer wrote that the their conceptualization of existence on a plane
spiritual plane is split into many sub-planes and in an afterlife.
that on these planes live spiritual beings who
are more advanced in development and status Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) inspired
than ordinary man. According to metaphysical Andrew Jackson Davis (1826–1910), in his major
teachings the goal of the spiritual plane is to work The Great Harmonia to say that
gain spiritual knowledge and experience. Summerland is the pinnacle of spiritual
achievement in the afterlife; that is, it is the
103
highest level, or sphere, of the afterlife we can Summerland for those who were atheists or
hope to enter. The common portrayal of the agnostics in their previous lives. People who
Summerland is as a place of rest for souls after belong to religions that don't believe in
or between their earthly incarnations. Some reincarnation are surprised to find out when
believe spirits will stay in the Summerland for they get to heaven that they will have to
an eternal afterlife, though others believe after reincarnate again within a few dozen to a few
an amount of time some spirits will reincarnate. hundred years. Each heaven is believed to be an
The Summerland is also envisioned as a place extensive structure composed of astral matter
for recollection and reunion with deceased located on the astral plane about three or four
loved ones. miles (5–6 km) above the surface of Earth,
above that part of the world where the
As the name suggests, it is often imagined as a
particular religion that the heaven is meant for
place of beauty and peace, where everything
is most predominant.
people hold close to their hearts is preserved in
its fullest beauty for eternity. It is envisioned as Theosophists also believe there is another
containing wide (possibly eternal) fields of higher level of heaven called Devachan, also
rolling green hills and lush grass. In many ways, called the Mental plane Heaven, which some
this ideology is similar to the Welsh view of but not all souls reach between incarnations—
Annwn as an afterlife realm. The Summerland is only those souls that are more highly developed
also viewed as the place where one goes in the spiritually reach this level, those souls that are
afterlife in traditions of Spiritualism and at the first, second, and third levels of initiation.
Theosophy, which is where Wicca got the term. Devachan is several miles (around 10 km)
higher above the surface of Earth than
In Theosophy, the term "Summerland" is used
Summerland. However, no physical evidence of
without the definite article "the". Summerland,
this has been found.
also called the Astral plane Heaven, is depicted
as where souls who have been good in their The final permanent eternal afterlife heaven to
previous lives go between incarnations. Those which Theosophists believe most people will go
who have been bad go to Hell, which is believed millions or billions of years in the future, after
to be located below the surface of the Earth our cycle of reincarnations in this Round is over.
and is on the astral plane and is composed of In order to go to Nirvana, it is necessary to have
the densest astral matter; the Spiritual attained the fourth level of initiation or higher,
Hierarchy functioning within Earth functions on meaning one is an arhat and thus no longer
the etheric plane below the surface of the needs to reincarnate.
Earth.
Alleged inhabitants of the various planes
It is believed by Theosophists that most people
(those at high levels of initiation) go to a specific
Summerland that is set up for people of each Occult writers such as Geoffrey Hodson, Mellie
religion. For example, Christians go to a Uyldert, and Dora van Gelder had attempted to
Christian heaven, Jews go to a Jewish heaven, classify different spiritual beings into a
Muslims go to a Muslim heaven, Hindus goes to hierarchy based on their assumed place and
a Hindu heaven, Theosophists go to a function on the planes of existence.
Theosophical heaven, and so forth, each heaven
being like that described in the scriptures of Charles Webster Leadbeater fundamentally
that religion. There is also a generic described and incorporated his comprehension
104
of intangible beings for Theosophy. Along with

him there are various planes intertwined with
the quotidian human world and are all
inhabited by multitudes of entities. Each plane
is purported as composed of discrete density of
astral or ethereal matter and frequently the
denizens of a plane have no discernment of
other ones. Other Theosophical writers such as
Alice Bailey, a contemporary of Leadbeater, also
gave continuousness to Theosophical concepts
of ethereal beings and her works had a great
impact over New Age movement.[39][40] She
puts the nature spirits and devas as ethereal
beings immersed in macro divisions of an
interwoven threefold universe, usually they
belong to the etheric, astral, or mental planes.
The ethereal entities of the four kingdoms,
Earth, Air, Fire, and Water, are forces of nature.
The Dutch writer Mellie Uyldert, self-

proclaimed clairvoyant, characterized the
semblance and behavior of ethereal entities on
the etheric plane, which, she said, hover above
plants and transfer energy for vitalizing the
plant, then nourishing themselves on rays of
sunlight. She depicted them as asexual gender,
and composed of etheric matter. They fly three
meters over the ground, some have wings like
butterflies while others only have a small face
and an aura. Some are huge while others may
have the size of one inch.
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Module Three the Study of

Eschatology
Chapter One
Christian Eschaology
Christian eschatology is a major branch of study

within Christian theology. Eschatology, from
two Greek words meaning last (ἔσχατος, last)
and study (λογία, lit. discourse), is the study of
the end of things, whether the end of an
individual life, the end of the age, or the end of
the world. Broadly speaking, Christian
eschatology is the study of the destiny of
humankind as it is revealed by the Bible, which
is the primary source for all Christian
eschatology studies.
The major issues and events in Christian

eschatology are death and the afterlife, Heaven
and Hell, the Second Coming of Jesus, the
Resurrection of the Dead, the Rapture, the
Tribulation, Millennialism, the end of the world,
the Last Judgment, and the New Heaven and
New Earth of the world to come. Eschatological
passages are found in many places in the Bible,
both in the Old and the New Testaments. There
are also many extrabiblical examples of
eschatological prophecy, as well as church
traditions.
Eschatology is an ancient branch of study in

Christian theology, presumably starting with the
106
Olivet discourse, The Sheep and the Goats, and Historicism says that Biblical prophecies provide
other discourses of end times by Jesus, with the us with a broad view of history, as well as an
doctrine of the Second Coming first touched on explanation of the religious significance of
by Paul of Tarsus and Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35– historical events. Historicists attempt to identify
107 AD), then given more consideration by the prophetic passages with major events in history.
Christian apologist, Justin Martyr (c. 100–165).
Futurism
Treatment of eschatology continued in the
West in the teachings of Tertullian (c. 160–225), In Futurism, parallels may be drawn with
and was given fuller reflection and speculation historical events, but most eschatological
soon after by Origen (c. 185–254). It was prophecies are chiefly referring to events which
increasingly recognized as a formal division of have not been fulfilled, but will take place at the
theological study during the 20th century. end of the age and the end of the world. Most
prophecies will be fulfilled during a global time
Approaches to prophetic interpretation
of chaos known as the Great Tribulation and
afterwards.
The following approaches arose from the study Idealism

of Christianity’s most central eschatological
In Idealism, also known as "spiritual" or
document, the Book of Revelation, but the
"symbolic", the events described in prophecy
principles embodied in them can be applied to
are neither past, present, nor future, but are
all prophecy in the Bible. They are by no means
representative of larger ideals and principles.
mutually exclusive and are often combined to
Eschatological prophecy deals with the ongoing
form a more complete and coherent
struggle between the forces of light and
interpretation of prophetic passages. Most
darkness, and the ultimate triumph of good
interpretations fit into one, or a combination of,
over evil. Its message is purely a spiritual one,
these approaches.
an allegory of the spiritual path, which is equally
Preterism relevant in all ages and for all people.
Preterism (from the Latin praeteritus, meaning Death and the afterlife
"gone by") is an approach which sees prophecy
as chiefly being fulfilled in the past, especially
(in the case of the Book of Revelation) during Jewish beliefs at the time of Jesus
the first century. Prophecies in general,
therefore, have already been fulfilled. See also: Second Temple Judaism
Revelation, for example, may be seen as There were different schools of thought on the
referring to the major players and events afterlife in Israel during the first century, AD.
leading up to the destruction of Jerusalem in The Sadducees, who recognized only the Torah
the year 70 AD, or the struggle of Christianity to (first five books of the Old Testament) as
survive the persecutions of the Roman Empire, authoritative, did not believe in an afterlife or
as many other interpretations are considered. any resurrection of the dead. The Pharisees,
There are two major views within preterism, who not only accepted the Torah, but additional
Partial preterism and Full preterism. scriptures as well, believed in the Resurrection
Historicism of the Dead, and it is known to have been a
major point of contention between the two
107
groups (see Acts 8). The Pharisees based their Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism do not
belief on passages such as Daniel 12:2, which believe in Purgatory as such, though the
says: "Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the Orthodox Church is willing to allow for a period
earth will awake: some to everlasting life, of continued sanctification (the process of being
others to shame and everlasting contempt." made pure, or holy) after death. Most
Protestants reject the doctrine of Purgatory on
The intermediate state
the basis that Christ has already made full
atonement for our sins on the cross, thereby
removing all obstacles which prevent us from
Some traditions (notably the Seventh Day coming directly into the presence of God after
Adventists) teach that the soul sleeps after death.
death, and will not awake again until the
resurrection of the dead, while others believe Resurrection of the dead
the spirit goes to an intermediate place where it
will live consciously until the resurrection of the
dead. By "soul" Seventh Day Adventists The Doctrine of the Resurrection Predates
theologians mean the physical person Christianity
(monism), and that no component of human
The word resurrection comes from the Latin
nature survives death, therefore each human
resurrectus, which is the past participle of
will be "recreated" at resurrection.
resurgere, meaning to rise again. Although the
The Catechism of the Catholic Church says: doctrine of the resurrection comes to the
forefront in the New Testament, it predates the
Each man receives his eternal retribution in his
Christian era. There is an apparent reference to
immortal soul at the very moment of his death,
the resurrection in the book of Job, where Job
in a particular judgment that refers his life to
says, "I know that my redeemer lives, and that
Christ: either entrance into the blessedness of
he will stand at the latter day upon the earth.
heaven -- through a purification or immediately
And though... worms destroy this body, yet in
-- or immediate and everlasting damnation.
my flesh I will see God." [Job 19:25-27] Again,
(Sect. 1022)
the prophet Daniel writes, "Many of those who
Purgatory sleep in the dust of the earth will awake, some
to everlasting life, some to shame and
Most denominations (a notable exception being everlasting contempt." [Dan 12:2] Isaiah says:
the Seventh Day Adventists) would affirm the "Your dead will live. Together with my dead
statement from the Catechism of the Catholic body, they will arise. Awake and sing, you who
Church (above), with the exception of the dwell in dust, for your dew is like the dew of
parenthetical phrase, "through a purification or herbs, and the earth will cast out the dead".
immediately". This alludes to the Catholic belief [Isa. 26:19]
in a spiritual state, known as Purgatory, in
which those souls who are not condemned to This belief was still common among the Jews in
Hell, but are also not completely pure as New Testament times, as exemplified by the
required for entry into Heaven, go through a passage which relates the raising of Lazarus
final process of purification before their full from the dead. When Jesus told Lazarus’ sister,
acceptance into Heaven. Martha, that Lazarus would rise again, she
replied, "I know that he will rise again in the
resurrection at the last day." [Jn 11:24] Also,
108
one of the two main branches of the Jewish him, "all of them will rise again with their own
religious establishment, the Pharisees, believed bodies which they now bear," but Christ "will
in and taught the future resurrection of the change our lowly body to be like his glorious
body. [cf Acts 23:1-8] body," into a "spiritual body"
Two Resurrections Although Martin Luther personally believed and

taught resurrection of the dead in combination
Main article: Resurrection of the dead#Two
with soul sleep, this is not a mainstream
resurrections of the dead
teaching of Lutheranism and most Lutherans
An interpretation of the New Testament is the traditionally believe in resurrection of the body
understanding that the resurrection of the in combination with the immortal soul.
wicked will not be at the same time as that of
Early 20th century American preacher Billy
the righteous. Revelation says: "Blessed and
Sunday epitomizes the Evangelical focus on
holy is he who has part in the first resurrection.
"going to heaven" in his sermon "Heaven: A
Over such, the second death has no power, but
Wonderful Place; Where There is No More
they will be priests of God and of Christ, and
Death; Blessed Hope of the Christian." In the
will reign with him a thousand years." [Rev
message Sunday characteristically explained the
20:6] The rest of the dead "did not live again
feelings of his audience by saying "Everybody
until the thousand years were finished". [Rev
wants to go to Heaven. We are all curious. We
20:5] Jesus’ words concur with those of
want to know, where Heaven is, how it looks,
Revelation: "The hour is coming in which all
who are there, what they wear, and how to get
who are in the graves will hear his voice and
there!" Sunday speaks of many aspects of the
come forth: those who have done good, to the
afterlife such as the nice weather and eternal
resurrection of life, and those who have done
health, although there is no mention of the
evil, to the resurrection of condemnation."[Jn
resurrection of the dead. He ends with an
5:28, 29]
illustration about a man who dies and goes to
The Resurrection Body heaven exclaiming "Home, home at last!" as if
he had arrived at the end of his eschatological
The Gospel authors wrote that our resurrection journey.
bodies will be different from those we have
now. Jesus said, "In the resurrection, they Several churches, such as the Anabaptists and
neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are Socinians of the Reformation, then Seventh-day
like the angels of God in heaven." [Mt 22:30] Adventist Church, Christadelphians, Jehovah's
Paul adds, "So also is the resurrection of the Witnesses, and theologians of different
dead: the body… is sown a natural body; it is traditions reject the idea of the immortality of a
raised a spiritual body." [1 Co. 15:42-44] non-physical soul as a vestige of Neoplatonism,
and other pagan traditions. In this school of
Sectarian Views thought, the dead remain dead (and do not
According to the Catechism of the Catholic immediately progress to a Heaven, Hell, or
Church the body after resurrection is changed Purgatory) until a physical resurrection of some
into a spiritual, imperishable body: or all of the dead occurs at the end of time.
Some groups, Christadelphians in particular,
[999] Christ is raised with his own body: "See consider that it is not a universal resurrection,
my hands and my feet, that it is I myself"; [553] and that at this time of resurrection that the
but he did not return to an earthly life. So, in Last Judgment will take place.
109
Rapture and took them all away, so also will the coming
of the Son of Man be. [Mt 24:36-39]
In his letter to the church at Thessalonica, Paul
writes, "The Lord himself will descend from Paul echoes this theme, saying, "For when they
heaven... and the dead in Christ will rise first." say, 'Peace and safety!' then sudden destruction
But he adds that "we who are alive and remain comes upon them." [1 Thess 5:3]
will be caught up together with them in the
The Abomination of Desolation
clouds to meet the Lord in the air." [1 Th. 4:16-
17] The rising of those who are still alive to join Main article: Abomination of desolation
the resurrected dead is known as the Rapture.
This passage implies that Paul believed that the The abomination of desolation (or desolating
return of Jesus, the Resurrection, and the sacrilege) is a term found in the Hebrew Bible,
Rapture would happen simultaneously. in the book of Daniel. The term is used by Jesus
Christ in the Olivet discourse, according to both
Rapture is used in at least two senses, in the the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark.
sense of pre-tribulation views in which a group In the Matthew account, Jesus is presented as
of people will be "left behind" and as a synonym quoting Daniel explicitly.
for the Resurrection generally.
Matthew 24:15-26 (ESV) "So when you see the
The Great Tribulation abomination of desolation spoken of by the
prophet Daniel, standing in the holy place (let
The end comes at an unexpected time
the reader understand), then let those who are
There are many passages in the Bible, both Old in Judea flee to the mountains."
and New Testaments, which speak of a time of
Mark 13:14 (ESV) "But when you see the
terrible tribulation such as has never been
abomination of desolation standing where it
known, a time of natural and man-made
ought not to be (let the reader understand),
disasters on an awesome scale. Jesus said that
then let those who are in Judea flee to the
at the time of his coming, "There will be great
mountains."
tribulation, such as has not been since the
beginning of the world to this time, no, nor ever This verse in the Olivet Discourse also occurs in
will be. And unless those days were shortened, the Gospel of Luke.
no flesh would be saved; but for the elect's
sake, those days will be shortened." [Mt 24:21- Luke 21.20-21 (ESV) "But when you see
22] Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know
that its desolation has come near. Then let
Furthermore, the Messiah’s return and the those who are in Judea flee to the mountains…"
tribulation that accompanies it will come at a
time when people are not expecting it: Many biblical scholars conclude that Matthew
24:15 and Mark 13:14 are prophecies after the
Of that day and hour no-one knows; no, not event about the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 by
even the angels of heaven, but My Father only. the Roman general Titus. Preterist Christian
But as the days of Noah were, so also will the commentators believe that Jesus quoted this
coming of the Son of Man be. For as in the days prophecy in Mark 13:14 as referring to an event
before the flood, they were eating and drinking, in his "1st century disciples'" immediate future,
marrying and giving in marriage, until the day the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD.
that Noah entered the ark, until the flood came
110
Futurist Christians consider the "Abomination of

Desolation" prophecy of Daniel mentioned by
Jesus in Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14 as
referring to an event in the end time future,
when a 7 year peace treaty will be signed
between Israel and a world ruler called "the
man of lawlessness", or the "Antichrist"
affirmed by the writings of the Apostle Paul in 2
Thessalonians.
Other scholars conclude that the Abomination

of Desolation refers to the Crucifixion, an
Chapter Two
attempt by the emperor Hadrian to erect a
statue to Jupiter in the Jewish temple, or an Prophecy of the seventy-weeks of
attempt by Caligula to have a statue depicting Daniel
him as Zeus built in the temple.
The Prophecy of Seventy Weeks or Seventy
Septets (literally "seventy times seven") was,
according to the Book of Daniel, a prophecy
that was given to Daniel by the angel Gabriel.
This prophecy is contained in only four verses

[9:24-27], but contains a number of time
references. According to the prophecy a period
of 70 weeks has been decreed for Daniel’s
people and for their city [9:24]. Six goals are
listed for this period. This include “to make an
end of sin” [9:24] and “to bring in everlasting
righteousness” [9:24]. The 70 weeks are divided
into three sub-period; 7 weeks, 62 weeks and 1
week. One focus of the prophecy is the city
Jerusalem. The 70 weeks start with “the issuing
of a decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem”
[9:25]. Jerusalem will be rebuilt [9:25] but again
be destroyed [9:26]. Another focus of the
prophecy is an 'anointed one', sometimes
translated as ‘Messiah’. 'An anointed one, a
prince' will appear during the seventy weeks
[9:25] and ‘an anointed one will be cut off
’[9:26]. During the last week a ‘he’ will ‘make a
firm covenant with the many’ and in ‘the middle
of the week he will put a stop to sacrifice and
grain offering’ [9:27]. While the other
prophecies of Daniel end with the eternal
kingdom, this prophecy about Daniel’s people
111
and their city ends in desolation and B'. Daniel 9:27a

destruction.
Anointed one:
And he shall make a firm covenant with many

Daniel 9 for one week: and in the midst of the week he
shall cause the sacrifice and the oblation to
cease;
Literary structure
A'. Daniel 9:27b
Historicist William H. Shea notes that verses 25-
Jerusalem Destroyed:
27 forms a chiasm:
and upon the wing of abominations shall come
A. Daniel 9:25a (ASV)
one that maketh desolate; and even unto the
Jerusalem Construction: full end, and that determined, shall wrath be
poured out upon the desolate.
Know therefore and discern, that from the
going forth of the commandment to restore and A chiastic structures is a literary device to place
to build Jerusalem an emphasis upon the statements at the center
of the chiasm. In this chiasm the central point
B. Daniel 9:25b or apex is the death of the Messiah. Thus the
Anointed one: chiastic structure of this prophecy emphasizes
the importance of His death.
unto the anointed one, the prince, shall be
seven weeks, and threescore and two weeks: Sevens
C. Daniel 9:25c Johannes Hofmann and Theodor Kliefoth

remark that the use of 'sevens' does not
Jerusalem Construction: necessarily mean year-weeks, but an
it shall be built again, with street and moat, intentionally indefinite designation of a period
even in troublous times. of time measured by the number seven. In the
Mosaic law, there is mention not only of the
D. Daniel 9:26a Sabbath-year, but also of periods of seven times
seven years, after the expiry of which a year of
Anointed one:
jubilee was always to be celebrated (Lev.
And after the threescore and two weeks shall 25:8ff). These, as well as the Sabbath-years,
the anointed one be cut off, and shall have might be called 'sevens'.
nothing:
According to John J. Collins, the Book of
C'. Daniel 9:26b Jeremiah and Daniel both take into account the
Jubilee year. Leviticus 25 stipulates that seven
Jerusalem Destroyed:
Sabbaths (weeks) of years is the maximum
and the people of the prince that shall come period that land in the Land of Israel could
shall destroy the city and the sanctuary; and the remain outside the possession of its original
end thereof shall be with a flood, and even unto owner or heirs. 2 Chronicles 36:21 states that
the end shall be war; desolations are the land of Israel lay desolate "until the land
determined. had been paid her sabbaths". Daniel extends
112
this period of desolation to seventy weeks of period in 103 BCE and was the last of the
years, or 490 years, the equivalent of ten important Hasmonean leaders. The phrase
jubilees. Thus, the passage can be interpreted "after sixty-two weeks" indicates the time
as seventy weeks of Sabbatical years. Leviticus frame during which the "anointed one shall be
26:18, 21, 28 also states that God would punish cut off," that is, suffer "excision" (karet). The
the people sevenfold for their transgressions. penalty accompanying karet is here aptly
described as "to have nothing," or "be no
Jack Newton Lawson's analysis of Daniel 9:24-
more." This punishment is given to Alexander
27 states that the Seventy Weeks passage is a
Yannai, infamous for his unjust, tyrannical, and
reinterpretation of Jeremiah’s prophecy of the
bloody rule. He is notorious for his open violent
desolation of Jerusalem lasting seventy years.
animosity against the Pharisees and his brazen
Interpretations rejection of the Oral Law. For example,
Josephus records that Alexander Yannai fought
against the Pharisees for six years, "and . . . slew
no fewer than fifty thousand of them" (Jewish
Antiquities XIII. 13. 5. [373]). He also "ordered
some eight hundred of the Jews to be crucified,
Jewish and slaughtered their children and wives before
the eyes of the still living wretches" (Jewish
Daniel 9 is traditionally interpreted by Rashi as Antiquities XIII. 14. 2. ).
foretelling events that will happen regarding
the end of the Babylonian exile and the Christian
rebuilding of the Second Temple along with the Christian eschatology
Roman invasion. Rashi explains that the phrase
"Seventy weeks", in verse 24, refers to seventy In the Christian world the seventy weeks are
times seven years, or 490 years. "This refers to traditionally interpreted as a prophesy of Jesus
the seventy years of exile that have passed from Christ the "anointed one", or "messiah", who
the Destruction of the First Temple until this was "cut off" (crucified) in the first century CE.
vision, and the entire 420 year period of the There exist today several main schools of
Second Temple." thought. There are many variations within each
to each of these. The following summarizes the
Jewish exegetes interpret the first "anointed" as most frequently encountered interpretations:
Cyrus (Isaiah 45:1) whose decree to rebuild
Jerusalem came forty-nine years after the The consistent symbolical interpretation read
destruction of the city and the Temple, which is the numbers in verses 24 to 27 as symbolic. In
the time when an "anointed one" (Daniel 9:25) this view the 490 years begin with the edict of
is to come to fulfill the prophecy (586-49=537 Cyrus in 538 BCE, which permitted the Jews to
BCE). It follows that the second segment of the return to Jerusalem2 Chronicles 36:22-23 = Ezra
Seventy Weeks period, sixty-two weeks long, 1:2-4. The first division of 7 weeks ends with the
covered by verse 26, culminates in 103 BCE first advent of Christ. The second division is the
(586-49-434=103 BCE) and that "after sixty-two period of the Christian church, stretching from
weeks an anointed one shall be cut off." This the first and to Second Advent. The third
"anointed one" would thus have been the High division of one week is the last period of history
Priest Alexander Yannai (103-76 BC) who came —the time of tribulation caused by the
to power just at the end of the sixty-two week
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Antichrist—which begins with the advent of the uninterrupted, continuous unit that ended 3½
Antichrist and ends with his defeat. years after His death. The 490 years begin with
the decree by Artaxerxes I in 458/7 BCE (Ezra 7).
Supporters of this view include Kliefoth, who is
The appearance of “Messiah the Prince” at the
credited to be the first to establish exegetically
end of the 7+62 weeks (483 years) (9:25) is the
the symbolic interpretation. He is followed, by
anointed of Jesus Christ as Messiah at His
and large, by Keil, Delitzsch, Leupold, Philip,
baptism in 26/7 CE. This inaugurated His public
Grelot and others.
ministry. The "cut off" of the “anointed one”
The dispensational interpretation begins the (9:26) refers to His crucifixion 3½ years “after”
490 years with the permission Artaxerxes I (9:26) the end of the 483 years. Thus He made
Longimanus gave to NehemiahNehemiah 2:5-8. “atonement for iniquity” and brought in
This is dated by most dispensationalists to 445 “everlasting righteousness” (9:24). The
BCE (e.g. Sir Robert Anderson), but by some to covenant (9:27) is the covenant between God
444 BCE. The “messiah” at the end of the 7+62 and Israel, as extended by the prophecy of
weeks is Jesus Christ, but because 7+62 = 69 Daniel 9. Jesus “confirms” (KJV) this covenant
weeks = 483 years from 445/4 BCE would for one week (9:27) firstly by His personal
extend to about CE 40—far beyond the lifetime ministry while on earth and secondly by the
of Christ—the 483 years are reduced to 476 ministry of the Holy Spirit for another 3½ years
years by interpreting these 490 years as after His crucifixion. He caused the cessation of
"prophetic years" each consisting of only 360 the entire system of sacrifices of Old Testament
literal days. Consequently the 483 years end times by His death "in the midst of" (9:27) the
with the crucifixion in CE 33 or 32. The 70th last seven years, therefore in CE 30 or 31. The
week is separated from the 69th week by a vast last week ends 3½ years after the crucifixion
gap of over nineteen centuries. The entire when the Jews finally rejected the Holy Spirit by
"church age" is a gap during which the persecuting the people that had the Holy Spirit
prophetic clock has stopped ticking. The 70th (Acts 8, 9). At that time the gospel was
week does not start until the end of the church redirected from the Jews to all peoples (Acts 8
age, when the church will be "raptured” from to 11). This includes the vision in which God
the earth. During the 70th week the Antichrist showed Peter “that God is not one to show
—a revived Roman tyrant that will oppose God partiality, but in every nation the man who
—will oppress the Jews and bring upon the fears Him and does what is right is welcome to
world, during the latter half of a delayed Him” (Acts 10:34-35).
seventieth week, a 3½ year tribulation.
The Messianic interpretation of chapter 9 has
The dispensational interpretation of the been eclipsed almost completely in historical-
chronological scheme of 9:24-27 is very widely critical scholarship. Some of the representative
used today in the English-speaking world and voices among exegetes of the last 150 years are
beyond. Of the leading voices the following are EW Hengstenberg, JN Andrews, EB Pusey, J
representative JA Seiss, Sir Robert Anderson, Raska, J Hontheim, Boutflower and O Gerhardt.
The Scofield Reference Bible; LS Chafer; AJ
Reformation
McClain and HA Ironside.
In Martin Luther's commentary of Daniel,
The historical-messianic interpretation also
Preface to the Prophet Daniel, Luther follows
interprets the Messiah in Daniel 9 as Jesus
the day-year principle to calculate the timespan
Christ, but it understands the 490 years as an
of the prophecy of seventy weeks as weeks of
114
years. Thus, he explains that seven days in a (Matthew 24, Mark 13, Luke 21) to be an
week multiplied by seventy weeks gives 490 expansion of Daniel’s “seventy weeks”
years. prophecy. His research on the Daniel prophecy
was in part, influenced by the works of Martin
Luther starts the prophecy in the "second year
Anstey (1913). He fully supported the view that
of King Darius also known as 'the long handed'",
the decree of Cyrus, in Ezra 1:1, exhorting the
in a period when Jerusalem was being rebuilt
Jews to return to their land, was a real event.
(according to Luther, also mentioned in Haggai
Like many others, he agreed that the period
1:1-15; Zechariah 1:1-17). At the end of the first
designated by the Daniel prophesy was
69 weeks (483 years), is the first coming of
“seventy sevens of years” (490 years). He points
Christ. From Darius, Luther calculates 456 years
to the significance of 69 sevens, interpreted as a
to Christ's birth and another 30 years to Christ's
period of 483 years, as being the length of time
baptism (Luke 3:23), totaling 486 years. Any
to the Messiah. Thus, in the remaining “seven
discrepancies in time, Luther dismisses with,
years” the Messiah would be “cut off and have
"We cannot find and determine all days and
nothing”. He further relates that, “the people of
hours so precisely, when we write history it is
the prince that shall come shall destroy the city
enough for us that we come pretty close, ...".
and the sanctuary;” (9:25) is prophetic of the
According to Luther the 70th week of the “desolation” of Jerusalem and the Temple in 70
prophecy ends in the 4th year after Christ's CE (Matthew 24:1-22; Luke 21:20-24) Therefore,
death. Luther’s is therefore a variation of the similar to Luther and the Jehovah’s Witnesses
historical-messianic interpretation mentioned discussed above, historic premillennialism
above. follow a historical-messianic interpretation.
Jehovah's Witnesses Mauro agreed with Anstey that the angel

Gabriel of the Hebrew Bible, who visited Daniel,
Similarly to the historical-messianic is the same angel who visited Mary in the New
interpretation, Jehovah's Witnesses believe the Testament (Luke 1:11-19; 26). He compared
70 'weeks' represent 490 years. However, they Gabriel’s expression to Daniel “thou art greatly
believe that Artaxerxes' first year of rule was beloved” as an exact equivalent to “thou art
474 BCE (rather than the secularly determined highly favored” which was spoken to Mary by
464 BCE), and that the period began when her visiting angel, also known as Gabriel. By
Nehemiah went to rebuild the walls around establishing Gabriel as visiting both Daniel and
Jerusalem "in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes", Mary in his commentary, Mauro further
which they believe was 455 BCE. expounds on the words of Gabriel: “seventy
They hold that the sixty-ninth week ended in 29 weeks are determined upon thy people to finish
CE, when they believe Jesus was identified as the transgression” (Daniel 9:24), thus making a
the Messiah at his baptism. In their comparison to the Christ’s words: “Fill ye up
interpretation, Jesus was then "cut off" then the measure of your fathers” (Matthew
(executed) half way through the seventieth 23:32). Mauro interpreted these narratives as
week, which then ended in 36 CE. referring to the rejection and crucifixion of the
Christ.
Premillennialism
In dispensational premillennialism, described in
In historic premillennialism, Philip Mauro (1921) more detail above, a 'hiatus' which some refer
proposed the discourse on the Mount Olivet to as a 'biblical parenthesis', occurs between
115
the 69th and 70th week of the prophecy, into

which the "church age" is inserted (also known
as the "gap theory" of Daniel 9). The seventieth
week of the prophecy is expected to commence
after the rapture of the church, which will
incorporate the establishment of an economic
system using the number '666', the reign of the
beast (the Antichrist), the false religious system
(the harlot), the Great Tribulation and
Armageddon.
Seventh-day Adventists
Following the Historicist line of interpretation

during the 19th century the Seventh-day
Adventist Church interprets the 70 weeks as a
490 year period, according to the day-year
principle. The first 69 weeks (483 years) begins
with the decree of Artaxerxes I to rebuild
Jerusalem in 457 BCE (Daniel 9:25) and ends in
27 CE. Jesus Christ's ministry begins at His
baptism that year, at which time he is anointed
by the Holy Ghost (Acts 10:38) in the form of a
dove. Jesus is crucified in the middle of the final
week (31 CE) (Daniel 9:27), and the gospel is
preached to the Gentiles in 34, the close of the
70 week period.
Chapter Three
Doctrine of millennialism
Millennialism (from millennium, Latin for

"thousand years"), or chiliasm in Greek, is a
belief held by some Christian denominations
that there will be a Golden Age or Paradise on
Earth in which "Christ will reign" for 1000 years
prior to the final judgment and future eternal
state (the "World to Come" of the New Heavens
and New Earth). This belief is derived primarily
from the Book of Revelation 20:1–6.
116
Millennialism as such is a specific form of I admitted to you formerly, that I and many
Millenarianism. others are of this opinion, and [believe] that
such will take place, as you assuredly are aware;
Among Christians who hold this belief, this is
but, on the other hand, I signified to you that
not the "end of the world", but rather the
many who belong to the pure and pious faith,
penultimate age, the age just prior to the end of
and are true Christians, think otherwise."
Satan's worldwide system in anticipation of a
New Heavens and a New Earth under Jehovah's Melito of Sardis is frequently listed as a second
(i.e., God's) kingdom reign (Rev. 21:1). Some century proponent of premillennialism. The
believe that between the millennium proper support usually given for the supposition is that
and the end of the world there will be a brief Jerome [Comm. on Ezek. 36 ] and Gennadius
period in which a final battle with Satan will [De Dogm. Eccl., Ch. 52] both affirm that he was
take place. After this follows the Last Judgment. a decided millenarian.”
Similarities to millennialism are found in In the early third century, Hippolytus of Rome
Zoroastrianism. It held that there were wrote:
successive thousand-year periods, each of
And 6,000 years must needs be accomplished,
which will end in a cataclysm of heresy and
in order that the Sabbath may come, the rest,
destruction, until the final destruction of evil
the holy day "on which God rested from all His
and of the spirit of evil by a triumphant king of
works." For the Sabbath is the type and emblem
peace at the end of the final millennial age
of the future kingdom of the saints, when they
(supposed by some to be the year 2000). "Then
"shall reign with Christ," when He comes from
Saoshyant makes the creatures again pure, and
heaven, as John says in his Apocalypse: for "a
the resurrection and future existence occur"
day with the Lord is as a thousand years." Since,
(Zand-i Vohuman Yasht 3:62).
then, in six days God made all things, it follows
If millenarian beliefs have fallen into disfavor in that 6, 000 years must be fulfilled (Hippolytus.
mainstream Christian theology today, this was On the HexaËmeron, Or Six Days' Work. From
not the case during the Early Christian Fragments from Commentaries on Various
centuries. At least during the first four Books of Scripture).
centuries, millennialism was a well-known
Around 220, there were some similar influences
doctrine in both East and West. Tertullian,
on Tertullian though only with very important
Commodian, Lactantius, Methodius, and
and extremely optimistic (if not perhaps even
Apollinaris of Laodicea all advocated
postmillennial modifications and implications).
premillennial doctrine.In addition, according to
On the other hand, 'Christian Chiliastic' ideas
religious scholar the Rev. Dr. Francis Nigel Lee
were indeed advocated in 240 by Commodian;
the following is true, "Justin's 'Occasional
in 250 by the Egyptian Bishop Nepos in his
Chiliasm' sui generis which was strongly anti-
Refutation of Allegorists; in 260 by the almost
pretribulationistic was followed possibly by
unknown Coracion; and in 310 by Lactantius.
Pothinus in A.D. 175 and more probably
(around 185) by Irenaeus – although Justin Into the late fourth century, the bishop known
Martyr, discussing his own premillennial beliefs as Ambrose of Milan had millennial leanings
in his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, Chapter (Ambrose of Milan. Book II. On the Belief in the
110, observed that they were not necessary to Resurrection, verse 108).
Christians:
117
The first known opponent of Christian chiliasm theologians had no clear or consensus view on
was Marcion, in the 2nd century, who most what this actually meant (only the concept of an
Christians feel was an early heretic. The Catholic end of the world coming unexpected, "like a
Encyclopedia noted that in the 2nd century thief in a night", and the concept of "the
proponents of "Gnosticism rejected antichrist" were almost universally held).
millenarianism". Millennialist theories try to explain what this
"1000 years of Satan in chains" would be like.
Chiliasm was, however, according to the
interpretation of non-chiliasts, condemned as a Various types of millennialism exist with regard
heresy in the 4th century by the Church, which to Christian eschatology, especially within
included the phrase whose Kingdom shall have Protestantism, such as Premillennialism,
no end in the Nicene Creed in order to rule out Postmillennialism, and Amillennialism. The first
the idea of a Kingdom of God which would last two refer to different views of the relationship
for only 1000 literal years.[9] Despite some between the "millennial Kingdom" and Christ's
writers' belief in millennialism, it was a decided second coming. Premillennialism sees Christ's
minority view, as expressed in the nearly second advent as preceding the millennium,
universal condemnation of the doctrine over a thereby separating the second coming from the
gradual period of time, beginning with final judgment. In this view, "Christ's reign" will
Augustine of Hippo. be physical. Postmillennialism sees Christ's
second coming as subsequent to the
Millennialism is strongly rejected as a heresy by
millennium and consequent with the final
the Orthodox Church. In AD 230, the Synod of
judgment. In this view "Christ's reign" (during
Iconium declared that baptisms performed by
the millennium) will be spiritual in and through
the Montanist sect were invalid. The
the church. Amillennialism basically denies a
Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in AD 381
future literal 1000 year kingdom and sees the
supported the Synod of Iconium and further
church age metaphorically described in Rev.
declared millennialism to be a heresy.
20:1–6 in which "Christ's reign" is current in and
In a letter to Queen Gerberga of France around through the church.
950, Adso of Montier-en-Der established the
The Catholic Church now strongly condemns
idea of a "last World Emperor" who would
millennialism as the following shows:
conquer non-Christians before the arrival of the
Antichrist. The Antichrist's deception already begins to
take shape in the world every time the claim is
Reformation and beyond
made to realize within history that messianic
Comparison of Christian millennial hope which can only be realized beyond history
interpretations through the eschatological judgment. The
Church has rejected even modified forms of this
Christian views on the future order of events falsification of the kingdom to come under the
diversified after the Protestant reformation name of millenarianism, especially the
(c.1517). In particular, new emphasis was "intrinsically perverse" political form of a
placed on the passages in the Book of secular messianism. (Catechism of the Catholic
Revelation which seemed to say that Satan Church. Imprimatur Potest +Joseph Cardinal
would be locked away for 1000 years, but then Ratzinger. Doubleday, NY 1995, p. 194).
released on the world in a final battle (Rev.
20:1–6). Previous Catholic and Orthodox
118
A millennium is a period of one thousand years, The early Christian concept had ramifications
and, in particular, Christ's thousand-year rule on far beyond strictly religious concern during the
this earth, either directly preceding or centuries to come, as it was blended and
immediately following the Second Coming (and enhanced with ideas of utopia.
the Day of Judgment).
In the wake of early millennial thinking, the
The millennium reverses the previous period of Three Ages philosophy (Drei-Reiche-Lehre)
evil and suffering; it rewards the virtuous for developed (see Three Eras). The Italian monk
their courage while punishing the evil-doers, and theologian Joachim of Fiore (died 1202)
with a clear separation of saints and sinners. claimed that all of human history was a
The vision of a thousand-year period of bliss for succession of three ages:
the faithful, to be enjoyed here on earth
The Age of the Father (the Old Testament)
("heaven on earth"), exerted an irresistible
power. Although the picture of life in the The Age of the Son (the New Testament)
millennial era is almost willfully obscure and
hardly more appealing than that of, say, the The Age of the Holy Spirit (the age begun when
Golden Age, what has made the millennium Christ ascended into heaven, leaving the
much more powerful than the Golden Age or Paraclete, the third person of the Holy Trinity,
Paradise myths are the activities of the sects to guide)
and movements that it has inspired. It was believed that the Age of the Holy Spirit
Throughout the ages, hundreds of sects were would begin at around 1260, and that from
convinced that the millennium was imminent, then on all believers would be living as monks,
about to begin in the very near future, with mystically transfigured and full of praise for
precise dates given on many occasions. God, for a thousand years until Judgment Day
Premillennial sects look for signs of Christ's would put an end to the history of our planet.
imminent return. Other chiliast sects, such as In the Modern Era, some of the concepts of
the prophetic Anabaptist followers of Thomas millennial thinking have found their way into
Müntzer, have believed that the millennium various secular ideas, usually in the form of a
had already begun, with only their own belief that a certain historical event will
members having realized this fact. fundamentally change human society (or has
Consequently, they have attempted to live out already done so). For example, the French
their own vision of millennial life, radically Revolution seemed to many to be ushering in
overturning the beliefs and practices of the the millennial age of reason. Also, the
surrounding society. In doing so, they offered a philosophies of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
model of the good life and expressed their hope (1770–1831) and Karl Marx (1818–1883) carried
that soon the rest of the world would follow strong millennial overtones. As late as 1970,
and live like they did. Yale law teacher Charles A. Reich coined the
See Christian eschatology for a discussion of term "Consciousness III" in his best seller The
"premillennialism" and "postmillennialism". Greening of America, in which he spoke of a
new age ushered in by the hippie generation.
Utopianism However, these secular theories generally have
little or nothing to do with the original
millennial thinking, or with each other.
119
Judaism deemed incorrigible. Planet Earth will be rid of

greed, corruption, and all individuals and
Jewish eschatology
institutions who impenitently ruin the earth and
There is a not dissimilar belief in Judaism. Time impose misery on others. (Rev 16:16; 1 John
is split into 3 periods The world started in year 5:19; Matt 25:31–40)
1 (= 3761 BC), the epoch. For almost two
Malevolent spiritual beings will be restrained
thousand years there was nothing, most people
and prevented from interfering in human affairs
were idolatrous and God's presence was not
for the duration of Christ's reign. Free of
seen in the world. In 1812 BC, 1948 in Jewish
untoward influences, the Witnesses see the
years, Abraham was born. The birth of the first
1,000 year reign as fulfillment of the Biblical
forefather heralded two thousand years of
promise of "New Heavens and a New Earth".
Godliness. This is the period of the Bible, the
first and second temples in Jerusalem etc. (3) In One aspect which differentiates Jehovah's
70 AD the Second Temple in Jerusalem was Witnesses from other millennialists (such as
destroyed, and after the Bar Kokhba revolt, Baptists, Church of God, Church of Christ, and
Jews were barred from Jerusalem except for the other fundamentalist Christian groups) is the
day of Tisha B'av. This started a further two interpretation of 2 Peter 3:7, 13. Whereas the
thousand years of non-Godliness. Some Jews latter hold to a literal interpretation, namely
believe that the Messiah must come before the that the planet Earth WILL be destroyed and
end of this period, or by about 2270 AD. replaced with another physical planet,
Jehovah's Witnesses by contrast believe the
Jehovah's Witnesses
language in 2 Peter 3:7 is figurative. Hence their
understanding is that the literal planet Earth
WILL NOT be destroyed but instead, the existing
In brief, Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Christ framework of human society, which includes
will rule from heaven for 1,000 years as king greedy commerce, divisive religions and corrupt
over the earth, assisted by 144,000 holy ones. governments.
The principal purpose of this millennial reign is
to resolve the question of who legitimately Christ's kingdom consists of those who govern
deserves to be sovereign of the Earth and of the (from heaven) and those who are governed (on
universe. It also serves to finally accomplish the earth). This government will accomplish in the
Creator's original purpose of an Earth populated comparatively short timespan of 1,000 years all
by a peaceful, satisfied and loving human the things human governments and institutions
society, descendents from the first human have promised (but failed to deliver) during
couple Adam and Eve. This will happen after the thousands of years of rule, while experimenting
destruction of the wicked at Armageddon. every form of government imaginable. Jesus
Christ, the Messiah, will be the 'head of state',
Armageddon will be a decisive battle between or King officially designated by God. In turn, he
two opposing forces: on one side, Christ Jesus will delegate authority to 144,000 select
together with the holy angels; in opposition, individuals, individually chosen by Jehovah from
human governments and institutions among humanity. Those chosen have already
(manipulated by wicked spirits) insistent on proven their complete allegiance to Jehovah
maintaining control over humanity. Unlike God and to His legitimate right to govern. The
natural or manmade catastrophes, Christ and first to be promised this privilege were the
his angels will selectively destroy those humans faithful apostles of Jesus Christ in the 1st
120
century C.E. The rulers will be loving and fair, Jehovah God's original purpose for the earth
always intent on the common good of will be accomplished. (Gen 1:28)
everyone.
On the earth, those who are kept safe through

that 'great tribulation' (Matt 24:21; Rev 7:9) and
the subsequent destruction of the world ruled
by Satan the Devil will be ushered into a just,
peaceful, and equitable earthwide society of
humans. During the millennium, Christ will use
his power to cure every sort of sickness (Rev
22:17), malady, and infirmity. Ultimately
everyone who accepts living by Jehovah God's
righteous standards (Exodus 20:1–17) will attain
perfect health. Guided by the heavenly
government, humans will work to progressively
establish an earthwide paradise (Matt
19:27,28). Hunger and poverty will be
completely eliminated (Rev 21:1–5).
Humans who died during all prior human

history (but who were not deemed incorrigible)
will be resurrected (or recreated) on the earth
during the 1,000 years. These will have the
opportunity to fully integrate into society
(Isaiah 65:17).
At the culmination of the millennium, Christ will

cede control of planet Earth to his Father
Jehovah (1 Cor 15:28) and will himself
acknowledge and accept Jehovah's right to rule
(or sovereignty). The restraints on wicked spirit
creatures will be removed and all humanity will
face a test. With full understanding, each
human must individually choose whether to
accept or reject God's right to rule, his
sovereignty. Those humans and (previously
restrained) spirit creatures who reject rule by
Jehovah God, showing themselves to be
menaces to human society and the remainder
of the universe, will be completely and
permanently eliminated. For any of these who Chapter Four
may have been resurrected, this will literally be
a "second" death. Thereafter, obedient
The Rapture
humankind will live forever on the earth and
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The Rapture is a term in Christian eschatology "Rapture" is derived from Middle French
which refers to the "being caught up" discussed rapture, via the Medieval Latin raptura
in 1 Thessalonians 4:17, when the "dead in ("seizure, rape, kidnapping"), which derives
Christ" and "we who are alive and remain" will from the Latin raptus ("a carrying off").
be "caught up in the clouds" to meet "the Lord
Greek
in the air".
The Koine Greek of 1 Thessalonians 4:17 uses
The term "Rapture" is used in at least two
the verb form ἁρπαγησόμεθα
senses. In the pre-tribulation view, a group of
(harpagisometha), which means "we shall be
people will be left behind on earth after another
caught up" or "taken away", with the
group literally leaves "to meet the Lord in the
connotation that this is a sudden event. The
air." This is now the most common use of the
dictionary form of this Greek verb is harpazō
term, especially among fundamentalist
(ἁρπάζω). This use is also seen in such texts as
Christians and in the United States. The other,
Acts 8:39, 2Corinthians 12:2-4 and Revelation
older use of the term "Rapture" is simply as a
12:5.
synonym for the final resurrection generally,
without a belief that a group of people is left Latin
behind on earth for an extended Tribulation
period after the events of 1 Thessalonians 4:17. The Latin Vulgate translates the Greek
This distinction is important as some types of ἁρπαγησόμεθα as rapiemur, from the verb
Christianity never refer to "the Rapture" in rapio meaning "to catch up" or "take away".
religious education, but might use the older and English Bible versions
more general sense of the word "rapture" in
referring to what happens during the final English versions of the Bible have translated
resurrection. rapiemur in various ways:
There are many views among Christians The Wycliffe Bible (1395), translated from the
regarding the timing of Christ's return (including Latin Vulgate, uses "rushed".
whether it will occur in one event or two), and The Tyndale New Testament (1525), the
various views regarding the destination of the Bishop's Bible (1568), the Geneva Bible (1587)
aerial gathering described in 1 Thessalonians 4. and the King James Version (1611) use "caught
Denominations such as Roman Catholics, up".
Orthodox Christians, Lutheran Christians, and
Reformed Christians believe in a rapture only in The New English Bible, translated from the
the sense of a general final resurrection, when Greek,[20] uses "suddenly caught up" with this
Christ returns a single time. They do not believe footnote: "Or “snatched up.” The Greek verb
that a group of people is left behind on earth ἁρπάζω implies that the action is quick or
for an extended Tribulation period after the forceful, so the translation supplied the adverb
events of 1 Thessalonians 4:17. “suddenly” to make this implicit notion clear."
Pre-tribulation rapture theology was developed Doctrinal history

in the 1830s by John Nelson Darby and the
Plymouth Brethren,[12] and popularized in the
United States in the early 20th century by the The concept of the rapture, in connection with
wide circulation of the Scofield Reference Bible. premillennialism, was expressed by the 17th-
century American Puritan father and son
122
Increase and Cotton Mather. They held to the Todd, Samuel Roffey Maitland, Robert
idea that believers would be caught up in the Bellarmine, and Francisco Ribera, yet he went a
air, followed by judgments on the Earth, and step further. Irving began to teach the idea of a
then the millennium. The term rapture was two-phase return of Christ, the first phase being
used by Philip Doddridge and John Gill in their a secret rapture prior to the rise of the
New Testament commentaries, with the idea Antichrist. According to Irving, “There are three
that believers would be caught up prior to gatherings: – First, of the first-fruits of the
judgment on the Earth and Jesus' second harvest, the wise virgins who follow the Lamb
coming. whithersoever He goeth; next, the abundant
harvest gathered afterwards by God; and lastly,
There exists at least one 18th century and two
the assembling of the wicked for punishment.”
19th century pre-tribulation references: in an
essay published in 1788 in Philadelphia by the John Nelson Darby first proposed and
Baptist Morgan Edwards which articulated the popularized the pre-tribulation rapture in 1827.
concept of a pre-tribulation rapture, in the This view was accepted among many other
writings of Catholic priest Emmanuel Lacunza in Plymouth Brethren movements in England.
1812, and by John Nelson Darby in Darby and other prominent Brethren were part
1827.However, both the book published in 1788 of the Brethren Movement which impacted
and the writings of Lacunza have opposing American Christianity, especially with
views regarding their interpretations.[citation movements and teachings associated with
needed] Emmanuel Lacunza (1731–1801), a Christian eschatology and fundamentalism,
Jesuit priest, (under the pseudonym Juan primarily through their writings. Influences
Josafat Ben Ezra) wrote an apocalyptic work included the Bible Conference Movement,
entitled La venida del Mesías en gloria y starting in 1878 with the Niagara Bible
majestad (The Coming of the Messiah in Glory Conference. These conferences, which were
and Majesty). The book appeared first in 1811, initially inclusive of historicist and futurist
10 years after his death. In 1827, it was premillennialism, led to an increasing
translated into English by the Scottish minister acceptance of futurist premillennial views and
Edward IrvingDr. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles the pre-tribulation rapture especially among
(1813-1875), a English theologian and biblical Presbyterian, Baptist and Congregational
scholar, wrote a pamphlet in 1866 tracing the members. Popular books also contributed to
concept of the rapture through the works of acceptance of the pre-tribulation rapture,
John Darby back to Edward Irving. including William Eugene Blackstone's book
Jesus is Coming published in 1878 and which
Although not using the term "rapture", the idea
sold more than 1.3 million copies and the
was more fully developed by Edward Irving
Scofield Reference Bible, published in 1909 and
(1792–1834). In ? (first volume published in
1919 and revised in 1967.
1706) Henry, M. (1994). Matthew Henry's
commentary on the whole Bible : Complete and The early original Christian church, as well as
unabridged in one volume. Peabody: the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox
Hendrickson. Matthew Henry used the term in churches,the Anglican Communion and many
his commentary of 1 Thessalonians 4.[29][full Protestant Calvinist denominations, have no
citation needed] Irving directed his attention to tradition of a preliminary return of Christ and
the study of prophecy and eventually accepted reject the doctrine. The Orthodox Church, for
the one-man Antichrist idea of James Henthorn example, rejects it because the Protestant
123
doctrine of the rapture depends on a millennial In 1957, John Walvoord, a theologian at Dallas
interpretation of prophetic scriptures, rather Theological Seminary, authored a book, The
than an amillennial or postmillennial fashion. Rapture Question, that gave theological support
to the pre-tribulation rapture; this book
Some proponents of a preliminary rapture
eventually sold over 65,000 copies. In 1958, J.
believe the doctrine of amillennialism
Dwight Pentecost authored another book
originated with Alexandrian scholars such as
supporting the pre-tribulation rapture, Things
Clement and Origen and later became Catholic
to Come: A Study in Biblical Eschatology, which
dogma through Augustine. Thus the church until
sold 215,000 copies.
then held to premillennial views, which see an
impending apocalypse from which the church During the 1970s, belief in the rapture became
will be rescued after being raptured by the Lord. popular in wider circles, in part due to the
This is even extrapolated by some to mean that books of Hal Lindsey, including The Late Great
the early church espoused pre-tribulationism. Planet Earth, which has reportedly sold
between 15 million and 35 million copies, and
Some pre-tribulation proponents maintain that
the movie A Thief in the Night, which based its
the earliest known extra-Biblical reference to
title on the scriptural reference 1 Thessalonians
the pre-tribulation rapture is from a 7th-century
5:2. Lindsey proclaimed that the rapture was
tract known as the Apocalypse of Pseudo-
imminent, based on world conditions at the
Ephraem the Syrian, which says, "For all the
time. The Cold War figured prominently in his
saints and Elect of God are gathered, prior to
predictions of impending Armageddon. Other
the tribulation that is to come, and are taken to
aspects of 1970s global politics were seen as
the Lord lest they see the confusion that is to
having been predicted in the Bible. Lindsey
overwhelm the world because of our sins."
suggested, for example, that the seven-headed
However, the interpretation of this writing as
beast with ten horns, cited in the Book of
supporting a pre-tribulation rapture is debated.
Revelation, was the European Economic
The rise in belief in the pre-tribulation rapture is Community, a forebear of the European Union,
often wrongly attributed to a 15-year old which between 1981 and 1986 had ten member
Scottish-Irish girl named Margaret McDonald states; it now has 27 member states.
who was of the first to receive a spiritual
In 1995, the doctrine of the pre-tribulation
baptism under a Pentecostal awakening in
rapture was further popularized by Tim
Scotland, who in 1830 had a vision of the end
LaHaye's Left Behind series of books, which sold
times which describes a post-tribulation view of
tens of millions of copies and were made into
the rapture that was first published in 1840. It
several movies.
was published again in 1861, but two important
passages demonstrating a post-tribulation view The doctrine of the rapture continues to be an
were removed to encourage confusion important component of American evangelical
concerning the timing of the rapture. The two Christian eschatology.
removed segments were, "This is the fiery trial
Views
which is to try us. - It will be for the purging and
purifying of the real members of the body of
Jesus" and "The trial of the Church is from
Antichrist. It is by being filled with the Spirit that One event or two
we shall be kept".
124
Some dispensationalist premillennialists Some also claim that the "word of the Lord"
(including many Evangelicals) hold the return of cited by Paul in 1 Thessalonians 4:15–17 is the
Christ to be two distinct events, or one second Olivet Discourse which Matthew separately
coming in two stages. 1 Thessalonians 4:15–17 describes in Matthew 24:29-31. Although the
is seen to be a description of a preliminary doctrinal relationship between the rapture and
event to the return described in Matthew the second coming is the same in these three
24:29–31. Although both describe a return of groups, Historic premillennialists are more likely
Jesus, these are seen to be separated in time by to use the term "rapture" to clarify their
more than a brief period. The first event may or position in distinction from dispensationalists.
may not be seen (which is not a primary issue),
Destination
and is called the rapture, when the saved are to
be 'caught up,' whence the term "rapture" is Dispensationalists see the immediate
taken. The "second coming" is a public event, destination of the raptured Christians as being
wherein Christ's presence is prophesied to be Heaven, with an eventual return to Earth.
clearly seen by all, as he returns to end a battle Roman Catholic commentators, such as Walter
staged at Armageddon, though possibly fought Drum (1912), identify the destination of the 1
at the Valley of Jehoshaphat. The majority of Thessalonians 4:17 gathering as Heaven.
dispensationalists hold that the first event
precedes the period of tribulation, even if not While Anglicans have many views, some
immediately. Anglican commentators, such as N. T. Wright,
identify the destination as a specific place on
Amillennialists deny the interpretation of a Earth. Often the destination identified is
literal 1,000-year rule of Christ, and as such Jerusalem.[48][not in citation given] This
amillennialism does not necessarily imply much interpretation may sometimes be connected to
difference between itself and other forms of Christian environmentalist concerns.
millennialism besides that denial. However,
there is considerable overlap in the beliefs of Comparison of Christian tribulation views
Amillennialists (including most Roman In the amillennial and postmillennial views, as
Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, and well as in the post-tribulation premillennial
Lutherans), postmillennialists (including position, there are no distinctions in the timing
Presbyterians), and historic premillennialists of the rapture. These views regard the rapture,
(including some Calvinistic Baptists, among as it is described in 1 Thessalonians 4:15-17, as
others) with those who hold that the return of being either identical to the second coming of
Christ will be a single, public event. Those who Jesus as described in Matthew 24:29-31, or as a
identify the rapture with the second coming are meeting in the air with Jesus that immediately
likely to emphasize mutual similarities between precedes his return to the Earth. Within
passages of scripture where clouds, trumpets, premillennialism, the pre-tribulation position is
angels or the archangel, resurrection, and the predominant view that distinguishes
gathering are mentioned. Although some between the rapture and second coming as two
(particularly some amillennialists) may take the events. There are also two minor positions
rapture to be figurative, rather than literal, within premillennialism that differ with regard
these three groups are likely to maintain that to the timing of the rapture, the mid-tribulation
the passages regarding the return of Christ view and the partial-rapture view.
describe a single event.
125
Chapter Five
The Trbulation period
The Great Tribulation (Greek: θλίψις μεγάλη,

thlipsis megalē) refers to tumultuous events
that are described during the "signs of the
times", first mentioned by Jesus in the Olivet
discourse. The Great Tribulation is also
referenced in the Book of Revelation.
In the futurist view of Christian eschatology, the

Tribulation is a relatively short period of time
where anyone who chose not to follow God up
until the Rapture and was therefore left behind
(according to Pre-Tribulation doctrine, not Mid-
or Post-Tribulation teaching) will experience
worldwide hardships, disasters, famine, war,
pain, and suffering, which will wipe out more
than 75% of all life on the earth before the
Second Coming takes place.
According to Dispensationalists who hold the

futurist view, the Tribulation is thought to occur
before the Second Coming of Jesus and during
the End Times. Another version holds that it will
last seven years in all, being the last of Daniel's
prophecy of seventy weeks. This viewpoint was
first made popular by John Nelson Darby in the
19th century and was recently popularized by
Hal Lindsey in The Late Great Planet Earth. It is
theorized that each week represents seven
years, with the timetable beginning from
Artaxerxes' order to rebuild the Temple in
Jerusalem (the Second Temple). After seven
plus 62 weeks, the prophecy says that the
messiah will be "cut off", which is taken to
correspond to the death of Christ. This is seen
as creating a break of indeterminate length in
the timeline, with one week remaining to be
fulfilled.
This seven-year week may be further divided

into two periods of 3.5 years each, from the two
3.5-year periods in Daniel's prophecy where the
last seven years are divided into two 3.5-year
126
periods, (Daniel 9:27) The time period for these sound of the Seventh Trumpet (Rev. 11:15, 1
beliefs is also based on other passages: in the Cori. 15:52).
book of Daniel, "time, times, and half a time",
Midtribulationists believe that the Rapture will
interpreted as "a year, two years, and half a
occur halfway through the Tribulation, but
year," and the Book of Revelation, "a thousand
before the worst part of it occurs. The seven-
two hundred and threescore days" and "forty
year period is divided into halves - the
and two months" (the prophetic month
"beginning of sorrows" and the "great
averaging 30 days, hence 1260/30 = 42 months
tribulation".
or 3.5 years). The 1290 days of Daniel 12:11,
(rather than the 1260 days of Revelation 11:3), Posttribulationists believe that Christians will
is thought to be the result of either a simple not be taken up into Heaven, but will be
intercalary leap month adjustment, or due to received or gathered by Christ into the Kingdom
further calculations related to the prophecy, or of God on earth at the end of the Tribulation.
due to an intermediate stage of time that is to "Immediately after the tribulation ... then shall
prepare the world for the beginning of the appear the sign of the Son of Man [Jesus] ... and
millennial reign. he shall gather his elect" (Matthew 24:29–31;
Mark 13:24-27; Luke 21:25-27).
Events
Posttribulationists argue that the seventh
Among futurists there are differing views about trumpet mentioned in Revelation is also the last
what will happen to Christians during the trumpet mentioned in 1 Corinthians 15:52, and
Tribulation: that there is a strong correlation between the
events mentioned in Isaiah 27:13, Matthew
Pretribulationists believe that all Christians
24:29-31, and 1 Thessalonians 4:16- thus
(dead and alive) will be taken bodily up to
creating a strong parallel, proving that the
Heaven (called the Rapture) before the
rapture occurs after the tribulation. Therefore,
Tribulation begins. According to this belief,
Posttribulationists see the rapture happening
every true Christian that has ever existed
during the seventh trumpet, which would only
throughout the course of the entire Christian
mean that the rapture can never happen before
era will be instantaneously transformed into a
the tribulation- according to this view. The idea
perfect resurrected body, and will thus escape
of a post-tribulation rapture can also be read
the trials of the Tribulation. Those who become
into 2 Peter 3:10-13 where Christ's return is
Christians after the rapture will live through (or
equated with the "elements being melted" and
perish during) the Tribulation. After the
"the earth also and the works therein shall be
Tribulation, Christ will return to establish His
burned up." In pretribulationism and
Millennial Kingdom.
midtribulationism, the Rapture and the Second
Prewrath Tribulationists believe the Rapture will Coming (or Greek, par[a]ousia) of Christ are
occur during the tribulation, halfway through or separate events, while in post-tribulationism
after, but before the seven bowls of the wrath the two events are identical or simultaneous.
of God. Another feature of the pre- and mid-tribulation
beliefs is the idea that after the Rapture, Christ
Seventh Trumpet Tribulationists believe the will return for a third time (when also counting
rapture will occur during the tribulation, the first coming) to set up his kingdom on the
halfway through or after, but before the seven earth.
bowls of the wrath of God. Specifically, at the
127
Some, including many Roman Catholic Jesus' warning in Matthew 24:34 that "this
theologians, do not believe in a "time of generation shall not pass, till all these things be
trouble" period as usually described by fulfilled" is tied back to his similar warning to
tribulationists, but rather that there will be a the Scribes and the Pharisees that their
near utopian period led by the Antichrist. judgment would "come upon this generation"
(Matthew 23:36), that is, during the first
Many other groups, such as Jehovah's
century rather than at a future time long after
Witnesses, do not believe in a Rapture at any
the Scribes and Pharisees had passed away The
point. According to Jehovah's Witnesses, the
destruction in 70 AD occurred within a 40-year
Great Tribulation is soon to arrive. This period
generation from the time when Jesus gave that
will see the fall of Babylon the Great, the Great
discourse.
Harlot, as spoken of in Revelation. After Babylon
the Great has been removed, they say, the The judgment on the Jewish nation was
world powers shall move against God's chosen executed by the Roman legions, "the
people for a short while. This will then usher in abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel
the ending of this "world" (not the earth, but the prophet" (Matthew 24:15), which Luke
the removal of all those who do not wish to presented to his Gentile audience, unfamiliar
follow God by standards) according to their with Daniel, as "armies" surrounding Jerusalem
understanding of Proverbs 2:21-22. The Great to cause its "desolation." (Luke 21:20)
Tribulation ends with the battle of Armageddon.
Since Matthew 24 begins with Jesus visiting the
Preterist view Jerusalem Temple and pronouncing that "there
shall not be left here one stone upon another,
In the Preterist view, the Tribulation took place
that shall not be thrown down" (vs. 3),
in the past when Roman legions destroyed
preterists see nothing in Scripture to indicate
Jerusalem and its temple in AD 70 during the
that another Jewish temple will ever be built.
end stages of the First Jewish–Roman War, and
The prophecies were all fulfilled on the then-
it only affected the Jewish people rather than all
existing temple that Jesus spoke about and that
mankind.
was subsequently destroyed within that
Christian preterists believe that the Tribulation generation.
was a divine judgment visited upon the Jews for
Historicist view
their sins, including rejection of Jesus as the
promised Messiah. It occurred entirely in the The Historicist view applies Tribulation to the
past, around 70 AD when the armed forces of period known as "persecution of the saints"
the Roman Empire destroyed Jerusalem and its (Daniel 7, Revelation 13). This is believed by
temple. some to have been a period after the "falling
away" when papal Rome came to power for
A preterist discussion of the Tribulation has its
1260 years from 538 to 1798 (using the Day-
focus on the Gospels, in particular the prophetic
year principle). They believe that the tribulation
passages in Matthew 24, Mark 13 and Luke 21,
is not a future event. Matthew's reference to
rather than on the Apocalypse or Book of
"great tribulation" (Matthew 24:29) as parallel
Revelation. (Preterists apply much of the
to Revelation 6:12-13, having ended when the
symbolism in the Revelation to Rome, the
signs and wonders began in the late 18th
Cæsars, and their persecution of Christians,
century.
rather than to the Tribulation upon the Jews.)
128
Historicists are prone to see prophecy fulfilled

down through the centuries and even in today's
world. Thus, instead of expecting a single
Antichrist to rule the earth during a future
Tribulation period, Martin Luther, John Calvin
and the other Protestant Reformers saw the
Antichrist as a present feature in the world of Chapter Six
their time, fulfilled in the papacy. Doctrine of the Anti-Christ
Relativistic critique
The anticipation of worldwide hardships, The Antichrist is a Christian concept based on

disasters, famine, war, pain, and suffering interpretation of passages in the New
anticipated by Christians, mainly in the Western Testament. In the New Testament, the term
world, is predicated on a scenario of increased "antichrist" occurs five times in 1 John and 2
distress, deprivation and misery set against a John, once in plural form and four times in the
pre-existent state of relative comfort, singular.
prosperity, security and peace. However, in In traditional Christian belief, Jesus the Messiah
many parts of the world, the predominant appears in his Second Coming to Earth, to face
environment meets the criteria for the "Great the emergence of the Antichrist figure. Just as
Tribulation" most of the time, and has done so Christ is the savior and the ideal model for
for many centuries. Since biblical times, much humanity, his opponent in the End of Days will
of the planet's population has suffered the be a single figure of concentrated evil,
ravages of droughts and famines, extreme according to Bernard McGinn.
weather, plagues, chronic warring conflicts,
natural disasters and unremitting poverty and The word antichrist is made up of two roots:
disease in endlessly repeating cycles. Such a αντί + Χριστός (anti + Christos). "Αντί" can mean
predicament continues to this day in many parts not only "against" and "opposite of", but also
of, for example, Africa, the Middle East and "in place of",[3] "Χριστός", translated "Christ",
Asia. A theology based on the spread of an is Greek for the Hebrew "Messiah" meaning
already pre-existent scenario can be criticized "anointed," and refers to Jesus of Nazareth[4]
as denying the time-worn sufferings of the within Christian, Islamic and Messianic Jewish
many and focusing on the chronologically brief theology.
problems of the relatively few. History of the doctrine
New Testament
Whether the New Testament contains a

personal Antichrist or not is disputed. The five
uses of the term "Antichrist" and "Antichrists"
in the Johannine Epistles do not clearly present
a single latter-day personal Antichrist. The
articles "the deceiver" or "the antichrist" are
usually seen as marking out a certain category
of persons, rather than an individual.
129
For many deceivers are entered into the world, Beast from Revelation 13:18, to numerologically
who confess not that Jesus Christ is come in the decode several possible names. Some names
flesh. This is a deceiver and an antichrist. - KJV that he loosely proposed were "Evanthos",
(1611): 2 John 1:7 "Lateinos" ("Latin" or pertaining to the Roman
Empire). In his exegesis of Daniel 7:21, he stated
that the ten horns of the beast will be the
This supposed category of persons is biblically Roman empire divided into ten kingdoms
defined by their denial of the God-Son before the Antichrist's arrival. However, his
relationship between God and Jesus who in the readings of the Antichrist were more in broader
books of John and Hebrews is termed as God's theological terms rather than within a historical
"only begotten son". context.
Who is a Liar but he that denieth that Jesus is The Ascension of Isaiah presents a detailed
the Christ? He is antichrist, that denieth the exposition of the Antichrist as Belial and Nero.
Father and the Son. - KJV (1611): 1 John 2:22
Tertullian (ca.160 – ca.220 AD) held that the
Roman Empire was the restraining force written
about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7-8. The fall
Consequently attention for a personal Antichrist of Rome and the disintegration of the ten
figure focuses on 2 Thessalonians chapter 2 - provinces of the Roman Empire into ten
though the passage does not use the term - and kingdoms were to make way for the Antichrist.
Paul's picture that the "man of sin be revealed,
the son of perdition."[6][7] Equation of the 'For that day shall not come, unless indeed
False Prophet of the Book of Revelation there first come a falling away,' he [Paul] means
chapters 16, 19 and 20 with a personal indeed of this present empire, 'and that man of
Antichrist is also problematic - medieval sin be revealed,' that is to say, Antichrist, 'the
commentators more readily identified the son of perdition, who opposeth and exalteth
figure of the Beast of Revelation as a personal himself above all that is called God or religion;
Antichrist as opposed to Satan. so that he sitteth in the temple of God,
affirming that he is God. Remember ye not, that
Early Christianity when I was with you, I used to tell you these
The only one of the late 1st/early 2nd Century things? And now ye know what detaineth, that
Apostolic Fathers to use the term is Polycarp he might be revealed in his time. For the
(ca. 69 – ca. 155) who warned the Philippians mystery of iniquity doth already work; only he
that everyone who preached false doctrine was who now hinders must hinder, until he be taken
an antichrist.[8] His use of the term Antichrist out of the way.' What obstacles is there but the
follows that of the New Testament in not Roman state, the falling away of which, by
identifying a single personal Antichrist, but a being scattered into the ten kingdoms, shall
class of people. introduce Antichrist upon (its own ruins)? And
then shall be revealed the wicked one, whom
Irenaeus (2nd century AD – c. 202) wrote the Lord shall consume with the spirit of His
Against Heresies to refute the teachings of the mouth, and shall destroy with the brightness of
Gnostics. In Book V of Against Heresies he His coming: even him whose coming is after the
addresses the figure of the Antichrist referring working of Satan, with all power, and signs, and
to him as the "recapitulation of apostasy and lying wonders, and with all deceivableness of
rebellion." He uses "666", the Number of the unrighteousness in them that perish.'
130
Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170-c. 236) held that the Cyril of Jerusalem, in the mid-4th century,
Antichrist would come from the tribe of Dan delivered his 15th Catechetical Lecture about
and would rebuild the Jewish temple on the the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, in which he
Temple Mount in order to reign from it. He also lectures about the Antichrist, who will reign
identified the Antichrist with the Beast out of as the ruler of the world for three and a half
the Earth from the book of Revelation. years, before he is killed by Jesus Christ right at
the end of his three-and-a-half-year reign,
By the beast, then, coming up out of the earth,
shortly after which the Second Coming of Jesus
he means the kingdom of Antichrist; and by the
Christ will happen.
two horns he means him and the false prophet
after him. And in speaking of "the horns being Athanasius (c. 293 – 373), writes that Arius of
like a lamb," he means that he will make himself Alexandria is to be associated with the
like the Son of God, and set himself forward as Antichrist, saying, "And ever since [the Council
king. And the terms, "he spake like a dragon," of Nicaea] has Arius's error been reckoned for a
mean that he is a deceiver, and not truthful. heresy more than ordinary, being known as
Christ's foe, and harbinger of Antichrist."
Origen (185–254) refuted Celsus's view of the
Antichrist. Origen utilized Scriptural citations John Chrysostom (c. 347–407) warned against
from Daniel, Paul, and the Gospels. He argued: speculations and old wives' tales about the
Antichrist, saying, "Let us not therefore enquire
Where is the absurdity, then, in holding that
into these things". He preached that by knowing
there exist among men, so to speak, two
Paul's description of the Antichrist in 2
extremes-- the one of virtue, and the other of
Thessalonians Christians would avoid deception.
its opposite; so that the perfection of virtue
[16]
dwells in the man who realizes the ideal given in
Jesus, from whom there flowed to the human Jerome (c. 347-420) warned that those
race so great a conversion, and healing, and substituting false interpretations for the actual
amelioration, while the opposite extreme is in meaning of Scripture belonged to the
the man who embodies the notion of him that "synagogue of the Antichrist". "He that is not of
is named Antichrist?... one of these extremes, Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to Pope
and the best of the two, should be styled the Damasus I. He believed that "the mystery of
Son of God, on account of His pre-eminence; iniquity" written about by Paul in 2
and the other, who is diametrically opposite, be Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when
termed the son of the wicked demon, and of "every one chatters about his views." To
Satan, and of the devil. And, in the next place, Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of
since evil is specially characterized by its iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this
diffusion, and attains its greatest height when it restraining force was removed. He warned a
simulates the appearance of the good, for that noble woman of Gaul:
reason are signs, and marvels, and lying
He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet
miracles found to accompany evil, through the
we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes,
cooperation of its father the devil.
Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ
Post-Nicene Christianity "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth."
"Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child,
First seven Ecumenical Councils
and to them that give suck in those days."...
Savage tribes in countless numbers have
131
overrun run all parts of Gaul. The whole country coming of the Lord. Antichrist will kill them and
between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between after three days they will be raised up by the
the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste Lord. Then there will be a great persecution,
by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, such as has not been before nor shall be
Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, thereafter. The Lord will shorten those days for
Allemanni, and—alas! for the commonweal!-- the sake of the elect, and the Antichrist will be
even Pannonians. slain by the power of God through Michael the
Archangel on the Mount of Olives.
In his Commentary on Daniel, Jerome noted,
"Let us not follow the opinion of some Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430) wrote "it is
commentators and suppose him to be either uncertain in what temple [the Antichrist] shall
the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the sit, whether in that ruin of the temple which
human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up was built by Solomon, or in the Church."
his residence in bodily form." Instead of
Pope Gregory I wrote to Emperor Maurice A.D.
rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from,
597, concerning the titles of bishops, "I say with
Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God’s
confidence that whoever calls or desires to call
Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be
himself ‘universal priest’ in self-exaltation of
like God." He refuted Porphyry’s idea that the
himself is a precursor of the Antichrist."
"little horn" mentioned in Daniel chapter 7 was
Antiochus Epiphanes by noting that the "little Western Church–Pre-Reformation
horn" is defeated by an eternal, universal ruler,
right before the final judgment. Instead, he Archbishop Arnulf of Rheims disagreed with the
advocated that the "little horn" was the policies and morals of Pope John XV. He
Antichrist: expressed his views while presiding over the
Council of Reims in A.D. 991. Arnulf accused
We should therefore concur with the traditional John XV of being the Antichrist while also using
interpretation of all the commentators of the the 2 Thessalonians passage about the Man of
Christian Church, that at the end of the world, Sin, saying, "Surely, if he is empty of charity and
when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, filled with vain knowledge and lifted up, he is
there shall be ten kings who will partition the Antichrist sitting in God's temple and showing
Roman world amongst themselves. Then an himself as God." This incident is history's
insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will earliest record of anyone identifying a pope
overcome three of the ten kings... after they with the Antichrist (See Antichrist (historicism)).
have been slain, the seven other kings also will
bow their necks to the victor. Pope Gregory VII (c. 1015 or 29 – 1085),
struggled against, in his own words, "a robber
Circa 380, an apocalyptic pseudo-prophecy of temples, a perjurer against the Holy Roman
falsely attributed to the Tiburtine Sibyl Church, notorious throughout the whole Roman
describes Constantine as victorious over Gog world for the basest of crimes, namely, Wilbert,
and Magog. Later on, it predicts: plunderer of the holy church of Ravenna,
Antichrist, and archeritic."
When the Roman empire shall have ceased,
then the Antichrist will be openly revealed and Cardinal Benno, on the opposite side of the
will sit in the House of the Lord in Jerusalem. Investiture Controversy, wrote long descriptions
While he is reigning, two very famous men, of abuses committed by Gregory VII, including
Elijah and Enoch, will go forth to announce the necromancy, torture of a former friend upon a
132
bed of nails, commissioning an attempted bishop of Rome the "antichrist" when they
assassination, executions without trials, unjust wished to castigate his abuse of power.
excommunication, doubting the Real Presence
William Tyndale, an English Protestant
in the Eucharist, and even burning it. Benno
reformer, held that while the Roman Catholic
held that Gregory VII was "either a member of
realms of that age were the empire of
Antichrist, or Antichrist himself."
Antichrist, any religious organization that
Eberhard II von Truchsees, Prince-Archbishop of distorted the doctrine of the Old and New
Salzburg in 1241 at the Council of Regensburg Testaments also showed the work of Antichrist.
denounced Pope Gregory IX as "that man of In his treatise The Parable of the Wicked
perdition, whom they call Antichrist, who in his Mammon, he expressly rejected the established
extravagant boasting says, I am God, I cannot Church teaching that looked to the future for an
err." He argued that the ten kingdoms that the Antichrist to rise up, and he taught that
Antichrist is involved with were the "Turks, Antichrist is a present spiritual force that will be
Greeks, Egyptians, Africans, Spaniards, French, with us until the end of the age under different
English, Germans, Sicilians, and Italians who religious disguises from time to time. Tyndale's
now occupy the provinces of Rome." He held translation of 2 Thessalonians, chapter 2,
that the papacy was the "little horn" of Daniel concerning the "man of sin" reflected his
7:8: understanding, but was significantly amended
by later revisers, including the King James Bible
A little horn has grown up with eyes and mouth
committee, which followed the Vulgate more
speaking great things, which is reducing three of
closely.
these kingdoms--i.e. Sicily, Italy, and Germany--
to subserviency, is persecuting the people of Counter-Reformation
Christ and the saints of God with intolerable
The view of Futurism, a product of the Counter-
opposition, is confounding things human and
Reformation, was advanced beginning in the
divine, and is attempting things unutterable,
16th century in response to the identification of
execrable.
the Papacy as Antichrist. Francisco Ribera, a
Protestant reformers Jesuit priest, developed this theory in In Sacrum
Beati Ioannis Apostoli, & Evangelistiae
Many Protestant reformers, including Martin
Apocalypsin Commentarij, his 1585 treatise on
Luther, John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer, John
the Apocalypse of John. St. Bellarmine codified
Thomas, John Knox, and Cotton Mather,
this view, giving in full the Catholic theory set
identified the Roman Papacy as the Antichrist.
forth by the Greek and Latin Fathers, of a
The Centuriators of Magdeburg, a group of
personal Antichrist to come just before the end
Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg headed by
of the world and to be accepted by the Jews
Matthias Flacius, wrote the 12-volume
and enthroned in the temple at Jerusalem —
"Magdeburg Centuries" to discredit the papacy
thus endeavoring to dispose of the exposition
and identify the pope as the Antichrist. The fifth
which saw Antichrist in the pope. Most
round of talks in the Lutheran-Roman Catholic
premillennial dispensationalists now accept
dialogue notes,
Bellarmine's interpretation in modified form.
In calling the pope the "antichrist," the early [citation needed] Widespread Protestant
Lutherans stood in a tradition that reached back identification of the Papacy as the Antichrist
into the eleventh century. Not only dissidents persisted in the USA until the early 1900s when
and heretics but even saints had called the the Scofield Reference Bible was published by
133
Cyrus Scofield. This commentary promoted As "Man of sin"

Futurism, causing a decline in the Protestant
The Antichrist has been equated with the "Man
identification of the Papacy as Antichrist.
of sin" of 2 Thessalonians 2, even though
Some US Futurists hold that sometime prior to commentaries of the Man of sin's identity
the expected return of Jesus, there will be a greatly varies. The "man of sin" has been
period of "great tribulation" during which the identified with Caligula, Nero, and the end
Antichrist, indwelt and controlled by Satan, will times Antichrist. Some scholars believe that the
attempt to win supporters with false peace, passage contains no genuine prediction, but
supernatural signs. He will silence all that defy represents a speculation of the apostle's own,
him by refusing to "receive his mark" on their based on Dan 8:23ff; 11:36ff, and on
right hands or forehead. This "mark" will be contemporary ideas of the Antichrist.
required to legally partake in the end-time
As "being in league with other figures"
economic system. Some Futurists believe that
the Antichrist will be assassinated half way Several American evangelical and
through the Tribulation, being revived and fundamentalist theologians, including Cyrus
indwelt by Satan. The Antichrist will continue on Scofield, have identified the Antichrist as being
for three and a half years following this "deadly in league with (or the same as) several figures in
wound". the Book of Revelation including the Dragon (or
Serpent), the Beast, the False Prophet, and the
Old Believers
Whore of Babylon. Others, for example, Rob
After the reforms of Patriarch Nikon to the Bell, reject the identification of the Antichrist
Russian Orthodox Church of 1652, a large with any one person or group. They believe a
number of Old Believers held that czar Peter the loving Christ would not view anyone as an
Great was the Antichrist because of his enemy.
treatment of the Orthodox Church, namely
As Satan
subordinating the church to the state, requiring
clergymen to conform to the standards of all Bernard McGinn described multiple traditions
Russian civilians (shaved beards, being fluent in detailing the relationship between the
French), and requiring them to pay state taxes. Antichrist and Satan. In the dualist approach,
Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist,
Age of Enlightenment
just as God became incarnate in Jesus.
Bernard McGinn noted that complete denial of However, in Orthodox Christian thought, this
the Antichrist was rare until the Age of view was problematic because it was too similar
Enlightenment. Following frequent use of to Christ's incarnation. Instead, the "indwelling"
"Antichrist" laden rhetoric during religious view became more accepted. It stipulates that
controversies in the 17th century, the use of the the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by
concept declined in the 18th century. Satan, since the latter’s power is not to be seen
Subsequent eighteenth-century efforts to as equivalent to God’s.
cleanse Christianity of "legendary" or "folk"
Mormonism
accretions effectively removed the Antichrist
from discussion in mainstream Western In Mormonism, the Antichrist "is anyone or
churches. anything that counterfeits the true gospel or
plan of salvation and that openly or secretly is
Other Christian interpretations
134
set up in opposition to Christ. The great

antichrist is Lucifer, but he has many assistants
both as spirit beings and as mortals." Latter-day
Saints use the New Testament scriptures, 1
John 2:18, 22; 1 John 4:3-6; 2 John 1:7 and the
Book of Mormon, Jacob 7:1-23, Alma 1:2-16,
Alma 30:6-60, in their exegesis of the Antichrist. Chapter Seven
The Messianic Age
Judaism
The Messianic Age is a theological term
referring to a future time of universal peace and
brotherhood on the earth, without crime, war
There are warnings against false prophets in the
and poverty. Many religions believe that there
Hebrew Bible, but no personal anti-Messiah
will be such an age; some refer to it as the
figure.
consummate "kingdom of God", "paradise",
Jewish antecedents "peaceable kingdom", or the "world to come".
The term antichristos originates in 1 John.The In the context of "Messianic Age", the earliest
similar term pseudochristos ("False Messiah") is meaning of the word "messianic" is derived
also first found in the New Testament, and, for from notion of Yemot HaMashiach meaning
example, never used by Josephus in his "the days of the messiah", that is, the Jewish
accounts of various false messiahs. The concept Messiah. Messiah derives from Hebrew,
of an antichristos is not found in Jewish writings meaning "the anointed one". Originally the
in the period 500 BC–50 AD. However, Bernard "anointed one" referred to Ahron and his
McGinn conjectures that the concept may have descendants, the Kohanim. Following the
been generated by the frustration of Jews establishment of the kingdom of Saul, it could
subject to often-capricious Seleucid or Roman also refer to a king who was anointed with holy
rule, who found the nebulous Jewish idea of a anointing oil as part of what might be
Satan who is more of an opposing angel of God understood to be his coronation ceremony.
in the heavenly court insufficiently humanised
Eschatology is an area of religious scholarship
and personalised to be a satisfactory
that deals with prophecies about "the end of
incarnation of evil and threat.
the current age" of human civilization.
Judaism
Description of the Messianic Era
According to Jewish tradition, the Messianic Era

will be one of global peace and harmony, an era
free of strife and hardship, and one conducive
to the furtherment of the knowledge of the
Creator. The theme of the Jewish Messiah
ushering in an era of global peace is
135
encapsulated in two of the most famous "Six eons for going in and coming out, for war
scriptural passages from the Book of Isaiah: and peace. The seventh eon is entirely Shabbat
and rest for life everlasting."
They shall beat their swords into plowshares
and their spears into pruning hooks; nation will There is a kabbalistic tradition hat maintains
not lift sword against nation and they will no that each of the seven days of the week, which
longer study warfare. (Isaiah 2:4) are based upon the seven days of creation,
correspond to the seven millennia of creation.
The wolf will live with the lamb, the leopard will
The tradition teaches that the seventh day of
lie down with the goat, the calf and the lion and
the week, the Sabbath day of rest, corresponds
the yearling together; and a little child will lead
to the seventh millennium, the age of universal
them. The cow will feed with the bear, their
'rest' - the Messianic Era. The seventh
young will lie down together, and the lion will
millennium perforce begins with the year 6000,
eat straw like the ox. The infant will play near
and is the latest time the Messiah can come.
the hole of the cobra, and the young child put
Supporting and elaborating on this theme are
his hand into the viper's nest. They will neither
numerous early and late Jewish scholars,
harm nor destroy on all my holy mountain, for
including Rabbeinu Bachya, Abraham ibn
the earth will be full of the knowledge of the
Ezra,the Ramban, Isaac Abrabanel, the Ramchal,
Lord as the waters cover the sea. (Isaiah 11:6-9)
the Vilna Gaon, Aryeh Kaplan,and the
In his Mishneh Torah, Maimonides describes Lubavitcher Rebbe.
the Messianic Era:
Christianity
"And at that time there will be no hunger or
Viktor Vasnetsov, the Four Horsemen of the
war, no jealousy or rivalry. For the good will be
Apocalypse
plentiful, and all delicacies available as dust.
Christian eschatology includes several views of
The entire occupation of the world will be only
the Messianic Age.
to know God... the people Israel will be of great
wisdom; they will perceive the esoteric truths According to a realized eschatology, the
and comprehend their Creator's wisdom as is Messianic Era, a time of universal peace and
the capacity of man. As it is written (Isaiah brotherhood on the earth, without crime, war
11:9): "For the earth shall be filled with the and poverty, is already here. With the death of
knowledge of God, as the waters cover the sea." Christ himself, see Atonement in Christianity,
" the Messianic Era had begun, but, according to
an inaugurated eschatology, it will only be
Advent of the Messianic Era
fulfilled by the parusia of Christ. Commonly, the
According to the Talmud, the Midrash, and the Book of Revelation is interpreted as referring to
ancient Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, the the "unveiling" or "revelation" of Jesus Christ as
Messiah must arrive before the year 6000 from Christian Messiah in the apocalypse or end of
the time of creation. In Orthodox Jewish belief, the world.
the Hebrew calendar dates to the time of
The Nicene Creed, professed by most Christians,
creation, making this correspond to the year
expresses the belief that Christ ascended to
2230.
Heaven, where he now sits at the Right Hand of
The Midrash comments: God and will return to earth at the Second
136
Coming of Christ to establish the Kingdom of be fought—the Dajjal (evil) against al-Mahdi
God of the World to Come. and Jesus (good). This war will mark the
approach of the coming of the Last Day. After
Jesus slays al-Dajjāl at the Gate of Lud, he will
bear witness and reveal that Islam is the true
and final word from God to humanity as Yusuf
Ali's translation reads:[Quran 4:159 (Translated
Islam by Yusuf Ali)]
This section needs additional citations for And there is none of the People of the Book but
verification. Please help improve this article by must believe in him before his death; and on
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced the Day of Judgment He will be a witness
material may be challenged and removed. (April against them.― (159)
2011) He will live for several years, marry, have
The Qur'an states that Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus children and will be buried in Medina. A hadith
the Son of Mary) was the Messiah or "Prophet" in Sahih Bukhari (Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:55:658)
sent to the Jews[Quran 3:45]. Muslims believe says:
he is alive in Heaven, and will return to Earth to Allah's Apostle said "How will you be when the
defeat the Masih ad-Dajjal, an anti-messiah son of Mary descends amongst you and your
comparable to the Christian Antichrist and the Imam is from amongst you.
Jewish Armilus.
Very few scholars outside of Orthodox Islam
A hadith in Abu Dawud (37:4310) says: reject all the quotes (Hadith) attributed to
Narrated Abu Hurayrah: The Prophet said: Prophet Muhammad that mention the second
There is no prophet between me and him, that return of Jesus, the Dajjal and Imam Mahdi,
is, Jesus. He will descend (to the earth). When believing that they have no Qur'anic basis.
you see him, recognise him: a man of medium However, Quran emphatically rejects the
height, reddish hair, wearing two light yellow implication of termination of Jesus’ life when he
garments, looking as if drops were falling down was allegedly crucified. Yusuf Ali’s translation
from his head though it will not be wet. He will reads:
fight for the cause of Islam. He will break the That they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus
cross, kill the swine, and put an end to war (in the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";― but
another Tradition, there is the word Jizyah they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it
instead of Harb (war), meaning that he will was made to appear to them and those who
abolish jizyah); God will perish all religions differ therein are full of doubts, with no
except Islam. He [Jesus] will destroy the (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to
Antichrist who will live on the earth for forty follow, for of a surety they killed him not. (157)
days and then he will die. The Muslims will pray Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah
behind him. is Exalted in Power, Wise. (158)[Quran 4:157–
Both Sunni and Shia Muslims agree Imam 158]
Mahdi will arrive first, and after him, Jesus. So Peace is on me the day I was born, the day
Jesus will proclaim that the true leader is al- that I die and the day that I shall be raised up to
Mahdi. A war, literally Jihad (Jihade Asghar) will life (again).[Quran 19:33]
137
This implies that Jesus will die someday. The

unified opinion of Islam maintains that the
In the Bahá'í Faith, the "Messianic Age" refers
bodily death of Jesus will happen after his
to a 1000-year period beginning with the
second coming.
Declaration of Bahá'u'lláh in 1863. Bahá'ís
Many classical commentators such as Ibn believe the period of peace and prosperity is
Kathir, At-Tabari, al-Qurtubi, Suyuti, al-Undlusi gradually unfolding and will culminate in the
(Bahr al-Muhit), Abu al-Fadl al-Alusi (Ruh al- appearance of "The Most Great Peace"
Maani) clearly mention that verse 43:61 of the
Qur'an refers to the descent of Jesus before the
Day of Resurrection, indicating that Jesus would Chapter Eight
be the Sign that the Hour is close.
The Second coming!
And (Jesus) shall be a Sign (for the coming of)
the Hour (of Judgment): therefore have no
doubt about the (Hour)...[Quran 43:61]
In Christianity, the Second Coming of Christ, the
Those[who?] that reject the second coming of
second advent, sometimes called the parousia,
Jesus argue that the knowledge of the Hour is
is the anticipated return of Jesus to Earth. The
only with God, and that the Hour will come
Second Coming belief is based on prophecies
suddenly. They[who?] maintain that if the
found in the canonical gospels and in most
second coming of Jesus were true, whenever it
Christian eschatologies. Christians generally
happens, billions of people would then be
believe the anticipated event is predicted in
certain the Hour is about to come. The response
biblical messianic prophecies. Views about the
given to this[by whom?] is that signs that the
nature of Jesus' Second Coming vary among
Last Hour is near have been foretold and given,
Christian denominations and sometimes among
including that of the second coming of Jesus, as
individual Christians.
signs indicating the Last Hour is near.
They[who?] will not clarify when it is to come in Most English versions of the Nicene Creed in
any specific sense, and hence do not reveal it. current use include the following beliefs about
Jesus: "...he ascended into heaven and is seated
Ahmadiyya
at the right hand of the Father. He will come
In Ahmadiyya Islam, the present age (the again in glory to judge the living and the dead,
Messianic age) has been a witness to the wrath and his kingdom will have no end. ... We look
of God with the occurrence of the World Wars for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of
and the frequency of natural disasters.[15] In the world to come."
Ahmadiyya, Ghulam Ahmad (d.1908) is seen as
the promised Messiah whose Islamic teachings
will establish spiritual reform and ultimately The Greek New Testament uses the Greek term
establish an age of peace upon earth. This age parousia (παρουσία, meaning "arrival",
continues for around a thousand years as per "coming", or "presence") twenty-four times,
judeo-Christian prophecies; and is characterised seventeen of them concerning Christ.[2] The
by the assembling of mankind under one faith word is also used six times referring to
that is Islam as per Ahmadiyya belief . individuals: Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus
[1Co.16:17], Titus[2Co. 7:6-72] and of Paul
Bahá'í Faith
138
himself [2Co. 10:10] [Phil 1:26] [2:12] and one 1:6), "the day of the Son of Man" (Luke 17:30),
time referring to the "coming of the lawless and "the last day" (John 6:39-40).
one".[2Thes 2:9]
Adolf Deissmann (1908)[5] showed that the
The etymology of Greek word parousia is Greek word "parousia" was used as early as the
related to para "beside" ousia "presence". In 3rd century BC to describe the visit of a king or
English "parousia" always has a special, dignitary to a city arranged in order the show
Christian, meaning. his magnificence to the people. The Roman
Advent Coins struck by the cities of Corinth and
Definitions
Patras for Nero's visit reveals the
In Thayer's Lexicon, the Greek word parousia is correspondence between the Greek "parousia"
defined as Strong's G3952: and the Latin "Adventus" and their relationship
to the Greek word "epiphany" that means
...In the N. T. [New Testament] esp. [especially] "appearing".
of the advent, i.e., the future, visible, return
from heaven of Jesus, the Messiah, to raise the Signs of Christ's return
dead, hold the last judgment, and set up
The Book of Acts states:
formally and gloriously the kingdom of God.
Now when He had spoken these things, while
And in the Bauer-Danker Lexicon:
they watched, He was taken up, and a cloud
...of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic received Him out of their sight. And while they
Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of looked steadfastly toward heaven as He went
this age. up, behold, two men stood by them in white
apparel, who also said, "Men of Galilee, why do
And in the Catholic Encyclopedia article on you stand gazing up into heaven? This same
General Judgment: Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven,
In the New Testament the second Parousia, or will so come in like manner as you saw Him go
coming of Christ as Judge of the world, is an oft- into heaven."
repeated doctrine. The Saviour Himself not only —Acts 1:9-11
foretells the event but graphically portrays its
circumstances (Matthew 24:27 sqq. [Olivet Other signs:
discourse]; Matthew sqq. [Judgment of the
The coming of Christ will be instantaneous and
Nations]). The Apostles give a most prominent
worldwide. "For as the lightning comes from the
place to this doctrine in their preaching (Acts
east and flashes to the west, so also will the
10:42, Acts) and writings (Romans 2:5-16;
coming of the Son of Man be." —Matthew
14:10; 1 Cor. 4:5; 2 Cor. 5:10; 2 Tim. 4:1; 2 Thess
24:27
1:5; James 5:7). Besides the name Parusia
(parousia), or Advent (1 Cor. 15:23, 2 Thes. 2:1- The coming of Christ will be visible to all. "Then
9), the second coming is also called Epiphany, the sign of the Son of Man will appear in
epiphaneia, or Appearance (2 Thes. 2:8; 1 Tim. heaven, and then all the tribes of the earth will
6:14; 2 Tim. 4:1; Titus 2:13) and Apocalypse mourn, and they will see the Son of Man
(apokalypsis), or Revelation (2 Thess. 2:7 1 Pet. coming on the clouds of heaven with power and
4:13). The time of the second coming is spoken great glory." —Matthew 24:30
of as "that Day" (2 Tim. 4:8) "the day of the
Lord" (1 Thess. 5:2), "the day of Christ" (Phil
139
The coming of Christ will be audible. "And He "then they will see".[10] Yet some critics note
will send His angels with a great sound of a many are missing such as "But the day of the
trumpet, and they will gather together His elect Lord will come as a thief in the night, in which
from the four winds, from one end of heaven to the heavens will pass away with a great noise,
the other." —Matthew 24:31 and the elements will melt with fervent heat;
both the earth and the works that are in it will
The resurrection of the righteous will occur.
be burned up." (2 Peter 3:10)[11] And "Then the
"For the Lord Himself will descend from heaven
sign of the Son of Man will appear in heaven,
with a shout, with the voice of the archangel,
and then all the tribes of the earth will mourn,
and with the trumpet of God. And the dead in
and they will see the Son of Man coming on the
Christ will rise first." —1 Thessalonians 4:16
clouds of heaven with power and great glory."
In one single event, the saved who are alive at (Matthew 24:30)[12]
Christ's coming will be caught up together with
Some, such as Jerome, interpret the phrase
the resurrected to meet the Lord in the air.
"this generation" to mean lifetime of the Jewish
"Then we who are alive and remain shall be
race; however, other scholars believe that if
caught up together with them in the clouds to
Jesus meant "race" he would have used genos
meet the Lord in the air. And thus we shall
(race) not genea (generation).
always be with the Lord." —1 Thessalonians
4:17 Catholic and Orthodox
Katechon
According to historian Charles Freeman, early Most English versions of the Nicene Creed in
Christians expected Jesus to return within a current use include the following beliefs about
generation of his death and the non-occurrence Jesus: "...he ascended into heaven and is seated
of the second coming surprised the early at the right hand of the Father. He will come
Christian communities. again in glory to judge the living and the dead,
and his kingdom will have no end. ... We look
Children, it is the last hour; and just as you
for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of
heard that Antichrist is coming, even now many
the world to come. Amen."
antichrists have appeared; from this we know
that it is the last hour. It is the traditional view of Catholics and
Orthodox Christians, preserved from the early
—1 John 2:18
Church, that the second coming will be a
Preterism sudden and unmistakable incident, like "a flash
of lightning".[Mt 24:27] They hold the general
The position associating the Second Coming view that Jesus will not spend any time on the
with 1st century events such as the destruction earth in ministry or preaching. They also agree
of Jerusalem and of the Jewish Temple in AD 70 that the ministry of the Antichrist will take place
is known as Preterism. right before the Second Coming.
Some Preterists see this "coming of the Son of Respected Orthodox layman Alexander
Man in glory" primarily fulfilled in Jesus' death Kalomiros explains the original Church's
on the cross. They believe the apocalyptic signs position regarding the Second Coming in River
are already fulfilled including "the sun will be of Fire and Against False Union, stating that
dark",[8] the "powers ... will be shaken,"[9] and those who contend that Christ will reign on
140
earth for a thousand years "do not wait for though some may form their own ideas of how
Christ, but for the Antichrist." The idea of Jesus and where it will happen.[citation needed]
returning to this earth as a king is a heretical
Seventh-day Adventist
concept to the Church, equated to "the
expectations of the Jews who wanted the Main article: Seventh-day Adventist eschatology
Messiah to be an earthly King." The Church
instead teaches that which it has taught since Fundamental Belief #25 of the Seventh-day
the beginning—Christ will not return to earth, Adventist Church states:
rather the Kingdom of Heaven, the New The second coming of Christ is the blessed hope
Jerusalem, will be established through the of the church, the grand climax of the gospel.
Resurrection of the dead. The Saviour's coming will be literal, personal,
Protestant visible, and worldwide. When He returns, the
righteous dead will be resurrected, and
together with the righteous living will be
glorified and taken to heaven, but the
unrighteous will die. The almost complete
The Second Coming of Christ stained glass fulfillment of most lines of prophecy, together
window at St. Matthew's German Evangelical with the present condition of the world,
Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina, indicates that Christ's coming is imminent. The
United States. time of that event has not been revealed, and
we are therefore exhorted to be ready at all
The many denominations of Protestantism have
times. (Titus 2:13; Heb. 9:28; John 14:1-3; Acts
differing views on the exact details of Christ's
1:9-11; Matt. 24:14; Rev. 1:7; Matt. 24:43, 44; 1
second coming. Only a handful of Christian
Thess. 4:13-18; 1 Cor. 15:51-54; 2 Thess. 1:7-10;
organizations claim complete and authoritative
2:8; Rev. 14:14-20; 19:11-21; Matt. 24; Mark 13;
interpretation of the typically symbolic and
Luke 21; 2 Tim. 3:1-5; 1 Thess. 5:1-6.)
prophetic biblical sources. A common thread is
the belief that Jesus will return to judge the Jehovah's Witnesses
world and to establish the kingdom of God
Jehovah's Witnesses rarely use the term
(fulfilling the rest of Messianic prophecy).
"second coming", preferring the term
A short reference to the second coming is "presence" as a translation of parousia. They
contained in the Nicene Creed, a prominent believe that Jesus' comparison of "the presence
Christian statement of faith: "He [Jesus] shall of the Son of man" with "the days of Noah" at
come again in glory to judge the living and the Matthew 24:37-39 and Luke 17:26-30 suggests
dead; and His kingdom shall have no end." An a duration rather than a moment of arrival.
analogous statement is also in the biblical
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that biblical
Pauline Creed.[1Cor 15:23].
chronology points to 1914 as the start of
Some Lutheran, Anglican and United Methodist Christ's "presence", which continues until
liturgies proclaim the Mystery of Faith to be: Armageddon. Other biblical expressions they
"Christ has died, Christ is risen, Christ will come correlate with this period include "the time of
again." the end" (Dan 12:4), "the conclusion of the
system of things" (Matt 13:40,49; 24:3) and "the
Generally, Protestant Christianity does not offer
last days" (2 Tim 3:1; 2 Peter 3:3). Witnesses
predictions on the date of the second coming,
141
believe Christ's millennial reign begins after Last Judgment (Esoteric Christian tradition)
Armageddon.
In Rosicrucian esoteric Christian teaching, there
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a clear distinction between the cosmic Christ,
or Christ without, and the Christ within.
Further information: Second Coming (LDS
According to this tradition, the Christ within is
Church)
regarded as the true Saviour who needs to be
Latter-day Saints believe that Christ shall return born within each individual in order to evolve
as it is written in the Bible. Jeffrey R. Holland, toward the future Sixth Epoch in the Earth's
one of the Twelve Apostles, wrote, "I testify etheric plane, that is, toward the "new heavens
that Jesus Christ is the literal, living Son of our and a new earth": the New Galilee. The Second
literal, living God. This Jesus is our Savior and Coming or Advent of the Christ is not in a
Redeemer who, under the guidance of the physical body, but in the new soul body of each
Father, was the Creator of heaven and earth individual in the etheric plane of the planet
and all things that in them are. I bear witness where man "shall be caught up in the clouds to
that He was born of a virgin mother, that in His meet the Lord in the air." The "day and hour"
lifetime He performed mighty miracles when this event shall be, as described in the
observed by legions of His disciples and by His Bible, is not in the human knowledge domain.
enemies as well. I testify that He had power The esoteric Christian tradition teaches that
over death because He was divine but that He first there will be a preparatory period as the
willingly subjected Himself to death for our sake Sun enters Aquarius by precession: the coming
because for a period of time He was also Age of Aquarius.
mortal. I declare that in His willing submission
Dispensationalists
to death He took upon Himself the sins of the
world, paying an infinite price for every sorrow This section does not cite any references or
and sickness, every heartache and unhappiness sources. Please help improve this section by
from Adam to the end of the world. In doing so adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
He conquered both the grave physically and hell material may be challenged and removed.
spiritually and set the human family free. I bear (November 2011)
witness that He was literally resurrected from
Dispensationalism
the tomb and, after ascending to His Father, to
complete the process of that Resurrection, He Premillennialism
appeared, repeatedly, to hundreds of disciples
in the Old World and in the New. I know He is Dispensationalists believe:
the Holy One of Israel, the Messiah who will The coming of Christ will be instantaneous and
one day come again in final glory, to reign on worldwide. "For as the lightning comes from the
earth as Lord of lords and King of kings." Full east and flashes to the west, so also will the
text coming of the Son of Man be." ~ Gospel of
Notably Latter-day Saints have particularly Matthew 24:27
distinct and specific interpretations as to The coming of Christ will be visible to all. "Then
various signs presented in the Book of the sign of the Son of Man will appear in
Revelation. heaven, and then all the tribes of the earth will
Esoteric Christian teachings mourn, and they will see the Son of Man
142
coming on the clouds of heaven with power and As the crowning act in the great drama of
great glory." Matthew 24:30 deception, Satan himself will impersonate
Christ. The church has long professed to look to
The coming of Christ will be audible. "And He
the Saviour's advent as the consummation of
will send His angels with a great sound of a
her hopes. Now the great deceiver will make it
trumpet, and they will gather together His elect
appear that Christ has come. In different parts
from the four winds, from one end of heaven to
of the earth, Satan will manifest himself among
the other." Matthew 24:31
men as a majestic being of dazzling brightness,
Last Day counterfeits resembling the description of the Son of God
given by John in the Revelation. (Revelation
Antichrist and False Prophet 1:13-15). The glory that surrounds him is
Many Christians believe there will be a great unsurpassed by anything that mortal eyes have
deception before the coming of Christ. In yet beheld. The shout of triumph rings out upon
Matthew 24, Jesus states: the air: "Christ has come! Christ has come!" The
people prostrate themselves in adoration
For at that time there will be great tribulation, before him, while he lifts up his hands and
such as has not been since the beginning of the pronounces a blessing upon them, as Christ
world until now, nor ever will be. And if those blessed His disciples when He was upon the
days had not been shortened, no one would be earth. His voice is soft and subdued, yet full of
saved; but for the sake of the elect they will be melody. In gentle, compassionate tones he
shortened. If anyone says to you then, 'Look, presents some of the same gracious, heavenly
here is the Messiah!' or, 'There he is!' do not truths which the Saviour uttered; he heals the
believe it. False messiahs and false prophets will diseases of the people, and then, in his assumed
arise, and they will perform signs and wonders character of Christ, he claims to have changed
so great as to deceive, if that were possible, the Sabbath to Sunday, and commands all to
even the elect. hallow the day which he has blessed.
—Matthew 24:21, 24 (NAB) —The Great Controversy, p. 624
These false Christs will perform great signs and Specific date predictions and claims
are no ordinary people "For they are spirits of
demons, performing signs, which go out to the
kings of the earth and of the whole world, to Predictions and claims for the Second Coming
gather them to the battle of that great day of of Christ
God Almighty." (Revelation 16:14) Satan's
angels will also appear as godly clergymen, and List of messiah claimants and Olivet discourse
Satan will appear as an angel of light. "For such
A number of specific dates have been suggested
are false apostles, deceitful workers,
for the Second Coming of Christ. Some of these
transforming themselves into apostles of Christ.
predictions have passed many decades ago and
And no wonder! For Satan himself transforms
some are decades away.
himself into an angel of light. Therefore it is no
great thing if his ministers also transform Victor J. Stenger notes that Jesus is recorded as
themselves into ministers of righteousness, saying, " ...there are some standing here, which
whose end will be according to their works." shall not taste death, till they see the Son of
Man coming in his kingdom ", Matt 16:28. He
—2 Corinthians 11:13-15)
143
makes similar predictions in four other places in promises, which in the future world to come
the Gospels; Mark 9:1, Mark 13:30, Matt 24:34, result in a millennial kingdom and Third Temple
Luke 9:27. In Stenger's view, when the coming where Christ, upon his return, will rule the
did not happen within the life-times of his world from Jerusalem for a thousand years. In
disciples, as Jesus prophesied, Christianity other areas of theology, dispensationalists hold
changed its emphasis to the Resurrection and to a wide range of beliefs within the evangelical
promise of eternal life. and fundamentalist spectrum.:13
With the rise of dispensationalism, some

conservative Protestants came to interpret
Book of Revelation not as an account of past
events (with specific reference to the
destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, a position
known as Preterism) but as predictions of the
future.
Estimates of the number of followers of

Dispensationalist beliefs vary between 5 and 40
million in the United States alone.
One of the most important underlying

theological concepts for dispensationalism is
Chapter Nine
progressive revelation. While some non-
Dispensationalism dispensationalists start with progressive
revelation in the New Testament and refer this
revelation back into the Old Testament,
dispensationalists begin with progressive
Dispensationalism is an evangelical, futurist, revelation in the Old Testament and read
Biblical interpretation that understands God to forward in a historical sense. Therefore there is
have related to human beings in different ways an emphasis on a gradually developed unity as
under different Biblical covenants in a series of seen in the entirety of Scripture. Biblical
"dispensations," or periods in history. covenants are intricately tied to the
As a system, dispensationalism is expounded in dispensations. When these Biblical covenants
the writings of John Nelson Darby (1800–82) are compared and contrasted, the result is a
and the Plymouth Brethren movement,:10 and historical ordering of different dispensations.
propagated through works such as Cyrus Also with regard to the different Biblical
Scofield's Scofield Reference Bible. The theology covenant promises, dispensationalism
of dispensationalism consists of a distinctive emphasises to whom these promises were
eschatological end times perspective, as all written, the original recipients. This has led to
dispensationalists hold to premillennialism and certain fundamental dispensational beliefs,
most hold to a pretribulation rapture. such as a distinction between Israel and the
Dispensationalists believe that the nation of Church.
Israel is distinct from the Christian Church:322 Historical-grammatical interpretation
and that God has yet to fulfill his promises to
national Israel. These promises include the land Another important theological concept is the
emphasis on what is referred to as the
144
historical-grammatical method of Advocates Dual Covenant

interpretation. This is often popularly referred
Theology Classical
to as the "literal" interpretation of Scripture.
Just as Israel was said to have literally Dispensationalism Progressive
experienced the curses spoken of in the Old
Testament, dispensationalists believe that they Dispensationalism New Covenant
will one day, literally, receive the blessings Theology Covenant
spoken of in the Old Testament. Just as it is with
progressive revelation, the historical- Premillenialism Covenant
grammatical method is not a concept or Theology Supersessionism
practice that is exclusive just to
dispensationalists. However, a dispensational Classical dispensationalists refer to the present
distinctive is created when the historical- day Church as a "parenthesis" or temporary
grammatical method of interpretation is closely interlude in the progress of Israel's prophesied
coupled with an emphasis on progressive history. Progressive dispensationalism "softens"
revelation along with the historical the Church/Israel distinction by seeing some
development of the covenants in Scripture. Old Testament promises as expanded by the
New Testament to include the Church.
Distinction between Israel and the Church However, progressives never view this
All dispensationalists hold to a clear distinction expansion as replacing promises to its original
between Israel and the Church. Israel is an audience, Israel.
ethnic nation consisting of Hebrews (Israelites), Covenant Theology is the alternative view to
beginning with Abraham and continuing in dispensationalism that holds that God has one
existence to the present. The church consists of people Israel and the promises to Israel made in
all saved individuals in this present dispensation the Old Testament were fulfilled in Jesus Christ,
—i.e., from the "birth of the Church" in Acts the new Israel, and the object of Abraham's
until the time of the Rapture. The distinction hope. Dispensationalists have often criticized
between Israel and the Church is not mutually Covenant Theology as being identical with what
exclusive, as there is a recognized overlap they call "Replacement Theology" or
between the two. The overlap consists of Supersessionism, the concept that the Church
Jewish Christians (such as Peter and Paul – has replaced Israel. However, in Covenant
although the Apostle Paul was also a Roman Theology, the church is not a replacement for
citizen, by birth, he was of the tribe of Benjamin the nation of Israel but an expansion of it where
and a strong Jewish nationalist in heart (Rom Gentiles are "grafted into" the existing covenant
9:1-3)) who are ethnically Jewish and also have community. Jewish Christians are included in
faith in Jesus Christ. Dispensationalists also the spiritual Israel.
believe that toward the end of the Tribulation,
Israel as a nation will turn and embrace Jesus as Dispensations
their messiah right before his second coming
The label "dispensationalism" is derived from
during the Great Tribulation. The spectrum of
the idea that Biblical history is best understood
teaching on Israel and the Church may be
through division into a series of chronologically
depicted as below:
successive dispensations. The number of
Spectrum of Belief about Church–Israel dispensations held are typically three, four,
Distinctions seven, or eight. The three- and four-
145
dispensation schemes are often referred to as (minimalist)

minimalist, as they recognize the commonly
Law Grace Kingdom
held major breaks within Biblical history. The
seven- and eight-dispensation schemes are Start of the Church Age
often closely associated with the
announcement or inauguration of certain Mainstream dispensationalists such as Scofield
Biblical covenants. Below is a table comparing and Ironside identify Pentecost, in the second
the various dispensational schemes: chapter of Acts, with the start of the Church as
distinct from Israel; this may be referred to as
Range of Bible Chapters the "Acts 2" position.Grace Movement
Dispensationalist believe that the church
Schemes Genesis 1–3 Genesis 3–8
started after Acts 2, focusing primarily on the
Genesis 9–11 Genesis 12
ministry of Paul. Advocates of the "mid-Acts"
to Exodus 19 Exodus 20 until position, such as Darby identify the start of the
church after the stoning of Stephen in Acts 7, or
Birth of the Church Church Age
with the salvation of Saul in Acts 9, or with
until Rapture Revelation 20:4–6 Paul's first missionary journey in Acts 13. The
Revelation 20–22 'Acts 28' position, most notably expounded by
E. W. Bullinger, posits the beginning of the
7 or 8 Dispensational church after the 28th and concluding chapter of
Scheme Acts.
Hyperdispensationalists are considered divisive

notably because they reject the rite of water
Innocence baptism practiced by almost all Christian
or Edenic Conscience denominations. They do practice baptism, but
instead of water baptism (which is sometimes
or Antediluvian Civil Government considered the only baptism), they believe in
Patriarchal Baptism with the Holy Spirit, which occurs when
a person becomes saved by believing that Jesus
or Promise Mosaic
Christ died for our sins. Grace Movement
or Law Grace Dispensationalist do not condone water
baptism, but rather recognize it as not being
or Church Millennial Kingdom Eternal
needed, they believe being baptized by water
State
does not prevent salvation.
or Final
Eschatology
4 Dispensational
Comparison of Christian millennial
Scheme interpretations
Dispensationalists are premillenialists who

affirm a future, literal 1,000-year reign of Jesus
Patriarchal Mosaic Ecclesial Zionic Christ which merges with and continues on to
3 Dispensational the eternal state in the "new heavens and the
new earth", and they hold that the millennial
Scheme
146
kingdom will be theocratic in nature and not different covenants between God and mankind,
mainly soteriological, as it is viewed by George but not dispensations.
Eldon Ladd and others who hold to a non-
As a system, dispensationalism is rooted in the
dispensational form of premillennialism.
Plymouth Brethren movement in the 1830s of
Dispensationalism is known for its views
Ireland and England, and in the teachings of
respecting the nation of Israel during this
John Nelson Darby (1800–82). The original
millennial kingdom reign, in which Israel as a
concept came from Darby's interpretation of 2
nation plays a major role and regains a king, a
Timothy 2:15, "...rightly dividing the word of
land, and an everlasting kingdom.
truth".
The vast majority of dispensationalists hold to
Darby traveled extensively to continental
the pretribulation rapture, with small minorities
Europe, New Zealand, Canada, and the United
holding to either a mid-tribulation or post-
States in an attempt to make converts to the
tribulation rapture.
Brethren movement. Over time, Darby's
History eschatological views grew in popularity in the
United States, especially among Baptists and
Old School Presbyterians.:293
History of the development of
United States of America
dispensationalism
This article needs additional citations for

This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed.
material may be challenged and removed. (July
(January 2011)
2009)
John Nelson Darby is recognized as the father of
The concept of arranging of divisions in Biblical
dispensationalism,:10, 293 later made popular
history dates back to Irenaeus in the second
in the United States by Cyrus Scofield's Scofield
century. Other Christian writers and leaders
Reference Bible. Charles Henry Mackintosh,
since then, such as Augustine of Hippo and
1820–96, with his popular style spread Darby's
Joachim of Fiore (1135–1202), have also offered
teachings to humbler elements in society and
their own arrangements of history.:116 Many
may be regarded as the journalist of the
Protestant and Calvinist writers, including
Brethren Movement. Mackintosh popularized
Herman Witsius, Francis Turretin, and Isaac
Darby more than any other Brethren author.
Watts also developed theological schemes and
divisions in history, in particular after the As there was no Christian teaching of a
Westminster Confession of Faith noted "various "rapture" before Darby began preaching about
dispensations". Other concepts such as it in the 1830s, he is sometimes credited with
premillennialism and the rapture also predated originating the "secret rapture" theory wherein
dispensationalism as a system. Stemming from Christ will suddenly remove his bride, the
the Reformed tradition emerged the Covenant Church, from this world before the judgments
Theology, which deals with Biblical history as of the tribulation. Dispensationalist beliefs
about the fate of the Jews and the re-
147
establishment of the Kingdom of Israel put Dispensationalism began to evolve during this
dispensationalists at the forefront of Christian time, most significantly when a significant body
Zionism, because "God is able to graft them in of dispensationalists proposed the "pre-
again", and they believe that in his grace he will tribulation" rapture. This caused a bit of a clash
do so according to their understanding of Old with the "historical premillennialists" within the
Testament prophecy. They believe that, while Fundamentalist camp. Dispensationalist leaders
the methodologies of God may change, his in Moody's circle include Reuben Archer Torrey
purposes to bless Israel will never be forgotten, (1856–1928), James M. Gray (1851–1925),
just as he has shown unmerited favour to the Cyrus I. Scofield (1843–1921), William J. Erdman
Church, he will do so to a remnant of Israel to (1833–1923), A. C. Dixon (1854–1925), A. J.
fulfill all the promises made to the genetic seed Gordon (1836–95) and William Eugene
of Abraham. Blackstone, author of the bestselling book of
the 1800s titled, "Jesus is Coming" (endorsed by
Dispensationalism was introduced to North
Torrey and Erdman). These men were activist
America by James Inglis (1813–72), through a
evangelists who promoted a host of Bible
monthly magazine called Waymarks in the
conferences and other missionary and
Wilderness, published intermittently between
evangelistic efforts.
1854 and 1872.[citation needed] In 1866 Inglis
organized the Believers' Meeting for Bible They also gave the dispensationalist movement
Study, which introduced dispensationalist ideas institutional permanence by assuming
to a small but influential circle of American leadership of the new independent Bible
evangelicals. They were disturbed by the institutes such as the Moody Bible Institute in
inroads of liberalism and saw premillennialism 1886, the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (now
as an answer. Dispensationalism was Biola University) in 1908, and the Philadelphia
introduced as a premillennial position and it College of the Bible (now Philadelphia Biblical
took over the Fundamentalist movement which University) in 1913. The network of related
stood against liberalism. The American church institutes that soon sprang up became the
denominations rejected Darby's ecclesiology nucleus for the spread of American
but accepted his eschatology. Many of these dispensationalism.
churches were Presbyterian and Baptist and
The efforts of CI Scofield and his associates
they retained Darby's Calvinistic soteriology
introduced dispensationalism to a wider
who had applied it to his notion of
audience in America through his Scofield
dispensations. After Inglis' death, James H.
Reference Bible. The publication of the Scofield
Brookes (1830–98), the pastor of Walnut Street
Reference Bible in 1909 by the Oxford
Presbyterian Church in St. Louis, organized the
University Press for the first time displayed
Niagara Bible Conference to continue the
overtly dispensationalist notes to the pages of
dissemination of dispensationalist ideas.
the Biblical text. The Scofield Reference Bible
Dispensationalism was boosted after Dwight L.
became a popular Bible used by independent
Moody (1837–99) learned of "dispensational
Evangelicals and Fundamentalists in the United
truth" from an unidentified member of the
States. Evangelist and Bible teacher Lewis
Brethren in 1872. Moody became close to
Sperry Chafer (1871–1952), who was influenced
Brookes and other dispensationalists, and
by CI Scofield, founded the Dallas Theological
encouraged the spread of dispensationalism,
Seminary in 1924, which has become the
but apparently never learned the nuances of
flagship of dispensationalism in America. More
the dispensationalist system.
148
recently, the Baptist Bible Seminary in Clark Stam and other "grace" teachers. It is however
Summit, Pennsylvania became another contended by dispensational teachers such as
dispensational school. Charles Caldwell Ryrie, J. Dwight Pentecost and
Arnold Fruchtenbaum that
The Grace Movement, which began about 1938
ultradispensationalism is removed enough from
with the teaching ministries of JC O'Hair,
dispensationalism to not any longer be
Cornelius R. Stam, Henry T. Hudson and Charles
dispensationalism at all. Nevertheless,
Baker has been labeled "ultra" or "hyper"
ultradispensationalism continues to be
dispensationalism. The term serves to
forcefully advocated by many as the consistent
distinguish a theological system that has applied
position on dispensationalism. They allege that
the tenets of dispensationalism far more
the Acts 2 position does not take the time to
consistently than the Acts 2 position. Thus it has
properly and fully understand the Mid-Acts
also been designated at times as "consistent"
position and challenge it in any way other than
dispensationalism. J.C. O'Hair in the early 1920s
superficially if at all. Mostly, they feel consistent
understood the "sign" gifts to be not for this age
dispensationalists are ignored and that, until
of grace and thus not for the present church.
consistent dispensationalism is taken seriously,
Soon thereafter, he understood as a correlating
such dismissals by Acts 2 proponents cannot be
dispensational truth that water baptism could
taken seriously. Ultradispensationalists consider
not then apply to this dispensation either.
themselves fundamentalists, evangelical, and
Among others, DeHaan and Ironside were
serious dispensationalists holding to the tenets
sympathetic and did not perform the water rite
of dispensationalism far more strictly and
themselves but none of these men forbade it if
precisely than the more popular Acts 2 position.
a Christian had a conscience to be baptized. By
the 1930s, J.C. O'Hair rejected an Acts chapter Dispensationalism has become very popular
two beginning of the church and started to with American evangelicalism[citation needed],
explore and lean towards a position similar to especially among nondenominational Bible
Sir Robert Anderson and E.W. Bullinger. It was churches, Baptists, Pentecostal, and Charismatic
during this time that Ironside wrote "Wrongly groups.
Dividing The Brethren" attacking "Bullingerism"
Protestant denomiminations that as a whole
(i.e., the Acts 28 position). Some have failed to
embrace covenant theology reject
understand that Ironside's book does not
dispensationalism. For example, the General
address the Mid-Acts position which O'Hair had
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church USA
not settled on until later. Almost all attacks on
termed it "evil and subversive" and regards it as
hyper-dispensationalism totally fail to
a heresy.
differentiate between the Mid-Acts position and
the Acts 28 position. But J,C, O'Hair also
rejected the Acts 28 position after studying the
writings of Bullinger and C.H. Welch. O'Hair
seems to finally have landed on the Mid-Acts
position by about 1938.
The contrasts between law and grace, prophecy

and mystery, Israel and the Church, the body of
Christ were promoted by Scofield, Barnhouse
and Ironside, then studied and taught by O'Hair,
149
Beast symbolize as well as the possible

implications for contemporary interpretations.
The “great whore”, of the biblical book of

Revelation is featured in chapters 17 and 18.
Many passages define symbolic meanings
inherent in the text.
17:1 And there came one of the seven angels

which had the seven vials, and talked with me,
saying unto me, Come hither; I will shew unto
thee the judgment of the great whore that
sitteth upon many waters:
17:2 With whom the kings of the earth have

committed fornication, and the inhabitants of
the earth have been made drunk with the wine
of her fornication. ["Fornication" is
interpreted/translated as "idolatry" in the
Amplified Bible (AMP), the New American Bible
mentions "harlotry"]
17:3 So he carried me away in the spirit into

the wilderness: and I saw a woman sit upon a
scarlet coloured beast, full of names of
Chapter Ten blasphemy, having seven heads and ten horns.
Whore of Babylon 17:4 And the woman was arrayed in purple
and scarlet colour, and decked with gold and
precious stones and pearls, having a golden cup
The Whore of Babylon or "Babylon the Great" is
in her hand full of abominations and filthiness
a Christian figure of evil mentioned in the Book
of her fornication:
of Revelation in the Bible. Her full title is given
as "Babylon the Great, the Mother of 17:5 And upon her forehead was a name
Prostitutes and Abominations of the Earth." written a mystery: Babylon The Great, the
(Greek: Βαβυλὼν ἡ μεγάλη, ἡ μήτηρ τῶν mother of harlots and abominations of the
πορνῶν καὶ τῶν βδελυγμάτων τῆς γῆς; Earth. [King James Version);' the New
transliterated Babylōn ē Megalē, ē mētēr tōn International Version uses "prostitutes" instead
pornōn kai tōn bdelygmatōn tēs Gēs.) of "harlots"].
The Whore is associated with the Antichrist and 17:6 And I saw the woman drunken with the
the Beast of Revelation by connection with an blood of the saints, and with the blood of the
equally evil kingdom. (The word "Whore" can martyrs of Jesus: and when I saw her, I
also be translated as "Idolatress".) The Whore's wondered with great admiration.
apocalyptic downfall is prophesied to take place
in the hands of the beast with seven heads and 17:9 And here is the mind which hath
ten horns. There is much speculation within wisdom. The seven heads are seven mountains,
Christian eschatology on what the Whore and on which the woman sat. [King James Version);
150
the New International Version Bible and the of Jerusalem or Roman Judaea exercised his
New American Bible use "hills" instead of power at the pleasure of the Emperor, and was
"mountains". dependent on Roman influence, like Herod the
Great in the Gospel according to Luke.
17:10 And there are seven kings: five are
fallen, and one is, and the other is not yet In 4 Ezra (2 Esdras/4 Esdras; see the article on
come; and when he comes, he must continue a the naming conventions of the Books of Ezra), 2
short space. Baruch and the Sibylline oracles, "Babylon" is a
cryptic name for Rome. Elsewhere in the New
17:11 And the beast that was, and is not, even
Testament, in 1 Peter 5:13; some speculate that
he is the eighth, and is of the seven, and goes
"Babylon" is used to refer to Rome. In
into perdition.
Revelation 17:9 it is said that she sits on "seven
17:12 And the ten horns which thou saw are mountains" (the King James Version Bible—the
ten kings, which have received no kingdom as New International Version Bible uses the words
yet; but receive power as kings one hour with "seven hills"), typically understood as the seven
the beast. hills of Rome. A Roman coin minted under the
Emperor Vespasian (ca. 70 AD) depicts Rome as
17:15 And he said unto me, The waters which a woman sitting on seven hills.
thou sawest, where the whore sat, are peoples,
and multitudes, and nations, and tongues. According to the International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia, "The characteristics ascribed to
17:18 And the woman which thou sawest is this Babylon apply to Rome rather than to any
that great city, which reigns over the kings of other city of that age: (a) as ruling over the
the earth. kings of the earth (Revelation 17:18); (b) as
— Revelation 17:4–18 (various) sitting on seven mountains (Revelation 17:9); (c)
as the center of the world's merchandise
See also: Revelation 17:1, Parallel Translations (Revelation 18:3, 11–13); (d) as the corrupter of
Preterist interpretations the nations (Revelation 17:2; 18:3; 19:2); (e) as
the persecutor of the saints (Revelation 17:6)."
Earthly Jerusalem
Rome and the Roman Empire
The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem, by
Many Biblical scholars believe that "Babylon" is David Roberts (1850)
an allegory of the pagan Roman Empire at the
time it persecuted Christians, before the Edict Many Biblical scholars and theologians point
of Milan in 313: perhaps specifically, at the out that although Rome was the prevailing
time, referencing some aspect of Rome's rule pagan power in the 1st century when the Book
(brutality, greed, paganism). Some exegetes of Revelation was written, the symbolism of the
interpret the passage as a scathing critique of a whore of Babylon refers not to an invading
servant people of Rome who do the Empire's infidel of foreign power, but to an apostate
bidding, interpreting that the author of false queen, a former "bride" who has been
Revelation was speaking of the Herodians - a unfaithful and who, even though she has been
party of Jews friendly to Rome and open to her divorced and cast out because of
influence, like the Hellenizers of centuries past - unfaithfulness, continues to falsely claim to be
and later, corrupt Hasmoneans, where the ruler the "queen" of the spiritual realm. This
symbolism did not fit the case of Rome at the
151
time. Proponents of this view suggest that the Dante equated the corruption and simony in
"seven mountains" in Rev 17:9 are the seven the office of the Papacy with the Whore of
hills on which Jerusalem stands and the "fall of Babylon in Canto 19 of his Inferno:
Babylon" in Rev 18 is the fall and destruction of
Di voi pastor s'accorse il Vangelista,
Jerusalem in 70 AD[26] The dress of the whore
of Babylon is similar to the Jerusalem High quando colei che siede sopra l'acque
Priest (Exodus 28:6).
puttaneggiar coi regi a lui fu vista...
Several Old Testament prophets referred to
Jerusalem as being a spiritual harlot and a (Shepherds like you the Evangelist had in mind
mother of such harlotry (Isaiah 1:21; Jeremiah when he saw the one that sits upon the waters
2:20; Jeremiah 3:1–11; Ezekiel 16:1–43; Ezekiel committing fornication with the kings.)
23, Galatians 4:25). Some of the these Old Reformational view
Testament prophecies as well as the warnings in
the New Testament concerning Jerusalem are in Antichrist (historicism)
fact very close to the text concerning Babylon in
Revelation, suggesting that John may well have
actually been citing those prophecies in his
description of Babylon.
Whore of Babylon wearing a papal tiara from a
For example, in Matthew 23:34–37 and Luke woodcut in Luther's translation of the New
11:47–51, Jesus himself assigned all of the Testament
bloodguilt for the killing of the prophets and of
Historicist interpreters commonly used the
the saints (of all time) to the Pharisees of
phrase "Whore of Babylon" to refer to the
Jerusalem, and, in Revelation 17:6 and
Roman Catholic Church. Reformation writers
18:20,24, almost identical phrasing is used in
from Martin Luther (1483–1546) (who wrote On
charging that very same bloodguilt to Babylon.
the Babylonian Captivity of the Church), John
This is also bolstered by Jesus' statement that
Calvin (1509–1564), and John Knox (1510–1572)
"it's not possible for a prophet to be killed
(who wrote The First Blast of the Trumpet
outside of Jerusalem." (Luke 13:33).
Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women)
Historicist and idealistic interpretations taught this association. The Catholic Church
denies the claim that it is being referred to by
the Book of Revelation as the Whore of
Catholic Church Babylon.
For medieval Spanish Catholics, the Whore of Most early Protestant Reformers believed, and
Babylon (Revelation, 17.4-5) (a Christian the modern Seventh-day Adventist Church
allegory of evil) was incarnated by the Emirate teaches, that in Bible prophecy a woman
of Cordoba. represents a church. "I have likened the
daughter of Zion To a lovely and delicate
Many protestant and non-catholic churches woman." (Jeremiah 6:2 nkjv) A harlot, it is
interpret the Whore of Babylon to be the argued, is representative of a church that has
Catholic Church which is in union with the pope. been unfaithful:
Some of their views are:
"Go, take yourself a wife of harlotry
Pre-Reformation views
152
And children of harlotry, discovered at the time of Jesus). Thus, Ellen

Gould White concluded that the true "Whore of
For the land has committed great harlotry
Babylon" must be the "Roman" Catholic Church
By departing from the LORD.” (Hosea 1:2 nkjv) (disregarding the other 22 sui iuris Eastern
Catholic Churches), giving lasting impetus and
They also believed that the primary location of inspiration to the strong anti-Catholicism
this unfaithful church is stated in the same present throughout much of Adventism through
chapter. its history.
"And the woman whom you saw is that great The world empire of false religion
city which reigns over the kings of the earth."
(Revelation 17:18) Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Whore of
Babylon represents "the world empire of false
The connection noted above on the seven hills religion",[40] referring to all elements of
of Rome is argued to locate the church. worldly religions that do not adhere to biblical
Identification of the Pope as the Antichrist was truth as published by the Watchtower Bible and
written into Protestant creeds such as the Tract Society (WTS) and as interpreted and
Westminster Confession of 1646. The defined by the Governing Body of Jehovah's
identification of the Roman Catholic Church Witnesses (the institutional and leadership
with the Whore of Babylon is kept in the organizations of Jehovah's Witnesses). This
Scofield Reference Bible (whose 1917 edition includes, but is not limited to, Christendom, a
identified "ecclesiastical Babylon" with term they use to refer to "professed
"apostate Christendom headed by the Papacy"). Christianity" (Nominal Christianity) as opposed
to "true Christianity". Jehovah's Witnesses
Semanticist view literature often mentions the Catholic religion
Some traditionalist Catholics who hold the when discussing The Great Harlot of Babylon,
position of Sedevacantism, most notably the and the subsequent attack on her by the
Most Holy Family Monastery, believe that a political powers, signaling the beginning of the
counterfeit bride – a Counter-Catholic Church – "great tribulation".
will arise in the end times in order to deceive They believe that the harlot—the empire of
faithful Catholics; they teach that this false religion and an enemy of God—has
counterfeit Church is the Roman Catholic persecuted God's prophets and people, and
Church after the Second Vatican Council. that 'false religion'—all religions that do not
Seventh-Day Adventist view follow Bible teaching; commits and has
committed "fornication" with the world's
Because Ellen Gould White, one of the founders political and commercial elements.
of the Seventh-Day Adventists, concluded that
"Spiritual Babylon" would have worldwide
influence, affecting "all nations", she wrote, in a
book called The Great Controversy (often
reprinted as "America in Prophecy": one of the
large corpus of Ms White's writings), that
Imperial Rome could not meet the criteria, as
she wrote that it only had influence in the Old
World (the New World had not yet been
153
154
hearers, completely for initiates) and diligently

searching for wisdom by helping others.
However, practices vary. In Gnosticism, the
world of the demiurge is represented by the
lower world which is associated with matter,
flesh, time, molecules and more particularly an
imperfect, ephemeral world. The world of God
is represented by the upper world, and is
associated with the soul and perfection. The
world of God is eternal and not part of the
physical. It is impalpable, and time doesn't exist
there. To rise to God, the Gnostic must reach
the "knowledge" which mixes philosophy,
metaphysics, curiosity, culture, knowledge, and
the secrets of history and the universe.
Gnosticism is primarily defined in a Christian

context. have claimed that gnosticism predated
Christianity and included pre-Christian religious
beliefs and spiritual practices argued to be
common to early Christianity, Neoplatonism,
Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Roman mystery
religions, and Zoroastrianism (especially
Zurvanism).- The discussion of gnosticism
Module Four the study of changed radically with the discovery of the Nag
Gnosticism Hammadi library and led to a revision of older
assumptions
Chapter One The Egyptian Gnostic Basilideans referred to a

The meaning of Gnosticism figure called Abraxas who was at the head of
365 spiritual beings (Irenaeus, Adversus
Haereses, it is unclear what to make of
Irenaeus' use of the term "Archon", which may
simply mean "ruler" in this context. The role
Gnosticism (from gnostikos, "learned", from
and function of Abraxas for Basilideans is not
Ancient Greek: γνῶσις gnōsis, knowledge;
clear.
Arabic: ‫ الغنوصية‬al-ġnūṣīh) is the belief that the
material world created by the demiurge should The word Abraxas was engraved on certain
be shunned and the spiritual world (God's antique gemstones, called on that account
world) should be embraced. Gnostic ideas Abraxas stones, which may have been used as
influenced many ancient religions which teach amulets or charms by Gnostic groups. In
that gnosis (variously interpreted as knowledge, popular culture, Abraxas is sometimes
enlightenment, salvation, emancipation or considered the name of a god who incorporated
'oneness with God') may be reached by both Good and evil (god and demiurge) in one
practicing philanthropy to the point of personal entity, and therefore representing the
poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as possible for monotheistic god, singular, but (unlike, for
155
example, the Christian God) not than the Christian God and Devil, that combines
omnibenevolent. (See Hermann Hesse's all opposites into one Being.
Demian, and Carl Jung's Seven Sermons to the
n many Gnostic systems, the æons are the
Dead.) Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in
various emanations of the superior God, who is
recent centuries has been claimed to be both an
also known by such names as the One, the
Egyptian god and a demon, sometimes even
Monad, Aion teleos (Greek: "The Complete
being associated with the dual nature of
Æon"),[citation needed] Bythos (Greek: Βυθος,
Satan/Lucifer.
'Depth' or 'profundity'), Proarkhe (Greek:
The above information relates to προαρχη, "Before the Beginning'), HE Arkhe
interpretations of ancient amulets and to (Greek: ἡ ἀρχή, 'The Beginning'), Ennoia (Greek:
reports of Christian heresy hunters which are "Thought") of the Light or Sige (Greek: Σιγη,
not always clear. "Silence"). From this first being, also an æon, a
series of different emanations occur, beginning
Actual ancient Gnostic texts from the Nag
in certain Gnostic texts with the hermaphroditic
Hammadi Library, such as the Coptic Gospel of
Barbelo, from which successive pairs of aeons
the Egyptians, refer to Abraxas as an Aeon
emanate, often in male-female pairings called
dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the
syzygies; the numbers of these pairings varied
Spiritual Fullness in the light of the luminary
from text to text, though some identify their
Eleleth. In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is
number as being thirty. The aeons as a totality
the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that
constitute the pleroma, the "region of light".
come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia,
The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to
associated with Eleleth, who encounters
the darkness; that is, the physical worldTwo of
darkness and becomes involved in the chain of
the most commonly paired æons were Jesus
events that leads to the Demiurge and Archon's
and Sophia (Greek: "Wisdom"); the latter refers
rule of this world, and the salvage effort that
to Jesus as her "consort" in A Valentinian
ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth,
Exposition. Sophia, emanating without her
including Abraxas, Sophia, and others, pertains
partner, resulting in the production of the
to this outer border of the Divine Fullness that
Demiurge (Greek: lit. "public builder"), who is
encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack
also referred to as Yaldabaoth and variations
and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in
thereof in some Gnostic texts. This creature is
the world of materiality.
concealed outside the Pleroma; in isolation, and
Words like or similar to Abraxas or Abrasax also thinking itself alone, it creates materiality and a
appear in the Greek Magical Papyri. There are host of co-actors, referred to as archons. The
similarities and differences between such demiurge is responsible for the creation of
figures in reports about Basiledes' teaching, in mankind; trapping elements of the Pleroma
the larger magical traditions of the Graeco- stolen from Sophia inside human bodies. In
Roman world, in the classic ancient Gnostic response, the Godhead emanates two savior
texts such as the Gospel of the Egyptians, and in æons, Christ and the Holy Spirit; Christ then
later magical and esoteric writings. embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to
be able to teach man how to achieve gnosis, by
The Swiss psychologist Carl Jung wrote a short which they may return to the Pleroma.
Gnostic treatise in 1916 called Seven Sermons
to the Dead, which called Abraxas a God higher the term Demiurge derives from the Latinized
form of the Greek term dēmiourgos,
156
δημιουργός (literally "public or skilled worker"), name, one second only to Satan. Literally, it can
and refers to an entity responsible for the mean "blind god" or "god of the blind" in
creation of the physical universe and the Aramaic (Syriac sæmʻa-ʼel); another alternative
physical aspect of humanity. The term title is "Saklas", Aramaic for "fool" (Syriac sækla
dēmiourgos occurs in a number of other "the foolish one").
religious and philosophical systems, most
Gnostic myth recounts that Sophia (Greek,
notably Platonism. Moral judgements of the
literally meaning "wisdom"), the Demiurge's
demiurge vary from group to group within the
mother and a partial aspect of the divine
broad category of Gnosticism — such
Pleroma or "Fullness", desired to create
judgements usually correspond to each group's
something apart from the divine totality, and
judgement of the status of materiality as being
without the receipt of divine assent. In this
inherently evil, or else merely flawed and as
abortive act of separate creation, she gave birth
good as its passive constituent matter will
to the monstrous Demiurge and, being
allow. In Gnosticism the Demiurge, creator of
ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him in a
the material world, was not God but the
cloud and created a throne for him within it.
Archon.
The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his
As Plato does, Gnosticism presents a distinction mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded
between a supranatural, unknowable reality that only he himself existed, being ignorant of
and the sensible materiality of which the the superior levels of reality that were his
demiurge is creator. However, in contrast to birthplace.
Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought
The Gnostic myths describing these events are
present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the
full of intricate nuances portraying the
Supreme God: his act of creation either in
declination of aspects of the divine into human
unconscious and fundamentally flawed
form; this process occurs through the agency of
imitation of the divine model, or else formed
the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion of
with the malevolent intention of entrapping
power from his mother, sets about a work of
aspects of the divine in materiality. Thus, in
creation in unconscious imitation of the
such systems, the Demiurge acts as a solution
superior Pleromatic realm. Thus Sophia's power
to the problem of evil. In the Apocryphon of
becomes enclosed within the material forms of
John (several versions of which are found in the
humanity, themselves entrapped within the
Nag Hammadi library), the Demiurge has the
material universe: the goal of Gnostic
name "Yaltabaoth", and proclaims himself as
movements was typically the awakening of this
God:
spark, which permitted a return by the subject
"Now the archon who is weak has three names. to the superior, non-material realities which
The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is were its primal source
Saklas, and the third is Samael. And he is
Gnosis.
impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he
said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside he word "Gnosticism" is a modern construction,
me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place though based on an antiquated linguistic
from which he had come." expression: it comes from the Greek word
meaning "knowledge", gnosis (γνῶσις).
"Samael", in the Judeo-Christian tradition,
However, gnosis itself refers to a very
refers to the evil angel of death, and
specialised form of knowledge, deriving both
corresponds to the Christian demon of that
157
from the exact meaning of the original Greek

term and its usage in Platonist philosophy.
Ancient Greek was capable of discerning

between several different forms of knowing.
These different forms may be described in
English as being propositional knowledge,
indicative of knowledge acquired indirectly
through the reports of others or otherwise by
inference (such as "I know of George Bush" or "I
know Berlin is in Germany"), and empirical
knowledge acquired by direct participation or
acquaintance (such as "I know George Bush
personally" or "I know Berlin, having visited").
Gnosis (γνῶσις) refers to knowledge of the

second kind. Therefore, in a religious context, to
be "Gnostic" should be understood as being
reliant not on knowledge in a general sense, but
as being specially receptive to mystical or
esoteric experiences of direct participation with
the divine. Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the
sufficient cause of salvation is this "knowledge
of" ("acquaintance with") the divine. This is
commonly identified with a process of inward
"knowing" or self-exploration, comparable to
that encouraged by Plotinus (c. 205 – 270 AD).
This is what helps separate Gnosticism from
proto-orthodox views, where the orthodox
views are considered to be superficial. The Chapter Two
inadequate take then requires a correct form of The One
interpretation. With "gnosis" comes a fuller The primeval Source of Being is the One and the
insight that is considered to be more spiritual. Infinit, as opposed to the many and the finite. It
Greater recognition of the deeper spiritual is the source of all life, and therefore absolute
meanings of doctrines, scriptures, and rituals causality and the only real existence. However,
are obtained with this insight. However, as may the important feature of it is that it is beyond all
be seen, the term "gnostic" also had precedent Being, although the source of it. Therefore, it
usage in several ancient philosophical cannot be known through reasoning or
traditions, which must also be weighed in understanding, since only what is part of Being
considering the very subtle implications of its can be thus known according to Plato. Being
appellation to a set of ancient religious groups. beyond existence, it is the most real reality,
source of less real things. It is, moreover, the
Good, insofar as all finite things have their
purpose in it, and ought to flow back to it. But
one cannot attach moral attributes to the
158
original Source of Being itself, because these The original Being initially emanates, or throws
would imply limitation. It has no attributes of out, the nous, which is a perfect image of the
any kind; it is being without magnitude; in strict One and the archetype of all existing things. It is
propriety, indeed, we ought not to speak of it as simultaneously both being and thought, idea
existing; it is "above existence," "above and ideal world. As image, the nous
goodness." It is also active without a corresponds perfectly to the One, but as
substratum; as active force the primeval Source derivative, it is entirely different. What Plotinus
of Being is perpetually producing something understands by the nous is the highest sphere
else, without alteration, or motion, or accessible to the human mind, while also being
diminution of itself. This production is not a pure intellect itself. Nous is the most critical
physical process, but an emission of force; and, component of idealism, Neoplatonism being a
since the product has real existence only in pure form of idealism. The demiurge (the nous)
virtue of the original existence working in it, is the energy, or ergon (does the work), that
Neoplatonism may be described as a species of manifests or organizes the material world into
dynamic panentheism. Directly or indirectly, perceivability.
everything is brought forth by the "One." In it
The world-soul
all things, so far as they have being, are divine,
and God is all in all. Derived existence, however, The image and product of the motionless nous
is not like the original Source of Being itself, but is the world-soul, which, according to Plotinus,
is subject to a law of diminishing completeness. is immaterial like the nous. Its relation to the
It is indeed an image and reflection of the first nous is the same as that of the nous to the One.
Source of Being; but the further the line of It stands between the nous and the
successive projections is prolonged the smaller phenomenal world, is permeated and
is its share in the true existence. The totality of illuminated by the former, but is also in contact
being may thus be conceived as a series of with the latter. The nous/spirit is indivisible; the
concentric circles, fading away towards the world-soul may preserve its unity and remain in
verge of non-existence, the force of the original the nous, but at the same time it has the power
Being in the outermost circle being a vanishing of uniting with the corporeal world and thus
quantity. Each lower stage of being is united being disintegrated. It therefore occupies an
with the "One" by all the higher stages, and intermediate position. As a single world-soul it
receives its share of reality only by transmission belongs in essence and destination to the
through them. All derived existence, however, intelligible world; but it also embraces
has a drift towards, a longing for, the higher, innumerable individual souls; and these can
and bends towards it so far as its nature will either allow themselves to be informed by the
permit. Plotinus' treatment of the substance or nous, or turn aside from the nous and choose
essence (ousia) of the one was to reconcile the phenomenal world and lose themselves in
Plato and Aristotle. Where Aristotle treated the the realm of the senses and the finite.
monad as a single entity made up of one
substance (here as energeia). Plotinus The phenomenal world
reconciled Aristotle with Plato's "the good" by The soul, as a moving essence, generates the
expressing the substance or essence of the one corporeal or phenomenal world. This world
as potential or force. ought to be so pervaded by the soul that its
Demiurge or Nous various parts should remain in perfect harmony.
Plotinus is no dualist in the same sense as sects
159
like the Gnostics; in contrast he admires the for thought reaches only to the nous, and is
beauty and splendor of the world. So long as itself a kind of motion. It is only in a state of
idea governs matter, or the soul governs the perfect passivity and repose that the soul can
body, the world is fair and good. It is an image - recognize and touch the primeval Being. Hence
though a shadowy image - of the upper world, the soul must first pass through a spiritual
and the degrees of better and worse in it are curriculum. Beginning with the contemplation
essential to the harmony of the whole. But in of corporeal things in their multiplicity and
the actual phenomenal world unity and harmony, it then retires upon itself and
harmony are replaced by strife or discord; the withdraws into the depths of its own being,
result is a conflict, a becoming and vanishing, an rising thence to the nous, the world of ideas.
illusive existence. And the reason for this state But even there it does not find the Highest, the
of things is that bodies rest on a substratum of One; it still hears a voice saying, "not we have
matter. Matter is the indeterminate: that with made ourselves." The last stage is reached
no qualities. If destitute of form and idea, it is when, in the highest tension and concentration,
evil; as capable of form it is neutral. Evil here is beholding in silence and utter forgetfulness of
understood as a parasite, having no-existence all things, it is able as it were to lose itself. Then
of its own (parahypostasis), unavoidable it may see God, the foundation of life, the
outcome of the Universe, having an "other" source of being, the origin of all good, the root
necessity, as a harmonizing factor. of the soul. In that moment it enjoys the highest
indescribable bliss; it is as it were swallowed up
Practice
of divinity, bathed in the light of eternity.
Here, then, we enter upon the practical Porphyry tells us that on four occasions during
philosophy. Along the same road by which it the six years of their intercourse Plotinus
descended the soul must retrace its steps back attained to this ecstatic union with God.
to the supreme Good. It must first of all return
Celestial hierarchy
to itself. This is accomplished by the practice of
virtue, which aims at likeness to God, and leads The religious philosophy of Plotinus for himself
up to God. In the ethics of Plotinus all the older personally sufficed, without the aid of the
schemes of virtue are taken over and arranged popular religion or worship. Nevertheless he
in a graduated series. The lowest stage is that of sought for points of support in these. God is
the civil virtues, then follow the purifying, and certainly in the truest sense nothing but the
last of all the divine virtues. The civil virtues primeval Being who is revealed in a variety of
merely adorn the life, without elevating the emanations and manifestations. Plotinus taught
soul. That is the office of the purifying virtues, the existence of an ineffable and transcendent
by which the soul is freed from sensuality and One, the All, from which emanated the rest of
led back to itself, and thence to the nous. By the universe as a sequence of lesser beings.
means of ascetic observances the human Later Neoplatonic philosophers, especially
becomes once more a spiritual and enduring Iamblichus, added hundreds of intermediate
being, free from all sin. But there is still a higher beings such as gods, angels and demons, and
attainment; it is not enough to be sinless, one other beings as mediators between the One and
must become "God", (henosis). This is reached humanity. The Neoplatonist gods are omni-
through contemplation of the primeval Being, perfect beings and do not display the usual
the One — in other words, through an ecstatic amoral behaviour associated with their
approach to it. Thought cannot attain to this, representations in the myths.
160
The One (depending on one's specific doctrine) possess

discrete will, intelligence, awareness, or a
God, The Good. Transcendent and ineffable.
personal nature. It is sometimes conceived of as
The Hypercosmic Gods the source through which all being emanates. It
contrasts with finite things, considered
Those that make Essence, Life, and Soul individually, and known collectively as the
relative. This is reflected in its Latin origin
absolūtus which means "loosened from" or
"unattached."
Similarities and differences in various traditions
Examples of religions and philosophies which

embrace the concept of the Absolute in one
form or another include Hermeticism,
Hinduism, Jainism, Taoism, Islam, some forms
of Jewish philosophy, and existential or
metaphysical forms of Christianity. Terms which
serve to identify The Absolute among such
beliefs include Wu Chi, Brahman, Adibuddha,
Allah, Para Brahman, Tetragrammaton, the
Karmic Loom, God, the Divine, and numerous
other appellations. In East Asia, the concept of
the Tao, and in South Asia, the concept of
Nirvana is synonymous in description to the
attributes of the Absolute as used in the West.
The human vital essence - soul, spirit, spark of

awareness, is said to have originally derived in
each case from the Absolute and to be
indestructible after the nature of the Absolute,
and to be capable of returning to its source.
Chapter Three This returning is the goal of those Eastern
The Absolute of God religions that have such a concept.
The general commonalities between the various

The Absolute is the concept of an unconditional versions of the Absolute are: infinity,
reality which transcends limited, conditional, indescribability, formlessness, transcendence
everyday existence. It is sometimes used as an and immanence. An additional commonality is
alternate term for "God" or "the Divine" that one must renounce and/or transcend
especially, but by no means exclusively, by physical existence and its distractions, in some
those who feel that the term "God" lends itself cases even to the point of extinguishing identity
too easily to anthropomorphic presumptions. and individual awareness, in order to
The concept of The Absolute may or may not understand or co-exist with the Absolute.
Uniformly, human passions and vices are
161
regarded as barriers to spiritual advancement, at the hands of F.H. Bradley. Bradley (followed
and such virtues as humility, charity and by others including Timothy L.S. Sprigge)
righteousness or pacifism are felt to help pave conceived the Absolute as a single all-
the way to enlightenment. encompassing experience, rather along the lines
of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta. Likewise,
Thing in itself
Josiah Royce in the United States conceived the
Roughly, the Absolute may be distinguished Absolute as a unitary Knower whose experience
from the following concepts, although there is constitutes what we know as the "external"
debate of the synonymity between them: world.
Thing-in-itself, an actual object and its The mathematician Georg Cantor equated the
properties independent of any observer. mathematical concept of the Absolute Infinite
with God.
The noumenon is a posited object or event that
is known (if at all) without the use of the senses. However, the concept need not be taken to
imply a universal unitary consciousness.
However, rather than distinguishing from the American philosopher Brand Blanshard, for
relative, the thing in itself is used to distinguish example, conceived the Absolute as a single
an actual object from phenomenon (the overarching intelligible system but declined to
appearance of things-in-themselves to the characterize it in terms of consciousness or
senses). experience.
The Absolute in philosophy In eastern philosophy the Absolute is known as
Parabrahman and to occult philosophy is known
as the Void or Ever-Darkness. According to I. K.
Heraclitus concerned himself with the knowable Taimni both the Vedas and the Upanishads
portion of the Absolute with his Logos. Plotinus, contain indirect hints to an Ultimate Reality an
a Neo-Platonic philosopher, saw all forms of unknowable principle. Taimni describes the
existence as emanating from 'The One'. The Parabrahman as unknowable by the human
One of Plotinus is a trans-sentient power or mind and unthinkable but the highest object of
force. The concept of the Absolute was re- realization and the most profound object of
introduced into philosophy by Hegel, Schelling, philosophical enquiry. Taimni wrote that:
and their followers; it is associated with various
forms of philosophical idealism. The Absolute, Because the Ultimate Reality which is denoted
either under that name, or as the "Ground of by the word 'Absolute' or 'Parabrahman' is the
Being", or some similar concept, also figures in very core of our being as well as the cause and
several of the attempted proofs of the existence basis of the universe of which we are part, we
of God, particularly the ontological argument can no more get away from it than our solar
and the cosmological argument. In scholastic system can get away from the sun round which
philosophy the Absolute was regarded as Pure it resolves and from which it receives
Act, unadulterated with remaining potential. everything which keeps it alive and moving.
Although the Absolute is sometimes referred to
The concept was adopted into neo-Hegelian by such epithets as the Void, Ever-Darkness etc.
British idealism (though without Hegel's and is beyond intellectual comprehension, still,
complex logical and dialectical apparatus), from the intellectual point of view it is the most
where it received an almost mystical exposition profound concept in the whole realm of
162
philosophy. The fact that it is called advocate. Nagarjuna criticized those who
'Unknowable' does not mean that it is beyond conceptualized shunyata: "The Victorious Ones
the range of philosophical or religious thought have announced that emptiness is the
and something on which thinking is impossible relinquishing of all views. Those who are
or undesirable. The very fact that it is the heart possessed of the view of emptiness are said to
and the basis of the universe should make it the be incorrigible." By contrast, many schools of
most intriguing object of enquiry within the Mahayana Buddhism, particularly those in
realms of the intellect. alignment with the Tathagatagarbha scriptures,
affirmed some notions regarding a positive
— I.K. Taimni, 'Man, God and the Universe',
absolute, identifying it with the true or original
Chapter 1
substance or self of the Buddha.
Criticism
From a Buddhist perspective, there is no text in

which the Buddha explicitly argues that the
universe lacks an essence; he instead critiques
positions regarding an ultimate nature of reality
— such as those found in the Upanishads — in
the manner of later Prasangikas. The Buddha of
the early texts does speak of experiencing
"luminous consciousness" beyond the six sense
media. Passages in which the Buddha criticizes
those who talk about things not amenable to
experience are quite common in the early texts.
Nagarjuna, one of the most prominent

philosophers of Mahayana Buddhism, was
considered by early scholarship as propounding
an absolutist doctrine with his development of
the Buddhist concept of shunyata. This is Chapter Four
criticized by many modern scholars as incorrect Valentinus Theory
and not grounded on textual evidence. The
consensus is that Nagarjuna defended the
classical Buddhist emphasis on phenomena. For
him shunyata is explicitly used as a middle way Valentinus assumed, as the beginning of all
between eternalism and nihilism, and that is things, the Primal Being or Bythos, who after
where its soteriological power lies. It does not ages of silence and contemplation, gave rise to
refer specifically to an ultimate, universal, or other beings by a process of emanation. The
absolute nature of reality. Holding up emptiness first series of beings, the Aeons, were thirty in
as an absolute or ultimate truth without number, representing fifteen syzygies or pairs
reference to that which is empty is the last sexually complementary. One common form is
thing either the Buddha or Nagarjuna would outlined below:
163
Scheme of the Aeons Emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia
The Valentinian system was, until recently, only Paracletus (Comforter) and Pistis (Faith)
known through the criticisms of its opponents;
Patricas (Paternal) and Elpis (Hope)
however, the discovery of the Nag Hammadi
library has given access to Valentinian texts, Metricos (Maternal) and Agape (Love)
including sources that have been tentatively
identified as written by Valentinus. Ainos (Praise) and Synesis (Intelligence)
Tertullian's Against the Valentinians gives a Ecclesiasticus (Son of Ecclesia) and Macariotes
slightly different sequence. The first eight of (Blessedness)
these Aeons, corresponding to generations one Theletus (Perfect) and Sophia (Wisdom)
through four below, are referred to as the
Ogdoad.
First generation
Bythos (the One) and Sige (Silence, Charis,

Ennoea, etc.)
Second generation
Nous (Nus, Mind) and Aletheia (Veritas, Truth)
Third generation, emanated from Nous and

Aletheia
Sermo (the Word) and Vita (the Life)
Fourth generation, emanated from Sermo and

Vita
Anthropos (Homo, Man) and Ecclesia (Church)

[5]
Fifth generation
Emanated from Sermo and Vita:

Chapter Five
Bythios (Profound) and Mixis (Mixture) The Valentinus system
Ageratos (Never old) and Henosis (Union)
Autophyes (Essential nature) and Hedone

(Pleasure)
Acinetos (Immovable) and Syncrasis

(Commixture)
Monogenes (Only-begotten) and Macaria

(Happiness)
164
need of the co-operation of a male and female

principle for the generation of new ones, was
common to Valentinus and some earlier Gnostic
systems. But it was a disputed point in these
systems whether the First Principle of all was
thus twofold. There were those, both in earlier
systems, and even among the Valentinians who
held, that the origin of things was to be traced
to a single Principle, which some described as
hermaphrodite; others said was above all sex.
And among the Valentinians who counted thirty
Aeons, there were those who counted Bythos
and Sige as the first pair; others who asserted
the Single Principle excluded Bythos from the
number, and made out the number of thirty
without reckoning him. Thus Irenaeus says of
the Valentinians (I. ii. 4. p. 10), "For they
maintain that sometimes the Father acts in
conjunction with Sige, but that at other times
he shows himself independent both of male and
female." And (I. xi. 5) "For some declare him to
be without a consort, and neither male nor
female, and, in fact, nothing at all; while others
affirm him to be masculo-feminine, assigning to
him the nature of a hermaphrodite; others,
again, allot Sige to him as a spouse, that thus
Sige may be formed the first conjunction."
Hippolytus supposes Valentinus to have derived

his system from that of Simon; and in that as
expounded in the Apophasis Megale, from
which he gives extracts, the origin of things is
derived from six roots, divided into three pairs;
Plérome de Valentin, from Histoire critique du but all these roots spring from a single
Gnosticisme; Jacques Matter, 1826, Vol. II, Plate independent Principle, which is without
II consort. The name Sige occurs in the
In the system of Valentinus, as expounded by description which Hippolytus (vi. 18) quotes
Irenaeus (i. 1), the origin of things was traced to from the Apophasis, how from the supreme
two eternal co-existent principles, a male and a Principle there arise the male and female off-
female. The male was called Bythos or shoots nous and epinoia. The name Sige is there
Proarche, or Propator, etc.; the female had the given not to either of the off-shoots but to the
names Ennoea, Charis and Sige. The whole supreme Principle itself: however, in the
Aeonology of Valentinus was based on a theory description, these off-shoots appear less as
of syzygies, or pairs of Aeons, each Aeon being distinct entities than as different aspects of the
provided with a consort; and the supposed same Being.
165
Cyril of Jerusalem (Catech. vi. 17) makes Sige Ennoea

the daughter of Bythos and by him the mother
of Logos, a fable which he classes with the
incests which heathen mythology attributed to In the attempts made by the framers of
Jupiter. Irenaeus (II. xii.) ridicules the absurdity different Gnostic systems to explain the origin
of the later form of Valentinian theory, in which of the existing world, the first stage in the
Sige and Logos are represented as coexistent process was usually made by personifying the
Aeons in the same Pleroma. "Ubi est Sige" he conception in the divine mind of that which was
says, "non erit Logos; et ubi Logos non utique to emanate from Him. We learn from Justin
Sige." He goes on (ii. 14) to trace the invention Martyr (Ap. I. 26), and from Irenaeus (I. 23),
of Sige to the heathen poets, quoting that the word Ennoea was used in a technical
Antiphanes, who in his Theogony makes Chaos sense in the system of Simon. The Latin
the offspring of Night and Silence. translation of Irenaeus either retains the word,
or renders "mentis conceptio." Tertullian has
In place of Night and Silence they substitute
"injectio" (De Anima, 34). In the Apophasis
Bythus and Sige; instead of Chaos, they put
Megale cited by Hippolytus (Ref. vi. 18, 19, p.
Nous; and for Love (by whom, says the comic
174), the word used is not Ennoia but Epinoia.
poet, all other things were set in order) they
Irenaeus states (I. 23) that the word Ennoea
have brought forward the Word; while for the
passed from the system of Simon into that of
primary and greatest gods they have formed
Menander. In the Barbeliot system which
the Æons; and in place of the secondary gods,
Irenaeus also counts as derived from that of
they tell us of that creation by their mother
Simon (I. 29), Ennoea appears as one of the first
which is outside of the Pleroma, calling it the
in the series of emanations from the
second Ogdoad. . . . These men call those things
unnameable Father.
which are within the Pleroma real existences,
just as those philosophers did the atoms; while In the system of Valentinus (Iren. I. i.) Ennoea is
they maintain that those which are without the one of several alternative names for the consort
Pleroma have no true existence, even as those of the primary Aeon Bythos. For the somewhat
did respecting the vacuum. They have thus different form in which Ptolemaeus presented
banished themselves in this world (since they this part of the system see Irenaeus (I. xii.).
are here outside of the Pleroma) into a place Irenaeus criticises this part of the system (II.
which has no existence. Again, when they xiii.). The name Ennoea is similarly used in the
maintain that these things [below] are images Ophite system described by Irenaeus (I. xxx.).
of those which have a true existence [above],
they again most manifestly rehearse the Charis
doctrine of Democritus and Plato. For
Democritus was the first who maintained that
numerous and diverse figures were stamped, as Charis, in the system of Valentinus, was an
it were, with the forms [of things above], and alternative name, with Ennoea and Sige, for the
descended from universal space into this world. consort of the primary Aeon Bythos (Iren. i. 4).
But Plato, for his part, speaks of matter, and The name expresses that aspect of the absolute
exemplar, and God. These men, following those Greatness in which it is regarded not as a
distinctions, have styled what he calls ideas, and solitary monad, but as imparting from its
exemplar, the images of those things which are perfection to beings of which it is the ultimate
above . . . . source; and this is the explanation given in the
166
Valentinian fragment preserved by Epiphanius before the sun and moon, as pre-existent like
(Haer. xxxi. 6), dia to epikechoregekenai auten Christ Himself, and like him manifested in the
thesaurismata tou Megethous tois ek tou last days for men's salvation; and he even uses
Megethous. The use of the word Charis enabled language which, if it were not sufficiently
Ptolemaeus (quoted by Irenaeus, i. 8) to find in accounted for by what is said in the Epistle to
John 1:14 the first tetrad of Aeons, viz., Pater, the Ephesians as to the union between Christ
Monogenes, Charis, Aletheia. The suspicion and His church, might be supposed to have
arises that it was with a view to such an affinity with the Valentinian doctrine of the
identification that names to be found in the relation between Anthropos and Ecclesia.
prologue of St. John's Gospel were added as
The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews quotes
alternative appellations to the original names of
the direction to Moses to make the tabernacle
the Aeons. But this is a point on which we have
after the pattern shewn him on the Mount (a
no data to pronounce. Charis has an important
passage cited in Acts 7:44), and his argument
place in the system of Marcus (Irenaeus, i. 13).
dwells on the inference that the various parts of
The name Charis appears also in the system of
the Jewish service were but copies of better
the Barbelitae (Irenaeus, i. 29), but as denoting
heavenly archetypes. This same heavenly
a later emanation than in the Valentinian
tabernacle appears as part of the imagery of the
system. The word has possibly also a technical
book of the Revelation (11:19, 15:5). In the
meaning in the Ophite prayers preserved by
same book the church appears as the Lamb's
Origen (Contra Celsum, vi. 31), all of which end
wife, the new Jerusalem descending from
with the invocation he charis synesto moi, nai
heaven; and St. Paul's teaching (Ephesians 1:3)
pater, synesto.
might be thrown into the form that the church
Nous existed in God's election before the foundation
of the world.
This higher Ecclesia was held to be the
archetype of the lower Ecclesia constituted by Anthropos
the spiritual seed on earth (Iren. I. v. 6, p. 28). In
Adam Kadmon
a Gnostic system described by Irenaeus (I. xxx.
p. 109) we have also a heavenly church, not, As the world is an image of the living Aeon (tou
however, as a separate Aeon, but as constituted zontos aionos), so is man an image of the pre-
by the harmony of the first existing beings. existent man of the anthrops proon. Valentinus,
According to Hippolytus (v. 6, p. 95), the according to Clemens Alexandrinus (Valentini
Naassenes counted three Ecclesiae. homil. ap. Clem. Strom. iv. 13, 92), spoke of the
Sophia as an artist (zographos) making this
It is especially in the case of the church that we
visible lower world a picture of the glorious
find in Christian speculation prior to Valentinus
Archetype, but the hearer or reader would as
traces of the conception, which lies at the root
readily understand the heavenly wisdom of the
of the whole doctrine of Aeons, that earthly
Book of Proverbs to be meant by this Sophia, as
things have their archetypes in preexistent
the 12th and fallen Aeon. Under her (according
heavenly things. Hermas (Vis. ii. 4) speaks of the
to Valentinus) stand the world-creative angels,
church as created before all things and of the
whose head is the Demiurge. Her formation
world as formed for her sake; and in the newly
(plasma) is Adam created in the name of the
discovered portion of the so-called Second
Anthropos proon. In him thus made a higher
Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians (c. 14) the
power puts the seed of the heavenly pneumatic
writer speaks of the spiritual church as created
167
essence (sperma tes anothen ousias). Thus only generated on this occasion at the request
furnished with higher insight, Adam excites the of all the Aeons, who implored the Father to
fears of the angels; for even as kosmikoi avert a danger that threatened to affect them
anthropoi are seized with fear of the images all. Then (as Hippolytus tells the story, vi. 31) he
made by their own hands to bear the name of directs the production of a new pair of Aeons,
God, i.e. the idols, so these angels cause the Christ and the Holy Spirit, who restore order by
images they have made to disappear (Ep. ad separating from the Pleroma the unformed
amicos ap. Clem. Alex. Strom. ii. 8, 36). offspring of Sophia. After this Horos is produced
in order to secure the permanence of the order
. . . They say that Achamoth sketched these
thus produced. Irenaeus (U. S.) reverses this
pictures in honor of the aeons. Yet they transfer
order, and Horos is produced first, afterwards
this work to Soter as its originator who
the other pair.
operated through Achamoth so as to present
her as the very image of the invisible and The Valentinian fragment in Epiphanius (Haer.
unknown Father, she being invisible, of course, 31, p. 171), which seems to give a more ancient
and unknown to the Demiurge, and in the same form of this heresy, knows nothing of Horos,
way he created this same Demiurge to but it relates as the last spiritual birth the
correspond to Nus, the son. The Archangels, generation of five beings without consorts,
creations of the Demiurge, are models of the whose names are used in the Irenaeus version
rest of the aeons. . . . Don’t you agree that I as titles for the supernumerary Aeon Horos. But
should laugh at these pictures painted by such a besides, this Aeon has a sixth name, which in
lunatic painter? Achamoth, a female and yet the the version of Hippolytus is made his primary
image of the Father; the Demiurge, ignorant of title Stavros; and it is explained (Irenaeus, i. 3)
his mother—not to mention of his Father—yet that besides his function as a separator, in
representing Nus who is not ignorant of his respect of which he is called Horos, this Aeon
Father; the angels, the reproductions of their does the work of establishing and settling, in
masters. This is the same as counterfeiting a respect of which he is called Stauros. A
fake . . . . derivation from sterizo is hinted at.
—Tertullian, Against the Valentinians, XIX The literal earthly crucifixion of the Saviour
(that seen by the psychic church, which only
Horos
believes in the historical Jesus) was meant to
represent an archetypal scene in the world of
Aeons, when the younger Sophia, Achamoth, is
According to the doctrine of Valentinus, as healed through the Savior's instrumentation.
described by Irenaeus i. 2, the youngest Aeon
Sophia, in her passion to comprehend the The animal and carnal Christ, however, does
Father of all, runs the danger of being absorbed suffer after the fashion of the superior Christ,
into his essence, from which she is saved by who, for the purpose of producing Achamoth,
coming in contact with the limiting power had been stretched upon the cross, that is,
Horos, whose function it is to strengthen all Horos, in a substantial though not a cognizable
things outside the ineffable Greatness, by form. In this manner do they reduce all things
confining each to its appointed place. According to mere images--Christians themselves being
to this version Horos was a previously existing indeed nothing but imaginary beings!
power; but according to another, and
—Tertullian, Against the Valentinians, XXVII
apparently a later account, Horos is an Aeon
168
The distinction just explained as to the different —Hippolytus, Philosophumena, VI, 32

use of the names Horos and Stauros was not
On the one hand, he discharges as already
carefully observed by Valentinians. Thus the last
described, a function within the Pleroma,
word is sometimes used when the function of
separating the other Aeons from the ineffable
separation and division is spoken of (Excerpt. ex
Bythos, and saving them from absorption into
Script. Theodot. 22 and 42, Clem. Alex. ii. pp.
his essence. On the other hand, Horos is the
974, 979), it being remarked in the latter
outside boundary of the Pleroma itself, giving it
passage that the cross separates the faithful
permanence and stability by guarding it against
from the unbelievers; and Clem. Alex., who
the intrusion of any foreign element.
occasionally uses Valentinian language in an
orthodox sense, speaks in the same way (Paed.
iii. 12, p. 303, and Strom. ii. 20, p. 486).
In the Valentinian theory there is a double

Horos, or at least a double function discharged
by Horos.
Plato, then, in expounding mysteries concerning

the universe, writes to Dionysius expressing
himself after some such manner as this: “. . . All
things are about the King of all, and on his
account are all things, and he is cause of all the
glorious (objects of creation). The second is
about the second, and the third about the third.
But pertaining to the King there is none of those
things of which I have spoken. But after this the
soul earnestly desires to learn what sort these
are, looking upon those things that are akin to
itself, and not one of these is (in itself)
sufficient. . . .”
Valentinus, falling in with these (remarks), has

made a fundamental principle in his system
“the King of all,” whom Plato mentioned, and
whom this heretic styles Pater, and Bythos, and
Proarche over the rest of the Æons. And when
Plato uses the words, “what is second about
things that are second,” Valentinus supposes to
be second all the Æons that are within the limit
[Horos] (of the Pleroma, as well as) the limit
(itself). And when Plato uses the words, “what
is third about what is third,” he has (constituted
as third) the entire of the arrangement
(existing) outside the limit and the Pleroma.
169
The documents which comprise the collection

of gnostic gospels were not discovered at a
Chapter Six single time, but rather as a series of finds. The
Gnostic Gospels Nag Hammadi Library was discovered
accidentally by two farmers in December 1945
and was named for the area in Egypt where it
The Gnostic Gospels are a collection of about
had been hidden for centuries. Other
fifty-two ancient texts based upon the teachings
documents included in what are now known as
of several spiritual leaders, written from the
the gnostic gospels were found at different
2nd to the 4th century AD. The sayings of the
times and locations, such as the Gospel of Mary,
Gospel of Thomas, compiled circa 140, may
which was recovered in 1896 as part of the
include some traditions even older than the
Akhmim Codex and published in 1955. Some
gospels of the New Testament, possibly as early
documents were duplicated in different finds,
as the second half of the first century. These
and others, such as with the Gospel of Mary
gospels are not part of the standard Biblical
Magdalene, only one copy is currently known to
canon of any mainstream Christian
exist.
denomination, and as such are part of what is
called the New Testament apocrypha. Recent Although the manuscripts discovered at Nag
novels and films that refer to the gospels have Hammadi are generally dated to the 4th
increased public interest. century, there is some debate regarding the
original composition of the texts. A wide range
The word gnostic comes from the Greek word
and the majority of scholars date authorship of
gnosis, meaning "knowledge", which is often
the Gnostic gospel of Nag Hammadi to the 2nd
used in Greek philosophy in a manner more
and 3rd century. Scholars with a focus on
consistent with the English "enlightenment".
Christianity tend to date the gospels mentioned
Some scholars continue to maintain traditional
by Irenaeus to the 2nd century, and the gospels
dating for the emergence of Gnostic philosophy
mentioned solely by Jerome to the 4th
and religious movements. It is now generally
century[citation needed]. The traditional dating
believed that Gnosticism was a Jewish
of the gospels derives primarily from this
movement which emerged directly in reaction
division. Other scholars with a deeper focus on
to Christianity. The name Christian gnostics
pagan and Jewish literature of the period tend
came to represent a segment of the Early
to date primarily based on the type of the work
Christian community that believed that
The Gospel of Thomas is held by most to be the
salvation lay not in merely worshipping Christ,
earliest of the "gnostic" gospels composed.
but in psychic or pneumatic souls learning to
Scholars generally date the text to the early-mid
free themselves from the material world via the
2nd century. The Gospel of Thomas, it is often
revelation. According to this tradition, the
claimed, has some gnostic elements but lacks
answers to spiritual questions are to be found
the full gnostic cosmology. However, even the
within, not without. Furthermore, the gnostic
description of these elements as "gnostic" is
path does not require the intermediation of a
based mainly upon the presupposition that the
church for salvation. Some scholars, such as
text as a whole is a "gnostic" gospel, and this
Edward Conze and Elaine Pagels, have
idea itself is based upon little other than the
suggested that gnosticism blends teachings like
fact that it was found along with gnostic texts at
those attributed to Jesus Christ with teachings
Nag Hammadi. Some scholars including
found in Eastern traditions.
Nicholas Perrin argue that Thomas is dependent
170
on the Diatessaron, which was composed

shortly after 172 by Tatian in Syria. A minority
view contends for an early date of perhaps 50,
citing a relationship to the hypothetical Q A page of the Gospel of Judas from the Codex
document among other reasons. Tchacos.
The Gospel of the Lord, a gnostic but otherwise Though there are many documents that could
non-canonical text, can be dated approximately be included among the gnostic gospels, the
during the time of Marcion in the early 2nd term most commonly refers to the following:
century. The traditional view holds Marcion did
not compose the gospel directly but, "expunged Gospel of Mary (recovered in 1896)
[from the Gospel of Luke] all the things that Gospel of Thomas (versions found in
oppose his view... but retained those things that Oxyrhynchus, Egypt in 1898, and again in the
accord with his opinion” The traditional view Nag Hammadi Library)
and dating has continued to be affirmed by the
mainstream of biblical scholars, however, G. R. Gospel of Truth (Nag Hammadi Library)
S. Mead His Gospel was presumably the Gospel of Philip (Nag Hammadi Library) 4 Period
collection of sayings in use among the Pauline
churches of his day. Of course the patristic Gospel of Judas (recovered via the antiquities
writers say that Marcion mutilated Luke's black market in 1983, and then reconstructed in
version. Have argued that Marcion's gospel 2006)
predates the canonical Luke and was in use in
References in popular culture
Pauline churches.
The Gospel of Truth and the teachings of the

Pistis Sophia can be approximately dated to the The gnostic gospels received widespread
early 2nd century as they were part of the attention after they were referred to in the
original Valentinian School, though the gospel 2003 best-selling novel The Da Vinci Code,
itself is 3rd century. which uses them as part of its backstory. The
novel's use of artistic license in describing the
Documents with a Sethian influence (like the
gospels stirred up considerable debate over the
Gospel of Judas, or outright Sethian like Coptic
accuracy of its depiction. As a result of public
Gospel of the Egyptians can be dated
interest triggered by the novel and film,
substantially later than 40 and substantially
numerous books and video documentaries
earlier than 250; most scholars giving them a
about the gospels themselves were produced
2nd-century date. More conservative scholars
which resulted in the gnostic gospels becoming
using the traditional dating method would
well known in popular culture.
argue in these cases for the early 3rd century
Some gnostic gospels (for example Trimorphic The 1999 film Stigmata uses the discovery of an
Protennoia) make use of fully developed as-yet unknown gnostic gospel as the basis for
Neoplatonism and thus need to be dated after the story. The end of the film also makes
Plotinus in the 3rd century. references to the Catholic Church's
denunciations of such texts as being heretical.
171
Season 4, Episode 13 of Gilmore Girls is titled

"Nag Hammadi Is Where They Found the
Chapter Seven
Gnostic Gospels."
History of Gnosticism
The 2008 novel, Change of Heart, by Jodi
Picoult, also makes several in-depth references
to the gnostic gospels - and to the Gospel of
Thomas in particular. The development of the Syrian-Egyptian school
Grant Morrison's writing been heavily Bentley Layton has sketched out a relationship
influenced by the Gnostic texts, most evident in between the various gnostic movements in his
The Invisibles. introduction to The Gnostic Scriptures (SCM
Press, London, 1987). In this model, "Classical
Gnosticism" and "The School of Thomas"
antedated and influenced the development of
Valentinus, who was to found his own school of
Gnosticism in both Alexandria and Rome, whom
Layton called "the great [Gnostic] reformer"
and "the focal point" of Gnostic development.
While in Alexandria, where he was born,
Valentinus probably would have had contact
with the Gnostic teacher Basilides, and may
have been influenced by him.
Valentinianism flourished after the middle of

the 2nd century AD. This movement was named
after its founder Valentinus (c. 100 – 180 AD).
The school is also known to have been
extremely popular: several varieties of their
central myth are known, and we know of
"reports from outsiders from which the
intellectual liveliness of the group is evident." It
is known that Valentinus' students elaborated
on his teachings and materials (though the
exact extent of their changes remains
unknown), for example, in the version of the
Valentinian myth brought to us through
Ptolemy.
Valentinianism might be described as the most

elaborate and philosophically "dense" form of
the Syrian-Egyptian schools of Gnosticism,
though it should be acknowledged that this in
no way debarred other schools from attracting
followers. Basilides' own school was popular
also, and survived in Egypt until the 4th century.
172
Simone Petrement, in A Separate God, in Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been

arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, broken by nascent Islam. In the early years of
places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found
Sethians. It is her assertion that Valentinus followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated
represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism circles), but flourished most in Central Asia, to
of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the which it had spread through Iran. Here, in 762,
demiurge, widely regarded to be a mythological Manicheanism became the state religion of the
depiction of the Old Testament God of the Uyghur Empire.
Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil.
The term "Gnosticism"
(See below.)
Irenaeus, who first used "gnostic" to describe
heresies
The term "Gnosticism" does not appear in

Manichean priests writing at their desks, with ancient sources, and was first coined by Henry
panel inscription in Sogdian. Manuscript from More in a commentary on the seven letters of
Khocho, Tarim Basin. the Book of Revelation, where more used the
term "Gnosticisme" to describe the heresy in
The development of the Persian school
Thyatira. The term derives from the use of the
An alternate heritage is offered by Kurt Rudolph Greek adjective gnostikos ("learned",
in his book Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of "intellectual", Greek γνωστικός) by St. Irenaeus
Gnosticism (Koehler and Amelang, Leipzig, (c. 185 AD) to describe the school of Valentinus
1977), to explain the lineage of Persian Gnostic as he legomene gnostike haeresis "the heresy
schools. The decline of Manicheism that called Learned (gnostic)".
occurred in Persia in the 5th century was too
This occurs in the context of Irenaeus' work On
late to prevent the spread of the movement
the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called
into the east and the west. In the west, the
Gnosis, (Greek: elenchos kai anatrope tes
teachings of the school moved into Syria,
pseudonymou gnoseos, ἔλεγχος καὶ ἀνατροπὴ
Northern Arabia, Egypt and North Africa (where
τῆς ψευδωνύμου γνώσεως) where the term
Augustine was a member of the school from
"knowledge falsely so-called" (pseudonymos
373-382); from Syria it progressed still farther,
gnosis) covers various groups, not just
into Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia. There is
Valentinus, and is a quotation of the apostle
evidence for Manicheans in Rome and Dalmatia
Paul's warning against "knowledge falsely so-
in the 4th century, and also in Gaul and Spain.
called" in 1 Timothy 6:20.
The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by
imperial elects and polemical writings, but the The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical
religion remained prevalent until the 6th Greek texts is "learned" or "intellectual", such
century, and still exerted influence in the as used in the comparison of "practical"
emergence of the Paulicians, Bogomils and (praktikos) and "intellectual" (gnostikos) in
Cathari in the Middle Ages, until it was Plato's dialogue between Young Socrates and
ultimately stamped out by the Catholic Church. the Foreigner in his The Statesman. Plato's use
of "learned" is fairly typical of Classical texts.
In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was
able to bloom, given that the religious By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be
monopoly position previously held by associated with Greco-Roman mysteries,
173
becoming synonymous with the Greek term In 1979, Elaine Pagels, Professor of Religion at
musterion. The adjective is not used in the New Princeton University, published a popular book,
Testament, but Clement of Alexandria in Book 7 The Gnostic Gospels, which detailed the
of his Stromateis speaks of the "learned" suppression of some of the writings found at
(gnostikos) Christian in complimentary terms. Nag Hammadi by early bishops of the Christian
The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy church.
originates with interpreters of Irenaeus. Some
"Gnosticism" as a potentially flawed category
scholars, for example A. Rousseau and L.
Doutreleau, translators of the French edition In 1966 in Messina, Italy, a conference was held
(1974), consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses concerning systems of gnosis. Among its several
gnostikos to simply mean "intellectual", as in aims were the need to establish a program to
1.25.6, 1.11.3, 1.11.5, whereas his mention of translate the recently acquired Nag Hammadi
"the intellectual sect" (Adv. haer. 1.11.1) is a library and the need to arrive at an agreement
specific designation. Irenaeus' comparative concerning an accurate definition of
adjective gnostikeron "more learned", evidently "Gnosticism"? This was in answer to the
cannot mean "more Gnostic" as a name. Of tendency, prevalent since the 18th century, to
those groups that Irenaeus identifies as use the term "gnostic" less as its origins implied,
"intellectual" (gnostikos), only one, the but rather as an interpretive category for
followers of Marcellina use the term gnostikos contemporary philosophical and religious
of themselves. Later Hippolytus uses "learned" movements. For example, in 1835, New
(gnostikos) of Cerinthus and the Ebionites, and Testament scholar Ferdinand Christian Baur
Epiphanius applied "learned" (gnostikos) to constructed a developmental model of
specific groups. Gnosticism that culminated in the religious
philosophy of Hegel; one might compare
Study of Gnosticism
literary critic Harold Bloom's recent attempts to
19th century to 1930s identify Gnostic elements in contemporary
American religion, or Eric Voegelin's analysis of
Prior to the discovery of Nag Hammadi,
totalitarian impulses through the interpretive
evidence for gnostic movements was of
lens of Gnosticism.
necessity largely seen through the testimony of
the early church heresiologists. The "church The "cautious proposal" reached by the
historical model," represented by Adolf von conference concerning Gnosticism is described
Harnack among others, saw Gnosticism as an by Markschies:
internal development within the church under
"In the concluding document of Messina the
the influence of Greek philosophy.
proposal was "by the simultaneous application
After the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library, of historical and typological methods" to
1945 designate "a particular group of systems of the
second century after Christ" as "gnosticism",
See also: Nag Hammadi library
and to use "gnosis" to define a conception of
Study of Gnosticism and of early Alexandrian knowledge transcending the times which was
Christianity received a strong impetus from the described as "knowledge of divine mysteries for
discovery of the Coptic Nag Hammadi Library in an élite"."
1945.
—Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, p. 13
174
In essence, it had been decided that suppositions being properly tested. In essence,
"Gnosticism" would become a historically the interpretive definition of Gnosticism that
specific term, restricted to mean the Gnostic was created by the antagonistic efforts of the
movements prevalent in the 3rd century, while early church heresiologists has been taken up
"gnosis" would be a universal term, denoting a by modern scholarship and reflected in a
system of knowledge retained "for a privileged categorical definition, even though the means
élite." However, this effort towards providing now existed to verify its accuracy. Attempting to
clarity in fact created more conceptual do so, Williams contests, reveals the dubious
confusion, as the historical term "Gnosticism" nature of categorical "Gnosticism", and he
was an entirely modern construction, while the concludes that the term needs replacing in
new universal term "gnosis" was a historical order to more accurately reflect those
term: "something was being called "gnosticism" movements it comprises. Williams' observations
that the ancient theologians had called have provoked debate; however, to date his
'gnosis' ... [A] concept of gnosis had been suggested replacement term "the Biblical
created by Messina that was almost unusable in demiurgical tradition" has not become widely
a historical sense". In antiquity, all agreed that used.
knowledge was centrally important to life, but
Gnosticism in modern times
few were agreed as to what exactly constituted
knowledge; the unitary conception that the
Messina proposal presupposed did not exist.
A number of 19th-century thinkers such as
These flaws have meant that the problems William Blake, Arthur Schopenhauer, Albert
concerning an exact definition of Gnosticism Pike and Madame Blavatsky studied Gnostic
persist. It remains current convention to use thought extensively and were influenced by it,
"Gnosticism" in a historical sense, and "gnosis" and even figures like Herman Melville and W. B.
universally. Leaving aside the issues with the Yeats were more tangentially influenced. Jules
latter noted above, the usage of "Gnosticism" to Doinel "re-established" a Gnostic church in
designate a category of 3rd-century religions France in 1890 which altered its form as it
has recently been questioned as well. Of note is passed through various direct successors (Fabre
Michael Allen Williams' Rethinking Gnosticism: des Essarts as Tau Synésius and Joanny Bricaud
An Argument for the Dismantling of a Dubious as Tau Jean II most notably), and which,
Category, in which the author examines the although small, is still active today.
terms by which Gnosticism as a category is
defined, and then closely compares these Early 20th-century thinkers who heavily studied
suppositions with the contents of actual Gnostic and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl
texts (the newly recovered Nag Hammadi Jung (who supported Gnosticism), Eric Voegelin
library was of central importance to his (who opposed it), Jorge Luis Borges (who
argument). included it in many of his short stories), and
Aleister Crowley, with figures such as Hermann
Williams argues that the conceptual Hesse being more moderatedly influenced.
foundations on which the category of Rene Guenon founded the gnostic review, Le
Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda Gnose in 1909 (before moving to a more
of the heresiologists. Too much emphasis has "Perennialist" position). Gnostic Thelemite
been laid on perceptions of dualism, body- and organizations, such as Ecclesia Gnostica
matter-hatred, and anticosmism without these
175
Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis, trace

themselves to Crowley's thought.
The discovery and translation of the Nag

Hammadi library after 1945 had a huge effect Chapter Eight
on Gnosticism since World War II. Thinkers who Neo-Platonism and Gnosticism.
were heavily influenced by Gnosticism in this
period include Hans Jonas, Philip K. Dick and
Neo-Platonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the
Harold Bloom, with Albert Camus and Allen
modern term for a school of Hellenistic
Ginsberg being more moderately influenced. A
philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century,
number of ecclesiastical bodies which think of
based on the teachings of Plato and some of his
themselves as Gnostic have been set up or re-
early followers. Neo-Platonism took definitive
founded since World War II as well, including
shape with the philosopher Plotinus, who
the Society of Novus Spiritus, Ecclesia Gnostica,
claimed to have received his teachings from
the Thomasine Church, the Apostolic Johannite
Ammonius Saccas, a dock worker and
Church, the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, the
philosopher in Alexandria. Neoplatonists
North American College of Gnostic Bishops.
considered themselves simply "Platonists",
Celia Green has written on Gnostic Christianity
although they also wished to distinguish
in relation to her own philosophy.
themselves from various earlier interpreters of
While Gnosticism is commonly referenced as a Plato, such as the New Academy followers of
belief of a deity, this is not always so. Peter skepticism like Arcesilaus and Cicero,
Brietbart defines atheist Gnosticism as Clitomachus, Carneades with its probabilistic
someone having the knowledge to prove the account of knowledge. A more precise term for
non-existence of deities. the group, suggested by the scholar John D.
Turner, is orthodox (neo) Platonism.
Gnosticism is a term created by modern

scholars to describe a collection of religious
groups, many of which thought of themselves
as Christians, and which were active in the first
few centuries AD. There has been considerable
scholarly controversy over exactly which sect’s
fall within this grouping. Sometimes Gnosticism
is used narrowly to refer only to religious
groups such as Sethians and Archontics who
seem to have used the term gnostikoi as a self-
designation, even though early Platonists and
Ebionites also used the term and are not
considered to be Gnostics. Sometimes it is used
a little more broadly to include groups similar to
or influenced by Sethians, such as followers of
Basilides or Valentinius and later the Paulicians.
Sometimes it is used even more broadly to
cover all groups which heavily emphasized
176
gnosis, therefore including Hermetics and Irenaeus claim, then this would be the novel
Neoplatonists as well. coinage of a very distinctive moniker as
opposed to a continuation of traditional usage.
This article discusses the relationship between
Further, it might well mark a self-designating
Neoplatonism and Gnosticism.
proper name rather than merely a self-
Gnosis is a Greek word, originally used in description. Indeed, it would have sounded like
specifically Platonic philosophical contexts. technical philosophical jargon at the time. In
Plato's original use of the terms gnostikoi and contrast, merely claiming to have or supply
gnostike episteme were in his text known as gnosis would have been a common claim in the
Politikos in Greek and Politicus in Latin (258e- 2nd century CE, unworthy of notice in many
267a). In this work, the modern name of which Christian and Hellenistic circles.
is the Statesman, gnosis meant the knowledge
Historical relations between Neoplatonism and
to influence and control. Gnostike episteme
Gnosticism
also was used to indicate one's aptitude. In
Plato's writings the terms do not appear to
intimate anything esoteric or hidden, but rather
There are four major epochs in the history of
express a sort of higher intelligence and ability
Platonic thought: the "Old Academy," the "New
akin to talent.
Academy," Middle Platonism and
Within the text of Politikos, the Stranger (the Neoplatonism. After Plato's death in 348 BC, the
main speaker in the dialog) indicates that the leadership of his Academy was taken up by his
best political leaders are those that have this nephew, Speusippus, and then by Xenocrates,
certain "knowledge" indicative of a competency Polemon, Crantor, and Crates of Athens, who
to rule. Gnosis therefore was a quality had been leaders of the "Old Academy."
characteristic of the ideal attendee of the Following Crates, in 268 BC was Arcesilaus of
Platonic Academy, since high aptitude would be Pitane who founded the "New Academy," under
a necessary qualification to understand and the influence of Pyrrhonian scepticism.
grasp its teachings. Arcelisaus modeled his philosophy after the
Socrates of Plato's early dialogues, "suspending
Although the Greek stem gno- was in common
judgment" or "epoche" (epokhê peri pantôn
use, "like many of the new words formed with -
ἐποχὴ περὶ πάντων).
(t)ikos, gnostikos was never very widely used
and never entered ordinary Greek; it remained Antiochus of Ascalon, who headed the Academy
the more or less exclusive property of Plato's from 79-78 BC, sought to intellectually
subsequent admirers, such as Aristotle, Philo maneuver around the scepticism of the New
Judaeus, Plutarch, Albinus, Iamblichus and Academy by way of a return to the dogmata of
Ioannes Philoponus. Most important of all in its Plato and the Old Academy philosophers.
normal philosophical usage gnostikos was never Antiochus argued that the Platonic Forms (see
applied to the person as a whole, but only to Platonic realism) are not transcendent but
mental endeavours, facilities, or components of immanent to rational minds (including that of
personality." Thus, if it really is true that some God). This position, along with his treatment of
Christians referred to themselves as gnostikoi, the Platonic Demiurge (from the Theaetetus)
or "professed to be" gnostikoi, as Porphyry and and the World-Soul (a notion from the Timaeus
Celsus (two pagans who wrote against that the physical world was an animated being),
Christianity), Clement of Alexandria, and framed the work of other middle Platonists
177
(such as Philo of Alexandria) and later Platonists different kinds of early Gnostics. It now seems
such as Plutarch of Chaeronea, Numenius of clear that "Sethian" and "Valentinian" gnostics
Apamea, and Albinus. These treatments of the attempted "an effort towards conciliation, even
forms and of the Demiurge were crucially affiliation" with late antique philosophy, and
influential to both Neoplatonism and were rebuffed by some Neoplatonists, including
Gnosticism. Neopythagoreanism seems to have Plotinus. Plotinus considered his opponents
influenced both the Neoplatonists and the "heretics", "imbeciles" and "blasphemers"
Gnostics as well. Further, Neopythagoreanism erroneously arriving at misotheism as the
and Middle Platonism seem to be important solution to the problem of evil, taking all their
influences on Basilides and on the Hermetic truths over from Plato. They were in conflict
tradition, which seem in turn to have influenced with the idea expressed by Plotinus that the
the Valentinians.[4] Indeed, the Nag Hammadi approach to the infinite force which is the One
texts included excerpts from Plato, and or Monad cannot be through knowing or not
Irenaeus claims that followers of Carpocrates knowing. Although there has been dispute as to
honored images of Pythagoras, Plato, and which gnostics Plotinus was referring to, it
Aristotle along with images of Jesus Christ. appears they were Sethian.
Neoplatonism The earliest origins of Gnosticism are still

obscure and disputed, but they probably
include influence from Plato, Middle Platonism
By the third century Plotinus had shifted and Neo-Pythagoreanism, and this seems to be
Platonist thought far enough that modern true both of the more Sethian Gnostics, and of
scholars consider the period a new movement the Valentinian Gnostics. Further, if we
called "Neoplatonism"—although Plotinus took compare different Sethian texts to each other in
his position to conform with the Old Academics an attempted chronology of the development
and the Middle Platonists, especially via his of Sethianism during the first few centuries, it
teacher Ammonius Saccas; Alexander of seems that later texts are continuing to interact
Aphrodisias, who was later head of the Lyceum with Platonism. Earlier texts such as Apocalypse
in Athens; and Numenius of Apamea a of Adam show signs of being pre-Christian and
forerunner of the Neo-Pythagoreans and Neo- focus on the Seth of the Jewish bible (not the
Platonists. Plotinus seems to have been Egyptian God Set who is sometimes called Seth
influenced by Gnostics only to the extent of in Greek). These early Sethians may be identical
writing a polemic against them (which Porphyry to or related to the Ophites or to the sectarian
has rearranged into Ennead 3.8, 5.8, 5.5, and group called the Minuth by Philo. Later Sethian
2.9). texts such as Zostrianos and Allogenes draw on
the imagery of older Sethian texts, but utilize "a
Gnosticism large fund of philosophical conceptuality
derived from contemporary Platonism, (that is
late middle Platonism) with no traces of
Scholarship on Gnosticism has been greatly Christian content.” Indeed the Allogenes
advanced by the discovery and translation of doctrine of the "triple-powered one" is "the
the Nag Hammadi texts, which shed light on same doctrine as found in the anonymous
some of the more puzzling comments by Parmenides commentary (Fragment XIV)
Plotinus and Porphyry regarding the Gnostics. ascribed by Hadot to Porphyry ... and is also
More importantly, the texts help to distinguish found in Plotinus' Ennead 6.7, 17, 13-26."
178
However, by the 3rd century Neoplatonists, related to Neo-Pythagorean arithmology. The

such as Plotinus, Porphyry and Amelius are all trinity of the "triple-powered one" (with the
attacking the Sethians. It looks as if Sethianism powers consisting of the modalities of
began as a pre-Christian tradition, possibly a existence, life and mind) in Allogenes mirrors
syncretic Hebrew Mediterranean baptismal quite closely the Neoplatonism doctrine of the
movement from the Jordan Valley. With Intellect differentiating itself from the One in
Babylonian and Egyptian pagan elements, three phases called Existence or reality
Hellenic philosophy. That incorporated (hypostasis), Life, and Intellect (nous). Both
elements of Christianity and Platonism as it traditions heavily emphasize the role of
grew, only to have both Christianity and negative theology or apophasis, and Gnostic
Platonism reject and turn against it. Professor emphasis on the ineffability of God often
John D. Turner believes that this double attack echoes Platonic (and Neoplatonism)
led to Sethianism fragmentation into numerous formulations of the ineffability of the One or
smaller groups (Audians, Borborites, Archontics the Good.
and perhaps Phibionites, Stratiotici, and
There were some important philosophical
Secundians).
differences. Gnostics emphasized magic and
Philosophical relations between Neoplatonism ritual in a way that would have been
and Gnosticism disagreeable to the more sober Neoplatonists
such as Plotinus and Porphyry, though perhaps
not to later Neoplatonists such as Iamblichus.
Gnostics borrow a lot of ideas and terms from But Plotinus' main objection to the Gnostic
Platonism. They exhibit a keen understanding of teachings he encountered was to their rejection
Greek philosophical terms and the Greek Koine of the goodness of the demiurge and of the
language in general, and use Greek material world. He attacked the Gnostics for
philosophical concepts throughout their text, their vilification of Plato's ontology of the
including such concepts as hypostasis (reality, universe as contained in the Timaeus. Plotinus
existence), ousia (essence, substance, being), accused Gnosticism of vilifying the demiurge or
and demiurge (creator God). Good examples craftsman that shaped the material world, and
include texts such as the Hypostasis of the so ultimately for perceiving the material world
Archons (Reality of the Rulers) or Trimorphic as evil, or as a prison. Plotinus set forth that the
Protennoia (The first thought in three forms). demiurge is the nous (as an emanation of the
One), which is the ordering principle or mind,
Gnostics structured their world of transcendent also reason. Plotinus was critical of the gnostic
being by ontological distinctions whereby the derivation of the Demiurge from Wisdom as
plenitude of the divine world emerges from a Sophia, the anthropomorphic personification of
sole high deity by emanation, radiation, wisdom as a feminine spirit deity not unlike the
unfolding and mental self-reflection. Likewise goddess Athena or the Christian Holy Spirit.
the technique of self-performable These objections seem applicable to some of
contemplative mystical ascent towards and the Nag Hammadi texts, although others such
beyond a realm of pure being is rooted in as the Valentinians, or the Tripartite Tractate,
Plato's Symposium, and common in Gnostic appear to insist on the goodness of the world
thought, was also expressed by Plotinus (see and the Demiurge. (Plotinus indicated that if
Life of Plotinus). Divine triads, tetrads, and gnostics really believed this world to be a
ogdoads in Gnostic thought often are closely
179
prison, then they might at any moment free Plotinus' work followed directly from Plato, and
themselves from it by committing suicide.) how much influence Plotinus had on the
religions of his time and vice versa. The
First International Conference on
conference and the book documenting it is
Neoplatonism and Gnosticism
considered a key avenue for dialogue among
the different scholars in the history of
philosophy.
The First International Conference on
Neoplatonism and Gnosticism at the University
of Oklahoma in 1984 explored the relationship
between Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. The
conference also led to a book named Later Conferences and Studies
Neoplatonism and Gnosticism.
Professor John D. Turner of the University of
The book's intent was to document the creation Nebraska has led additional conferences
of a conference in the academic world exploring covering topics and materials relating to
the relationship between late and middle Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. Presentations
Platonic philosophy and Gnosticism. The book from seminars that took place between 1993
marked a turning point in the discussion on the and 1998 are published in the book Gnosticism
subject of Neoplatonism because it took into and Later Platonism: Themes, Figures, and Texts
account the understanding of the gnostics of Symposium Series (Society of Biblical
Plotinus' day in light of the discovery of the Nag Literature).
Hammadi library. Further discussions of the
Neoplatonism, Gnosticism and other
topics covered in the book led to the formation
movements
of a new committee of scholars to once again
translate Plotinus' Enneads. Both Richard Wallis
and A.H. Armstrong, the major editors of the
work, have died since the completion of the Neoplatonism and Gnosticism are probably also
book and conference. both influences on certain contemporary or
later movements. A good example is
This conference was held to cover some of the Hermeticism. Hermeticism seems to have roots
controversies surrounding these issues and prior to the 3rd century, but also to have been
other aspects of the two groups. The objective influenced heavily by both Gnosticism and
of the event (and the book that documents the Neoplatonism.
event) was to clarify the relationship between
Neoplatonism / Neoplatonists and the sectarian Druze.
groups of the day, the Gnostics. The book Hermeticism- Egyptian and Greek movements.
republished the works of a wide spectrum of
scholars in the field of philosophy. The book's Islam- Sufism.
content consisted of presentations that the Neoplatonism and Christianity: Irenaeus,
experts delivered at the first International Origen, Pseudo-Dionysius, Cappadocian Fathers,
Conference. One purpose was to clarify the Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of
meaning of the words and phrases repeated in Nazianzus
other religions and belief systems of the
Mediterranean region during Plotinus' time. Persian Gnosticism- Manicheanism and
Another was to try to clarify the extent to which Mandaeism.
180
himself. A person who practices philanthropy is

called a philanthropist.
The word was first coined as an adjective by the

playwright Aeschylus in Prometheus Bound (5th
century BCE), to describe Prometheus'
character as "humanity loving" (philanthropos
tropos), for having given to the earliest proto-
humans who had no culture, fire (symbolizing
technological civilization) and "blind hope"
(optimism). Together, they would be used to
improve the human condition, to save mankind
from destruction. Thus humans were
distinguished from all other animals by
civilization the power to complete their own
Chapter Nine creation through education (self-development)
Philanthropy and culture (civic development), expressed in
good works benefiting others. The new word,
φιλάνθρωπος philanthropos, combined two
words: φίλος philos, "loving" in the sense of
Philanthropy etymologically means "love of benefitting, caring for, nourishing; and
humanity" in the sense of caring for, nourishing, ἄνθρωπος anthropos, "human being" in the
developing, and enhancing "what it is to be sense of "humanity", or "human-ness".
human" on both the benefactors' (by identifying
and exercising their values in giving and The first use of the noun form philanthrôpía
volunteering) and beneficiaries' (by benefiting) came shortly thereafter (ca. 390 BC) in the early
parts. The most conventional modern definition Platonic dialogue Euthyphro. Socrates is
is "private initiatives, for public good, focusing reported to have said that his "pouring out" of
on quality of life". This combines the social his thoughts freely (without charge) to his
scientific aspect developed in the 20th century listeners was his philanthrôpía.[3] The
with the original humanistic tradition, and Philosophical Dictionary of the Platonic
serves to contrast philanthropy with business Academy defined philanthrôpía as "A state of
(private initiatives for private good, focusing on well-educated habits stemming from love of
material prosperity) and government (public humanity. A state of being productive of benefit
initiatives for public good, focusing on law and to humans. A state of grace. Mindfulness
order). together with good works." Philanthrôpía —
loving humanity — was thought to be the
Instances of philanthropy commonly overlap essence of civilization. [4] The ancient Greek
with instances of charity, though not all charity word for culture as education was paideia.
is philanthropy, or vice versa. The difference
commonly cited is that charity relieves the pains In the first century BC, both paideia and
of social problems, whereas philanthropy philanthrôpía were translated into Latin by the
attempts to solve those problems at their root single word humanitas which was also
causes the difference between giving a hungry understood to be the core of liberal education
man a fish, and teaching him how to fish for studia humanitatis, the studies of humanity, or
simply "the humanities". In the second century
181
AD, Plutarch used the concept of philanthrôpía The total economic collapse attending the Fall
to describe superior human beings. This of Rome and leading to the Dark Ages dissolved
Classically synonymous troika, of philanthropy, Classical civilization, replacing it with Christian
the humanities, and liberal education, declined theology and soteriology, administered through
with the Fall of Rome, during the Middle Ages the Roman Catholic Church's ecclesiastical and
philanthrôpía was superseded by caritas charity, monastic infrastructures. Gradually there
selfless love, valued for salvation. emerged a non-religious agricultural
infrastructure based on peasant farming
In the 19th-century, the word "philanthropy"
organized into manors, which were in turn
and its variants tended to drift in meaning and
organized for law and order by feudalism. For a
importance, and came to be associated with
thousand years Classical humanism hibernated
"doing good". In the late 20th century, the word
in forgotten manuscripts of monastic libraries.
"philanthropy" came to be associated
exclusively with its most conspicuous When it was rediscovered in the Italian
manifestations, foundations and grant-making. Renaissance, humanism consisted of a specific
Professional fundraisers stopped using the word academic curriculum: grammar, rhetoric,
as it was considered as unnecessarily poetry, history, and moral philosophy, or ethics,
pretentious and pompous. However, use of the designed to train laymen for effective
word has seen a modest revival in recent years. leadership in business, law, and government.
One of the clearest literary expressions of
History
Renaissance humanist philosophy is Pico Della
Mirandola's famous 15th-century Oration on
the Dignity of Man, which echoes the
Classical philanthropy philanthropic myth of human creation, though
The Ancient Greek view of philanthropy — that with the Christian God as the Promethean
the "love of what it is to be human" is the Creator. Sir Francis Bacon in 1592 wrote in a
essential nature and purpose of humanity, letter that his "vast contemplative ends"
culture and civilization — was intrinsically expressed his "philanthropia", and his 1608
philosophical, containing both metaphysics and essay On Goodness defined his subject as "the
ethics. The Greeks adopted the "love of affecting of the weale of men... what the
humanity" as an educational ideal, whose goal Grecians call philanthropia". Henry Cockeram,
was excellence (arete)—the fullest self- in his English dictionary (1623), cited
development, of body, mind, and spirit, which is "philanthropie" as a synonym for "humanitie"(in
the essence of liberal education. The Platonic Latin, humanitas) — thus reaffirming the
Academy's philosophical dictionary defined Classical formulation.
Philanthropia as: "A state of well-educated Modern philanthropy
habits stemming from love of humanity. A state
of being productive of benefit to humans." Just Philanthropy began to reach its modern form in
as Prometheus’ human-empowering gifts the Age of Enlightenment - after the Wars of
rebelled against the tyranny of Zeus, Religion in 17th century Europe, secular
philanthropia was also associated with freedom alternatives such as Rationalism Empiricism and
and democracy. Both Socrates and the laws of Science, inclined philosophers toward a more
Athens were described as "philanthropic and progressive view of history. This tendency
democratic". achieved an especially pure articulation in the
Scottish Enlightenment[6], especially in the
182
works of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of run as voluntary associations. They raised public
Shaftesbury and Francis Hutcheson, who awareness of their activities through the
proposed that philanthropy is the essential key emerging popular press and were generally held
to human happiness, conceived as a kind of in high social regard - some charities received
"fitness"—living in harmony with Nature and state recognition in the form of the Royal
one's own circumstances. Self-development, Charter.
manifested in good deeds toward others, was
Philanthropists, such as anti-slavery campaigner
the surest way to live a pleasing, fulfilling, and
William Wilberforce, began to adopt active
satisfying life, as well as to help build a
campaigning roles, where they would champion
commonwealth community.
a cause and lobby the government for
Influenced by these ideas, and as a facet of the legislative change. This included organized
expansion of civil society, charitable and campaigns against the ill treatment of animals
philanthropic activity among voluntary and children and the campaign that eventually
associations and rich benefactors became a succeeded in ending the slave trade throughout
widespread cultural practice. Societies, the British Empire at the turn of the 19th
gentleman's clubs and mutual associations century.
began to flourish in England and the upper-
During the 19th century, a profusion of
classes increasingly adopted a philanthropic
charitable organizations were set up to alleviate
attitude toward the disadvantaged. This new
the awful conditions of the working class in the
social activism was channeled into the
slums. The Labourer's Friend Society, chaired by
establishment of charitable organizations; these
Lord Shaftesbury in the United Kingdom in
proliferated from the middle of the century.
1830, was set up to improve working class
This emerging upper-class fashion for conditions. This included the promotion of
benevolence resulted in the incorporation of allotment of land to labourers for "cottage
the first charitable organizations. Captain husbandry" that later became the allotment
Thomas Coram, appalled by the number of movement. In 1844 it became the first Model
abandoned children living on the streets of Dwellings Company - organizations that sought
London, set up the Foundling Hospital in 1741 to improve the housing conditions of the
to look after these unwanted orphans in Lamb's working classes by building new homes for
Conduit Fields, Bloomsbury. This was the first them, at the same time receiving a competitive
such charity in the world and served as the rate of return on any investment. This was one
precedent for incorporated associational of the first housing associations, a philanthropic
charities everywhere. endeavour that flourished in the second half of
the nineteenth century brought about by the
Jonas Hanway, another notable philanthropist
growth of the middle class. Later associations
of the era established The Marine Society in
included the Peabody Trust and the Guinness
1756 as the first seafarer's charity, in a bid to
Trust. The principle of philanthropic intention
aid the recruitment of men to the navy. By
with capitalist return was given the label "five
1763, the Society had recruited over 10,000
per cent philanthropy".
men and it was incorporated by an Act of
Parliament in 1772. Hanway was also Philanthropy became a very fashionable activity
instrumental in establishing the Magdalen among the expanding middle classes in Britain
Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes. These and America. Octavia Hill and John Ruskin were
organizations were funded by subscription and an important force behind the development of
183
social housing and Andrew Carnegie Note: These are nominal values and have not
exemplified the large scale philanthropy of the been adjusted for inflation
newly rich in industrialized America. In Gospel
$31 billion from Warren Buffett to the Bill and
of Wealth (1889), Carnegie wrote about the
Melinda Gates Foundation (initial value of the
responsibilities of great wealth and the
gift)
importance of social justice. He established
public libraries throughout the English-speaking $9 billion from Chuck Feeney to Atlantic
countries as well as contributing large sums to Philanthropies
schools and universities. Other American
philanthropists of the early 20th century were $2 billion from Azim Premji to the Azim Premji
John D. Rockefeller and Ford. The sheer size of Foundation in 2010.
their endowments directed their attention to $1 billion from Ted Turner to the United
addressing the causes and instruments, as Nations
distinct from the symptoms and expressions, of
social problems and cultural opportunities. $540 million from John D. Rockefeller to the
Rockefeller Foundation and various other
In recent decades, wealth creators in new hi- Rockefeller Charities, over the course of his life.
tech sectors have turned to second careers in
philanthropy at earlier ages, creating large $500 million from T. Boone Pickens to
foundations. Individual philanthropy began to Oklahoma State University.
be chic, attracting celebrities from popular arts. $500 million from Walter Annenberg to public
Commercial movies and television adopted the school reform in the United States
idea, and many initiatives have been led by
wealthy individuals such as Bill Gates and $350 million ($7 billion in modern terms) from
Warren Buffett. Andrew Carnegie in 1901 who distributed most
of his wealth to good causes, including the
Modern philanthropy building Carnegie Hall New York City.
$424 million from managers of the Reader's

Philanthropy has been affected in various ways Digest fortune to the Metropolitan Museum of
by technological and cultural change. Today, Art
many donations are made through the internet $350 million from Michael Jackson who
(see also donation statistics). Organizations like distributed most of his wealth to good causes,
Opportunity International and Kiva and who supported over 39 charity
(microlending), Raise5 (microvolunteering), or organizations. He was listed in the Guinness
Charitykick (micro-donating) leverage crowd Book Of World Records for the "Most Charities
funding philanthropy to raise money for charity. Supported By a Pop Star".
Charity evaluators, like Givewell and Charity $350 million from Yank Barry and his Global
Navigator have emerged, which assess charities Village Champions in food, education and
in various ways to help prospective donors medical supplies to the needy around the World
make their choice. from 1990 to the present.
Some large individual bequests $225 million from Raymond and Ruth Perelman,
parents of Ronald O. Perelman, to the
184
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine would be one in which one god is creative, the
in 2011. other is destructive.
$200 million from Joan B. Kroc to National Alternatively, in ontological dualism, the world
Public Radio in 2003 is divided into two overarching categories. The
opposition and combination of the universe's
$100 million from Mark Zuckerberg to Mayor
two basic principles of yin and yang is a large
Cory Booker for the Newark, New Jersey public
part of Chinese philosophy, and is an important
schools.
feature of Taoism, both as a philosophy and as a
$100 million from Henry and Betty Rowan to religion (it is also discussed in Confucianism).
Glassboro State College
In theology, dualism can refer to the
Millions from Charles T. Hinde to undertake relationship between God and creation. The
various projects in Southern California from Christian dualism of God and creation exists in
1895-1915. some traditions of Christianity, like
Paulicianism, Catharism, and Gnosticism. The
Paulicians, a Byzantine Christian sect, believed
Chapter Ten that the universe, created through evil, exists
separately from a moral God. The Dvaita
Dualism Vedanta school of Indian philosophy also
espouses a dualism between God and the
Dualism (from the Latin word duo meaning universe. The first and the more important
"two" denotes a state of two parts. The term reality is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is
'dualism' was originally coined to denote co- the supreme Self, God, the absolute truth of the
eternal binary opposition, a meaning that is universe, the independent reality. The second
preserved in metaphysical and philosophical reality is that of dependent but equally real
duality discourse but has been diluted in other universe that exists with its own separate
usages to indicate a system which contains two essence.
essential parts.
In philosophy of mind, dualism is a view about
Moral dualism is the belief of the great the relationship between mind and matter
complement or conflict between the which claims that mind and matter are two
benevolent and the malignant. It simply implies ontologically separate categories. Mind-body
that there are two moral opposites at work, dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter
independent of any interpretation of what can be reduced to each other in any way.
might be "moral" and independent of how Western dualist philosophical traditions (as
these may be represented. The moral opposites exemplified by Descartes) equate mind with the
might, for example exist in a world view which conscious self and theorize on consciousness on
has one god, more than one god, or none. By the basis of mind/body dualism. By contrast,
contrast, ditheism or bitheism implies (at least) some Eastern philosophies draw a metaphysical
two gods. Bitheism implies harmony, ditheism line between consciousness and matter —
implies rivalry and opposition, such as between where matter includes both body and mind.
good and evil, or bright and dark, or summer
In philosophy of science, dualism often refers to
and winter. For example, a ditheistic system
the dichotomy between the "subject" (the
observer) and the "object" (the observed).
185
Another dualism, in Popperian philosophy of from the God or from the Demon. Duality with
science refers to "hypothesis" and "refutation" pluralism is considered a logical fallacy.
(for example, experimental refutation). This
History
notion also carried to Popper's political
philosophy. Moral dualism began as a theological belief.
Dualism was first seen implicitly in Egyptian
In physics, dualism also refers to mediums with
Religious beliefs by the contrast of the gods Set
properties that can be associated with the
(disorder, death) and Osiris (order, life). The
mechanics of two different phenomena.
first explicit conception of dualism came from
Because these two phenomena's mechanics are
the Ancient Persian Religion of Zoroastrianism
mutually exclusive, both are needed in order to
around the mid-fifth century BC. Zoroastrianism
describe the possible behaviors. All matter, for
is a monotheistic religion that believes that
example, has wave-particle duality.
Ahura Mazda is the eternal creator of all good
Moral dualism is the belief of the great things. Any violations of Ahura Mazda's order
complement or conflict between the arise from druj, which is everything uncreated.
benevolent and the malignant. From this comes a significant choice for humans
to make. Either they fully participate in human
Like ditheism/bitheism, moral dualism does not
life for Ahura Mazda or they do not and give
imply the absence of monist or monotheistic
druj power. Personal dualism is even more
principles. Moral dualism simply implies that
distinct in the beliefs of later religions.
there are two moral opposites at work,
independent of any interpretation of what The religious dualism of Christianity between
might be "moral" and - unlike good and evil is not a perfect dualism as God
ditheism/bitheism - independent of how these (good) will inevitably destroy Satan (evil). Early
may be represented. Christian Dualism is largely based on Platonic
Dualism. There is also a personal dualism in
For example, Mazdaism (Mazdean
Christianity with a soul-body distinction based
Zoroastrianism) is both dualistic and
on the idea of an immaterial Christian Soul.
monotheistic (but not monist by definition)
since in that philosophy God—the Creator—is Duotheism, bitheism, ditheism
purely good, and the antithesis—which is also
Dualistic cosmology
uncreated—is an absolute one. Zurvanism
(Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), Manichaeism and In theology, 'dualism' may also refer to
Mandaeism, are representative of dualistic and 'duotheism', 'bitheism' or 'ditheism'. Although
monist philosophies since each has a supreme ditheism/bitheism imply moral dualism, they
and transcendental First Principle from which are not equivalent: ditheism/bitheism implies
the two equal-but-opposite entities then (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does
emanate. This is also true for the lesser-known not imply any -theism (theos = god)
Christian gnostic religions, such as Bogomils, whatsoever.
Catharism, and so on. More complex forms of
monist dualism also exist, for instance in Both 'bitheism' and 'ditheism' imply a belief in
Hermeticism, where Nous "thought" - that is two equally powerful gods with complementary
described to have created man - brings forth or antonymous properties. However, while
both good and evil, dependent on bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies
interpretation, whether it receives prompting rivalry and opposition, such as between good
186
and evil, or bright and dark, or summer and were the work of two opposing gods: both were
winter. For example, a ditheistic system would First Principles, but of different religions.
be one in which one god is creative, the other is
Ontological dualism
destructive (cf. theodicy). In the original
conception of Zoroastrianism, for example, The yin and yang symbolizes the duality in
Ahura Mazda was the spirit of ultimate good, nature and all things in the Taoist religion.
while Ahriman (Angra Mainyu) was the spirit of
ultimate evil. (This Zoroastrian conception of Alternatively, dualism can mean the tendency
polar opposition and conflict would later come of humans to perceive and understand the
to influence the development of Christianity as world as being divided into two overarching
it elaborated upon the idea of the Devil as an categories. In this sense, it is dualistic when one
ultimate source of evil opposed to the Christian perceives a tree as a thing separate from
God, an idea that was previously absent in everything surrounding it. This form of
Judaism.) ontological dualism exists in Taoism and
Confucianism, beliefs that divide the universe
In a bitheistic system, by contrast, where the into the complementary oppositions of yin and
two deities are not in conflict or opposition, one yang. In traditions such as classical Hinduism,
could be male and the other female (cf. Zen Buddhism or Islamic Sufism, a key to
duotheism). One well-known example of a enlightenment is "transcending" this sort of
bitheistic or duotheistic theology based on dualistic thinking, without merely substituting
gender polarity is found in the neopagan dualism with monism or pluralism.
religion of Wicca, which is centered on the
worship of a divine couple - the Moon Goddess In Chinese philosophy
and the Horned God - who are regarded as The opposition and combination of the
lovers. However, there is also a ditheistic theme universe's two basic principles of yin and yang is
within traditional Wicca, as the Horned God has a large part of Chinese philosophy, and is an
dual aspects of bright and dark - relating to important feature of Taoism, both as a
day/night, summer/winter - expressed as the philosophy and as a religion. Yin and yang is also
Oak King and the Holly King, who in Wiccan discussed in Confucianism, but to a lesser
myth and ritual are said to engage in battle extent.
twice a year for the hand of the Goddess,
resulting in the changing seasons. (Within Some of the common associations with yang
Wicca, bright and dark do not correspond to and yin, respectively, are: male and female,
notions of "good" and "evil" but are aspects of light and dark, active and passive, motion and
the natural world, much like yin and yang in stillness. The yin and yang symbol in actuality
Taoism.) has very little to do with Western dualism;
instead it represents the philosophy of balance,
However, bitheistic and ditheistic principles are where two opposites co-exist in harmony and
not always so easily contrastable, for instance in are able to transmute into each other. In the
a system where one god is the representative of yin-yang symbol there is a dot of yin in yang and
summer and drought and the other of winter a dot of yang in yin. This symbolizes the inter-
and rain/fertility (cf. the mythology of connectedness of the opposite forces as
Persephone). Marcionism, an early Christian different aspects of Tao, the First Principle.
sect, held that the Old and New Testaments Contrast is needed to create a distinguishable
reality, without which we would experience
187
nothingness. Therefore, the independent mind and matter as being ultimately the same
principles of yin and yang are actually kind of thing.
dependent on one another for each other's
distinguishable existence. The complementary
dualistic concept in Taoism represents the
reciprocal interaction throughout nature,
related to a feedback loop, where opposing
forces do not exchange in opposition but
instead exchange reciprocally to promote
stabilization similar to homeostasis. An
underlying principle in Taoism states that within
every independent entity lies a part of its
opposite. Within sickness lies health and vice
versa. This is because all opposites are
manifestations of the single Tao, and are
therefore not independent from one another,
but rather a variation of the same unifying force
throughout all of nature.
Mind-matter and mind-body dualism
In philosophy of mind
Dualism (philosophy of mind)
In philosophy of mind, dualism is any of a

narrow variety of views about the relationship
between mind and matter, which claims that
mind and matter are two ontologically separate
categories. In particular, mind-body dualism
claims that neither the mind nor matter can be
reduced to each other in any way, and thus is
opposed to materialism in general, and
reductive materialism in particular. Mind-body
dualism can exist as substance dualism which
claims that the mind and the body are
composed of a distinct substance, and as
property dualism which claims that there may
not be a distinction in substance, but that
mental and physical properties are still
categorically distinct, and not reducible to each
other. This type of dualism is sometimes
referred to as "mind and body" and stands in
contrast to philosophical monism, which views
188
Module Five the study of

Mysticism
Chapter One
What is Mysticism?
Mysticism (About this sound pronunciation

(help·info)) is the pursuit of communion with,
identity with, or conscious awareness of an
ultimate reality, divinity, spiritual truth, or God
through direct experience, intuition, instinct or
insight. Mysticism usually centers on practices
intended to nurture those experiences.
Mysticism may be dualistic, maintaining a
distinction between the self and the divine, or
may be nondualistic.
189
Such pursuit has long been an integral part of This threefold meaning of "mystical" continued
the religious life of humanity. Within in the Middle Ages. Under the influence of
established religion it has been explicitly Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite the mystical
expressed within monasticism, where rules theology came to denote the investigation of
governing the everyday life of monks and nuns the allegorical truth of the Bible. Pseudo-
provide a framework conducive to the Dionysius' Apophatic theology, or "negative
cultivation of mystical states of consciousness. theology", exerted a great influence on
medieval monastic religiosity, although it was
In the contemporary usage "mysticism" has
mostly a male religiosity, since woman were not
become an umbrella term, conflated with
allowed to study. It was influenced by Neo-
spirituality and esotericism.
Platonism, and very influential in Eastern
Practices associated with mysticism include Orthodox Christian theology. In western
meditation and contemplative prayer. Christianity it was a counter-current to the
Mysticism can be distinguished from ordinary prevailing Cataphatic theology or "positive
religious belief by its emphasis on the direct theology". It is best known nowadays in the
personal experience of unique states of western world from Meister Eckhart and John
consciousness, particularly those of a of the Cross.
transcendentally blissful character.
Early modern meaning
In the Hellenistic world, 'mystical' referred to
Early modern period
"secret" religious rituals The use of the word
lacked any direct references to the In the sixteenth and seventeenth century
transcendental. A "mystikos" was an initiate of mysticism came to be used as a substantive.
a mystery religion. This shift was linked to a new discourse, in
which science and religion were separated.
In early Christianity the term "mystikos"
referred to three dimensions, which soon Luther dismissed the allegorical interpretation
became intertwined, namely the biblical, the of the bible, and condemned Mystical theology,
liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The which he saw as more Platonic than Christian.
biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or "The mystical", as the search for the hidden
allegorical interpretations of Scriptures. The meaning of texts, became secularised, and also
liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical associated with literature, as opposed to
mystery of the Eucharist, the presence Christ at science and prose.
the Eucharist. The third dimension is the
Science was also distantiated form religion. By
contemplative or experiential knowledge of
the middle of the 17th century, 'the mystical' is
God.
increasingly applied exclusively to the religious
The link between mysticism and the vision of realm, separating religion and 'natural
the Divine was introduced by the early Church philosophy' as two distinct approaches to the
Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as discovery of the hidden meaning of God's
in mystical theology and mystical universe. The traditional hagiographies and
contemplation. writings of the saints became designated as
'mystical', shifting from the virtues and miracles
Medieval meaning
to extraordinary experiences and states of
Middle Ages mind, thereby creating a newly coined "mystical
tradition". A new understanding developed of
190
the Divine as residing within human, a core The Apophatic theology, or "negative theology",
essence beyond the varieties of religious of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite exerted a
expressions. great influence on medieval monastic
religiosity.
Contemporary meaning
The High Middle Ages saw a flourishing of
In the contemporary usage "mysticism" has
mystical practice and theorization
become an umbrella term for all sorts of non-
corresponding to the flourishing of new
rational worldviews. William Harmless even
monastic orders, with such figures as Guigo II,
states that mysticism has become "a catch-all
Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, the
for religious weirdness". A popular strand of
Victorines, all coming from different orders, as
thought sees a common "mystical experience"
well as the first real flowering of popular piety
running through a wide diversity of religious
among the laypeople.
traditions.
The Late Middle Ages saw the clash between
Within the academic study of religion the
the Dominican and Franciscan schools of
apparent "unambiguous commonality" has
thought, which was also a conflict between two
become "opaque and controversial". The term
different mystical theologies: on the one hand
"mysticism" is being used in different ways in
that of Dominic de Guzmán and on the other
different traditions. Some call to attention the
that of Francis of Assisi, Anthony of Padua,
conflation of mysticism and linked terms, such
Bonaventure, and Angela of Foligno. This period
as spirituality and esotericism, and point at the
also saw such individuals as John of Ruysbroeck,
differences between various traditions.
Catherine of Siena and Catherine of Genoa, the
Western mysticism Devotio Moderna, and such books as the
Theologia Germanica, The Cloud of Unknowing
and The Imitation of Christ.
Mystery religions Moreover, there was the growth of groups of
Main article: Greco-Roman mysteries mystics centered around geographic regions:
the Beguines, such as Mechthild of Magdeburg
The Eleusinian Mysteries, (Greek: Ἐλευσίνια and Hadewijch (among others); the Rhineland
Μυστήρια) were annual initiation ceremonies in mystics Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler and
the cults of the goddesses Demeter and Henry Suso; and the English mystics Richard
Persephone, held in secret at Eleusis (near Rolle, Walter Hilton and Julian of Norwich. The
Athens) in ancient Greece. The mysteries began Spanish mystics included Teresa of Avila, St
in about 1600 B.C. in the John of the Cross and Ignatius Loyola.
Mycenean[disambiguation needed] period and
continued for two thousand years, becoming a Forms of Jewish mysticism
major festival during the Hellenic era, and later Dead Sea Enoch Scroll c.200-150 BCE
spreading to Rome.
800–500 BCE
Christian mysticism
300–100 BCE
The Appearance of the Holy Spirit before Saint
Teresa of Ávila, Peter Paul Rubens Christian c. 0–130s CE
mysticism, Mystical theology, Apophatic
100 BCE – 1000 CE
theology, and German mysticism
191
200–600 CE Academic study
C. 1150-1250 CE
c. 1175–1570 CE Later, the reformation saw the writings of

Protestant visionaries such as Emmanuel
Swedenborg and William Blake, and the
foundation of mystical movements such as the
Quakers.
1500s CE
Catholic mysticism continued into the modern
1570 CE–today period with such figures as Padre Pio and
1665–c. 1800 CE Thomas Merton. The philokalia, an ancient
method of Eastern Orthodox mysticism, was
1730s CE–today promoted by the twentieth century
Traditionalist School. The inspired or
"channeled" work A Course in Miracles
c. 1900s–today represents a blending of non-denominational
Christian and New Age ideas.
c. 1910s–today
c. 1920s–today
Prophetic Judaism
Apocalyptic Judaism
Jewish mysticism
Rabbinic mysticism
Jewish mysticism and Kabbalah
Merkabah-Hekhalot
Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to
Proto-Kabbalah
explain the relationship between an
Chassidei Ashkenaz unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no
end) and the mortal and finite universe (his
Medieval Kabbalah
creation). Inside Judaism, it forms the
• Meditative-Prophetic foundations of mystical religious interpretation.
• Practical Kabbalah Kabbalah originally developed entirely within

the realm of Jewish thought. Kabbalists often
• Safed Kabbalah use classical Jewish sources to explain and
Lurianic Kabbalah demonstrate its esoteric teachings. These
teachings are thus held by followers in Judaism
Sabbatean movements to define the inner meaning of both the Hebrew
Hasidic Judaism Bible and traditional Rabbinic literature, their
formerly concealed transmitted dimension, as
• Hasidic schools well as to explain the significance of Jewish
religious observances.
Neo-Hasidism/Kabbalah
Mystical Zionism
192
Kabbalah emerged, after earlier forms of Jewish Dhikr, or remembrance (of God), which often
mysticism, in 12th- to 13th-century Southern takes the form of rhythmic chanting and
France and Spain, becoming reinterpreted in breathing exercises.
the Jewish mystical renaissance of 16th-century
Sema, which takes the form of music and dance
Ottoman Palestine. It was popularised in the
— the whirling dance of the Mevlevi dervishes
form of Hasidic Judaism from the 18th century
is a form well known in the West.
onwards. 20th-century interest in Kabbalah has
inspired cross-denominational Jewish renewal Muraqaba or meditation.
and contributed to wider non-Jewish
contemporary spirituality, as well as engaging Visiting holy places, particularly the tombs of
its flourishing emergence and historical re- sufi saints, in order to absorb barakah, or
emphasis through newly established academic spiritual energy.
investigation. The aims of sufism include: the experience of
Notable early Sufis ecstatic states (hal), purification of the heart
(qalb), overcoming the lower self (nafs), the
Sufism is a discipline within Islam: it is said to be development of extrasensory and healing
Islam's inner and mystical dimension. Classical powers, extinction of the individual personality
Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as (fana), communion with God (haqiqa), and
higher knowledge (marifat). Some sufic beliefs
[A] science whose objective is the reparation of
and practices have been found unorthodox by
the heart and turning it away from all else but
other muslims; for instance Mansur al-Hallaj
God.
was put to death for blasphemy after uttering
A practitioner of this tradition is nowadays the phrase Ana'l Haqq, "I am the Truth" (ie God)
known as a ṣūfī ( ّ‫)صُوفِي‬, or, in earlier usage, a in a trance.
dervish. The origin of the word "Sufi" is
Classical Sufi saints and scholars include Al-
ambiguous. One understanding is that Sufi
Ghazzali, Abdul-Qadir Jilani, Jalaluddin Rumi,
means wool-wearer- wool wearers during early
Fariduddin Attar, Ibn Arabi, Hafiz, Rabia Basri
Islam were pious ascetics who withdrew from
and Sahl al-Tustari.
urban life. Another explanation of the word
"Sufi" is that it means 'purity'. Eastern mysticism
Sufis generally belong to a Khalqa, a circle or Sikh mysticism
group, led by a Sheikh or Murshid. Sufi circles
usually belong to a Tariqa, literally a path, a kind Guru Nanak and Bhai Mardana
of lineage, which traces its succession back to Mysticism in the Sikh dharm began with its
notable sufis of the past, and often ultimately to founder, Guru Nanak, who as a child had
the prophet Muhammed or one of his close profound mystical experiences. Guru Nanak
associates. The turuq (plural of tariqa) are not stressed that God must be seen with 'the
enclosed like Christian monastic orders; rather inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being.
the members retain an outside life. Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, added religious
Sufi practice includes mystics belonging to other religions into the
holy scriptures that would eventually become
the Guru Granth Sahib.
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In Sikhi there is no dogma but only the search Shankara. The mystic's goal is seen as mukti, or
for truth. Sikhs meditate as a means to progress liberation from endless cycles of reincarnation.
towards enlightenment; it is devoted Vedantic philosophy tends to view the Hindu
meditation simran that enables a sort of pantheon[disambiguation needed] as aspects or
communication between the Infinite and finite symbols of a single transcendent reality,
human consciousness. Brahman (which is often identified with Atman,
the Self). Four scriptural passages, the
The goal of Sikhi is to be one with God. For the
Mahavakyas, :or "great sayings" are given
Sikhs there is no concentration on the breath
special significance:
but chiefly the remembrance of God through
the recitation of the name of God. Sikhs are prajñānam brahma - "Prajñānam
instructed to recite the name of God (consciousness) is Brahman (Aitareya Upanishad
(Waheguru) 24 hours a day and surrender 3.3 of the Rig Veda)
themselves to Gods presence often
ayam ātmā brahma - "I am Brahman", or "This
metaphorized as surrendering themselves to
Self (Atman) is Brahman" (Mandukya Upanishad
the Lord's feet.
1.2 of the Atharva Veda)
There are no priests, monastics or yogis in the
tat tvam asi - "Thou art That" or "Thou arrt
Sikh dharm and these mystic practices are not
Brahman"(Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 of the
limited to an elite few who remove themselves
Sama Veda)
from the world. Rather, Sikhs do not renounce
the world and the participation in ordinary life aham brahmāsmi - "I am Brahman", or "I am
is considered spiritually essential to the Sikh. Divine" (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10 of the
Yajur Veda)
Hindu Mysticism
Yoga is the collective term for various
Hinduism has a number of interlinked schools
techniques for whose aims include the
and traditions of mysticism. The upanishads are
attainment of mystical insight and supernormal
a collection of ancient hymns, which are
powers, (although these are not generally
regarded as expounding a philosophy of union
emphasised in hatha yoga, the postural
with the Divine in devotional form. The
exercises which are the best know form of yoga
vedantas are philosophical commentaries on
in the West). Yoga is often interpreted as
the upanishads.
"spiritual union" or "union with the Divine".
It was explained in the last lecture that the Patanjali was the foremost classical writer on
sages of the Upanishads believed in a supra- the yogas, which were introduced to the West
conscious experience of pure self-illumination be Swami Vivekananda in the early 20th
as the ultimate principle, superior to and higher century.
than any of our mental states of cognition,
Forms of yoga, in addition to Hatha yoga,
willing, or feeling. The nature of this principle is
include:-
itself extremely mystical; many persons, no
doubt, are unable to grasp its character. karma yoga, based on ethical action.
bhakti yoga emphasising devotion to deities.

Nondualism or Advaita is a prominent school of jnana yoga, the "path of knowledge"
vedantic philosophy, as expounded by Adi
raja yoga, based on meditation.
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In the vedantic and yogic paths, the shishya or The attributes and means by which Christian
aspirant is usually advised to find a guru, or mysticism is studied and practiced are varied
teacher, who may prescribe spiritual exercises and range from ecstatic visions of the soul's
(siddhis) or be credited with the ability to mystical union with God to simple prayerful
transmit shakti, divine energy. contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio
Divina).
"Mysticism" is derived from the Greek μυω,

meaning "to conceal", and its derivative
μυστικός, mystikos, meaning 'an initiate'. In the
Hellenistic world, a "mystikos" was an initiate of
a mystery religion. "Mystical" referred to secret
religious rituals and use of the word lacked any
direct references to the transcendental.
In early Christianity the term "mystikos"

referred to three dimensions, which soon
became intertwined, namely the biblical, the
liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The
biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or
allegorical interpretations of Scriptures. The
liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical
mystery of the Eucharist, the presence Christ at
the Eucharist. The third dimension is the
contemplative or experiential knowledge of
God.
Presence
Bernard McGinn defines Christian mysticism as:
[T]hat part, or element, of Christian belief and

practice that concerns the preparation for, the
Chapter Two consciousness of, and the effect of [...] a direct
Christian Mysticism and transformative presence of [the Christian]
God.
Presence versus experience
Christian mysticism refers to the development McGinn argues that "presence" is more
of mystical practices and theory within accurate than "union", since not all mystics
Christianity. It has often been connected to spoke of union with God, and since many
mystical theology, especially in the Catholic and visions and miracles were not necessarily
Eastern Orthodox traditions. related to union. He also argues that we should
speak of "consciousness" of God's presence,
rather than of "experience", since mystical
195
activity is not simply about the sensation of God Richard King also points to disjunction between
as an external object, but more broadly about "mystical experience" and social justice:
...new ways of knowing and loving based on The privatisation of mysticism - that is, the
states of awareness in which God becomes increasing tendency to locate the mystical in
present in our inner acts. the psychological realm of personal experiences
- serves to exclude it from political issues as
William James popularized the use of the term
social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as a
"religious experience" in his The Varieties of
personal matter of cultivating inner states of
Religious Experience. It has also influenced the
tranquility and equanimity, which, rather than
understanding of mysticism as a distinctive
seeking to transform the world, serve to
experience which supplies knowledge.
accommodate the individual to the status quo
Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion through the alleviation of anxiety and stress.
of "religious experience" further back to the
Social constructionism
German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher
(1768–1834), who argued that religion is based Mystical experience is not simply a matter
on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of between the mystic and God, but is often
"religious experience" was used by shaped by cultural issues. For instance, Carolyn
Schleiermacher to defend religion against the Walker Bynum has shown how, in the late
growing scientific and secular critique. It was Middle Ages, miracles attending the taking of
adopted by many scholars of religion, of which the Eucharist were not simply symbolic of the
William James was the most influential. Passion story, but served as vindication of the
mystic's theological orthodoxy by proving that
Personal transformation
the mystic had not fallen prey to heretical ideas,
Resurrection of Jesus, Matthias Grünewald. such as the Cathar rejection of the material
world as evil, contrary to orthodox teaching
Related to this idea of "presence" instead of that God took on human flesh and remained
"experience" is McGinn's emphasis on the sinless. Thus, the nature of mystical experience
transformation that occurs through mystical could be tailored to the particular cultural and
activity: theological issues of the time.
This is why the only test that Christianity has Development
known for determining the authenticity of a
mystic and her or his message has been that of
personal transformation, both on the mystic's
The idea of mystical realities has been widely
part and—especially—on the part of those
held in Christianity since the second century AD,
whom the mystic has affected.
referring not simply to spiritual practices, but
Other critics point out that the stress on also to the belief that their rituals and even
"experience" is accompanied with favoring the their scriptures have hidden ("mystical")
atomic individual, instead of the shared life on meanings.
the community. It also fails to distinguish
The link between mysticism and the vision of
between episodic experience, and mysticism as
the Divine was introduced by the early Church
a process, that is embedded in a total religious
Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as
matrix of liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues,
in mystical theology and mystical contemplation
theology, rituals and practices.
196
In subsequent centuries, especially as Christian In Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became

apologetics began to use Greek philosophy to mystery, Da'at became gnosis, and poverty
explain Christian ideas, Neoplatonism became became an important component of
an influence on Christian mystical thought and monasticism.
practice via such authors as Augustine of Hippo
Gospels
and Origen.
Transfiguration of Jesus depicting him with
Jewish antecedents
Elijah, Moses and 3 apostles by Carracci, 1594
Jewish spirituality in the period before Jesus
The Christian scriptures, insofar as they are the
was highly corporate and public, based mostly
founding narrative of the Christian church,
on the worship services of the synagogues,
provide many key stories and concepts that
which included the reading and interpretation
become important for Christian mystics in all
of the Hebrew Scriptures and the recitation of
later generations: practices such as the
prayers, and on the major festivals. Thus,
Eucharist, baptism and the Lord's Prayer all
private spirituality was strongly influenced by
become activities that take on importance for
the liturgies and by the scriptures (e.g., the use
both their ritual and symbolic values. Other
of the Psalms for prayer), and individual prayers
scriptural narratives present scenes that
often recalled historical events just as much as
become the focus of meditation: the Crucifixion
they recalled their own immediate needs.
of Jesus and his appearances after his
Of special importance are the following Resurrection are two of the most central to
concepts: Christian theology; but Jesus' conception, in
which the Holy Spirit overshadows Mary, and
Da'at (knowledge) and Chokhmah (wisdom),
his Transfiguration, in which he is briefly
which come from years of reading, praying and
revealed in his heavenly glory, also become
meditating the scriptures;
important images for meditation. Moreover,
Shekhinah, the presence of God in our daily many of the Christian texts build on Jewish
lives, the superiority of that presence to earthly spiritual foundations, such as chokhmah,
wealth, and the pain and longing that come shekhinah.
when God is absent;
But different writers present different images
The hiddenness of God, which comes from our and ideas. The Synoptic Gospels (in spite of
inability to survive the full revelation of God's their many differences) introduce several
glory and which forces us to seek to know God important ideas, two of which are related to
through faith and obedience; Greco-Judaic notions of knowledge/gnosis by
virtue of being mental acts: purity of heart, in
"Torah-mysticism", a view of God's laws as the which we will to see in God's light; and
central expression of God's will and therefore as repentance, which involves allowing God to
worthy object not only of obedience but also of judge and then transform us. Another key idea
loving meditation and Torah study; and presented by the Synoptics is the desert, which
poverty, an ascetic value, based on the is used as a metaphor for the place where we
apocalyptic expectation of God's impending meet God in the poverty of our spirit.
arrival, that characterized the Jewish people's The Gospel of John focuses on God's glory in his
reaction to being oppressed by a series of use of light imagery and in his presentation of
foreign empires. the Cross as a moment of exaltation; he also
197
sees the Cross as the example of agape love, a on the scriptures and on the Cross of Christ.
love which is not so much an emotion as a (This understanding of gnosis is not the same as
willingness to serve and care for others. But in that developed by the Gnostics, who focused on
stressing love, John shifts the goal of spiritual esoteric knowledge that is available only to a
growth away from knowledge/gnosis, which he few people but that allows them to free
presents more in terms of Stoic ideas about the themselves from the evil world. These authors
role of reason as being the underlying principle also discuss the notion of the "two ways", that
of the universe and as the spiritual principle is, the way of life and the way of death; this
within all people. Although John does not follow idea has biblical roots, being found in both the
up on the Stoic notion that this principle makes Sermon on the Mount and the Torah. The two
union with the divine possible for humanity, it is ways are then related to the notion of purity of
an idea that later Christian writers develop. heart, which is developed by contrasting it
Later generations will also shift back and forth against the divided or duplicitous heart and by
between whether to follow the Synoptics in linking it to the need for asceticism, which
stressing knowledge or John in stressing love. keeps the heart whole/pure. Purity of heart was
especially important given the real threat of
In his letters, Paul also focuses on mental
martyrdom, which many writers discussed in
activities, but not in the same way as the
theological terms, seeing it not as an evil but as
Synoptics, which equate renewing the mind
an opportunity to truly die for the sake of God
with repentance. Instead, Paul sees the renewal
—the ultimate example of ascetic practice.
of our minds as happening as we contemplate
Martyrdom could also be seen as symbolic in its
what Jesus did on the Cross, which then opens
connections with the Eucharist and with
us to grace and to the movement of the Holy
baptism.
Spirit into our hearts. Like John, Paul is less
interested in knowledge, preferring to Hellenism
emphasize the hiddenness, the "mystery" of
The Alexandrian contribution to Christian
God's plan as revealed through Christ. But
mysticism centers around Origen and Clement
Paul's discussion of the Cross differs from John's
of Alexandria. Clement was an early Christian
in being less about how it reveals God's glory
humanist who argued that reason is the most
and more about how it becomes the stumbling
important aspect of human existence and that
block that turns our minds back to God. Paul
gnosis (not something we can attain by
also describes the Christian life as that of an
ourselves, but the gift of Christ) helps us find
athlete, demanding practice and training for the
the spiritual realities that are hidden behind the
sake of the prize; later writers will see in this
natural world and within the scriptures. Given
image a call to ascetical practices.
the importance of reason, Clement stresses
Early church apatheia as a reasonable ordering of our
passions in order to live within God's love,
The texts attributed to the Apostolic Fathers,
which is seen as a form of truth. Origen, who
the earliest post-Biblical texts we have, share
had a lasting influence on Eastern Christian
several key themes, particularly the call to unity
thought, further develops the idea that the
in the face of persecution and internal divisions,
spiritual realities can be found through
the reality of the charisms, especially prophecy,
allegorical readings of the scriptures (along the
visions and Christian gnosis, which is
lines of Jewish aggadah tradition), but he
understood as "a gift of the Holy Spirit that
focuses his attention on the Cross and on the
enables us to know Christ" through meditating
198
importance of imitating Christ through the what later would become known as Christian
Cross, especially through spiritual combat and monasticism. Mysticism is integral to Christian
asceticism. Origen stresses the importance of monasticism because the goal of practice for
combining intellect and virtue (theoria and the monastic is union with God.
praxis) in our spiritual exercises, drawing on the
Monasticism
image of Moses and Aaron leading the Israelites
through the wilderness, and he describes our The Eastern church then saw the development
union with God as the marriage of our souls of monasticism and the mystical contributions
with Christ the Logos, using the wedding of Gregory of Nyssa, Evagrius Ponticus and
imagery from the Song of Songs. Alexandrian Pseudo-Dionysius. Monasticism, also known as
mysticism developed alongside Hermeticism anchoritism (meaning "to withdraw") was seen
and Neoplatonism and therefore share some of as an alternative to martyrdom, and was less
the same ideas, images, etc. in spite of their about escaping the world than about fighting
differences. demons (who were thought to live in the
desert) and about gaining liberation from our
Philo of Alexandria was a Jewish Hellenistic
bodily passions in order to be open to the Word
philosopher who was important for connecting
of God. Anchorites practiced continuous
the Hebrew Scriptures to Greek thought, and
meditation on the scriptures as a means of
thereby to Greek Christians, who struggled to
climbing the ladder of perfection—a common
understand their connection to Jewish history.
religious image in the Mediterranean world and
In particular, Philo taught that allegorical
one found in Christianity through the story of
interpretations of the Hebrew Scriptures
Jacob's ladder—and sought to fend off the
provides access to the real meanings of the
demon of acedia ("un-caring"), a boredom or
texts. Philo also taught the need to bring
apathy that prevents us from continuing on in
together the contemplative focus of the Stoics
our spiritual training. Anchorites could live in
and Essenes with the active lives of virtue and
total solitude ("hermits", from the word
community worship found in Platonism and the
erēmitēs, "of the desert") or in loose
Therapeutae. Using terms reminiscent of the
communities ("cenobites", meaning "common
Platonists, Philo described the intellectual
life").
component of faith as a sort of spiritual ecstasy
in which our nous (mind) is suspended and Monasticism eventually made its way to the
God's Spirit takes its place. Philo's ideas West and was established by the work of John
influenced the Alexandrian Christians, Clement Cassian and Benedict of Nursia. Meanwhile,
and Origen and through them, Gregory of Western spiritual writing was deeply influenced
Nyssa. by the works of such men as Jerome and
Augustine of Hippo.
Desert Fathers
Middle Ages
Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers
Stigmatization of St Francis, by Giotto
Inspired by Christ's teaching and example, men
and women withdrew to the deserts of Sketes The Early Middle Ages in the West includes the
where, either as solitary individuals or work of Gregory the Great and Bede, as well as
communities, they lived lives of austere developments in Celtic Christianity and Anglo-
simplicity oriented towards contemplative Saxon Christianity, and comes to fulfillment in
prayer. These communities formed the basis for
199
the work of Johannes Scotus Eriugena and the which he claimed was the most important book
Carolingian Renaissance. after the Bible and Augustine for teaching him
about God, Christ, and humanity. Even John
The High Middle Ages saw a flourishing of
Calvin, who rejected many Medieval ascetic
mystical practice and theorization
practices and who favored doctrinal knowledge
corresponding to the flourishing of new
of God over affective experience, has Medieval
monastic orders, with such figures as Guigo II,
influences, namely, Jean Gerson and the
Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, the
Devotio moderna, with its emphasis on piety as
Victorines, all coming from different orders, as
the method of spiritual growth in which the
well as the first real flowering of popular piety
individual practices dependence on God by
among the laypeople.
imitating Christ and the son-father relationship.
The Late Middle Ages saw the clash between Meanwhile, his notion that we can begin to
the Dominican and Franciscan schools of enjoy our eternal salvation through our earthly
thought, which was also a conflict between two successes leads in later generations to "a
different mystical theologies: on the one hand mysticism of consolation".
that of Dominic de Guzmán and on the other
Counter-reformation
that of Francis of Assisi, Anthony of Padua,
Bonaventure, Jacopone da Todi, Angela of But the Reformation brought about the
Foligno. Moreover there was the growth of Counter-Reformation and, with it, a new
groups of mystics centered around geographic flowering of mystical literature, often grouped
regions: the Beguines, such as Mechthild of by nationality.
Magdeburg and Hadewijch (among others); the
Spanish mysticsim
Rhenish-Flemish mystics Meister Eckhart,
Johannes Tauler, Henry Suso and John of
Ruysbroeck; and the English mystics Richard
Rolle, Walter Hilton and Julian of Norwich. This
period also saw such individuals as Catherine of Ecstasy of St. Theresa depicts Teresa of Ávila's
Siena and Catherine of Genoa, the Devotio meditation
Moderna, and such books as the Theologia
Germanica, The Cloud of Unknowing and The The Spanish had Ignatius Loyola, whose Spiritual
Imitation of Christ. Exercises were designed to open people to a
receptive mode of consciousness in which they
Reformation can experience God through careful spiritual
With the Renaissance came the Protestant direction and through understanding how the
Reformation, which in many ways downplayed mind connects to the will and how to weather
mysticism, although it still produced a fair the experiences of spiritual consolation and
amount of spiritual literature. Even the most desolation; Teresa of Ávila, who used the
active reformers can be linked to Medieval metaphors of watering a garden and walking
mystical traditions. Martin Luther, for instance, through the rooms of a castle to explain how
was a monk who was influenced by the German meditation leads to union with God; and John of
Dominican mystical tradition of Eckhart and the Cross, who used a wide range of biblical and
Tauler as well by the Dionysian-influenced spiritual influences both to rewrite the
Wesonmystik ("essence mysticism") tradition. traditional "three ways" of mysticism after the
He also published the Theologia Germanica, manner of bridal mysticism and to present the
200
two "dark nights": the dark night of the senses Pilgrim's Progress), to the first "Quaker",
and the dark night of the soul, during which the George Fox and the first "Methodist", John
individual renounces everything that might Wesley, who was well-versed in the continental
become an obstacle between the soul and God mystics.
and then experiences the pain of feeling
Germany
separated from God, unable to carry on normal
spiritual exercises, as it encounters the Similarly well-versed in the mystic tradition was
enormous gap between its human nature and the German Johann Arndt, who, along with the
God's divine wisdom and light and moves up English Puritans, influenced such continental
the 10-step ladder of ascent towards God. Pietists as Philipp Jakob Spener, Gottfried
Another prominent mystic was Miguel de Arnold, Nicholas Ludwig von Zinzendorf of the
Molinos, the chief apostle of the religious Moravians, and the hymnodist Gerhard
revival known as Quietism. No breath of Tersteegen. Arndt, whose book True
suspicion arose against Molinos until 1681, Christianity was popular among Protestants,
when the Jesuit preacher Paolo Segneri, Catholics and Anglicans alike, combined
attacked his views, though without mentioning influences from Bernard of Clarivaux, John
his name, in his Concordia tra la fatica e la Tauler and the Devotio moderna into a
quiete nell' orazione. The matter was referred spirituality that focused its attention away from
to the Inquisition. A report got abroad that the theological squabbles of contemporary
Molinos had been convicted of moral Lutheranism and onto the development of the
enormities, as well as of heretical doctrines; and new life in the heart and mind of the believer.
it was seen that he was doomed. On September Arndt influenced Spener, who formed a group
3, 1687 he made public profession of his errors, known as the collegia pietatis ("college of
and was sentenced to imprisonment for life. piety") that stressed the role of spiritual
Contemporary Protestants saw in the fate of direction among lay-people—a practice with a
Molinos nothing more than a persecution by long tradition going back to Aelred of Rievaulx
the Jesuits of a wise and enlightened man, who and known in Spener's own time from the work
had dared to withstand the petty ceremonialism of Francis de Sales. Pietism as known through
of the Italian piety of the day. Molinos died in Spener's formation of it tended not just to
prison in 1696 or 1697. reject the theological debates of the time, but
to reject both intellectualism and organized
Italy
religious practice in favor of a personalized,
The Italians had Lorenzo Scupoli. sentimentalized spirituality.
French school of spirituality
The French had Francis de Sales, Jeanne Guyon, Pietism

François Fénelon, Brother Lawrence and Blaise
This sentimental, anti-intellectual form of
Pascal.
pietism is seen in the thought and teaching of
England Zinzendorf, founder of the Moravians; but more
intellectually rigorous forms of pietism are seen
The English had a denominational mix, from
in the teachings of John Wesley, which were
Catholic Augustine Baker to Anglicans William
themselves influenced by Zinzendorf, and in the
Law, John Donne and Lancelot Andrewes, to
teachings of American preachers Jonathan
Puritans Richard Baxter and John Bunyan (The
Edwards, who restored to pietism Gerson's
201
focus on obedience and borrowed from early biblical and early church sources. Accordingly,
church teachers Origen and Gregory of Nyssa they were often skeptical of Catholic mystical
the notion that humans yearn for God, and John practices, which seemed to them to downplay
Woolman, who combined a mystical view of the the role of grace in redemption and to support
world with a deep concern for social issues; like the idea that human works can play a role in
Wesley, Woolman was influenced by Jakob salvation, and which also seemed to come from
Böhme, William Law and The Imitation of Christ. post-biblical sources and practices. However,
The combination of pietistic devotion and Quakers, Anglicans, Episcopalians, Lutherans,
mystical experiences that are found in Pentecostals and Charismatics have in various
Woolman and Wesley are also found in their ways remained open to the idea of mystical
Dutch contemporary Tersteegen, who brings experiences.
back the notion of the nous ("mind") as the site
of God's interaction with our souls; through the
work of the Spirit, our mind is able to intuitively
recognize the immediate presence of God in our
midst.
Mystic traditions
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Christianity has especially preserved a

mystical emphasis in its theology and retains a
tradition of mystical prayer dating back to
Christianity's beginnings.
Catholicism
The practice of Lectio Divina, a form of prayer

that centers on scripture reading, was
developed in its best-known form in the sixth
century, through the work of Benedict of Nursia
and Pope Gregory I, and described and
promoted more widely in the 12th century by
Guigo II. The 9th century saw the development
of mystical theology through the introduction of
the works of sixth-century theologian Pseudo-
Dionysius the Areopagite, such as On Mystical
Theology. His discussion of the via negativa was
especially influential.
Protestantism Chapter Three

Islamic Mysticism
As part of the Protestant Reformation,
theologians turned away from the traditions
developed in the Middle Ages and returned to
202
Sufism or taṣawwuf (Arabic: ‫ )الصوفية‬is defined esoteric dimension of Islam which is supported
by some adherents as the inner, mystical and complemented by outward or exoteric
dimension of Islam, others contend that it is a practices of Islam, such as Islamic law. In this
perennial philosophy of existence that pre- view, "it is absolutely necessary to be a Muslim"
dates religion, the expression of which flowered to be a true Sufi, because Sufism's "methods are
within Islam. Its essence has also been inoperative without" Muslim "affiliation". In
expressed via other religions and metareligious contrast, author Idries Shah states Sufi
phenomena. A practitioner of this tradition is philosophy is universal in nature, its roots
generally known as a ṣūfī ( ّ‫)صُوفِي‬. They belong predating the rise of Islam and Christianity.
to different ṭuruq or "orders"—congregations Some schools of Sufism in Western countries
formed around a master—which meet for allow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on
spiritual sessions (majalis), in meeting places following the Sufi path". Some Muslim
known as zawiyahs, khanqahs, or tekke. Sufi opponents of Sufism also consider it outside the
turuq/orders may trace many of their original sphere of Islam.
precepts from the Islamic Prophet Muhammad
Classical Sufis were characterised by their
through his cousin and son-in-law 'Alī, with the
attachment to dhikr, (a practice of repeating the
notable exception of the Naqshbandi who trace
names of God, often performed after prayers)
their origins through the first Caliph, Abu Bakr.
and asceticism. Sufism gained adherents among
Prominent orders include Ba 'Alawiyya, Chishti,
a number of Muslims as a reaction against the
Rifa'i, Khalwati, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi,
worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate
Oveyssi, Qadiria Boutshishia, Qadiriyyah,
(661-750 CE. Sufis have spanned several
Qalandariyya, Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya and
continents and cultures over a millennium,
Suhrawardiyya.
originally expressing their beliefs in Arabic,
Sufis believe they are practicing ihsan before spreading into Persian, Turkish, Indian
(perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabriel languages and a dozen other languages.
to Muhammad: "Worship and serve Allah as
Sufism and Tariqa
you are seeing Him and while you see Him not
yet truly He sees you". Sufis consider Two origins of the word sufi have been
themselves as the original true proponents of suggested. Commonly, the lexical root of the
this pure original form of Islam. Sufism is word is traced to ṣafā (‫فا‬$‫)ص‬,
َ which in Arabic
opposed by Wahhabi and Salafist Muslims. means "purity". Another origin is ṣūf (‫وف‬$‫)ص‬,
ُ
"wool", referring to the simple cloaks the early
Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a
Muslim ascetics wore. The two were combined
science whose objective is the reparation of the
by the Sufi al-Rudhabari who said, "The Sufi is
heart and turning it away from all else but
the one who wears wool on top of purity".
God". Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi
Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science Others have suggested that the word comes
through which one can know how to travel into from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah ("the people of the
the presence of the Divine, purify one's inner bench"), who were a group of impoverished
self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of companions of Muhammad who held regular
praiseworthy traits". gatherings of dhikr. Abd al-Karīm ibn Hawāzin
Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all
Muslims and mainstream scholars of Islam
possibilities other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds.
(such as René Guénon and Cyril Glassé) define
Sufism as simply the name for the inner or
203
According to the medieval scholar Abū Rayḥān the religion spread during the 8th Century and
al-Bīrūnī, the word sufi is derived from the their corresponding shift in focus towards
Greek word sofia (σοφία), meaning wisdom. materialistic and political concerns.[citation
needed] In particular, Harun al-Rashid, the fifth
Beliefs
Abbasid Caliph, attracted negative attention for
While all Muslims believe that they are on the his lavish lifestyle, including gold and silver
pathway to God and hope to become close to tableware, an extensive harem and numerous
God in Paradise—after death and after the slaves and retainers, that stood in contrast to
"Final Judgment"—Sufis also believe that it is the relative simplicity of Muhammad's life
possible to draw closer to God and to more fully
The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of a mosque
embrace the Divine Presence in this life. The
and taught a small band of disciples. The extent
chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of
to which Sufism was influenced by Buddhist and
God by working to restore within themselves
Hindu mysticism, and by the example of
the primordial state of fitra, described in the
Christian hermits and monks, is disputed, but
Qur'an. In this state nothing one does defies
self-discipline and concentration on God quickly
God, and all is undertaken with the single
led to the belief that by quelling the self and
motivation of love of God. A secondary
through loving ardour for God it is possible to
consequence of this is that the seeker may be
maintain a union with the divine in which the
led to abandon all notions of dualism or
human self melts away.
multiplicity, including a conception of an
individual self, and to realize the Divine Unity. Teaching
Thus, Sufism has been characterized as the To enter the way of Sufism, the seeker begins
science of the states of the lower self (the ego), by finding a teacher, as the connection to the
and the way of purifying this lower self of its teacher is considered necessary for the growth
reprehensible traits, while adorning it instead of the pupil. The teacher, to be considered
with what is praiseworthy, whether or not this genuine, must have received the authorization
process of cleansing and purifying the heart is in to teach (ijazah) from another Master of the
time rewarded by esoteric knowledge of God. Way, in an unbroken succession (silsilah)
This can be conceived in terms of two basic leading back to Muhammad.[dubious – discuss]
types of law (fiqh), an outer law concerned with [citation needed] It is the transmission of the
actions, and an inner law concerned with the divine light from the teacher's heart to the
human heart. The outer law consists of rules heart of the student, rather than of worldly
pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, knowledge transmitted from mouth to ear, that
judicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often allows the adept to progress. In addition, the
referred to, a bit too broadly, as qanun. The genuine teacher will be utterly strict in his
inner law of Sufism consists of rules about adherence to the Divine Law.
repentance from sin, the purging of
According to Moojan Momen "one of the most
contemptible qualities and evil traits of
important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of
character, and adornment with virtues and
the "Perfect Man" (al-Insan al-Kamil). This
good character.
doctrine states that there will always exist upon
Sufism, which is a general term for Muslim the earth a "Qutb" (Pole or Axis, of the
mysticism, was originally a response to the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of
increasing worldly power of Islamic leaders as grace from God to man and in a state of wilaya
204
(sanctity, being under the protection of God). complete humility and tolerance for many
The concept of the Sufi Qutb is similar to that of years. When he believed this mission to be
the Shi'i Imam. However, this belief puts Sufism concluded, his teacher next directed him to care
in "direct conflict" with Shi'ism, since both the for animals, curing their sicknesses, cleaning
Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of their wounds, and assisting them in finding
the order) and the Imam fulfill the role of "the provision. After many years of this he was next
purveyor of spiritual guidance and of God's instructed to spend many years in the care of
grace to mankind". The vow of obedience to the dogs in a state of humility, and to ask them for
Shaykh or Qutb which is taken by Sufis is support.
considered incompatible with devotion to the
History of Sufism
Imam".
As a further example, the prospective adherent

of the Mevlevi Order would have been ordered Ali is considered to be the "Father of Sufism" in
to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the Islamic tradition.
poor for 1,001 days prior to being accepted for
spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days in Eminent Sufi's such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the
solitary retreat as a precondition of completing tradition first began with Ali ibn Abi Talib
that instruction. furthermore Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as
the Sheikh of the principals and practices of
Some teachers, especially when addressing Sufism.
more general audiences, or mixed groups of
Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early
of parable, allegory, and metaphor. Although stages of development Sufism effectively
approaches to teaching vary among different referred to nothing more than the
Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily internalization of Islam. According to one
concerned with direct personal experience, and perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an,
as such has sometimes been compared to constantly recited, meditated, and experienced,
other, non-Islamic forms of mysticism (e.g., as that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its
in the books of Hossein Nasr). development. Others have held that Sufism is
the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad,
Scholars and adherents of Sufism are through which the heart's connection to the
unanimous in agreeing that Sufism cannot be Divine is strengthened.
learned through books. To reach the highest
levels of success in Sufism typically requires that More prosaically, the Muslim Conquests had
the disciple live with and serve the teacher for brought large numbers of Christian monks and
many, many years. For instance, Baha-ud-Din hermits, especially in Syria and Egypt, under the
Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to the rule of Muslims. They retained a vigorous
Naqshbandi Order, served his first teacher, spiritual life for centuries after the conquests,
Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 and many of the especially pious Muslims who
years, until as-Samasi died. He subsequently founded Sufism were influenced by their
served several other teachers for lengthy techniques and methods. According to late
periods of time. The extreme arduousness of his Medieval mystic Jami, Abd-Allah ibn
spiritual preparation is illustrated by his service, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was the first
as directed by his teacher, to the weak and person to be called a "Sufi."
needy members of his community in a state of
205
Important contributions in writing are

attributed to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian,
Growth of influence
Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib. Ruwaym,
from the second generation of Sufis in Baghdad, The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly
was also an influential early figure, as was with the spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The
Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early spread of Sufism has been considered a
practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in
the two. the creation of integrally Islamic cultures,
especially in Africa and Asia. The Senussi tribes
Sufism had a long history already before the
of Libya and Sudan are one of the strongest
subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings
adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and
into devotional orders (tarîqât) in the early
philosophers such as Rumi and Attar of
Middle Ages. The Naqshbandi order is a notable
Nishapur greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic
exception to general rule of orders tracing their
culture in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia.
spiritual lineage through Muhammad's
Sufism also played a role in creating and
grandsons, as it traces the origin of its teachings
propagating the culture of the Ottoman world,
from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu
and in resisting European imperialism in North
Bakr.
Africa and South Asia.
Formalization of doctrine
Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a produced a flourishing intellectual culture
number of manuals began to be written throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age"
summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and whose physical artifacts are still present. In
describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of many places, a lodge (known variously as a
the most famous of these are now available in zaouia, khanqah, or tekke) would be endowed
English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb of through a pious foundation in perpetuity (waqf)
Hujwiri, and the Risâla of Qushayri. to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as
well as lodging for itinerant seekers of
Two of Imam Al Ghazali's greatest treatises, the
knowledge. The same system of endowments
"Revival of Religious Sciences" and the
could also be used to pay for a complex of
"Alchemy of Happiness", argued that Sufism
buildings, such as that surrounding the
originated from the Qur'an and thus was
Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a
compatible with mainstream Islamic thought,
lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens
and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law—
where these seekers could serve the poor
being instead necessary to its complete
and/or complete a period of initiation, a library,
fulfillment. This became the mainstream
and other structures. No important domain in
position among Islamic scholars for centuries,
the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by
challenged only recently on the basis of
Sufism in this period.
selective use of a limited body of texts. Ongoing
efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim Contemporary Sufism
scholars and Western academics are making
Mawlānā Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey
Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in English
translation for the first time, allowing English- Current Sufi orders include Alians, Bektashi
speaking readers to judge for themselves the Order,Mevlevi Order, Ba 'Alawiyya, Chishti,
compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine. Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Qadiriyyah,
206
Qalandariyya, Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya, an official representative of a Sufi order, and

Suhrawardiyya, Ashrafia and Uwaisi (Oveyssi). with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in
The relationship of Sufi orders to modern Western Europe, was the Swedish-born
societies is usually defined by their relationship wandering Sufi Abd al-Hadi Aqhili (also known
to governments. as Ivan Aguéli). René Guénon, the French
scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth
Turkey and Persia together have been a center
century and was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid
for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi
Yahya. His manifold writings defined the
was closely affiliated with the Ottoman
practice of Sufism as the essence of Islam but
Janissary and is the heart of Turkey's large and
also pointed to the universality of its message.
mostly liberal Alevi population. It has been
Other spiritualists, such as G. I. Gurdjieff, may or
spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania,
may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as
Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bosnia, Kosovo and more
understood by orthodox Muslims.
recently to the USA (via Albania). Most Sufi
Orders have influences from pre-Islamic Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been
traditions such as Pythagoreanism, but the active in the West in recent years include Bawa
Turkic Sufi traditions (including Alians, Bektashi Muhaiyaddeen, Inayat Khan, Nazim Al-Haqqani,
and Mevlevi) also have traces of the ancient Javad Nurbakhsh, Bulent Rauf, Irina Tweedie,
Tengrism shamanism. Idries Shah and Muzaffer Ozak.
Sufism is popular in such African countries as Currently active Sufi academics and publishers
Morocco and Senegal, where it is seen as a include Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee, Nuh Ha Mim
mystical expression of Islam. Sufism is Keller, Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee, Waheed
traditional in Morocco but has seen a growing Ashraf and Abdal Hakim Murad.
revival with the renewal of Sufism around
Theoretical perspectives in Sufism
contemporary spiritual teachers such as Sidi
Hamza al Qadiri al Boutshishi. Mbacke suggests The works of Al-Ghazali firmly defended the
that one reason Sufism has taken hold in concepts of Sufism within the Islamic faith.
Senegal is because it can accommodate local
beliefs and customs, which tend toward the Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two
mystical. major branches within the practice of Sufism,
and use this as one key to differentiating among
The life of the Algerian Sufi master Emir Abd al- the approaches of different masters and
Qadir is instructive in this regard. Notable as devotional lineages.
well are the lives of Amadou Bamba and Hajj
Umar Tall in sub-Saharan Africa, and Sheikh On the one hand there is the order from the
Mansur Ushurma and Imam Shamil in the signs to the Signifier (or from the arts to the
Caucasus region. In the twentieth century some Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by
more modernist Muslims have called Sufism a purifying the lower self of every corrupting
superstitious religion that holds back Islamic influence that stands in the way of recognizing
achievement in the fields of science and all of creation as the work of God, as God's
technology. active Self-disclosure or theophany. This is the
way of Imam Al-Ghazali and of the majority of
A number of Westerners have embarked with the Sufi orders.
varying degrees of success on the path of
Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as
207
On the other hand there is the order from the

Signifier to His signs, from the Artisan to His
works. In this branch the seeker experiences Chapter Four
divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter Jewish Mysticism
the order with a glimpse of its endpoint, of
direct apprehension of the Divine Presence
towards which all spiritual striving is directed.
This does not replace the striving to purify the
heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems
from a different point of entry into the path.
This is the way primarily of the masters of the
Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a

third branch, attributed to the late Ottoman
scholar Said Nursi and explicated in his vast
Qur'an commentary called the Risale-i Nur. This
approach entails strict adherence to the way of
Muhammad, in the understanding that this
wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete
devotional spirituality adequate to those
without access to a master of the Sufi way.
Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially

since Gershom Scholem's Major Trends in
Jewish Mysticism (1941), distinguishes between
different forms of mysticism across different
eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbalah,
which emerged in 12th-century Europe, is the
most well known, but not the only typologic
form, or the earliest to emerge. Among
previous forms were Merkabah mysticism (c.0 -
1000 CE), and Chassidei Ashkenaz (early 1200s
CE) around the time of Kabbalistic emergence.
Kabbalah means "received tradition", a term

previously used in other Judaic contexts, but
which the Medieval Kabbalists adopted for their
own doctrine to express the belief that they
208
were not innovating, but merely revealing the different in nature and aims from Judaic
ancient hidden esoteric tradition of the Torah. mysticism, they are not listed on this page.
This issue is crystallised until today by
The Kabbalistic form of Jewish mysticism itself
alternative views on the origin of the Zohar, the
divides into three general streams: the
main text of Kabbalah. Traditional Kabbalists
Theosophical/Speculative Kabbalah (seeking to
regard it as originating in Tannaic times,
understand and describe the divine realm), the
redacting the Oral Torah, so do not make a
Meditative/Ecstatic Kabbalah (seeking to
sharp distinction between Kabbalah and early
achieve a mystical union with God), and the
Rabbinic Jewish mysticism. Academic scholars
Practical/Magical Kabbalah (seeking to
regard it as a synthesis from Medieval times,
theurgically alter the divine realms and the
but assimilating and incorporating into itself
World). These three different, but inter-relating,
earlier forms of Jewish mystical tradition, as
methods or aims of mystical involvement are
well as other philosophical elements.
also found throughout the other pre-Kabbalistic
The theosophical aspect of Kabbalah itself and post-Kabbalistic stages in Jewish mystical
developed through two historical forms: development, as three general typologies. As in
"Medieval/Classic/Zoharic Kabbalah" (c.1175 - Kabbalah, the same text can contain aspects of
1492 - 1570), and Lurianic Kabbalah (1569 CE - all three approaches, though the three streams
today) which assimilated Medieval Kabbalah often distill into three separate literatures
into its wider system and became the basis for under the influence of particular exponents or
modern Jewish Kabbalah. After Luria, two new eras.
mystical forms popularised Kabbalah in
Within Kabbalah, the theosophical tradition is
Judaism: antinomian-heretical Sabbatean
distinguished from many forms of mysticism in
movements (1666 - 1700s CE), and Hasidic
other religions by its doctrinal form as a
Judaism (1734 CE - today). In contemporary
mystical "philosophy" of Gnosis esoteric
Judaism, the only main forms of Jewish
knowledge. Instead, the tradition of Meditative
mysticism followed are esoteric Lurianic
Kabbalah has similarity of aim, if not form, with
Kabbalah and its later commentaries, the
usual traditions of general mysticism; to unite
variety of schools in Hasidic Judaism, and Neo-
the individual intuitively with God. The tradition
Hasidism (incorporating Neo-Kabbalah) in non-
of theurgic Practical Kabbalah in Judaism,
Orthodox Jewish denominations.
censored and restricted by mainstream Jewish
Two non-Jewish syncretic traditions also Kabbalists, has similarities with non-Jewish
popularised Judaic Kabbalah through its Hermetic Qabalah magical Western Esotericism.
incorporation as part of general Western However, as understood by Jewish Kabbalists, it
esoteric culture from the Renaissance onwards: is censored and forgotten in contemporary
theological Christian Cabala (c.1400s - 1700s) times because without the requisite purity and
which adapted Judaic Kabbalistic doctrine to holy motive, it would degenerate into impure
Christian belief, and its diverging occultist and forbidden magic. Consequently, it has
offshoot Hermetic Qabalah (c.1400s - today) formed a minor tradition in Jewish mystical
which became a main element in esoteric and history.
magical societies and teachings. As separate
Jewish mystical exegesis is a method of
traditions of development outside Judaism,
interpreting the Bible based on the assumption
drawing from, syncretically adapting, and
that the Torah contains secret knowledge
regarding creation and the manifestations of
209
God. The only way to find these secrets is to

know how to decode the text and reveal them.
The method most likely dates back to the third
century. Chapter Five
Focusing on the holiness of the text, Jewish Hindu Mysticism
mystics consider every nuance of the text to be
a clue in discovering divine secrets, from the
Hinduism has a number of interlinked schools
entire text to the accents on each letter. Once
and traditions of mysticism. The upanishads are
one can find such knowledge, one can use the
a collection of ancient hymns, which are
text in mystical rituals to affect both the upper
regarded as expounding a philosophy of union
worlds (heavens) and the lower world (our
with the Divine in devotional form. The
world). The name of God is considered one of
vedantas are philosophical commentaries on
the greatest sources of power and is assumed
the upanishads.
to be hidden in various forms throughout the
text. Much activity involves rearranging the It was explained in the last lecture that the
breaks between words to seek out different sages of the Upanishads believed in a supra-
names for God as well as other aspects of conscious experience of pure self-illumination
hidden knowledge. as the ultimate principle, superior to and higher
than any of our mental states of cognition,
There are two foundational texts within the
willing, or feeling. The nature of this principle is
realm of Jewish mysticism: the Sefer Yezirah
itself extremely mystical; many persons, no
and the kabbalistic Zohar.
doubt, are unable to grasp its character.
Nondualism or Advaita is a prominent school of

vedantic philosophy, as expounded by Adi
Shankara. The mystic's goal is seen as mukti, or
liberation from endless cycles of reincarnation.
Vedantic philosophy tends to view the Hindu
pantheon[disambiguation needed] as aspects or
symbols of a single transcendent reality,
Brahman (which is often identified with Atman,
the Self). Four scriptural passages, the
Mahavakyas, :or "great sayings" are given
special significance:
prajñānam brahma - "Prajñānam

(consciousness) is Brahman (Aitareya Upanishad
3.3 of the Rig Veda)
ayam ātmā brahma - "I am Brahman", or "This

Self (Atman) is Brahman" (Mandukya Upanishad
1.2 of the Atharva Veda)
210
tat tvam asi - "Thou art That" or "Thou arrt mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas
Brahman"(Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 of the and Aranyakas and have been passed down in
Sama Veda) oral tradition.
aham brahmāsmi - "I am Brahman", or "I am More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which
Divine" (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10 of the the first dozen or so are the oldest and most
Yajur Veda) important and are referred to as the principal or
main (mukhya) Upanishads. With the Bhagavad
Yoga is the collective term for various
Gita and the Brahmasutra (known collectively as
techniques for whose aims include the
the Prasthanatrayi), the mukhya Upanishads
attainment of mystical insight and supernormal
provide a foundation for the several later
powers, (although these are not generally
schools of Vedanta, among them, two
emphasised in hatha yoga, the postural
influential monistic schools of Hinduism. The
exercises which are the best know form of yoga
mukhya Upanishads all predate the Common
in the West). Yoga is often interpreted as
Era, possibly from the Pre-Buddhist period (6th
"spiritual union" or "union with the Divine".
century BCE) down to the Maurya period.. The
Patanjali was the foremost classical writer on
remainder of the Muktika canon was mostly
the yogas, which were introduced to the West
composed during medieval Hinduism, and new
be Swami Vivekananda in the early 20th
Upanishads continued being composed in the
century.
early modern and modern era, down to at least
Forms of yoga, in addition to Hatha yoga, the 20th century.
include:-
The significance of Upanishads has been
karma yoga, based on ethical action. recognized by writers and scholars such as
Schopenhauer, Emerson, Thoreau, and others.
bhakti yoga emphasising devotion to deities. Scholars also note similarity between the
jnana yoga, the "path of knowledge" doctrine of Upanishads and those of Plato and
Kant The Upanishads were collectively
raja yoga, based on meditation. considered among the 100 Most Influential
In the vedantic and yogic paths, the shishya or Books Ever Written by the British poet Martin
aspirant is usually advised to find a guru, or Seymour-Smith. Some criticism of the
teacher, who may prescribe spiritual exercises Upanishads revolves around the denial of
(siddhis) or be credited with the ability to pluralistic ideas due to the core philosophy of
transmit shakti, divine energy. unity of the Upanishads.
Vedanta (/vɪˈdɑːntə/; Hindustani pronunciation:

The Upanishads (Sanskrit: उपनिषद्, IAST:
[ʋeːd̪ aːn̪ t]̪ , Devanagari: वेदान्त, Vedānta) was
Upaniṣad, IPA: [upəniʂəd]) are a collection of
philosophical texts which form the theoretical originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a
basis for the Hindu religion. They are also synonym for that part of the Veda texts also
known as Vedanta ("the end of the Veda"). The known as the Upanishads.
Upanishads are considered by orthodox Hindus The name is a morphophonological form of
to contain revealed truths (Sruti) concerning the Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the
nature of ultimate reality (brahman) and Vedic hymns". It is also speculated that
describing the character and form of human "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal [end] of
salvation (moksha). The Upanishads are found the Vedas". Vedanta can also be used as a noun
211
to describe one who has mastered all four of

the original Vedas.
By the 8th century, the word came to be used

to describe a group of philosophical traditions Chapter Six
concerned with the self-realisation by which The Perennial Philosophy
one understands the ultimate nature of reality
(Brahman).
The Perennial Philosophy (Latin: philosophia
In this respect Vedānta is also called Uttarā perennis), also referred to as Perennialism, is a
Mīmāṃsā, or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher perspective within the philosophy of religion
enquiry', and is often paired with Purva which views each of the world’s religious
Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry'. Pūrva traditions as sharing a single, universal truth on
Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa, which foundation all religious knowledge and
deals with explanations of the fire-sacrifices of doctrine has grown.
the Vedic mantras (in the Samhita portion of
The term philosophia perennis was first used by
the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta
Agostino Steuco (1497–1548), drawing on the
explicates the esoteric teachings of the
neo-Platonic philosophy of Marsilio Ficino
Āraṇyakas (the "forest scriptures"), and the
(1433–1499) and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
Upanishads, composed from the 9th century
(1463–94).
BCE until modern times.
In the early 19th century this idea was
Vedanta is not restricted or confined to one
popularised by the Transcendentalism. By the
book and there is no sole source for Vedāntic
end of the 19th century it was further
philosophy.
popularized by the Theosophical Society, under
the name of "Wisdom-Religion" or "Ancient
Wisdom". In the 20th century it was
popularized in the English speaking world
through Aldous Huxley's book The Perennial
Philosophy as well as the strands of thought
which culminated in the New Age movement.
Perennialism is a perspective within the

philosophy of religion which views each of the
world’s religious traditions as sharing a single,
universal truth on which foundation all religious
knowledge and doctrine has grown. According
to this view, each world religion, including but
not limited to Christianity, Islam, Judaism,
Hinduism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto,
Sikhism, and Buddhism, is an interpretation of
this universal truth adapted to cater for the
psychological, intellectual, and social needs of a
given culture of a given period of history. The
212
universal truth which lies at heart of each Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–94), a
religion has been rediscovered in each epoch by student of Ficino, went further than his teacher
saints, sages, prophets, and philosophers. These by suggesting that truth could be found in
include not only the 'founders' of the world's many, rather than just two, traditions. This
great religions but also gifted and inspired proposed a harmony between the thought of
mystics, theologians, and preachers who have Plato and Aristotle, and saw aspects of the
revived already existing religions when they had Prisca theologia in Averroes, the Koran, the
fallen into empty platitudes and hollow Cabala among other sources. After the deaths
ceremonialism. of Pico and Ficino this line of thought expanded,
and included Symphorien Champier, and
Although the sacred scriptures of the world
Francesco Giorgio.
religions are undeniably diverse and often
superficially oppose each other, a common Steuco
doctrine running through each is discernible
De perenni philosophia libri X
regarding the ultimate purpose of human life.
This doctrine is mystical insofar as it views the The term perenni philosophia was first used by
summum bonum of human life as an Agostino Steuco (1497–1548) who used it to
experiential union with the supreme being title a treatise, De perenni philosophia libri X,
which can only be achieved by undertaking a published in 1540. De perenni philosophia was
programme of physical and mental purification the most sustained attempt at philosophical
synthesis and harmony. Steuco represents the
Neo-Platonism
liberal wing of 16th-century Biblical scholarship
Neo-Platonism and Agape and theology, although he rejected Luther and
Calvin.[6] De perenni philosophia, is a complex
The Perennial philosophy originates from neo-
work which only contains the term philosophia
Platonism and Christianity.
perennis twice. It states that there is “one
Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) argued that there is principle of all things, of which there has always
an underlying unity to the world, the soul or been one and the same knowledge among all
love, which has a counterpart in the realm of peoples.” This single knowledge (or sapientia) is
ideas. Platonic Philosophy and Christian the key element in his philosophy. In that he
theology both embody this truth. Ficino was emphasises continuity over progress, Steuco’s
influenced by a variety of philosophers idea of philosophy is not one conventionally
including Aristotelian Scholasticism and various associated with the Renaissance. Indeed, he
pseudonymous and mystical writings. Ficino tends to believe that the truth is lost over time
saw his thought as part of a long development and is only preserved in the prisci theologica.
of philosophical truth, of ancient pre-Platonic Steuco preferred Plato to Aristotle and saw
philosophers (including Zoroaster, Hermes greater congruence between the former and
Trismegistus, Orpheus, Aglaophemus and Christianity than the latter philosopher. He held
Pythagoras) who reached their peak in Plato. that philosophy works in harmony with religion
The Prisca theologia, or venerable and ancient and should lead to knowledge of God, and that
theology, which embodied the truth and could truth flows from a single source, more ancient
be found in all ages, was a vitally important idea than the Greeks. Steuco was strongly influenced
for Ficino. by Iamblichus’s statement that knowledge of
God is innate in all, and also gave great
importance to Hermes Trismegistus.
213
Influence Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism
Steuco’s perennial philosophy was highly Transcendentalism and Universalism

regarded by some scholars for the two
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) was a
centuries after its publication, then largely
pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct
forgotten until it was rediscovered by Otto
field. He was one of the major figures in
Willmann in the late part of the 19th century.
Transcendentalism, an early 19th-century
Overall, De perenni philosophia wasn’t
liberal Protestant movement, which was rooted
particularly influential, and largely confined to
in English and German Romanticism, the Biblical
those with a similar orientation to himself. The
criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the
work was not put on the Index of works banned
skepticism of Hume. The Transcendentalists
by the Roman Catholic Church, although his
emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach
Cosmopoeia which expressed similar ideas was.
of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an
Religious criticisms tended to the conservative
individual's intuition of truth was taken as the
view that held Christian teachings should be
criterion for truth. In the late 18th and early
understood as unique, rather than seeing them
19th century, the first translations of Hindu
as perfect expressions of truths that are found
texts appeared, which were also read by the
everywhere. More generally, this philosophical
Transcendentalists, and influenced their
syncretism was set out at the expense of some
thinking. They also endorsed universalist and
of the doctrines included within it, and it is
Unitarianist ideas, leading to Unitarian
possible that Steuco’s critical faculties were not
Universalism, the idea that there must be truth
up to the task he had set himself. Further,
in other religions as well, since a loving God
placing so much confidence in the prisca
would redeem all living beings, not just
theologia, turned out to be a shortcoming as
Christians.
many of the texts used in this school of thought
later turned out to be bogus. In the following Neo-Vedanta
two centuries the most favourable responses
were largely Protestant and often in England. Advaita Vedanta, Neo-Vedanta, Hinduism in
the West, and Neo-Advaita
Gottfried Leibniz later picked up on Steuco's
term. The German philosopher stands in the Many perennialist thinkers (including
tradition of this concordistic philosophy; his Armstrong, Huston Smith and Joseph Campbell)
philosophy of harmony especially had affinity are influenced by Hindu reformer Ram Mohan
with Steuco’s ideas. Leibniz knew about Roy and Hindu mystics Ramakrishna and Swami
Steuco’s work by 1687, but thought that De la Vivekananda. who themselves have taken over
Verite de la Religion Chretienne by Huguenot western notions of universalism. They regarded
philosopher Phillippe du Plessis-Mornay Hinduism to be a token of this Perennial
expressed the same truth better. Steuco’s Philosophy. This notion has influenced thinkers
influence can be found throughout Leibniz’s who have proposed versions of the perennial
works, but the German was the first philosophy in the 20th century.
philosopher to refer to the perennial philosophy The unity of all religions was a central impulse
without mentioning the Italian. among Hindu reformers in the 19th century,
Modern popularization who in turn influenced many 20th-century
perennial philosophy-type thinkers. Key figures
in this reforming movement included two
214
Bengali Brahmins. Ram Mohan Roy, a Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion
philosopher and the founder of the modernising of "religious experience" further back to the
Brahmo Samaj religious organisation, reasoned German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher
that the divine was beyond description and thus (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based
that no religion could claim a monopoly in their on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of
understanding of it. "religious experience" was used by
Schleiermacher to defend religion against the
The mystic Ramakrishna's spiritual ecstasies
growing scientific and secular citique. It was
included experiencing the sameness of Christ,
adopted by many scholars of religion, of which
Mohammed and his own Hindu deity.
William James was the most influential.
Ramakrishna's most famous disciple, Swami
Vivekananda, travelled to the United States in Critics point out that the stress on "experience"
the 1890s where he formed the Vedanta is accompanied with favoring the atomic
Society. individual, instead of the shared life on the
community. It also fails to distinguish between
Roy, Ramakrishna and Vivekananda were all
episodic experience, and mysticism as a
influenced by the Hindu school of Advaita
process, that is embedded in a total religious
Vedanta, which they saw as the exemplification
matrix of liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues,
of a Universalist Hindu religiosity.
theology, rituals and practices. Richard King also
Theosophical Society points to disjunction between "mystical
experience" and social justice:
By the end of the 19th century the idea of a
Perennial Philosophy was popularized by The privatisation of mysticism - that is, the
leaders of the Theosophical Society such as H. increasing tendency to locate the mystical in
P. Blavatsky and Annie Besant, under the name the psychological realm of personal experiences
of "Wisdom-Religion" or "Ancient Wisdom". The - serves to exclude it from political issues as
Theosophical Society took an active interest in social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as a
Asian religions, subsequently not only bringing personal matter of cultivating inner states of
those religions under the attention of a western tranquility and equanimity, which, rather than
audience,but also influencing Hinduism, and seeking to transform the world, serve to
Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Japan. accommodate the individual to the status quo
through the alleviation of anxiety and stress.
Religious experience
A similar criticism is voiced by critics of Neo-
The emphasis in the Perennial Philosophy has Advaita, a popularised western version of Neo-
shifted from the soul or love as unifying Vedanta primarily based on the teachings of
essence, to religious experience and the notion Ramana Maharshi. Those critics point out that
on a nondualistic or "altered state of the "experience" of a nondual reality does not
consciousness". William James popularized the suffice to gain insight into the workings of the
use of the term "religious experience" in his The mind. Jacobs warns that Advaita Vedanta
Varieties of Religious Experience. It has also practice takes years of committed practice to
influenced the understanding of mysticism as a sever the "occlusion" of the so-called "vasanas,
distinctive experience which supplies samskaras, bodily sheats and vrittis", and the
knowledge.[web 4] "granthi or knot forming identification between
Self and mind":
215
The main Neo-Advaita fallacy ignores the fact only of the spiritual experience, not of the
that there is an occlusion or veiling formed by metaphysical entity presumed by the
vasanas, samskaras, bodily sheaths and vrittis, theologians of other religions, as also of later
and there is a granthi or knot forming Buddhism, to be the object and (since in
identification between Self and mind, which has contemplation the knower, the known and the
to be severed [...] The Maharshi's remedy to knowledge are all one) at the same time the
this whole trap is persistent effective Self- subject and substance of that experience.
enquiry, and/or complete unconditional
the Upanishads:
surrender of the 'phantom ego' to Self or God,
until the granthi is severed, the vasanas are The Perennial Philosophy is expressed most
rendered harmless like a burned out rope. succinctly in the Sanskrit formula, tat tvam asi
('That thou art'); the Atman, or immanent
Aldous Huxley
eternal Self, is one with Brahman, the Absolute
The Perennial Philosophy Principle of all existence; and the last end of
every human being, is to discover the fact for
The term was popularized in more recent times
himself, to find out who he really is.
by Aldous Huxley, who was profoundly
influenced by Vivekanda's Neo-Vedanta and According to Aldous Huxley, in order to
Universalism, in his 1945 book: The Perennial apprehend the divine reality, one must choose
Philosophy. He defined the perennial to fulfill certain conditions: "making themselves
philosophy as: loving, pure in heart and poor in spirit." Huxley
argues that very few people can achieve this
[...] the metaphysic that recognizes a divine
state. Those who have fulfilled these conditions,
Reality substantial to the world of things and
grasped the universal truth and interpreted it
lives and minds; the psychology that finds in the
have generally been given the name of saint,
soul something similar to, or even identical to,
prophet, sage or enlightened one.[30] Huxley
divine Reality; the ethic that places man's final
argues that those who have, “modified their
end in the knowledge of the immanent and
merely human mode of being,” and have thus
transcendent Ground of all being;
been able to comprehend “more than merely
the thing is immemorial and universal. human kind and amount of knowledge” have
Rudiments of the perennial philosophy may be also achieved this enlightened state.
found among the traditional lore of primitive
Traditionalist School
peoples in every region of the world, and in its
fully developed forms it has a place in every one A "philosophia perennis" is also the central
of the higher religions. concept of the "Traditionalist School"
formalized in the writings of 20th-century
He also pointed out the method of the Buddha:
thinkers René Guénon, Frithjof Schuon, Ananda
The Buddha declined to make any statement in Coomaraswamy, Julius Evola, Titus Burckhardt,
regard to the ultimate divine Reality. All he Martin Lings, and Seyyed Hossein Nasr.
would talk about was Nirvana, which is the
According to the Traditionalist School, the
name of the experience that comes to the
"philosophia perennis" designates a worldview
totally selfless and one-pointed. […]
that is opposed to the scientism of modern
Maintaining, in this matter, the attitude of a
secular societies and which promotes the
strict operationalist, the Buddha would speak
rediscovery of the wisdom traditions of the pre-
216
secular developed world. This view is science as well as other forms of science that
exemplified by Rene Guenon in his magnum are considered fringe.
opus and one of the founding works of the
traditionalist school, The Reign of Quantity and
The Sign of the Times.
According to Frithjof Schuon:
It has been said more than once that total Truth

is inscribed in an eternal script in the very
substance of our spirit; what the different
Revelations do is to “crystallize” and
“actualize”, in different degrees according to
the case, a nucleus of certitudes which not only
abides forever in the divine Omniscience, but
also sleeps by refraction in the “naturally
supernatural” kernel of the individual, as well as
in that of each ethnic or historical collectivity or
of the human species as a whole.
New Age
Main articles: New Age and New Age

Movement
The idea of a Perennial Philosophy is central to

the New Age Movement. The New Age
movement is a Western spiritual movement
that developed in the second half of the 20th
century. Its central precepts have been
described as "drawing on both Eastern and
Western spiritual and metaphysical traditions
and infusing them with influences from self-
help and motivational psychology, holistic
health, parapsychology, consciousness research
and quantum physics" The term New Age refers
to the coming astrological Age of Aquarius.
The New Age aims to create "a spirituality

without borders or confining dogmas" that is
inclusive and pluralistic. It holds to "a holistic
worldview", emphasising that the Mind, Body
and Spirit are interrelated and that there is a
form of monism and unity throughout the
universe. It attempts to create "a worldview
that includes both science and spirituality" and
embraces a number of forms of mainstream
217
transcendentalists took the stance that

empirical proofs of religion were not possible.
Transcendentalism developed as a reaction

against 18th Century rationalism, John Locke's
philosophy of Sensualism, and the
predestinationism of New England Calvinism. It
is fundamentally a variety of diverse sources
such as Hindu texts like the Vedas, the
Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, various
religions, and German idealism.
Emerson's Nature
The publication of Ralph Waldo Emerson's 1836

essay Nature is usually considered the
Chapter Seven
watershed moment at which transcendentalism
Transcendentalism became a major cultural movement. Emerson
wrote in his 1837 speech "The American
Transcendentalism was a religious and Scholar": "We will walk on our own feet; we will
philosophical movement that was developed work with our own hands; we will speak our
during the late 1820s and 1830s in the Eastern own minds... A nation of men will for the first
region of the United States as a protest against time exist, because each believes himself
the general state of culture and society, and in inspired by the Divine Soul which also inspires
particular, the state of intellectualism at all men." Emerson closed the essay by calling
Harvard University and the doctrine of the for a revolution in human consciousness to
Unitarian church taught at Harvard Divinity emerge from the brand new idealist philosophy:
School. Among the transcendentalists' core So shall we come to look at the world with new
beliefs was the inherent goodness of both eyes. It shall answer the endless inquiry of the
people and nature. intellect, — What is truth? and of the affections,
Transcendentalists believed that society and its — What is good? by yielding itself passive to the
institutions—particularly organized religion and educated Will. ...Build, therefore, your own
political parties—ultimately corrupted the world. As fast as you conform your life to the
purity of the individual. They had faith that pure idea in your mind, that will unfold its great
people are at their best when truly "self-reliant" proportions. A correspondent revolution in
and independent. It is only from such real things will attend the influx of the spirit.
individuals that true community could be The Transcendental Club
formed.
In the same year, transcendentalism became a
Transcendentalism first arose among New coherent movement with the founding of the
England congregationalists, who differed from Transcendental Club in Cambridge,
orthodox Calvinism on two issues.They rejected Massachusetts, on September 8, 1836, by
predestination, and they emphasized the unity prominent New England intellectuals including
instead of the trinity of God. Following the George Putnam (1807–78; the Unitarian
skepticism of David Hume, the minister in Roxbury), Ralph Waldo Emerson,
218
and Frederick Henry Hedge From 1840, the were largely unacquainted with German
group published frequently in their journal The philosophy in the original, and relied primarily
Dial, along with other venues. on the writings of Thomas Carlyle, Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, Victor Cousin, Germaine de
Second wave of transcendentalists
Staël, and other English and French
By the late 1840s, Emerson believed the commentators for their knowledge of it.
movement was dying out, and even more so
In contrast, they were intimately familiar with
after the death of Margaret Fuller in 1850. "All
the English Romantics, and the transcendental
that can be said", Emerson wrote, "is that she
movement may be partially described as a
represents an interesting hour and group in
slightly later American outgrowth of
American cultivation". There was, however, a
Romanticism. Another major influence was the
second wave of transcendentalists, including
mystical spiritualism of Emanuel Swedenborg.
Moncure Conway, Octavius Brooks
Frothingham, Samuel Longfellow and Franklin Individualism
Benjamin Sanborn. Notably, the transgression
Transcendentalists believed that society and its
of the spirit, most often evoked by the poet's
institutions—particularly organized religion and
prosaic voice, is said to endow in the reader a
political parties—ultimately corrupted the
sense of purposefulness. This is the underlying
purity of the individual. They had faith that
theme in the majority of transcendentalist
people are at their best when truly "self-reliant"
essays and papers—all of which are centered on
and independent. It is only from such real
subjects which assert a love for individual
individuals that true community could be
expression.
formed.
Beliefs
Vedic thought
Transcendentalism has been influenced by

Transcendentalists were strong believers in the Vedic thought. Thoreau in Walden spoke of the
power of the individual and divine messages. Transcendentalists' debt to Vedic thought
Their beliefs are closely linked with those of the directly:
Romantics.
In the morning I bathe my intellect in the
Transcendental knowledge stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the
Bhagavat Geeta, since whose composition years
The transcendentalists desired to ground their
of the gods have elapsed, and in comparison
religion and philosophy in transcendental
with which our modern world and its literature
principles: principles not based on, or falsifiable
seem puny and trivial; and I doubt if that
by, physical experience, but deriving from the
philosophy is not to be referred to a previous
inner spiritual or mental essence of the human.
state of existence, so remote is its sublimity
It was rooted in English and German from our conceptions. I lay down the book and
Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder go to my well for water, and lo! there I meet the
and Schleiermacher, and the skepticism of servant of the Brahmin, priest of Brahma, and
Hume, and the transcendental philosophy of Vishnu and Indra, who still sits in his temple on
Immanuel Kant (and of German Idealism more the Ganges reading the Vedas, or dwells at the
generally), interpreting Kant's a priori categories root of a tree with his crust and water-jug. I
as a priori knowledge. The transcendentalists meet his servant come to draw water for his
219
master, and our buckets as it were grate certainly was the first to inspire succeeding
together in the same well. The pure Walden generations of American intellectuals, as well as
water is mingled with the sacred water of the a number of literary monuments.
Ganges.
The movement directly influenced the growing
Idealism movement of "Mental Sciences" of the mid-
19th century, which would later become known
The transcendentalists varied in their
as the New Thought movement. New Thought
interpretations of the practical aims of will.
considers Emerson its intellectual father. Emma
Some among the group linked it with utopian
Curtis Hopkins "the teacher of teachers", Ernest
social change; Brownson connected it with early
Holmes, founder of Religious Science, the
socialism, while others considered it an
Fillmores, founders of Unity, and Malinda
exclusively individualist and idealist project.
Cramer and Nona L. Brooks, the founders of
Emerson believed the latter. In his 1842 lecture
Divine Science, were all greatly influenced by
"The Transcendentalist", Emerson suggested
Transcendentalism.
that the goal of a purely transcendental outlook
on life was impossible to attain in practice: In the 19th century, under the influence of
Ralph Waldo Emerson (who had been a
You will see by this sketch that there is no such
Unitarian minister) and other
thing as a transcendental party; that there is no
transcendentalists, Unitarianism began its long
pure transcendentalist; that we know of no one
journey from liberal Protestantism to its present
but prophets and heralds of such a philosophy;
more pluralist form.[citation needed]
that all who by strong bias of nature have
leaned to the spiritual side in doctrine, have Major figures
stopped short of their goal. We have had many
harbingers and forerunners; but of a purely
spiritual life, history has afforded no example. I The major figures in the movement were Ralph
mean, we have yet no man who has leaned Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, John
entirely on his character, and eaten angels' Muir, Margaret Fuller and Amos Bronson Alcott.
food; who, trusting to his sentiments, found life Other prominent transcendentalists included
made of miracles; who, working for universal Louisa May Alcott, Charles Timothy Brooks,
aims, found himself fed, he knew not how; Orestes Brownson, William Ellery Channing,
clothed, sheltered, and weaponed, he knew not William Henry Channing, James Freeman Clarke,
how, and yet it was done by his own Christopher Pearse Cranch, Walt Whitman, John
hands. ...Shall we say, then, that Sullivan Dwight, Convers Francis, William Henry
transcendentalism is the Saturnalia or excess of Furness, Frederic Henry Hedge, Sylvester Judd,
Faith; the presentiment of a faith proper to man Theodore Parker, Elizabeth Palmer Peabody,
in his integrity, excessive only when his George Ripley, Thomas Treadwell Stone, Emily
imperfect obedience hinders the satisfaction of Dickinson, and Jones Very.
his wish.
Criticism
Influence on other movements
History of New Thought

Early in the movement's history, the term
Transcendentalism was in many aspects the "Transcendentalists" was used as a pejorative
first notable American intellectual movement. It
220
term by critics, who were suggesting their We know not what God is. God himself doesn't
position was beyond sanity and reason. know what He is because He is not anything.
Literally God is not, because He transcends
Nathaniel Ha+wthorne wrote a novel, The
being.
Blithedale Romance (1852), satirizing the
movement, and based it on his experiences at
Brook Farm, a short-lived utopian community
founded on transcendental principles. Edgar
Allan Poe wrote a story, "Never Bet the Devil
Your Head", in which he embedded elements of
deep dislike for transcendentalism, calling its
followers "Frogpondians" after the pond on
Boston Common. The narrator ridiculed their
writings by calling them "metaphor-run" lapsing
into "mysticism for mysticism's sake". and called
it a "disease." The story specifically mentions
the movement and its flagship journal The Dial,
though Poe denied that he had any specific
targets.
In Poe's essay "The Philosophy of Composition"

he offers criticism denouncing "the excess of
the suggested meaning... which turns into prose
(and that of the very flattest kind) the so-called Chapter Eight
poetry of the so-called transcendentalists."[20] Universalism
Other meanings
Universalism refers to religious, theological, and
Transcendental idealism philosophical concepts with universal
The term "transcendentalism" sometimes application or applicability. Universalism is a
serves as shorthand for transcendental term used to identify particular doctrines
idealism, which is the philosophy of Immanuel considering all people in their formation.
Kant and later Kantian and German Idealist In a broad sense, universalism claims that
philosophers. Immanuel Kant had called "all religion is a universal human quality. This can be
knowledge transcendental which is concerned contrasted with non-universalist religions.
not with objects but with our mode of knowing Religion in this context is defined as a set of
objects." beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and
Transcendental theology purpose of the universe, especially when
considered as the creation of a superhuman
Another alternative meaning for agency or agencies, usually involving devotional
"transcendentalism" is the classical philosophy and ritual observances, and often containing a
that God transcends the manifest world. As moral code governing the conduct of human
John Scotus Erigena put it to Frankish king affairs.
Charles the Bald in the year 840 AD,
In Christianity, universal reconciliation is the
doctrine that all sinful and alienated human
221
souls—because of divine love and mercy—will share with each other. We can only accomplish
ultimately be reconciled to God. Unitarian Tikkun Olam by our unconditional acceptance of
Universalism believes that religion is a universal each other's peaceful doctrines."
human quality, emphasizing the universal
Christianity
principles of most religions and accepting other
religions in an inclusive manner, believing in a Christian Universalism
universal reconciliation between humanity and
the divine. Universalism has had a strong Universal Reconciliation and Trinitarian
influence on modern Hinduism, in turn Universalism
influencing western modern spirituality. This section improperly uses one or more
A community that calls itself universalist may religious texts as primary sources without
emphasize the universal principles of most referring to secondary sources that critically
religions and accept other religions in an analyze them. (February 2012)
inclusive manner, believing in a universal This section needs additional citations for
reconciliation between humanity and the verification. (February 2012)
divine. For example, some forms of Abrahamic
religions happened to claim the universal value In Christianity, Universalism can refer to the
of their doctrine and moral principles, and feel beliefs that all humans either may or will be
inclusive. A belief in one common truth is also saved through Jesus Christ and eventually come
another important tenet. The living truth is seen to harmony in God's kingdom. This salvation is
as more far-reaching than national, cultural, or expressed as offered both to Jews and to
religious boundaries. Gentiles (Romans 1:16, Romans 9:24-25,
Revelation 7:9). It is opposed to the doctrines of
Judaism teaches that God chose the Jewish reprobation and double-predestination in
people to be in a unique covenant with God, Calvinism.
and one of their beliefs is that Jewish people
were charged by the Torah with a specific The Greek term apokatastasis came to be
mission — to be a light unto the nations, and to related by some to the beliefs of Christian
exemplify the covenant with God as described Universalism, but in early Patristics, the usage is
in the Torah to other nations. Not explicitly a distinct. Additionally the term Catholic is
Universalist theology, this view, however, does derived from the Greek word katholikos, which
not preclude a belief that God also has a means universal. The Catholic Church is
relationship with other peoples—rather, universal in the sense that it embraces
Judaism holds that God had entered into a individuals "from every race, nation, language,
covenant with all humanity as Noachides, and and people", but it does not teach universal
that Jews and non-Jews alike have a salvation.
relationship with God, as well as being universal History
in the sense that it is open to all mankind.
Universalist writers such as George T. Knight
The Jewish Spiritual Leaders Institute founded have claimed that Universalism was a widely
and led by American Jewish Universalist rabbi held view among theologians in Early
Steven Blane believes in a more inclusive Christianity, including important figures such as
version of Jewish Universalism, stating that Origen and Clement of Alexandria.
"God equally chose all nations to be lights unto
the world, and we have much to learn and
222
The first undisputed documented appearance "The Lord is not slow in keeping his promise, as
of Christian Universalist ideas was in 17th- some understand slowness. He is patient with
century England and 18th-century Europe and you, not wanting anyone to perish, but
colonial America. Gerrard Winstanley (England, everyone to come to repentance." (NIV;
1648), Richard Coppin (England, 1652), Jane Emphasis Added)
Leade (England, 1697), and George de
"The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as
Benneville (France and America, 18th century)
some count slowness, but is patient toward
taught that God would grant all human beings
you, not wishing that any should perish, but
salvation. People teaching this doctrine in
that all should reach repentance." (ESV;
America became known as Universalists.
Emphasis Added)
Universalist theology
1 Timothy 2:3-6[8]
Some Bible verses commonly cited in Christian
"This is good, and pleases God our Savior, who
Universalist theology are:
wants all men to be saved and to come to a
1 Corinthians 15:22[8] knowledge of the truth. For there is one God
and one mediator between God and men, the
"For as in Adam ALL die, so in Christ ALL will be
man Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom
made alive." (NIV; Emphasis Added)
for ALL men — the testimony given in its proper
"For as in Adam ALL die, so also in Christ shall time." (NIV; Emphasis Added)
ALL be made alive." (ESV; Emphasis Added)
"This is good, and it is pleasing in the sight of
Romans 5:18-19 (The "one trespass" and the God our Savior, who desires all people to be
"one man's disobedience" refer to Adam's sin, saved and to come to the knowledge of the
while the "act of righteousness" and the "one truth. For there is one God, and there is one
man's obedience" refer to Jesus' voluntary mediator between God and men, the man
death on the cross). Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom for
ALL, which is the testimony given at the proper
"Consequently, just as the result of one trespass time." (ESV; Emphasis Added)
was condemnation for all men, so also the
result of one act of righteousness was 1 John 2:2
justification that brings life for all men. For just
"He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not
as through the disobedience of the one man the
only for ours but also for the sins of the whole
many were made sinners, so also through the
world." (NIV)
obedience of the one man the many will be
made righteous." (NIV; Emphasis Added) "He is the propitiation for our sins, and not for
ours only but also for the sins of the whole
"Therefore, as one trespass led to
world." (ESV)
condemnation for all men, so one act of
righteousness leads to justification and life for 1 Timothy 4:10[8]
all men. For as by the one man's disobedience
"(and for this we labor and strive), that we have
the many were made sinners, so by the one
put our hope in the living God, who is the Savior
man's obedience the many will be made
of all men, and especially of those who believe."
righteous." (ESV; Emphasis added)
(NIV; Emphasis Added)
2 Peter 3:9
223
"For to this end we toil and strive, because we (Iliad v. 685; Odyssey v. 160). It is not, however,
have our hope set on the living God, who is the limited to human life; it signifies any period in
Savior of all people, especially of those who the course of events, as the period or age
believe." (ESV; Emphasis Added) before Christ; the period of the millennium; the
mythological period before the beginnings of
Romans 11:32
history....
"For God has bound all men over to
disobedience so that he may have mercy on
them all." (NIV) The adjective aionios in like manner carries the
idea of time. Neither the noun nor the
"For God has consigned all to disobedience, that
adjective, in themselves, carry the sense of
he may have mercy on all." (ESV)
endless or everlasting. They may acquire that
1 John 4:14 sense by their connotation, as, on the other
hand, aidios, which means everlasting, has its
"And we have seen and testify that the Father meaning limited to a given point of time in Jude
has sent his Son to be the Savior of the world." 6. Aionios means enduring through or
(NIV) pertaining to a period of time. Both the noun
"And we have seen and testify that the Father and the adjective are applied to limited
has sent his Son to be the Savior of the world." periods....
(ESV)
Mistranslations Words which are habitually applied to things

Another key point within the Christian temporal or material cannot carry in themselves
Universalist theology is the understanding that the sense of endlessness. Even when applied to
mistranslations exist in many modern English God, we are not forced to render aionios
translations of the Bible. One of the most everlasting. Of course the life of God is endless;
significant translation errors is that of the Greek but the question is whether, in describing God
word αιών (Lit. aion). This Greek word is the as aionios, it was intended to describe the
origin of the modern English word "eon". duration of his being, or whether some different
However, this word is often translated as and larger idea was not contemplated.
"eternal", in the context of eternal Unitarian Universalism
punishment/torment or eternal life. In his
tetralogy called Word Studies in the New Unitarian Universalism (UU) is a theologically
Testament, the 19th century theologian Marvin liberal religion characterized by a "free and
Vincent wrote: responsible search for truth and meaning".
Unitarian Universalists do not share a creed;
Aion, transliterated aeon, is a period of longer rather, they are unified by their shared search
or shorter duration, having a beginning and an for spiritual growth and by the understanding
end, and complete in itself. Aristotle (peri that an individual's theology is a result of that
ouravou, i. 9,15) says: "The period which search and not a result of obedience to an
includes the whole time of one's life is called authoritarian requirement. Unitarian
the aeon of each one." Hence it often means Universalists draw from all major world
the life of a man, as in Homer, where one's life religions and many different theological sources
(aion) is said to leave him or to consume away and have a wide range of beliefs and practices.
224
Contemporary Unitarian Universalism espouses kitab). Later Islamic theologians expanded this
a pluralist approach to religious belief, whereby definition to include Zoroastrians, and later
members may describe themselves as even Hindus, as the early Islamic empire
humanist, agnostic, deist, atheist, pagan, brought many people professing these religions
christian, monotheist, pantheist, polytheist, or under its dominion, but the Qur'an explicitly
assume no label at all. As of 2006, fewer than identifies only Jews, Christians, and Sabians as
about 20% of Unitarian Universalists identified People of the Book.
themselves as Christian.
Views of Muslims range along a continuum,
The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) from the most inclusive teaching common
was formed in 1961, a consolidation of the among liberal Muslims summed up in Surah
American Unitarian Association, established in 2:62,256 - "Verily! Those who believe and those
1825, and the Universalist Church of America, who are Jews and Christians, and Sabians,
established in 1866. It is headquartered in whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day and
Boston, Massachusetts, and serves churches do righteous good deeds shall have their reward
mostly in the United States. The Canadian with their Lord, on them shall be no fear, nor
Unitarian Council became an independent body shall they grieve...let there be no compulsion in
in 2002. religion" - that all monotheistic religions or
people of the book have a chance of salvation,
New Thought
to the most exclusive teaching common
This section does not cite any references or amongst Salafis and Wahhabis, and supported
sources. Please help improve this section by by several works of medieval Islamic theology
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced and by traditions (hadith) which are considered
material may be challenged and removed. correct (sahih) by Sunni Muslims, for the most
(February 2012) part are summed up in Surah 9:5,29: "Then,
when the sacred months have passed, slay the
Unity, Religious Science, Divine Science are idolaters [mushrikun] wherever ye find them,
denominations within the New Thought and take them, and besiege them, and lay in
movement. Each teaches that there is a wait in every stratagem of war. But if they
common thread of truth at the heart of all repent and establish worship and pay the jizya,
religions. New Thought is an ever-evolving then leave their way free. Lo! Allah is Forgiving,
belief system which will incorporate Truth Merciful...Fight against such of those who have
where ever it is found, hence the name New been given the Scripture [i.e. people of the
Thought. All is God, But God transcends all. book] as believe not in Allah nor the Last Day,
Islam and forbid not that which Allah hath forbidden
by His messenger, and follow not the Religion of
Further information: Ummah, Divisions of the Truth, until they pay the jizya readily, being
world in Islam, People of the Book, Dhimmi, brought low."
Jizya, Dawah, and Jihad
The interpretation of all of these passages are
Islam recognizes to a certain extent the validity hotly contested amongst various schools of
of the Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an thought, traditionalist and reform-minded, and
identifying Jews, Christians, and "Sabi'un" or branches of Islam, from the reforming
"baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the Qur'anists and Ahmadiyya to the ultra-
Mandeans) as "people of the book" (ahl al- traditionalist Salafi, as is the doctrine of
225
abrogation (naskh) which is used to determine Sufis generally hold to a much more inclusivist
which verses take precedent, based on and tolerant view of other faiths and religious
reconstructed chronology, with later verses systems than traditional Sunni and Shi'a Islam.
superseding earlier ones. The traditional
Bahá'í Faith
chronology places Surah 9 as the last or second-
to-last surah revealed, thus, in traditional Bahá'í Faith and the unity of humanity and
exegesis, it gains a large power of abrogation, Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion
and verses 9:5,29,73 are held to have abrogated
2:256 The ahadith also play a major role in this, In Bahá'í belief, a single God has sent all the
and different schools of thought assign different historic founders of the world religions in a
weightings and rulings of authenticity to process of progressive revelation. As a result
different hadith, with the four schools of Sunni the major world religions are seen as divine in
thought accepting the Six Authentic Collections, origin and are continuous in their purpose. In
generally along with the Muwatta Imam Malik. this view, there is unity among the founders of
Depending on the level of acceptance of world religions, but each revelation brings a
rejection of certain traditions, the more advanced set of teachings in human
interpretation of the Koran can be changed history and none are syncretic. Within this
immensely, from the Qur'anists and Ahmadiyya universal view, the unity of humanity is one of
who reject the ahadith, to the Salafi, or ahl al- the central teachings of the Bahá'í Faith. The
hadith, who hold the entirety of the traditional Bahá'í teachings state that since all humans
collections in great reverence. have been created in the image of God, God
does not make any distinction between people
Traditional Islam views the world as bipartite, regardless of race, colour or religion. Thus,
consisting of the House of Islam, that is, where because all humans have been created equal,
people live under the Islamic law - the Shariah - they all require equal opportunities and
and the House of War, that is, where the people treatment. Thus the Bahá'í view promotes the
do not live under Islamic law, which must be unity of humanity, and that people's vision
proselytized using whatever resources should be world-embracing and that people
available, including, in some traditionalist and should love the whole world rather than just
conservative interpretations, the use of their nation. The teaching, however, does not
violence, as holy struggle in the path of Allah, to equal unity with uniformity, but instead the
either convert its inhabitants to Islam, or to rule Bahá'í writings advocate for the principle of
them under the Shariah (cf. dhimmi)since the unity in diversity where the variety in the
abolition of the Caliphate, there has been human race is valued. Operating on a world
debate about the proper role of divisions of the wide basis this cooperative view of the peoples
world in Islam, and whether the traditional and nations of the planet culminates in a vision
bipartite division is sufficient to meet the needs of the practicality of, the progression in world
of the ummah (world community of Muslims) affairs towards, and the inevitability of, world
and world moving into the future. peace.
The Ash'ari school of Sunni aqidah (theology) Oriental religions
holds that those who had never heard of the
message of Islam, by virtue of isolation, can still Middle East
be saved by the grace of Allah, similar to Karl Zoroastrianism and Manicheanism
Rahner's concept of the Anonymous Christian.
226
Some forms of Zoroastrian and Manichean Shankara. An early exponent of Hindu

belief were universalistic in application to all Universalism was Ram Mohan Roy, who
races, but not universalist in the sense of established the Brahmo Samaj. Hindu
universal salvation. Universalism was popularised in the 20th
century in both India and the west by
Indian religions
Vivekananda and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.
Hinduism Veneration for all other religions was
articulated by Gandhi:
Main articles: Neo-Vedanta and Hindu reform
movements After long study and experience, I have come to
the conclusion that all religions are true; all
Hindu Universalism, also called Neo-Vedanta religions have some error in them; all religions
and neo-Hinduism, is a modern interpretation are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism,
of Hinduism which developed in response to in as much as all human beings should be as
western colonialism and orientalism, and aims dear to one as one's own close relatives. My
to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of own veneration for other faiths is the same as
Hinduism" with Advaita Vedanta as its central that for my own faith; therefore no thought of
doctrine. conversion is possible.
Hindu Universalism denotes the ideology that Western orientalists played an important role in
all religions are true and therefore worthy of this popularisation, regarding Vedanta to be the
toleration and respect. "central theology of Hinduism". Oriental
It is a modern interpretation of Hinduism, which scholarship portrayed Hinduism as a "single
aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized world religion", and denigrated the
ideal of Hinduism" with Advaita Vedanta as its heterogeneousity of Hindu beliefs and practices
central doctrine. It presents as 'distortions' of the basic teachings of
Vedanta.
... an imagined "integral unity" that was
probably little more than an "imagined" view of
the religious life that pertained only to a
cultural elite and that empirically speaking had
very little reality “on the ground,” as it were, Sikhism
throughout the centuries of cultural
In Sikhism, all the religions of the world are
development in the South Asian region.
compared to rivers flowing into a single ocean.
Hinduism embraces universalism by conceiving Although the Sikh Gurus did not agree with the
the whole world as a single family that deifies practices of fasting, idolatry and pilgrimage
the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms during their times, they stressed that all
of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions should be tolerated and considered on
religions which would imply a division of equal footing. The Sikh Scripture, the Guru
identity. Granth Sahib, contains the writings of not just
the Sikh Guru themselves, but the writings of
This modernised re-interpretation has become several Hindu and Muslim saints, known as the
a broad current in Indian culture, extending far Bhagats. Although Sikhism does not teach that
beyond the Dashanami Sampradaya, the men are created in God's image, it states that
Advaita Vedanta Sampradaya founded by Adi the essence of the One is to be found
227
throughout all of its creation. As was said by adherents of New Thought believe that "God"
Yogi Bhajan, the man who is credited with or "Infinite Intelligence" is "supreme, universal,
having brought Sikhism to the West: and everlasting", that divinity dwells within
each person, that all people are spiritual beings,
"If you can't see God in all, you can't see God at
that "the highest spiritual principle [is] loving
all". (Sri Singh Sahib, Yogi Bhajan)
one another unconditionally... and teaching and
The First Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak said himself: healing one another", and that "our mental
states are carried forward into manifestation
"There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim By this, and become our experience in daily living".
Guru Nanak meant that there is no distinction
between religion in God's eyes, whether The New Thought movement is a spiritually-
polytheist, monotheist, pantheist, or even focused or philosophical interpretation of New
atheist, all that one needs to gain salvation is Thought beliefs. Started in the early 19th
purity of heart, tolerance of all beings, century, today the movement consists of a
compassion and kindness. Unlike many of the loosely allied group of religious denominations,
major world religions, Sikhism does not have secular membership organizations,[citation
missionaries, instead it believes men have the needed] authors, philosophers, and individuals
freedom to find their own path to salvation. who share a set of beliefs concerning
metaphysics, positive thinking, the law of
attraction, healing, life force, creative
visualization, and personal power.[5] The three
major religious denominations within the New
Thought movement are Religious Science, Unity
Church and the Church of Divine Science. There
are many other smaller churches within the
New Thought movement, as well as schools and
umbrella organizations. As of now, Infinite
Intelligence can not be scientifically proven to
exist.
William James, in The Varieties of Religious

Experience, described New Thought as follows:
Chapter Nine
...for the sake of having a brief designation, I
New Thought
will give the title of the "Mind-cure movement."
There are various sects of this "New Thought,"
New Thought, sometimes known as Higher to use another of the names by which it calls
Thought, promotes the ideas that Infinite itself; but their agreements are so profound
Intelligence, or God, is everywhere, spirit is the that their differences may be neglected for my
totality of real things, true human selfhood is present purpose, and I will treat the movement,
divine, divine thought is a force for good, without apology, as if it were a simple thing.
sickness originates in the mind, and "right
thinking" has a healing effect. It is an optimistic scheme of life, with both a
speculative and a practical side. In its gradual
Although New Thought is neither monolithic development during the last quarter of a
nor doctrinaire, in general, modern-day century, it has taken up into itself a number of
228
contributory elements, and it must now be collectively as Apotheosis, existing since ancient
reckoned with as a genuine religious power. It history.
has reached the stage, for example, when the
The earliest identifiable proponent of what
demand for its literature is great enough for
came to be known as New Thought was Phineas
insincere stuff, mechanically produced for the
Parkhurst Quimby (1802–66), an American
market, to be to a certain extent supplied by
philosopher, mesmerist, healer, and inventor.
publishers – a phenomenon never observed, I
Quimby developed a belief system that included
imagine, until a religion has got well past its
the tenet that illness originated in the mind as a
earliest insecure beginnings.
consequence of erroneous beliefs and that a
One of the doctrinal sources of Mind-cure is the mind open to God's wisdom could overcome
four Gospels; another is Emersonianism or New any illness. His basic premise was “The trouble
England transcendentalism; another is is in the mind, for the body is only the house for
Berkeleyan idealism; another is spiritism, with the mind to dwell in…Therefore, if your mind
its messages of "law" and "progress" and had been deceived by some invisible enemy
"development"; another the optimistic popular into a belief, you have put it into the form of a
science evolutionism of which I have recently disease, with or without your knowledge. By my
spoken; and, finally, Hinduism has contributed a theory or truth, I come in contact with your
strain. But the most characteristic feature of the enemy, and restore you to health and
mind-cure movement is an inspiration much happiness. This I do partly mentally, and partly
more direct. The leaders in this faith have had by talking till I correct the wrong impression and
an intuitive belief in the all-saving power of establish the Truth, and the Truth is the cure.”
healthy-minded attitudes as such, in the
During the late 19th century the metaphysical
conquering efficacy of courage, hope, and trust,
healing practices of Quimby mingled with the
and a correlative contempt for doubt, fear,
"Mental Science" of Warren Felt Evans, a
worry, and all nervously precautionary states of
Swedenborgian minister.
mind. Their belief has in a general way been
corroborated by the practical experience of New Thought was propelled along by a number
their disciples; and this experience forms to-day of spiritual thinkers and philosophers and
a mass imposing in amount. emerged through a variety of religious
denominations and churches, particularly the
History
Unity Church, Religious Science, and Church of
History of New Thought Divine Science.[10] Many of its early teachers
and students were women; notable among the
Origins
founders of the movement were Emma Curtis
The concept of access to healing through prayer Hopkins, known as the "teacher of teachers",
and the enabling of the holy spirit and the Myrtle Fillmore, Malinda Cramer, and Nona L.
divine living within and in future 'being one' Brooks; with many of its churches and
with his creation and especially his followers, as community centers led by women, from the
a concept of salvation, is part of mainstream 1880s to today.
traditions of Christian teaching. In the culture of
Growth
theological discussion this concept is often
termed Divinization (Christian). Various other List of New Thought writers
philosophical and power-status beliefs
attributing divine powers to people are known
229
New Thought is also largely a movement of the declared a special "New Thought Day" at the
printed word. The 1890s and the first decades fair and struck a commemorative bronze medal
of the 20th century saw many New Thought for the occasion, which was presented to the
books published on the topics of self-help, INTA delegates, led by Annie Rix Militz. By 1916,
financial success, and will-training books. New the International New Thought Alliance had
Thought authors such as of Napoleon Hill, encompassed many smaller groups around the
Wallace Wattles, Perry Joseph Green, Frank world, adopting a creed known as the
Channing Haddock, and Thomas Troward were "Declaration of Principles". The Alliance is held
extremely popular. together by one central teaching: that people,
through the constructive use of their minds, can
In 1906, William Walker Atkinson (1862–1932)
attain freedom, power, health, prosperity, and
wrote and published Thought Vibration or the
all good, molding their bodies as well as the
Law of Attraction in the Thought World.
circumstances of their lives. The declaration
Atkinson was the editor of New Thought
was revised in 1957, with all references to
magazine and the author of more than 100
Christianity removed, and a new statement
books on an assortment of religious, spiritual,
based on the "inseparable oneness of God and
and occult topics. The following year, Elizabeth
Man".
Towne, the editor of The Nautilus Magazine, a
Journal of New Thought, published Bruce There are regular conventions and conferences
MacLelland's book Prosperity Through Thought today, including those hosted by the major
Force, in which he summarized the "Law of denominations, Agape International Spiritual
Attraction" as a New Thought principle, stating Center, and others.
"You are what you think, not what you think
Belief systems
you are."
These magazines were used to reach a large

audience then, as others are now. Nautilus New Thought Beliefs
magazine, for example, had 45,000 subscribers
and a total circulation of 150,000. One Unity Divinity
Church magazine, Wee Wisdom, was the Omnipresent God ·
longest-lived children's magazine in the United
States, published from 1893 until 1991. Today, Ultimate Spirit · Divine Humanity · Higher
New Thought magazines include Daily Word consciousness ·
published by Unity and the Religious Science Beliefs
magazine, Science of Mind, published by the
Centers for Spiritual Living. Law of attraction · Life force
Major gatherings Actions
The 1915 International New Thought Alliance Affirmations · Affirmative prayer · Creative
(INTA) conference – held in conjunction with visualization · Personal magnetism · Positive
the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, a thinking
world's fair that took place in San Francisco –
The chief tenets of New Thought are:
featured New Thought speakers from far and
wide. The PPIE organizers were so favorably Infinite Intelligence or God is omnipotent and
impressed by the INTA convention that they omnipresent.
230
Spirit is the ultimate reality. this line of thinking, healing is accomplished by

the affirmation of oneness with the Infinite
True human self-hood is divine.
Intelligence or God.
Divinely attuned thought is a positive force for
John Bovee Dods (1795–1862), an early
good.
practitioner of New Thought, wrote several
All disease is mental in origin. books on the idea that disease originates in the
electrical impulses of the nervous system and is
Right thinking has a healing effect. therefore curable by a change of belief.[citation
Evolution of thought needed] Later New Thought teachers, such as
the early 20th century author, editor, and
Adherents also generally believe that as publisher William Walker Atkinson, accepted
humankind gains greater understanding of the this premise. He connected his idea of mental
world, New Thought itself will evolve to states of being with his understanding of the
assimilate new knowledge. Alan Anderson and new scientific discoveries in electromagnetism
Deb Whitehouse have described New Thought and neural processes.
as a "process" in which each individual and even
the New Thought Movement itself is "new Movement
every moment". Thomas McFaul has
hypothesized "continuous revelation", with new
insights being received by individuals New Thought publishing and educational
continuously over time. Jean Houston has activities reach approximately 2.5 million
spoken of the "possible human", or what we are people annually. The largest New Thought-
capable of becoming. oriented denomination is Seicho-no-Ie. Other
belief systems within the New Thought
Theological inclusionism movement include Jewish Science, Religious
The Home of Truth has, from its inception as Science, Centers for Spiritual Living and Unity.
the Pacific Coast Metaphysical Bureau in the Past denominations have included Psychiana
1880s, under the leadership of Annie Rix Militz, and Father Divine.
disseminated the teachings of the Hindu Religious Science operates under three main
teacher Swami Vivekananda. It is one of the organizations: the United Centers for Spiritual
more outspokenly interfaith of New Thought Living; the Affiliated New Thought Network; and
organizations, stating adherence to "the Global Religious Science Ministries. Ernest
principle that Truth is Truth where ever it is Holmes, the founder of Religious Science, stated
found and who ever is sharing it". Joel S. that Religious Science is not based on any
Goldsmith's The Infinite Way incorporates "authority" of established beliefs, but rather on
teaching from Christian Science, as well. "what it can accomplish" for the people who
Therapeutic ideas practice it. The Science of Mind, authored by
Ernest Holmes, while based on a philosophy of
Divine Science, Unity Church, and Religious being "open at the top", focuses extensively on
Science are organizations that developed from the teachings of Jesus Christ.
the New Thought movement. Each teaches that
Infinite Intelligence or God is the sole reality. Unity, founded by Charles and Myrtle Fillmore,
New Thought adherents believe that sickness is identifies itself as "Christian New Thought",
the result of the failure to realize this truth. In focused on "Christian idealism", with the Bible
231
as one of its main texts, although not In Christianity, the word "enlightenment" is
interpreted literally. The other core text is rarely used, except to refer to the Age of
Lessons in Truth by H. Emilie Cady. Enlightenment and its influence on Christianity.
Equivalent terms may be revelation, metanoia
and conversion.
In the Western world the concept of

enlightenment in a religious context acquired a
romantic meaning. It has become synonymous
with self-realization and the true self, which is
being regarded as a substantial essence which is
covered over by social conditioning.
As 'Aufklärung'
Age of Enlightenment
The use of the Western word enlightenment is

based on the supposed resemblance of bodhi
with Aufklärung, the independent use of reason
to gain insight into the true nature of our world.
As a matter of fact there are more
resemblances with Romanticism than with the
Enlightenment: the emphasis on feeling, on
intuitive insight, on a true essence beyond the
world of appearances.
Awakening
The equivalent term "awakening" has also been

used in a Christian context, namely the Great
Awakenings, several periods of religious revival
in American religious history. Historians and
theologians identify three or four waves of
Chapter Ten increased religious enthusiasm occurring
between the early 18th century and the late
Enlightment 19th century. Each of these "Great Awakenings"
was characterized by widespread revivals led by
Enlightenment refers to the "full evangelical Protestant ministers, a sharp
comprehension of a situation". It is commonly increase of interest in religion, a profound sense
used to denote the Age of Enlightenment, but is of conviction and redemption on the part of
also used in Western cultures in a religious those affected, an increase in evangelical
context. It translates several Buddhist terms church membership, and the formation of new
and concepts, most notably bodhi, kensho and religious movements and denominations.
satori. Related terms from Asian religions are
Romanticism and transcendentalism
moksha (liberation) in Hinduism and Kevala
Jnana in Jainism.
232
Buddhist modernism, Transcendentalism, and philosophy of Sensualism, and the

Perennial philosophy predestinationism of New England Calvinism. It
is fundamentally a variety of diverse sources
This romantic idea of enlightenment as insight
such as Hindu texts like the Vedas, the
into a timeless, transcendent reality has been
Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, various
popularized especially by D.T. Suzuki. Further
religions, and German idealism.
popularization was due to the writings of
Heinrich Dumoulin. Dumoulin viewed It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of
metaphysics as the expression of a which William James was the most influential.
transcendent truth, which according to him was
The notion of "experience" has been criticised.
expressed by Mahayana Buddhism, but not by
Robert Sharf points out that "experience" is a
the pragmatic analysis of the oldest Buddhism,
typical Western term, which has found its way
which emphasizes anatta. This romantic vision is
into Asian religiosity via western influences. The
also recognizable in the works of Ken Wilber.
notion of "experience" introduces a false notion
In the oldest Buddhism this essentialism is not of duality between "experiencer" and
recognizable. According to critics it doesn't "experienced", whereas the essence of kensho
really contribute to a real insight into is the realisation of the "non-duality" of
Buddhism: observer and observed. "Pure experience" does
not exist; all experience is mediated by
...most of them labour under the old cliché that
intellectual and cognitive activity. The specific
the goal of Buddhist psychological analysis is to
teachings and practices of a specific tradition
reveal the hidden mysteries in the human mind
may even determine what "experience"
and thereby facilitate the development of a
someone has, which means that this
transcendental state of consciousness beyond
"experience" is not the proof of the teaching,
the reach of linguistic expression.
but a result of the teaching. A pure
Enlightenment and experience consciousness without concepts, reached by
"cleaning the doors of perception", would be an
A common reference in Western culture is the overwhelming chaos of sensory input without
notion of "enlightenment experience". This coherence.
notion can be traced back to William James,
who used the term "religious experience" in his Nevertheless, the notion of religious experience
book, The Varieties of Religious Experience. has gained widespread use in the study of
Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion religion, and is extensively researched.
of "religious experience" further back to the
Asian cultures and religions
German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher
(1768–1834), who argued that religion is based
on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of
According to U. G. Krishnamurti there is no such
"religious experience" was used by
thing as enlightenment, and "there is nothing to
Schleiermacher to defend religion against the
understand".
growing scientific and secular citique.
Enlightenment in Buddhism
It was popularised by the Transcendentalists,
and exported to Asia via missionaries. The English term "enlightenment" has
Transcendentalism developed as a reaction commonly been used to translate several
against 18th Century rationalism, John Locke's Sanskrit, Pali, Chinese and Japanese terms and
233
concepts, especially bodhi, prajna, kensho, Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Advaita

satori and buddhahood.
Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vedānta;
Bodhi is a Theravada term. It literally means Sanskrit: अद्वैत वेदान्त [əd̪ ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ ɑːnt̪ə]) is a
"awakening" and "understanding". Someone philosophical concept where followers seek
who is awakened has gained insight into the liberation/release by recognizing identity of the
workings of the mind which keeps us Self (Atman) and the Whole (Brahman) through
imprisoned in craving, suffering and rebirth, and long preparation and training, usually under the
has also gained insight into the way that leads guidance of a guru, that involves efforts such as
to nirvana, the liberation of oneself from this knowledge of scriptures, renunciation of worldy
imprisonment. activities, and inducement of direct identity
Prajna is a Mahayana term. It refers to insight experiences. Originating in India before 788 AD,
into our true nature, which according to Advaita Vedanta is widely considered the most
Madhyamaka is empty of a personal essence in influential and most dominant sub-school of the
the stream of experience. But it also refers to Vedānta (literally, end or the goal of the Vedas,
the Tathāgata-garbha or Buddha-nature, the Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy. Other
essential basic-consciousness beyond the major sub-schools of Vedānta are Viśishṭādvaita
stream of experience. and Dvaita; while the minor ones include
Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya
In Zen, kensho means "seeing into one's true Bhedabheda.
nature". Satori is often used interchangeably
with kensho, but refers to the experience of Advaita (literally, non-duality) is a system of
kensho. thought where "Advaita" refers to the identity
of the Self (Atman) and the Whole (Brahman).
Buddhahood is the attainment of full awakening Recognition of this identity leads to liberation.
and becoming a Buddha. According to the Attaining this liberation takes a long preparation
Tibetan Thubten Yeshe, enlightenment and training under the guidance of a guru.
full awakening; buddhahood. The ultimate goal The key source texts for all schools of Vedānta
of Buddhist practice, attained when all are the Prasthanatrayi—the canonical texts
limitations have been removed from the mind consisting of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita
and one's positive potential has been and the Brahma Sutras. The first person to
completely and perfectly realized. It is a state explicitly consolidate the principles of Advaita
characterized by infinite compassion, wisdom Vedanta was Shankara Bhagavadpada, while
and skill. the first historical proponent was Gaudapada,
Hinduism the guru of Shankara's guru Govinda
Bhagavatpada.
In Indian religions moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष
Philosophical system
mokṣa; liberation) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति;
Shankara systematized the works of preceding
release —both from the root muc "to let loose,
philosophers. His system of Vedanta introduced
let go") is the final extrication of the soul or
the method of scholarly exegesis on the
consciousness (purusha) from samsara and the
accepted metaphysics of the Upanishads. This
bringing to an end of all the suffering involved
style was adopted by all the later Vedanta
in being subject to the cycle of repeated death
schools.
and rebirth (reincarnation).
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Shankara's synthesis of Advaita Vedanta is [Y]oga is a meditative exercise of withdrawal

summarized in this quote from the from the particular and identification with the
Vivekacūḍāmaṇi, one of his Prakaraṇa graṃthas universal, leading to contemplation of oneself
(philosophical treatises) as the most universal, namely, Consciousness.
This approach is different from the classical
In half a couplet I state, what has been stated
yoga of complete thought suppression.
by crores of texts;
Vivekenanda's modernisation has been
that is Brahman alone is real, the world is
criticized:
mithyā (not independently existent),
Without calling into question the right of any
and the individual self is nondifferent from
philosopher to interpret Advaita according to
Brahman.
his own understanding of it, [...] the process of
Neo-Vedanta Westernization has obscured the core of this
school of thought. The basic correlation of
Hindu reform movements, Swami Vivekananda, renunciation and Bliss has been lost sight of in
and Ramakrishna Mission the attempts to underscore the cognitive
In the 19th century Vivekananda played a major structure and the realistic structure which
role in the revival of Hinduism, and the spread according to Samkaracarya should both belong
of Advaita Vedanta to the West via the to, and indeed constitute the realm of māyā.
Ramakrishna Mission. His interpretation of Neo-Advaita
Advaita Vedanta has been called "Neo-
Vedanta". Neo-Advaita is a new religious movement based
on a modern, Western interpretation of Advaita
In a talk on "The absolute and manifestation" Vedanta, especially the teachings of Ramana
given in at London in 1896 Swami Vivekananda Maharshi. Neo-Advaita is being criticized for
said, discarding the traditional prerequisites of
I may make bold to say that the only religion knowledge of the scriptures and "renunciation
which agrees with, and even goes a little further as necessary preparation for the path of jnana-
than modern researchers, both on physical and yoga". Notable neo-advaita teachers are H. W.
moral lines is the Advaita, and that is why it L. Poonja, his students Gangaji Andrew Cohen,
appeals to modern scientists so much. They find and Eckhart Tolle.
that the old dualistic theories are not enough
for them, do not satisfy their necessities. A man
must have not only faith, but intellectual faith Yoga
too".
The prime means to reach moksha is through
Vivekananda emphasized samadhi as a means the practice of yoga (Sanskrit, Pāli: योग,
to attain liberation. Yet this emphasis is not to /ˈjəʊɡə/, yoga) is a commonly known generic
be found in the Upanishads nor in Shankara. For term for physical, mental, and spiritual
Shankara, meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi disciplines which originated in ancient India.
are means to gain knowledge of the already Specifically, yoga is one of the six āstika
existing unity of Brahman and Atman, not the ("orthodox") schools of Hindu philosophy. It is
highest goal itself: based on the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali. Various
235
traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism, this world (iha) and the other worlds (amutra)
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. like heaven etc.
Pre–philosophical speculations and diverse Śamādi ṣatka sampatti (शमादि षट्क सम्पत्ति) —
ascetic practices of first millennium BCE were the sixfold qualities,
systematized into a formal philosophy in early
centuries CE by the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. By Śama (control of the antahkaraṇa).
the turn of the first millennium, Hatha yoga
Dama (the control of external sense organs).
emerged as a prominent tradition of yoga
distinct from the Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. While Uparati (the cessation of these external organs
the Yoga Sutras focus on discipline of the mind, so restrained, from the pursuit of objects other
Hatha yoga concentrates on health and purity than that, or it may mean the abandonment of
of the body. the prescribed works according to scriptural
injunctions).
Hindu monks, beginning with Swami
Vivekananda, brought yoga to the West in the Titikṣa (the tolerating of tāpatraya).
late 19th century. In the 1980s, yoga became
Śraddha (the faith in Guru and Vedas).
popular as a physical system of health exercises
across the Western world. Many studies have Samādhāna (the concentrating of the mind on
tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as God and Guru).
a complementary intervention for cancer,
schizophrenia, asthma and heart patients. In a Mumukṣutva (मुमुक्षुत्वम ्) — The firm conviction
national survey, long-term yoga practitioners in that the nature of the world is misery and the
the United States reported musculo–skeletal intense longing for moksha (release from the
and mental health improvements. cycle of births and deaths).
Jnana yoga Sravana, listening to the teachings of the sages

on the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta, and
Classical Advaita Vedanta follows empahsises
studying the Vedantic texts, such as the Brahma
the path of jnana yoga, a progression of study
Sutras. In this stage the student learns about
and training to attain moksha. It consitsts of
the reality of Brahman and the identity of
four stages:
atman;
Samanyasa or Sampattis, the "fourfold
Manana, the stage of reflection on the
discipline" (sādhana-catustaya), cultivating the
teachings;
following four qualities:
Dhyana, the stage of meditation on the truth
Nityānitya vastu viveka (नित्यानित्य वस्तु "that art Thou".
विवेकम ्) — The ability (viveka) to correctly
Bhakti yoga
discriminate between the eternal (nitya)
substance (Brahman) and the substance that is
transitory existence (anitya).
The paths of bhakti yoga and karma yoga are
Ihāmutrārtha phala bhoga virāga (इहाऽमुत्रार्थ subsidiary.
फल भोगविरागम ्) — The renunciation (virāga) of In bhakti yoga, practice centers on the worship
enjoyments of objects (artha phala bhoga) in God in any way and in any form, like Krishna or
236
Ayyappa. Adi Shankara himself was a proponent Jainism as shramana dharma (self-reliant) or the
of devotional worship or Bhakti. But Adi "path of the nirganthas" (those without
Shankara taught that while Vedic sacrifices, puja attachments or aversions).
and devotional worship can lead one in the
In Jainism highest form of pure knowledge a
direction of jnana (true knowledge), they
soul can attain is called Kevala Jnana ( Sanskrit :
cannot lead one directly to moksha. At best,
they can serve as means to obtain moksha via केवलज्ञान )or Kevala Ṇāṇa (Prakrit : केवल णाण).
shukla gati. which means “absolute or perfect” and Jñāna,
which means "knowledge". Kevala is the state
Karma yoga of isolation of the jīva from the ajīva attained
Karma yoga is the way of doing our duties, in through ascetic practices which burn off one's
disregard of personal gains or losses. According karmic residues, releasing one from bondage to
to Sri Swami Sivananda, the cycle of death and rebirth. Kevala Jñāna
thus means infinite knowledge of self and non-
Karma Yoga is consecration of all actions and self, attained by a soul after annihilation of the
their fruits unto the Lord. Karma Yoga is all ghātiyā karmas. The soul which has reached
performance of actions dwelling in union with this stage achieves moksa or liberation at the
the Divine, removing attachment and remaining end of its life span.
balanced ever in success and failure.
Mahavira, 24th thirthankara of Jainism, is said
Karma Yoga is selfless service unto humanity. to have practised rigorous austerities for 12
Karma Yoga is the Yoga of action which purifies years before he attained enlightenment,
the heart and prepares the Antahkarana (the
heart and the mind) for the reception of Divine During the thirteenth year, in the second month
Light or attainment if Knowledge of the Self. of summer, in the fourth fortnight, the light
The important point is that you will have to (fortnight) of Vaisakha, on its tenth day, when
serve humanity without any attachment or the shadow had turned towards the east and
egoism. the first wake was over, on the day called
Suvrata, in the Muhurta called Vigaya, outside
Jainism of the town Grimbhikagrama on the bank of the
river Rjupalika, not far from an old temple, in
Jainism (/ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/; Sanskrit: जैनधर्म
the field of the householder Samaga, under a
Jainadharma, Tamil: சமணம் Samaṇam, Bengali: Sal tree, when the moon was in conjunction
জৈনধর্ম Jainadharma, Telugu: జై నమతం with the asterism Uttara Phalguni, (the
Jainamataṁ, Malayalam: ജൈനമതം Jainmat, Venerable One) in a squatting position with
Kannada: ಜೈನ ಧರ್ಮ Jaina dharma), is an Indian joined heels, exposing himself to the heat of the
sun, after fasting two and a half days without
religion that prescribes a path of non-violence drinking water, being engaged in deep
towards all living beings. Its philosophy and meditation, reached the highest knowledge and
practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort intuition, called Kevala, which is infinite,
to move the soul toward divine consciousness supreme, unobstructed, unimpeded, complete,
and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its and full.
own inner enemies and achieved the state of
supreme being is called a jina ("conqueror" or Kevala Jñāna is one of the five major events in
"victor"). The ultimate status of these perfect the life of a Tirthankara and is known as Jñāna
souls is called siddha. Ancient texts also refer to Kalyanaka and supposedly celebrated by all
237
gods. Mahavira’s Kaivalya was said to have been mystical traditions are supposed to share a
celebrated by the demi-gods, who constructed "common core", a hypothesis which is central
the Samosarana or a grand preaching assembly to New Age, but contested by a diversity of
for him. scientists like Katz and Proudfoot.
Western culture Judaism knows the mystical tradition of

Kabbalah. Islam includes the mystical tradition
Christianity
of Sufism. In the Fourth Way teaching,
See also: Religious conversion and Divinization enlightenment is the highest state of Man
(humanity).
The word "enlightenment" is not generally used
in Christian contexts for religious understanding Nondualism
or insight. More commonly used terms in the
Nondualism, New Age, Syncretism, and Neo-
Christian tradition are religious conversion and
Advaita
revelation.
A popular western understanding sees
Lewis Sperry Chafer (1871–1952), one of the
"enlightenment" as "nondual consciousness", "a
founders of Dispensationalism, uses the word
primordial, natural awareness without subject
"illuminism". Christians who are "illuminated"
or object". It is used interchangeably with Neo-
are of two groups, those who have experienced
Advaita.
true illuminism (biblical) and those who
experienced false illuminism (not from the Holy This nondual consciousness is seen as a
Spirit). common stratum to different religions. Several
definitions or meanings are combined in this
However, Christian interest in eastern
approach, which makes it possible to recognize
spirituality has grown throughout the 20th
various traditions as having the same essence.
century. Notable Christians, such as Hugo
[65] According to Renard, many forms of
Enomiya-Lassalle and AMA Samy, have
religion are based on an experiential or intuitive
participated in Buddhist training and even
understanding of "the Real"
become Buddhist teachers themselves. In a few
places Eastern contemplative techniques have This idea of nonduality as "the central essence"
been integrated in Christian practices, such as is part of a modern mutual exchange and
centering prayer. But this integration has also synthesis of ideas between western spiritual
raised questions about the borders between and esoteric traditions and Asian religious
these traditions. revival and reform movements. Western
predecessors are, among others, New Age,
Western esotericism and mysticism
Wilber's synthesis of western psychology and
Mysticism, Western esotericism, and Perennial Asian spirituality, the idea of a Perennial
philosophy Philosophy, and Theosophy. Eastern influences
are the Hindu reform movements such as
Western and Mediterranean culture has a rich Aurobindo's Integral Yoga and Vivekananda's
tradition of esotericism. The Perennial Neo-Vedanta, the Vipassana movement, and
philosophy, basic to the New Age Buddhist modernism. A truly syncretistic
understanding of the world, regards those influence is Osho and the Rajneesh movement,
traditions as akin to Eastern religions which aim a hybrid of eastern and western ideas and
at awakening and developing wisdom. All
238
teachings, and a mainly western group of Moksha experiences - Hinduism, Brahman

followers. "either as a cosmic person, or, quite differently,
as qualityless"
Cognitive aspects
Nature mystical experience
Cognitive science
Religious experience as cognitive construct
Cognitive science and Cognitive science of
"Religious experiences" have "evidential value",
religion
since they confirm the specific worldview of the
experiencer: Various philosophers and cognitive scientists
state that there is no "true self" or a "little
These experiences are cognitive in that,
person" (homunculus) in the brain that
allegedly at least, the subject of the experience
"watches the show," and that consciousness is
receives a reliable and accurate view of what,
an emergent property that arise from the
religiously considered, are the most important
various modules of the brain in ways that are
features of things. This, so far as their religious
yet far from understood. According to Susan
tradition is concerned, is what is most
Greenfield, the "self" may be seen as a
important about them. This is what makes them
composite, whereas Douglas R. Hofstadter
"salvific" or powerful to save.
describes the sense of "I" as a result of cognitive
Yet, just like the very notion of "religious process.
experience" is shaped by a specific discourse
This is in line with the Buddhist teachings, which
and habitus, the "uniformity of
state that
interpretation"[74] may be due to the influence
of religious traditions which shape the [...] what we call 'I' or 'being,' is only a
interpretation of such "experiences". combination of physical and mental aggregates
which are working together interdependently in
Various religious experiences
a flux of momentary change within the law of
Yandell discerns various "religious experiences" cause and effect, and that there is nothing,
and their corresponding doctrinal settings, permanent, everlasting, unchanging, and
which differ in structure and phenomenological eternal in the whole of existence.
content, and in the "evidential value" they
To this end, Parfit called Buddha the "first
present.Yandell discerns five sorts:
bundle theorist".
Numinous experiences - Monotheism (Jewish,
The idea that the mind is the result of the
Christian, Vedantic)
activities of neurons in the brain was most
Nirvanic experiences - Buddhism, "according to notably popularized by Francis Crick, the co-
which one sees that the self is but a bundle of discoverer of DNA, in his book The Astonishing
fleeting states" Hypothesis. The basic idea can be traced back
to at least Étienne Bonnot de Condillac.
Kevala experiences- Jainism, "according to According to Crick, the idea was not a novel
which one sees the self as an undestructible one:
subject of experience"
[...] an exceptionally clear statement of it can be
found in a well known paper by Horace Barlow.
239
240
Module Six study of Basic

Theologies, beliefs and
practices of the Christian Faith
Chapter One
Christian Apologetics
Christian apologetics (Greek: ἀπολογία, "verbal

defence, speech in defence") is a field of
Christian theology which aims to present a
rational basis for the Christian faith, defending
the faith against objections.
Christian apologetics has taken many forms

over the centuries, starting with Paul the
Apostle in the early church and Patristic writers
such as Origen, Augustine of Hippo, Justin
Martyr and Tertullian, then continuing with
writers such as Thomas Aquinas and Anselm of
Canterbury during Scholasticism. Blaise Pascal
was active before and during the Age of
Enlightenment, and in the modern period
Christianity was defended through the efforts of
many authors such as G. K. Chesterton and C. S.
Lewis. In contemporary times Christianity has
been defended through the work of figures
such as Doug Wilson, Alvin Plantinga and
William Lane Craig.
Apologists have based their defense of

Christianity on historical evidence, philosophical
arguments, and arguments from other
disciplines. Christian polemic is a branch of
apologetics aimed at criticizing or attacking
other belief systems.
The Greek apologia (ἀπολογία, from

ἀπολογέομαι, apologeomai, "speak in return,
defend oneself") was a formal defense, either in
response to prosecution in a court of law or by
241
extension as a literary mode. The defense of community explain their beliefs and justify their
Socrates as presented by Plato and Xenophon position. Origen's apologetic Contra Celsum, for
was an apologia against charges of "corrupting instance, took on the arguments of a critic who
the young, and … not believing in the gods in had been dead for decades, but was intended
whom the city believes, but in other daimonia to address vacillating Christians who might lack
that are novel". immediate answers to the kinds of questions he
had raised. Apologetic literature was thus an
The use of the literary form in early Christian
important medium for the formation of early
discourse is an example of the integration of
Christian identity.
educated Christians into the cultural life of the
Roman Empire, particularly during the "little In addition to Origen and Tertullian, early
peace" of the 3rd century, and of their Christian apologists include Justin Martyr,
participation in the Greek intellectual Clement of Alexandria, and the author of the
movement broadly known as the Second Epistle to Diognetus. Augustine of Hippo was a
Sophistic. The Christian apologists of the early significant apologist of the Patristic era. Some
Church did not reject Greek philosophy, but scholars regard apologetics as a distinct literary
attempted to show the positive value of genre exhibiting commonalities of style and
Christianity in dynamic relation to the Greek form, content, and strategies of argumentation.
rationalist tradition. Christianity, however, Others view it primarily as a form of discourse
privileged divine revelation above human characterized by its tone and purpose.
reason and apologetic literature often
Christian polemics
maintains a tension between the two.
In its strictest sense, an apologia is a defense
In the 2nd century, apologetics was both a
against a prior attack, whether actual or merely
defense and an explanation of Christianity,
perceived: Christian apologetics would arise
addressed to those who had attacked it, but
from anti-Christian polemic. Christian polemic is
also to those yet to form an opinion, such as
an attack against other belief systems, and not
emperors and other authority figures, or
framed as a direct rebuttal of criticism. In a
potential converts. The earliest martyr narrative
mode similar to polemic are treatises that
has the spokesman for the persecuted present a
attack or argue against Christian beliefs
defense in the apologetic mode: Christianity
regarded as heretical. In practice, apologetics
was a rational religion that worshipped only
may veer into polemic. Tertullian, called a
God as "the supreme ruler of the cosmos", and
"master of the apologetic genre", was
although Christians were law-abiding citizens
nevertheless inclined toward counter-attack,
willing to honor the emperor, their belief in a
minimizing common ground between Romans
single divinity prevented them from taking the
and Christians.
loyalty oaths that acknowledged the emperor's
Genius or divine aspect. In the forced Disputation of Barcelona (1263) at
the royal palace of King James I of Aragon, the
The apologetic historiography in the Acts of the
Dominican friar Pablo Christiani, a convert from
Apostles presented Christianity as a religious
Judaism to Christianity, failed to prove the truth
movement at home within the Roman Empire
of Christianity from the Torah, Talmud and
and no threat to it, and was a model for the first
other rabbinical writings. His adversary was the
major historian of the Church, Eusebius.
leading medieval Jewish scholar, physician,
Apologetics might also be directed toward
philosopher, kabbalist and biblical
insiders, helping Christians already within the
242
commentator, Rabbi Moshe ben Nahman

Gerondi (Nachmanides or Ramban).
Nachmanides hinted that the prophecies of the
Messianic Age, universal peace and justice, had
not yet been fulfilled by Jesus. He also argued
that Pablo Christiani's polemics were per-se
false apologetics, because Judaism would not Biblical basis
allude that man-God Jesus was Messiah while,
at the same time, explicitly opposing the idea of Several biblical passages have historically
the divinety of the Messiah as such: motivated Christian apologetics. R. C. Sproul,
quoting the First Epistle of Peter ([1 Pet3:15]),
"Does he mean to say that the sages of the writes that "The defense of the faith is not a
Talmud believed in Jesus as the messiah and luxury or intellectual vanity. It is a task
believed that he is both human and divine, as appointed by God that you should be able to
held by the Christians? However, it is well give a reason for the hope that is in you as you
known that the incident of Jesus took place bear witness before the world." The verse
during the period of the Second Temple. He was quoted here reads in full: "but in your hearts
born and killed prior to the destruction of the honor Christ the Lord as holy, always being
Temple, while the sages of the Talmud, like R. prepared to make a defense to anyone who
Akiba and his associates, followed this asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you;
destruction. Those who compiled the Mishnah, yet do it with gentleness and respect."
Rabbi and R. Nathan, lived many years after the
destruction. All the more so R. Ashi who Another passage sometimes used as a Biblical
compiled the Talmud, who lived about four basis for Christian apologetics is God's entreaty
hundred years after the destruction. If these in the Book of Isaiah: "Come now, let us reason
sages believed that Jesus was the messiah and together."[Is 1:18] Other scriptural passages
that his faith and religion were true and if they which have been taken as a basis for Christian
wrote these things from which Friar Paul apologetics include Psalm 19, which begins "The
intends to prove this, then how did they remain heavens declare the glory of God; the skies
in the Jewish faith and in their former practice? proclaim the work of his hands,"[Ps 19:1] and
For they were Jews, remained in the Jewish Romans 1, which reads "For since the creation
faith all their lives, and died Jews - they and of the world God's invisible qualities—his
their children and their students who heard eternal power and divine nature—have been
their teachings. Why did they not convert and clearly seen, being understood from what has
turn to the faith of Jesus, as Friar Paul did? ... If been made, so that men are without
these sages believed in Jesus and in his faith, excuse."[Rom 1:20]
how is it that they did not do as Friar Paul, who Some scholars regard apologetics as a distinct
understands their teachings better than they literary genre exhibiting commonalities of style
themselves do?" and form, content, and strategies of
Today this kind of Christian polemics against the argumentation. Others view it primarily as a
Jews has its reverberation in the light of form of discourse characterized by its tone and
organized evangelical conversion of Jews to purpose.
Christianity,and Jewish counter-missionary History
initiatives.
243
Thomas Aquinas, an influential Catholic

philosopher, presented five arguments for
God's existence in the Summa Theologica, while
his Summa contra Gentiles was a major
apologetic work. Blaise Pascal outlined an
approach to apologetics in his Pensées: "Men
despise religion; they hate it and fear it is true. Historical and legal evidentialism
To remedy this, we must begin by showing that
religion is not contrary to reason; that it is Various arguments have been put forth by legal
venerable, to inspire respect for it; then we scholars such as Simon Greenleaf and John
must make it lovable, to make good men hope Warwick Montgomery and others claiming that
it is true; finally, we must prove it is true." Western legal standards argue for the historicity
of the resurrection of Christ. In addition, legal
Modern Apologetics authorities' opinions regarding the resurrection
Christian apologetics continues in modern times of Christ are appealed to. Christian scholar
in a wide variety of forms. The Roman Catholics Edwin M. Yamauchi and others argue against
G. K. Chesterton,Ronald Knox, Karl Keating and the pagan myth hypothesis for the origin of
Dr. Scott Hahn, the Anglican C. S. Lewis (who Christianity.
popularized the argument now known as Sherwin-White states:
Lewis's trilemma). The evangelical Norman
Geisler, the Lutheran John Warwick For Acts, the confirmation of historicity is
Montgomery, and the Presbyterian Francis overwhelming. Yet Acts is, in simple terms and
Schaeffer were among the most prolific judged externally, no less of a propaganda
Christian apologists in the 20th century, while narrative than the Gospels, liable to similar
Gordon Clark and Cornelius Van Til started a distortions. But any attempt to reject its basic
new school of philosophical apologetics called historicity, even in matters of detail, must now
presuppositionalism, which is popular in appear absurd. Roman historians have long
Calvinist circles. taken it for granted.... The agnostic type of
form-criticism would be much more credible if
Others include Josh McDowell, Ravi Zacharias, the compilation of the Gospels were much later
Hugh Ross, Lee Strobel, Hugo Anthony Meynell, in time.... Herodotus enables us to test the
Timothy J. Keller, Alvin Plantinga, William Lane tempo of myth-making, even two generations
Craig, John Lennox and Peter Kreeft. are too short a span to allow the mythical
Varieties tendency to prevail over the hard historic core.
Defense of miracles
There are a variety of Christian apologetic styles Miracles of Jesus

and schools of thought. The major types of C. S. Lewis, Norman Geisler, William Lane Craig
Christian apologetics include: historical and and Christians who engage in jurisprudence
legal evidentialist apologetics, presuppositional Christian apologetics have argued that miracles
apologetics, philosophical apologetics, are reasonable and plausible wherever an all-
prophetic apologetics, doctrinal apologetics, powerful Creator is postulated.
biblical apologetics, moral apologetics, and
scientific apologetics. Prophetic fulfillment
244
Postdiction They do not support hard polytheism, but could

be used to describe the first god who created
In his book Science Speaks, Peter Stoner argues
many other gods; however, the arguments are
that only God knows the future and that Biblical
only relevant when applied to the first god (the
prophecies of a compelling nature have been
First Cause, Pure Act and Unmoved Mover; it is
fulfilled. Apologist Josh McDowell documents
a contradiction a priori to suppose a plurality of
the Old Testament prophecies fulfilled by Christ,
"Pure Acts" or "First Causes" or "Unmoved
relating to his ancestral line, birthplace, virgin
Movers").
birth, miracles, death and resurrection.
Apologist Blaise Pascal believed that the These arguments can be grouped into several
prophecies are the strongest evidence for categories:
Christianity. He notes that Jesus not only
Cosmological argument - Argues that the
foretold, but was foretold, unlike in other
existence of the universe demonstrates that
religions, and that these prophecies came from
God exists. Various primary arguments from
a succession of people over a span of four
cosmology and the nature of causation are
thousand years.
often offered to support the cosmological
Biblical apologetics argument.
Biblical apologetics include issues concerned Teleological argument - Argues that there is a
with the authorship and date of biblical books, purposeful design in the world around us, and a
biblical canon and biblical inerrancy. Christian design requires a designer. Cicero, William
apologists defend and comment on various Paley, and Michael Behe use this argument as
books of the Bible. Some scholars who have well as others.
engaged in the defense of biblical inerrancy
Ontological argument - Argues that the very
include Robert Dick Wilson, Gleason Archer,
concept of God demands that there is an actual
Norman Geisler and R. C. Sproul. There are
existent God.
several resources that Christians offer
defending inerrancy in regard to specific verses. Moral Argument - Argues that if there are any
[citation needed] Authors defending the real objectively valid moral values, then there
reliability of the Gospels include Craig Blomberg must be an absolute from which they are
in The Historical Reliability of the Gospels[49] derived.
and Mark D. Roberts in Can We Trust the
Gospels? Transcendental Argument - Argues that all our
abilities to think and reason require the
Philosophical apologetics existence of God.
Philosophical apologetics concerns itself Presuppositional Arguments - Argues that the
primarily with arguments for the existence of basic beliefs of theists and nontheists require
God, although they do not exclusively focus on God as a necessary precondition.
this area. They do not argue for the veracity of
Christianity over other religions but merely for Other philosophical arguments include:
the existence of a Creator deity. Omnipotence Alvin Plantinga's argument that belief in God is
and omniscience are inferred in these properly basic.
arguments to greater or lesser degrees: some
argue for an interventionist god, some are
equally relevant to a Deist conception of god.
245
Pascal's wager, an argument that, given neither Kreeft said, "We are really, truly, objectively
theism nor atheism has an evidential obligated to do good and avoid evil."[60] In
advantage, theism is the wiser position. moral apologetics, the arguments for man's
sinfulness and man's need for redemption are
Presuppositional apologetics
stressed. Examples of this type of apologetic
Presuppositional apologetics would be Jonathan Edwards's sermon "Sinners
in the Hands of an Angry God. The Four Spiritual
Presuppositional apologetics claims that Laws religious tract (Campus Crusade for Christ)
presuppositions are essential to any would be another example.
philosophical position, and that there are no
"neutral" assumptions from which a Christian Scientific apologetics
can reason with a non-Christian. There are two
Many Christians contend that science and the
main schools of presuppositional apologetics,
Bible do not contradict each other, and that
that of Cornelius Van Til (and his students Greg
scientific fact supports Christian apologetics.
Bahnsen and John Frame) and that of Gordon
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states
Haddon Clark.
that "The question about the origins of the
Van Til drew upon, but did not always agree world and of man has been the object of many
with, the work of Dutch Calvinist philosophers scientific studies which have splendidly
and theologians such as D. H. Th. Vollenhoven, enriched our knowledge... These discoveries
Herman Dooyeweerd, Hendrik G. Stoker, invite us to even greater admiration for the
Herman Bavinck, and Abraham Kuyper. Bahnsen greatness of the Creator." The theologian and
describes Van Til's approach to Christian mathematician Marin Mersenne, used celestial
apologetics as pointing out the difference in mechanics as evidence in his apologetic work,
ultimate principles between Christians and non- while Matteo Ricci engaged in scientific
Christians, and then showing that the non- apologetics in China. In modern times, the
Christian principles reduce to absurdity.[59] In theory of the Big Bang has been used in support
practice this school utilizes what has come to be of Christian apologetics.
known as the transcendental argument for the
Several Christian apologists have sought to
existence of God.
reconcile Christianity and science in regard to
Clark held that the Scriptures constituted the the question of origins. Theistic Evolution claims
axioms of Christian thought, which could not be that classical religious teachings about God are
questioned, though their consistency could be compatible with the modern scientific
discussed. A consequence of this position is that understanding about biological evolution and
God's existence can never be demonstrated, that the Creator God uses the process of
either by empirical means or by philosophical evolution. Denis Lamoureux, in Evolutionary
argument. In The Justification of Knowledge, Creation: A Christian Approach to Evolution
the Calvinist theologian Robert L. Reymond states that "This view of origins fully embraces
argues that believers should not even attempt both the religious beliefs of biblical Christianity
such proofs. and the scientific theories of cosmological,
geological, and biological evolution. It contends
Moral apologetics in Christianity that the Creator established and maintains the
Moral apologetics states that real moral laws of nature, including the mechanisms of a
obligation is a fact. Catholic apologist Peter teleological evolution." The most radical
example of a Christian-evolutionary synthesis is
246
the work of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, which as explicit, and in the end the concept that the
was intended as apologetics to the world of Holy Spirit convinces the heart of truth
science, but which was later condemned by the becomes the central theme of the apologetic
Catholic Church. argument.
Creationist apologetics
Creation apologetics include young earth

creationism, old earth creationism, and theistic
evolution. Young Earth creationists believe the Chapter Two
Bible teaches that the earth is approximately Christian Baptism
6,000 years old, and reject the scientific
consensus for the age of the Earth. Young Earth
Baptism (from the Greek noun βάπτισμα
creationists also engage in Biblical apologetics
baptisma; see below) is a Christian rite of
with regard to various parts of the primordial
admission and adoption, almost invariably with
history in Genesis 1-11 – such as the long life
the use of water, into the Christian Church
spans of people such as Methuselah. the Flood,
generally and also a particular church tradition.
and the Tower of Babel Old Earth creationists
The canonical Gospels report that Jesus was
believe it is possible to harmonize the Bible's
baptized – an historical event to which a high
six-day account of creation with the scientific
degree of certainty can be assigned. Baptism
evidence that the universe is 13.8 billion-years-
has been called a sacrament and an ordinance
old[80] and Earth is 4.54 billion-years-old.
of Jesus Christ. In some traditions, baptism is
According to Psalms 90:4 and 2 Peter 3:8, "a also called christening, but for others the word
day is as a thousand years and a thousand years "christening" is reserved for the baptism of
is as a day" with God. If the number 1,000 is infants.
interpreted as an arbitrarily large number, then
The usual form of baptism among the earliest
the age of the universe and earth can be long
Christians was for the candidate to be
periods of time.[citation needed] Other old
immersed, either totally (submerged
Earth creationists, such as astrophysicist Hugh
completely under the water) or partially
Ross, see each of the six days of creation as
(standing or kneeling in water while water was
being a long, but finite period of time, based on
poured on him or her). While John the Baptist's
the multiple meanings of the Hebrew word
use of a deep river for his baptism suggests
"yom" (day light hours/24 hours/age of time)
immersion, pictorial and archaeological
and other Biblical creation passages.
evidence of Christian baptism from the 3rd
Experiential apologetics century onward indicates that a normal form
was to have the candidate stand in water while
Experiential apologetics is a reference to an water was poured over the upper body. Other
appeal “primarily, if not exclusively, to common forms of baptism now in use include
experience as evidence for Christian faith.”[84] pouring water three times on the forehead; a
Also, “they spurn rational arguments or factual method called affusion.
evidence in favor of what they believe to be a
self-verifying experience” . This view stresses Martyrdom was identified early in Church
experience that other apologists have not made history as "baptism by blood", enabling martyrs
247
who had not been baptized by water to be for the apparently new rite of baptisma. The
saved. Later, the Catholic Church identified a Greek verb root bpt in turn is hypothetically
baptism of desire, by which those preparing for traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root
baptism who die before actually receiving the *gwabh-[24] or *gwebh- in the suffixed zero-
sacrament are considered saved. As evidenced grade form *gwəbh-yo-The Greek words are
also in the common Christian practice of infant used in a great variety of meanings.
baptism, baptism was universally seen by
History of baptism
Christians as in some sense necessary for
salvation, until Huldrych Zwingli in the 16th Baptism has similarities to Tvilah, a Jewish
century denied its necessity. purification ritual of immersing in water, which
is required for, among other things, conversion
Today, some Christians, particularly Christian
to Judaism, but which differs in being
Scientists, Quakers, the Salvation Army and
repeatable, while baptism is to be performed
Unitarians, do not see baptism as necessary,
only once. John the Baptist, who is considered a
and do not practice the rite. Among those that
forerunner to Christianity, used baptism as the
do, differences can be found in the manner and
central sacrament of his messianic movement.
mode of baptizing and in the understanding of
Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the
the significance of the rite. Most Christians
sacrament of baptism, though whether Jesus
baptize "in the name of the Father, and of the
intended to institute a continuing, organized
Son, and of the Holy Spirit" (following the Great
church is a matter of dispute among scholars.
Commission), but some baptize in Jesus' name
only. Most Christians baptize infants; many The earliest Christian baptisms were probably
others hold that only believer's baptism is true normally by immersion, complete or partial.
baptism. Some insist on submersion or at least though other modes may have also been used.
partial immersion of the person who is By the third and fourth centuries, baptism
baptized, others consider that any form of involved catechetical instruction as well as
washing by water, as long as the water flows on chrismation, exorcisms, laying on of hands, and
the head, is sufficient. The term "baptism" has recitation of a creed.
also been used to refer to any ceremony, trial,
or experience by which a person is initiated, In the early middle ages infant baptism became
purified, or given a name. common and the rite was significantly
simplified. Affusion became the normal mode of
The English word "baptism" is derived indirectly baptism between the twelfth and fourteenth
through Latin from the neuter Greek concept centuries, though immersion was still practiced
noun baptisma (Greek βάπτισμα, "washing- into the sixteenth. In the sixteenth century,
ism"), which is a neologism in the New Martin Luther retained baptism as a sacrament,
Testament derived from the masculine Greek but Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli considered
noun baptismos (βαπτισμός) which is a term for baptism and the Lord's supper to be symbolic.
ritual washing in Greek language texts of Anabaptists denied the validity of baptisms
Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple conducted outside their group and rebaptized
period, such as the Septuagint. Both of these converts. They also rejected the practice of
nouns are nouns derived from baptizein infant baptism, as did several other Protestant
(βαπτίζω, "I wash" transitive verb) which is used groups.
in Jewish texts for ritual washing, and in the
New Testament both for ritual washing and also Mode and manner
248
provided in the Roman Rite of the baptism of

infants.
Baptism is practiced in several different ways.
Aspersion is the sprinkling of water on the head, Meaning of the Greek verb baptizein
and affusion is the pouring of water over the
The Greek-English Lexicon of Liddell and Scott
head.
gives the primary meaning of the verb
The word "immersion" is derived from late Latin baptizein, from which the English verb "baptize"
immersionem, a noun derived from the verb is derived, as "dip, plunge", and gives examples
immergere (in – "into" + mergere "dip"). In of plunging a sword into a throat or an embryo
relation to baptism, some use it to refer to any and for drawing wine by dipping a cup in the
form of dipping, whether the body is put bowl; for New Testament usage it gives two
completely under water or is only partly dipped meanings: "baptize", with which it associates
in water; they thus speak of immersion as being the Septuagint mention of Naaman dipping
either total or partial. Others, of the Anabaptist himself in the Jordan River, and "perform
tradition, use "immersion" to mean exclusively ablutions", as in Luke 11:38.
plunging someone entirely under the surface of
Although the Greek verb baptizein does not
the water. The term "immersion" is also used of
exclusively mean dip, plunge or immerse (it is
a form of baptism in which water is poured over
used with literal and figurative meanings such
someone standing in water, without
as "sink", "disable", "overwhelm", "go under",
submersion of the person. On these three
"overborne", "draw from a bowl"), lexical
meanings of the word "immersion", see
sources typically cite this as a meaning of the
Immersion baptism.
word in both the Septuagint and the New
When "immersion" is used in opposition to Testament.
"submersion", it indicates the form of baptism
"While it is true that the basic root meaning of
in which the candidate stands or kneels in water
the Greek words for baptize and baptism is
and water is poured over the upper part of the
immerse/immersion, it is not true that the
body. Immersion in this sense has been
words can simply be reduced to this meaning,
employed in West and East since at least the
as can be seen from Mark 10:38-39, Luke 12:50,
2nd century and is the form in which baptism is
Matthew 3:11//Luke 3:16, 1 Corinthians 10:2."
generally depicted in early Christian art. In the
West, this method of baptism began to be Two passages in the Gospels indicate that the
replaced by affusion baptism from around the verb baptizein did not always indicate
8th century, but it continues in use in Eastern submersion. The first is Luke 11:38, which tells
Christianity. how a Pharisee, at whose house Jesus ate, "was
astonished to see that he did not first wash
The word submersion comes from the late Latin
(ἐβαπτίσθη, aorist passive of βαπτίζω—literally,
(sub- "under, below" + mergere "plunge, dip")
"be baptized") before dinner". This is the
and is also sometimes called "complete
passage that Liddell and Scott cites as an
immersion". It is the form of baptism in which
instance of the use of βαπτίζω to mean perform
the water completely covers the candidate's
ablutions. Jesus' omission of this action is
body. Submersion is practiced in the Orthodox
similar to that of his disciples: "Then came to
and several other Eastern Churches, as well as
Jesus scribes and Pharisees, which were of
in the Ambrosian Rite. It is one of the methods
Jerusalem, saying, Why do thy disciples
transgress the tradition of the elders? for they
249
wash (νίπτω) not their hands when they eat understand the meaning of βαπτίζω, used in
bread" (Mt 15:1–2). The other Gospel passage place of ῥαντίσωνται (sprinkle), to be the same
pointed to is: "The Pharisees…do not eat unless as βάπτω, to dip or immerse, a verb used of the
they wash (νίπτω, the ordinary word for partial dipping of a morsel held in the hand into
washing) their hands thoroughly, observing the wine or of a finger into spilled blood.
tradition of the elders; and when they come
A possible additional use of the verb baptizein
from the market place, they do not eat unless
to relate to ritual washing is suggested by Peter
they wash themselves (literally, "baptize
Leithart (2007) who suggests that Paul's phrase
themselves"—βαπτίσωνται, passive or middle
"Else what shall they do who are baptized for
voice of βαπτίζω)" (Mk 7:3–4).
the dead?" relates to Jewish ritual washing. In
Jewish Greek the verb baptizein "baptized" has
a wider reference than just "baptism" and in
Jewish context primarily applies to the
Baptism of a child by affusion masculine noun baptismos "ritual washing" The
verb baptizein occurs four times in the
Scholars of various denominations claim that Septuagint in the context of ritual washing,
these two passages show that invited guests, or baptismos; Judith cleansing herself from
people returning from market, would not be menstrual impurity, Naaman washing seven
expected to immerse themselves ("baptize times to be cleansed from leprosy, etc.
themselves") totally in water but only to Additionally, in the New Testament only, the
practise the partial immersion of dipping their verb baptizein can also relate to the neuter
hands in water or to pour water over them, as is noun baptisma "baptism" which is a neologism
the only form admitted by present Jewish unknown in the Septuagint and other pre-
custom. In the second of the two passages, it is Christian Jewish texts. This broadness in the
actually the hands that are specifically identified meaning of baptizein is reflected in English
as "washed" (Mark 7:3), not the entire person, Bibles rendering "wash", where Jewish ritual
for whom the verb used is baptizomai, literally washing is meant: for example Mark 7:4 states
"be baptized", "be immersed" (Mark 7:4), a fact that the Pharisees "except they wash (Greek
obscured by English versions that use "wash" as "baptize"), they do not eat", and "baptize"
a translation of both verbs. Zodhiates concludes where baptisma, the new Christian rite, is
that the washing of the hands was done by intended.
immersing them.[63] The Liddell-Scott-Jones
Greek-English Lexicon (1996) cites the other Derived nouns
passage (Luke 11:38) as an instance of the use
Two nouns derived from the verb baptizo
of the verb baptizein to mean "perform
(βαπτίζω) appear in the New Testament: the
ablutions", not "submerge". References to the
masculine noun baptismos (βαπτισμός) and the
cleaning of vessels which use βαπτίζω also refer
neuter noun baptisma (βάπτισμα):
to immersion.
baptismos (βαπτισμός) refers in Mark 7:4 to a
As already mentioned, the lexicographical work
water-rite for the purpose of purification,
of Zodhiates says that, in the second of these
washing, cleansing, of dishes; in the same verse
two cases, Mark 7:4, the verb baptizein
and in Hebrews 9:10 to Levitical cleansings of
indicates that, after coming from the market,
vessels or of the body; and in Hebrews 6:2
the Pharisees washed their hands by immersing
perhaps also to baptism, though there it may
them in collected water.[63] Balz & Schneider
250
possibly refer to washing an inanimate object. A Christian baptism is administered in one of

According to Spiros Zodhiates when referring the following forms, performing the action
merely to the cleansing of utensils baptismos either once or thrice:
(βαπτισμός) is equated with rhantismos
Apparel
(ῥαντισμός, "sprinkling"), found only in
Hebrews 12:24 and 1Peter 1:2, a noun used to Until the Middle Ages, most baptisms were
indicate the symbolic cleansing by the Old performed with the candidates naked—as is
Testament priest. evidenced by most of the early portrayals of
baptism, and the early Church Fathers and
baptisma (βάπτισμα), which is a neologism
other Christian writers. Deaconesses helped
appearing to originate in the New Testament,
female candidates for reasons of modesty.
and probably should not be confused with the
earlier Jewish concept of baptismos Typical of these is Cyril of Jerusalem who wrote
(βαπτισμός),] Later this is found only in writings "On the Mysteries of Baptism" in the 4th
by Christians. In the New Testament, it appears century (c. 350 AD):
at least 21 times:
Do you not know, that so many of us as were
13 times with regard to the rite practised by baptized into Jesus Christ, were baptized into
John the Baptist; His death? etc.…for you are not under the Law,
but under grace.
3 times with reference to the specific Christian
rite (4 times if account is taken of its use in
some manuscripts of Colossians 2:12, where,
however, it is most likely to have been changed 1. Therefore, I shall necessarily lay before you
from the original baptismos than vice versa); the sequel of yesterday's Lecture, that you may
learn of what those things, which were done by
5 times in a metaphorical sense. you in the inner chamber, were symbolic.
Manuscript variation: In Colossians 2:12, some
manuscripts have neuter noun baptisma
(βάπτισμα), but some have masculine noun 2. As soon, then, as you entered, you put off
baptismos (βαπτισμός), and this is the reading your tunic; and this was an image of putting off
given in modern critical editions of the New the old man with his deeds.[Col 3:9] Having
Testament. If this reading is correct, then this is stripped yourselves, you were naked; in this
the only New Testament instance in which also imitating Christ, who was stripped naked
baptismos (βαπτισμός) is clearly used of on the Cross, and by His nakedness put off from
Christian baptism, rather than of a generic Himself the principalities and powers, and
washing, unless the opinion of some is correct openly triumphed over them on the tree. For
that Hebrews 6:2 may also refer to Christian since the adverse powers made their lair in your
baptism. members, you may no longer wear that old
garment; I do not at all mean this visible one,
The feminine noun baptisis, along with the but the old man, which waxes corrupt in the
masculine noun baptismos both occur in lusts of deceit.[Eph 4:22] May the soul which
Josephus' Antiquities (J. AJ 18.5.2) relating to has once put him off, never again put him on,
the murder of John the Baptist by Herod.This but say with the Spouse of Christ in the Song of
feminine form is not used elsewhere by Songs, I have put off my garment, how shall I
Josephus, nor in the New Testament. put it on?[Song of Sol 5:3] O wondrous thing!
251
You were naked in the sight of all, and were not linked to the body, He hands over the
ashamed; for truly ye bore the likeness of the perceivable ones to you with conceivable
first-formed Adam, who was naked in the things. (Chrysostom to Matthew., speech 82, 4,
garden, and was not ashamed. c. 390 A.D.)
2. The removal of clothing represented the

"image of putting off the old man with his
3. Then, when you were stripped, you were
deeds" (as per Cyril, above), so the stripping of
anointed with exorcised oil, from the very hairs
the body before for baptism represented taking
of your head to your feet, and were made
off the trappings of sinful self, so that the "new
partakers of the good olive-tree, Jesus Christ.
man", which is given by Jesus, can be put on.
3. As St. Cyril again asserts above, as Adam and

4. After these things, you were led to the holy Eve in scripture and tradition were naked,
pool of Divine Baptism, as Christ was carried innocent and unashamed in the Garden of
from the Cross to the Sepulchre which is before Eden, nakedness during baptism was seen as a
our eyes. And each of you was asked, whether renewal of that innocence and state of original
he believed in the name of the Father, and of sinlessness. Other parallels can also be drawn,
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and you made such as between the exposed condition of
that saving confession, and descended three Christ during His crucifixion, and the crucifixion
times into the water, and ascended again; here of the "old man" of the repentant sinner in
also hinting by a symbol at the three days burial preparation for baptism.
of Christ.… And at the self-same moment you
Changing customs and concerns regarding
were both dying and being born;
modesty probably contributed to the practice of
permitting or requiring the baptismal candidate
to either retain their undergarments (as in
The symbolism is threefold: many Renaissance paintings of baptism such as
1. Baptism is considered to be a form of rebirth those by da Vinci, Tintoretto, Van Scorel,
—"by water and the Spirit"[Jn 3:5]—the Masaccio, de Wit and others) and/or to wear, as
nakedness of baptism (the second birth) is almost universally the practice today,
paralleled the condition of one's original birth. baptismal robes. These robes are most often
For example, St. John Chrysostom calls the white, symbolizing purity. Some groups today
baptism "λοχείαν", i.e., giving birth, and "new allow any suitable clothes to be worn, such as
way of creation…from water and Spirit" ("to trousers and a t-shirt—practical considerations
John" speech 25,2), and later elaborates: include how easily the clothes will dry (denim is
discouraged), and whether they will become
For nothing perceivable was handed over to us see-through when wet.
by Jesus; but with perceivable things, all of
them however conceivable. This is also the way Meaning and effects
with the baptism; the gift of the water is done There are differences in views about the effect
with a perceivable thing, but the things being of baptism for a Christian. Some Christian
conducted, i.e., the rebirth and renovation, are groups assert baptism is a requirement for
conceivable. For, if you were without a body, He salvation and a sacrament, and speak of
would hand over these bodiless gifts as naked "baptismal regeneration". Its importance may
[gifts] to you. But because the soul is closely be understood by an informed knowledge of
252
their interpretation of the most fundamental become able and fit to receive the other
and basic meaning of the "Mystical Body of Sacraments. ...
Christ" as found in the New Testament. This
22 Actually only those are to be included as
view is shared by the Catholic and Eastern
members of the Church who have been
Orthodox traditions, and by Churches formed
baptized and profess the true faith, and who
early during the Protestant Reformation such as
have not been so unfortunate as to separate
Lutheran and Anglican. For example, Martin
themselves from the unity of the Body, or been
Luther said:
excluded by legitimate authority for grave faults
To put it most simply, the power, effect, committed. 'For in one spirit' says the Apostle,
benefit, fruit, and purpose of Baptism is to save. 'were we all baptized into one Body, whether
No one is baptized in order to become a prince, Jews or Gentiles, whether bond or free.' As
but as the words say, to "be saved". To be therefore in the true Christian community there
saved, we know, is nothing else than to be is only one Body, one Spirit, one Lord, and one
delivered from sin, death, and the devil and to Baptism, so there can be only one faith. And
enter into the kingdom of Christ and live with therefore if a man refuse to hear the Church let
him forever. him be considered—so the Lord commands—as
a heathen and a publican. It follows that those
—Luther's Large Catechism, 1529
are divided in faith or government cannot be
The Churches of Christ and The Church of Jesus living in the unity of such a Body, nor can they
Christ of Latter-day Saints also espouse baptism be living the life of its one Divine Spirit.
as necessary for salvation.
—Mystici Corporis Christi (full text in an English
For Roman Catholics, baptism by water is a translation)
sacrament of initiation into the life of the
By contrast, Anabaptist and Evangelical
children of God (Catechism of the Catholic
Protestants recognize baptism as an outward
Church, 1212–13). It configures the person to
sign of an inward reality following on an
Christ (CCC 1272), and obliges the Christian to
individual believer's experience of forgiving
share in the Church's apostolic and missionary
grace. Reformed and Methodist Protestants
activity (CCC 1270). The Catholic Tradition holds
maintain a link between baptism and
that there are three types of baptism by which
regeneration, but insist that it is not automatic
one can be saved: sacramental baptism (with
or mechanical, and that regeneration may occur
water), baptism of desire (explicit or implicit
at a different time than baptism.
desire to be part of the Church founded by
Jesus Christ), and baptism of blood Churches of Christ consistently teach that in
(martyrdom). In his encyclical Mystici Corporis baptism a believer surrenders his life in faith
Christi of 29 June 1943, Pope Pius XII spoke of and obedience to God, and that God "by the
baptism and profession of the true faith as what merits of Christ's blood, cleanses one from sin
makes members of the one true Church, which and truly changes the state of the person from
is the body of Jesus Christ himself, as God the an alien to a citizen of God's kingdom. Baptism
Holy Spirit has taught through the Apostle Paul: is not a human work; it is the place where God
does the work that only God can do.":p.66 Thus,
18...Through the waters of Baptism those who
they see baptism as a passive act of faith rather
are born into this world dead in sin are not only
than a meritorious work; it "is a confession that
born again and made members of the Church,
a person has nothing to offer God".:p.112
but being stamped with a spiritual seal they
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Chapter Three
Christian Catholicism
Catholicism (from Greek καθολικισμός,

catholikismos, "according to the whole") is a
broad term for describing specific traditions in
the Christian churches in theology and doctrine,
liturgy, ethics and spirituality. For many the
term usually refers to Christians and churches,
western and eastern, in full communion with
the Holy See, usually known as the Catholic
Church or the Roman Catholic Church.
However, many others use the term to refer to
other churches with historical continuity from
the first millennium.
In the sense of indicating historical continuity of

faith and practice, the term "Catholicism" is at
times employed to mark a contrast to
Protestantism, which tends to look solely to the
Bible as interpreted on the principles of the
16th-century Protestant Reformation as its
ultimate standard. It was thus used by the
Oxford Movement.
For some, however, such as the priest and

theologian Richard McBrien, the term refers
254
exclusively and specifically to that "Communion teach the whole truth, and to represent the
of Catholic Churches" in communion with the whole Church, while heresy arose out of the
Bishop of Rome. In its Letter on Some Aspects exaggeration of some one truth and was
of the Church Understood as Communion, the essentially partial and local". In 380, Emperor
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Theodosius I limited use of the term "Catholic
stressed that the idea of the universal church as Christian" exclusively to those who followed the
a communion of churches must not be same faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome and
presented as meaning that "every particular Pope Peter of Alexandria. Numerous other early
Church is a subject complete in itself, and that writers including Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–
the universal church is the result of a reciprocal 386), Augustine of Hippo (354–430) further
recognition on the part of the particular developed the use of the term "catholic" in
Churches". It insisted that "the universal Church relation to Christianity.
cannot be conceived as the sum of the
Divergent interpretations
particular Churches, or as a federation of
particular Churches".
According to McBrien, Catholicism is Many individual Christians and Christian

distinguished from other forms of Christianity in denominations consider themselves "catholic"
its particular understanding and commitment to on the basis, in particular, of apostolic
tradition, the sacraments, the mediation succession. They all fall into five groups:
between God, communion, and the See of
Rome. According to Orthodox leaders like The Catholic Church, which considers full
Bishop Kallistos Ware, the Orthodox Church has communion with the Bishop of Rome an
these things as well, though the primacy of the essential element of Catholicism. Its constituent
See of Rome is only honorific, showing non- particular Churches (Western and Eastern) have
jurisdictional respect for the Bishop of Rome as distinct and separate jurisdictions, while still
the "first among equals" and "Patriarch of the being "in union with Rome."
West". Catholicism, according to McBrien's Those, like the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental
paradigm, includes a monastic life, religious Orthodox, that claim unbroken apostolic
institutes, a religious appreciation of the arts, a succession from the early Church and identify
communal understanding of sin and themselves as the Catholic Church. The Eastern
redemption, and missionary activity. Orthodox, but not the Oriental, see themselves
The earliest evidence of the use of the term (along with the See of Rome) as part of a
Catholic Church is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans patriarchal first-millennium structure that
that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 107 to developed in the East into the theory of the five
Christians in Smyrna. Exhorting Christians to patriarchal sees, but not in the West, which
remain closely united with their bishop, he preferred the theory of the three Petrine sees
wrote: "Wherever the bishop shall appear, of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch. The title,
there let the multitude [of the people] also be; "Patriarch of the West", was rarely used by the
even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the popes until the 16th and 17th centuries, and
Catholic Church." was included in the Annuario Pontificio from
1863 to 2005, being dropped in the following
From the second half of the second century, the year as never very clear, and having become
word began to be used to mean "orthodox" over history "obsolete and practically
(non-heretical), "because Catholics claimed to unusable".
255
Those, like the Old Catholic, Anglican, and some church bodies to have valid episcopal orders
Lutheran and other denominations, that claim capable of celebrating a valid Eucharist, it does
unbroken apostolic succession from the early not classify them as churches "in the proper
Church, and see themselves as a constituent sense". Those churches not in communion with
part of the Church. the Holy See which consider themselves to be
"Catholic" define the word as meaning an
Those who claim to be spiritual descendants of
adherence to the ancient Catholic beliefs and
the Apostles but have no discernible
practices, absent any more recent addition of a
institutional descent from the historic Church,
requirement for union with the Holy See.
and normally do not refer to themselves as
catholic. Latin and Eastern Catholic Churche
Those who have acknowledged a break in The Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches
Apostolic Succession, but have restored it in together form the "Catholic Church", or "Roman
order to be in full communion with bodies that Catholic Church", the world's largest single
have maintained the practice. Examples in this religious body and the largest Christian church,
category include the Evangelical Lutheran comprising over half of all Christians (1.1 billion
Church in America and the Evangelical Lutheran Christians of 2.1 billion) and nearly one-sixth of
Church in Canada vis-à-vis their Anglican and the world's population.Richard McBrien would
Old Catholic counterparts. put the proportion even higher, extending it to
those who are in communion with the Bishop of
For some confessions listed under category 3,
Rome only in "degrees". It comprises 23
the self-affirmation refers to the belief in the
component "particular Churches" (also called
ultimate unity of the universal Church under
"rites" in the Second Vatican Council's Decree
one God and one Saviour, rather than in one
on the Eastern Catholic Churches and in the
visibly unified institution (as with category 1,
Code of Canon Law), all of which acknowledge a
above). In this usage, "catholic" is sometimes
primacy of jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome
written with a lower-case "c". The Western
and are in full communion with the Holy See
Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed, stating "I
and each other.
believe in ... one holy catholic ... church", are
recited in worship services. Among some These particular Churches or component parts
denominations in category 3, "Christian" is are the Latin Rite or Western Church (which
substituted for "catholic" in order to denote the uses a number of different liturgical rites, of
doctrine that the Christian Church is, at least which the Roman Rite is the best known) and 22
ideally, undivided. Eastern Catholic Churches. Of the latter
particular Churches, 14 use the Byzantine
Catholic Church use
liturgical rite. Within the Church as a whole,
The Catholic Church considers Protestant and each "particular Church", whether Eastern or
Anglican Christians who are not in communion Western, is of equal dignity. Finally, in its official
with the See of Rome to be "non-Catholics". It documents, the Church, though made up of
does not consider their churches to be genuine several particular Churches, "continues to refer
churches and so uses the term "ecclesial to itself as the 'Catholic Church'" or, less
communities" to refer to them. It considers a frequently but consistently, as the 'Roman
"valid episcopate" and Eucharist as necessary Catholic Church', owing to its essential link with
prerequisites for being a church. Because the the Bishop of Rome.
Roman Catholic Church does not consider these
256
McBrien, in his book Catholicism, disagrees with Catholic Church, the Apostolic Catholic Church
the Church's usage of referring to itself as (ACC), the Aglipayans (Philippine Independent
"Roman Catholic", saying: "But is 'Catholic' Church), the African Orthodox Church, the
synonymous with 'Roman Catholic'? And is it Polish National Catholic Church of America, and
accurate to refer to the Roman Catholic Church many Independent Catholic churches, which
as simply the 'Roman Church'? The answer to emerged directly or indirectly from and have
both questions is no. The adjective 'Roman' beliefs and practices largely similar to Latin Rite
applies more properly to the diocese, or see, of Catholicism, regard themselves as "Catholic"
Rome than to the worldwide Communion of without full communion with the Bishop of
Catholic Churches that is in union with the Rome, whose claimed status and authority they
Bishop of Rome. Indeed, it strikes some generally reject. The Chinese Patriotic Catholic
Catholics as contradictory to call the Church Association, a division of the People's Republic
'Catholic' and 'Roman' at one and the same of China's Religious Affairs Bureau exercising
time. Eastern-rite Catholics, of whom there are state supervision over mainland China's
more than twenty million, also find the Catholics, holds a similar position, while
adjective 'Roman' objectionable. In addition to attempting, as with Buddhism and
the Latin, or Roman, tradition, there are seven Protestantism, to indoctrinate and mobilize for
non-Latin, non-Roman ecclesial traditions: Communist Party objectives.
Armenian, Byzantine, Coptic, Ethiopian, East
Syrian (Chaldean), West Syrian, and Maronite. Chapter Four
Each to the Churches with these non-Latin Christology
traditions is as Catholic as the Roman Catholic
Church. Thus, not all Catholics are Roman
Christology (from Greek Χριστός Khristós and -
Catholic." Thus "to be Catholic—whether
λογία, -logia) is the field of study within
Roman or non-Roman—in the ecclesiological
Christian theology which is primarily concerned
sense is to be in full communion with the
with the nature and person of Jesus Christ as
Bishop of Rome and as such to be an integral
recorded in the canonical Gospels and the
part of the Catholic Communion of Churches."
epistles of the New Testament. Primary
In spite of McBrien's affirmation that, on an considerations include the relationship of Jesus'
official level, what he calls the "Communion of nature and person with the nature and person
Catholic Churches" always refers to itself as of God the Father. As such, Christology is
"The Catholic Church", the term "Roman concerned with the details of Jesus' ministry, his
Catholic Church" is in fact, as seen above, used acts and teachings, to arrive at a clearer
by Popes and departments of the Holy See. The understanding of who he is in his person, and
Latin-Rite Archdiocese of Detroit lists eight his role in salvation. A major component of the
Eastern (Catholic) Churches, each with its own Christology of the Apostolic Age was that of
bishop, as having one or more parishes in what Paul the Apostle. His central themes were the
is also the territory of the Latin archdiocese, yet notion of the pre-existence of Christ and the
each is designated as being in "full communion worship of Christ as Kyrios (Greek: Lord).
with the Roman Church."
Following the Apostolic Age, there was fierce
Within Western Christianity, the churches of and often politicized debate in the early church
the Anglican Communion, Continuing on many interrelated issues. Christology was a
Anglicanism, the Old Catholics, the Liberal major focus of these debates, and was
257
addressed at every one of the first seven questions. After the Middle Ages, systematic
ecumenical councils. The second through fourth approaches to Christology were developed.
of these councils are generally entitled
The term "Christology from above" refers to
"Christological councils," with the latter three
approaches that begin with the divinity and pre-
mainly elucidating what was taught in them and
existence of Christ as the Logos (the Word), as
condemning incorrect interpretations. The
expressed in the prologue to the Gospel of John
Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a
(John 1:1-14). These approaches interpret the
formulation of the being of Christ — that of two
works of Christ in terms of his divinity.
natures, one human and one divine, "united
Christology from above was emphasized in the
with neither confusion nor division." This is
ancient Church, beginning with Ignatius of
called the doctrine of the hypostatic union,
Antioch in the second century.The term
which is still held today amongst most
"Christology from below", on the other hand,
Protestant, Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox
refers to approaches that begin with the human
Christians, referred to as Chalcedonian
aspects and the ministry of Jesus (including the
Christianity. Due to politically charged
miracles, parables, etc.) and move towards his
differences in the 4th century, schisms
divinity and the mystery of incarnation.
developed, and the first denominations (from
the Latin, "to take a new name") formed. The concept of "Cosmic Christology", first
elaborated by Saint Paul, focuses on how the
In the 13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas
arrival of Jesus as the Son of God forever
provided the first systematic Christology that
changed the nature of the cosmos. The terms
consistently resolved a number of the existing
"functional", "ontological" and "soteriological"
issues. In his Christology from above, Aquinas
have been used to refer to the perspectives that
also championed the principle of perfection of
analyze the "works", the "being" and the
Christ's human attributes. The Middle Ages also
"salvific" standpoints of Christology. Some
witnessed the emergence of the "tender image
essential sub-topics within the field of
of Jesus" as a friend and a living source of love
Christology include the incarnation, the
and comfort, rather than just the Kyrios image.
resurrection, and salvation.
According to Catholic theologian Karl Rahner,
the purpose of modern Christology is to The term "monastic Christology" has been used
formulate the Christian belief that "God became to describe spiritual approaches developed by
man and that God-made-man is the individual Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard and
Jesus Christ" in a manner that this statement Bernard of Clairvaux. The Franciscan piety of
can be understood consistently, without the the 12th and 13th centuries led to "popular
confusions of past debates and mythologies Christology". Systematic approaches by
theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas, are called
ver the centuries, a number of terms and
"scholastic Christology".
concepts have been developed within the
framework of Christology to address the Beginnings
seemingly simple questions: "who was Jesus
and what did he do?" A good deal of theological Early Christians found themselves confronted
debate has ensued and significant schisms with a set of new concepts and ideas relating to
within Christian denominations took place in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus, as well
the process of providing answers to these the notions of salvation and redemption, and
had to use a new set of terms, images and ideas
to deal with them. The existing terms and
258
structures available to them were often Apostolic Christology “

insufficient to express these religious concepts,
And he asked them, "But who do you say that I
and taken together, these new forms of
am?" Simon Peter replied, "You are the Christ,
discourse led to the beginnings of Christology as
the Son of the living God." — Matthew 16:15-
an attempt to understand, explain and discuss
16, ESV
their understanding of the nature of Christ.
”
Furthermore, as early Christians (following the
Great Commission) had to explain their No writings were left by Jesus, and the study of
concepts to a new audience which had at times the various Christologies of the Apostolic Age is
been influenced by Greek philosophy, they had based on early Christian documents. The
to present arguments that at times resonated Gospels provide episodes from the life of Jesus
with, and at times confronted, the beliefs of and some of his works, but the authors of the
that audience. A key example is the Apostle New Testament show little interest in an
Paul's Areopagus sermon that appears in Acts absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing
17:16-34. Here, the apostle attempted to the episodes of his life, and as in John 21:25,
convey the underlying concepts about Christ to the Gospels do not claim to be an exhaustive list
a Greek audience, and the sermon illustrates of his works.
some key elements of future Christological
discourses that were first brought forward by Christologies that can be gleaned from the
Paul. three Synoptic Gospels generally emphasize the
humanity of Jesus, his sayings, his parables, and
The Kyrios title for Jesus is central to the his miracles. The Gospel of John provides a
development of New Testament Christology, for different perspective that focuses on his
the early Christians placed it at the center of divinity. The first 14 verses of the Gospel of
their understanding, and from that center John are devoted to the divinity of Jesus as the
attempted to understand the other issues Logos, usually translated as "Word", along with
related to the Christian mysteries. The question his pre-existence, and they emphasize the
of the deity of Christ in the New Testament is cosmic significance of Christ, e.g. John 1:3: "All
inherently related to the Kyrios title of Jesus things were made through him, and without
used in the early Christian writings and its him was not any thing made that was made." In
implications for the absolute lordship of Jesus. the context of these verses, the Word made
In early Christian belief, the concept of Kyrios flesh is identical with the Word who was in the
included the pre-existence of Christ, for they beginning with God, being exegetically equated
believed if Christ is one with God, he must have with Jesus.
been united with God from the very beginning.
A foremost contribution to the Christology of
In everyday Aramaic, Mari was a very respectful the Apostolic Age is that of Paul. The central
form of polite address, which means more than Christology of Paul conveys the notion of
just "Teacher" and was somewhat similar to Christ's pre-existence and the identification of
Rabbi. In Greek, this has at times been Christ as Kyrios.[4] The Pauline epistles use
translated as Kyrios. While the term Mari Kyrios to identify Jesus almost 230 times, and
expressed the relationship between Jesus and express the theme that the true mark of a
his disciples during his life, the Greek Kyrios Christian is the confession of Jesus as the true
came to represent his lordship over the world. Lord.[24] Paul viewed the superiority of the
Christian revelation over all other divine
259
manifestations as a consequence of the fact [physis], united with neither confusion nor
that Christ is the Son of God. division—making this part of the creed of
orthodox Christianity.Although some of the
The Pauline epistles also advanced the "cosmic
debates seems, for a modern student, to be
Christology" later developed in the fourth
over a theological iota, they took place in
gospel, elaborating the cosmic implications of
controversial political circumstances, reflecting
Jesus' existence as the Son of God, as in 2
the relations of temporal powers and divine
Corinthians 5:17: "Therefore, if anyone is in
authority, it certaintly resulted in schisms,
Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed
among others what separated the Church of the
away; behold, the new has come." Also, in
East from the Church of the Roman Empire.
Colossians 1:15: "He is the image of the invisible
God, the firstborn of all creation." In 325, the First Council of Nicaea defined the
persons of the Godhead and their relationship
Post-Apostolic controversies
with one another - decisions which were
Main articles: First Council of Nicaea, First reratified at the First Council of Constantinople
Council of Ephesus, and Council of Chalcedon in 381. The language used was that the one God
exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit); in particular, it was affirmed that the Son
was homoousios (of same substance) as the
Father. The Nicene Creed declared the full
Christological spectrum during the 5th-7th divinity and full humanity of Jesus.
centuries showing the views of The Church of
the East (light blue), Miaphysite (light red) and In 431, the First Council of Ephesus was initially
the western churches i.e. Eastern Orthodox and called to address the views of Nestorius on
Catholic (light purple). Mariology, but the problems soon extended to
Christology, and schisms followed. The 431
Following the Apostolic Age, from the second council was called because in defense of his
century onwards, a number of controversies loyal priest Anastasius, Nestorius had denied
developed about how the human and divine are the Theotokos title for Mary and later
related within the person of Jesus. As of the contradicted Proclus during a sermon in
second century, a number of different and Constantinople. Pope Celestine I (who was
opposing approaches developed among various already upset with Nestorius due to other
groups. For example, Arianism did not endorse matters) wrote about this to Cyril of Alexandria,
divinity, Ebionism argued Jesus was an ordinary who orchestrated the council. During the
mortal, while Gnosticism held docetic views council, Nestorius defended his position by
which argued Christ was a spiritual being who arguing there must be two persons of Christ,
only appeared to have a physical body. The one human, the other divine, and Mary had
resulting tensions led to schisms within the given birth only to a human, hence could not be
church in the second and third centuries, and called the Theotokos, i.e. "the one who gives
ecumenical councils were convened in the birth to God". The debate about the single or
fourth and fifth centuries to deal with the dual nature of Christ ensued in Ephesus.
issues. Eventually, by the Ecumenical Council of
Chalcedon in 451, the Hypostatic union was The Council of Ephesus debated hypostasis
decreed—the proposition that Christ has one (coexisting natures) versus monophysitism (only
human nature [physis] and one divine nature one nature) versus miaphysitism (two natures
united as one) versus Nestorianism (disunion of
260
two natures). From the Christological viewpoint, understanding of these natures, at times
the council adopted hypostasis, i.e. coexisting resulting in schisms.
natures, but its language was less definitive
Historically in the Alexandrian school of thought
than the 451 Council of Chalcedon. The Oriental
(fashioned on the Gospel of John), Jesus Christ
Orthodox rejected this and subsequent councils
is the eternal Logos who already possesses
and to date consider themselves to be
unity with the Father before the act of
miaphysite. By contrast, Roman Catholics to
Incarnation. In contrast, the Antiochian school
date believe in the hypostatic union and the
views Christ as a single, unified human person
Trinity. The council also confirmed the
apart from his relationship to the divine.
Theotokos title and excommunicated Nestorius.
John Calvin maintained there was no human
The 451 Council of Chalcedon was highly
element in the Person of Christ which could be
influential and marked a key turning point in
separated from the Person of The Word. Calvin
the Christological debates that broke apart the
also emphasized the importance of the "Work
church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the fifth
of Christ" in any attempt at understanding the
century. It is the last council which many
Person of Christ and cautioned against ignoring
Anglicans and most Protestants consider
the Works of Jesus during his ministry.
ecumenical. It fully promulgated the hypostatic
union, stating the human and divine natures of The study of the Person of Christ continued into
Christ coexist, yet each is distinct and complete. the 20th century, with modern theologians such
Although, the Chalcedonian Creed did not put as Karl Rahner and Hans von Balthasar. Rahner
an end to all Christological debate, it did clarify pointed out the coincidence between the
the terms used and became a point of reference Person of Christ and the Word of God, referring
for many future Christologies. Most of the to Mark 8:38 and Luke 9:26 which state
major branches of Christianity — Roman whoever is ashamed of the words of Jesus is
Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, ashamed of the Lord himself. Balthasar argued
Lutheranism, and Reformed — subscribe to the the union of the human and divine natures of
Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while Christ was achieved not by the "absorption" of
many branches of Eastern Christianity - Syrian human attributes, but by their "assumption".
Orthodoxy, Assyrian Church, Coptic Orthodoxy, Thus, in his view, the divine nature of Christ was
Ethiopian Orthodoxy, and Armenian not affected by the human attributes and
Apostolicism - reject it. remained forever divine.
Christological issues Nativity and the Holy Name
Person of Christ Nativity of Jesus and Holy Name of Jesus
Trinity and Hypostatic union The Nativity of Jesus impacted the Christological
issues about his Person from the earliest days of
The Person of Christ refers to the study of the
Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the
human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as
dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and
they coexist within one person. There are no
heavenly manifestations of existence of the
direct discussions in the New Testament
Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on
regarding the dual nature of the Person of
the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior.
Christ as both divine and human. Hence, since
The salvific emphasis of Matthew 1:21 later
the early days of Christianity, theologians have
debated various approaches to the
261
impacted the theological issues and the event in history, but a cosmic event with
devotions to Holy Name of Jesus. significant eschatological consequences, as in
Cor 2:8. In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to
Matthew 1:23 provides a key to the "Emmanuel
the point of death (Phil 2:8), died "at the right
Christology" of Matthew. Beginning with 1:23,
time" (Rom 4:25) based on the plan of God. For
Matthew shows a clear interest in identifying
Paul, the "power of the cross" is not separable
Jesus as "God with us" and in later developing
from the resurrection of Jesus.
the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key
points throughout the rest of his Gospel. The Threefold office
name Emmanuel does not appear elsewhere in
The threefold office (Latin munus triplex) of
the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it in
Jesus Christ is a Christian doctrine based upon
Matthew 28:20 ("I am with you always, even
the teachings of the Old Testament. It was
unto the end of the world") to indicate Jesus
described by Eusebius and more fully developed
will be with the faithful to the end of the age.
by John Calvin. It states that Jesus Christ
According to Ulrich Luz, the Emmanuel motif
performed three functions (or "offices") in his
brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between
earthly ministry - those of prophet
1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and
(Deuteronomy 18:14-22), priest (Psalm 110:1-
implicitly in several other passages.
4), and king (Psalm 2). In the Old Testament, the
appointment of someone to any of these three
positions could be indicated by anointing him or
Crucifixion and Resurrection
her by pouring oil over the head. Thus, the term
Crucifixion of Jesus and Resurrection of Jesus messiah, meaning "anointed one", is associated
with the concept of the threefold office. While
The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent the office of king is that most frequently
resurrection of Jesus provides a rich background associated with the Messiah, the role of Jesus
for Christological analysis, from the canonical as priest is also prominent in the New
Gospels to the Pauline Epistles. Testament, being most fully explained in
A central element in the Christology presented chapters 7 to 10 of the Book of Hebrews.
in the Acts of the Apostles is the affirmation of Mariology
the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion
happened "with the foreknowledge of God, Roman Catholic Mariology
according to a definite plan". In this view, as in
Some Christians, notably Roman Catholics, view
Acts 2:23, the cross is not viewed as a scandal,
Mariology as a key component of Christology. In
for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the
this view, not only is Mariology a logical and
lawless" is viewed as the fulfilment of the plan
necessary consequence of Christology, but
of God.
without it, Christology is incomplete, since the
Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the figure of Mary contributes to a fuller
death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the understanding of who Christ is and what he did.
crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his Certain Christian traditions of Protestant
resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" heritage tend not to hold this view.
used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his
Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict
abbreviation of the message of the gospels. For
XVI) expressed this sentiment about Roman
Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated
Catholic Mariology when in two separate
262
occasions he stated, "The appearance of a truly provision of aid without requiring religious
Marian awareness serves as the touchstone conversion.
indicating whether or not the Christological
The earliest examples of Christian missionary
substance is fully present" and "It is necessary
activity are those recorded in writings that
to go back to Mary, if we want to return to the
would eventually come to form the New
truth about Jesus Christ."
Testament. Early writings include the letters of
Apostle Paul, written in the course of his
missionary activity in Asia Minor and Greece.
His activities were preceded by an expansion of
Christianity from the first followers of Jesus in
Jerusalem throughout Syro-Palestine. This is
also described in the Acts of the Apostles.
The earliest Christian mission, then, the

Dispersion of the Apostles, was active within
Judaism, as Christianity had not yet split from
Judaism. Whether a Jewish proselytism existed
or not that would have served as a model for
the early Christians is unclear, see Circumcision
controversy in early Christianity#Jewish
background for details. Soon, the expansion of
Chapter Five the Christian mission beyond Judaism to those
Christian Missions who were not Jewish became a contested issue,
notably at the Council of Jerusalem. The Apostle
Christian mission is "an organized effort for the Paul was an early proponent of this expansion,
propagation of the Christian faith.” and contextualized the Christian message for
the Greek and Roman cultures, permitting it to
Mission often involve sending individuals and reach beyond its Hebrew and Jewish roots.
groups, called "missionaries", to foreign
countries and to places in their homeland for From Late Antiquity onward, much missionary
the purpose of proselytism (conversion to activity was carried out by members of religious
Christianity, or from one Christian tradition to orders. Monasteries followed disciplines and
another). This involves evangelism (preaching a supported missions, libraries, and practical
set of beliefs for the purpose of conversion), research, all of which were perceived as works
and humanitarian work, especially among the to reduce human misery and suffering and
poor and disadvantaged. Missionaries have the glorify the Christian God. For example,
authority to preach the Christian faith (and Nestorian communities evangelized parts of
sometimes to administer sacraments), and Central Asia. Cistercians evangelized much of
provide humanitarian work to improve Northern Europe, as well as developing most of
economic development, literacy, education, European agriculture's classic techniques. St
health care, and orphanages. Christian Patrick evangelized many in Ireland. St David
doctrines (such as the "Doctrine of Love" was active in Wales.
professed by many missions) permit the During the Middle Ages, Ramon Llull (c. 1232 -
c. 1315) advanced the concept of preaching to
263
Muslims and converting them to Christianity by "praying towns" of Christian natives. This
means of non-violent argument. A vision for pattern of grudging acceptance of converts was
large-scale mission to Muslims would die with repeated in Hawaii later when missionaries
him, not to be revived until the 19th Century. from that same New England culture went
there. In Spanish colonization of the Americas,
Additional events can be found at the timeline
the Catholic missionaries selected and learned
of Christian missions.
among the languages of the Amerindians and
After the Sixteenth century devised writing systems for them. Then they
preached to them in those languages (Quechua,
In the 16th century the proselytization of Asia Guarani, Nahuatl) instead of Spanish, to keep
was linked to the Portuguese colonial policy. Indians away from "sinful" whites. An extreme
With the Papal bull Romanus Pontifex the case were the Guarani Reductions, a theocratic
patronage for the propagation of the Christian semi-independent region established by the
faith in Asia was given to the Portuguese, who Jesuits.
were rewarded with the right of conquest. The
Portuguese trade with Asia was profitable and From 1732 onwards the Moravian Church
as Jesuits came to India around 1540, the began sending out missionaries.
colonial government in Goa supported the
Around 1780, an indigent Baptist cobbler
mission with incentives for baptized Christians.
named William Carey began reading about
Later, Jesuits were sent to China and further
James Cook's Polynesian journeys. His interest
countries in Asia. With the decline of the
grew to a furious sort of "backwards
Portuguese power other colonial powers and
homesickness", inspiring him to obtain Baptist
Christian organisations gain influence.
orders, and eventually write his famous 1792
After the Reformation, for over a hundred pamphlet, "An Enquiry into the Obligation of
years, occupied by their struggle with the Christians to use Means for the Conversion of
Roman Catholic Church, the Protestant Heathen." Far from a dry book of theology,
churches as a whole were not missionary- Carey's work used the best available geographic
sending churches.But in the centuries that and ethnographic data to map and count the
followed, the Protestant churches began number of people who had never heard the
sending missionaries in increasing numbers, Gospel. It formed a movement that has grown
spreading the proclamation of the Christian with increasing speed from his day to the
message to previously unreached people. In present.
North America, missionaries to the Native
Carey's example was followed by a number of
Americans included Jonathan Edwards, the well
missions to seaside and port cities. The China
known preacher of the Great Awakening, who
Inland Mission (later the Overseas Missionary
in his later years retired from the very public life
Fellowship) is one of the more famous. In the
of his early career. He became a missionary to
Church of England, the Church Mission Society
the Housatonic Native Americans and a staunch
(CMS) was founded in 1799 and went onto be
advocate for them against cultural imperialism.
active all around the world, including the
As European culture has been established in the Middle East. In the United States, the American
midst of indigenous peoples, the cultural Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions
distance between Christians of differing cultures (ABCFM) was chartered in 1812.
has been difficult to overcome. One early
solution was the creation of segregated
264
Thomas Coke, (d. 1814) the first bishop of the independent, self-governing, self-supporting,
American Methodists, has been called "the self-propagating churches. The rise of
Father of Methodist Missions". After spending nationalism in the Third World provoked
time in the young American republic challenges from critics who complained that the
strengthening the infant Methodist Church missionaries were teaching Western ways, and
alongside Episcopal colleague Francis Asbury, ignoring the indigenous culture. The Boxer
the British-born Coke left for mission work. Rebellion in China in 1898 involved very large
During his time in America, Coke worked scale attacks on Christian missions and their
vigorously to increase Methodist support of converts. The First World War diverted
Christian missions and raising up mission resources, and pulled most Germans out of
workers. Coke died while on a mission trip to missionary work when that country lost its
India, but his legacy among Methodists - his empire. The worldwide Great Depression of the
passion for missions - continues. 1930s was a major blow to funding mission
activities.
The next wave of missions, starting in the early
1850s, was to inland areas, led by Hudson In 1910, the Edinburgh Missionary Conference
Taylor with his China Inland Mission. Taylor was was presided over by active SVM and YMCA
later supported by Henry Grattan Guinness who leader (and future Nobel Peace Prize recipient)
founded Cliff College which exists today for the John R. Mott, an American Methodist
purpose of training and equipping local and layperson, the conference reviewed the state of
global mission. evangelism, Bible translation, mobilization of
church support, and the training of indigenous
The new wave of missions inspired by Taylor
leadership. Looking to the future, conferees
and Guinness have collectively been called
worked on strategies for worldwide evangelism
"faith missions" and owe much to the ideas and
and cooperation. The conference not only
example of Anthony Norris Groves. Taylor was a
established greater ecumenical cooperation in
thorough-going nativist, offending the
missions, but also essentially launched the
missionaries of his era by wearing Chinese
modern ecumenical movement.
clothing and speaking Chinese at home. His
books, speaking, and examples led to the The next wave of missions was started by two
formation of numerous inland missions, and the missionaries, Cameron Townsend and Donald
Student Volunteer Movement (SVM), which McGavran, around 1935. These men realized
from 1850 to about 1950 sent nearly 10,000 that although earlier missionaries had reached
missionaries to inland areas, often at great geographic areas, there were numerous
personal sacrifice. Many early SVM missionaries ethnographic groups that were isolated by
to areas with endemic tropical diseases left with language, or class from the groups that
their belongings packed in a coffin, aware that missionaries had reached. Cameron formed
80% of them would die within two years. Wycliffe Bible Translators to translate the Bible
into native languages. McGavran concentrated
on finding bridges to cross the class and cultural
barriers in places like India, which has upwards
After 1870 of 4,600 peoples, separated by a combination of
language, culture, and caste. Despite
By the 1870s Protestant missions around the democratic reforms, caste and class differences
world generally acknowledged the long-term are still fundamental in many cultures.
material goal was the formation of
265
An equally important dimension of missions Australians. The word may be seen as

strategy is the indigenous method of nationals derogatory when used in this context.
reaching their own people. In Asia this wave of
missions was pioneered by men like Dr G. D.
James of Singapore, Rev Theodore Williams of
India and Dr David Cho of Korea. The "two Contemporary concepts of mission
thirds missions movement" as it is referred to, is
today a major force in missions.
Most modern missionaries and missionary Modern missionary methods and doctrines
societies have repudiated cultural imperialism, among conservative Protestants
and elected to focus on spreading the gospel The Lausanne Congress of 1974, birthed a
and translating the Bible. Sometimes, movement that supports evangelical mission
missionaries have been vital in preserving and among non-Christians and nominal Christians. It
documenting the culture of the peoples among regards "mission" as that which is designed "to
whom they live. form a viable indigenous church-planting and
Often, missionaries provide welfare and health world changing movement." This definition is
services, as a good deed or to make friends with motivated by a theologically imperative theme
the locals. Thousands of schools, orphanages, of the Bible to make God known, as outlined in
and hospitals have been established by the Great Commission. The definition is claimed
missions. One service provided by missionaries to summarize the acts of Jesus' ministry, which
was the Each one, teach one literacy program is taken as a model motivation for all ministries.
begun by Dr. Frank Laubach in the Philippines in This Christian missionary movement seeks to
1935. The program has since spread around the implement churches after the pattern of the
world and brought literacy to the least enabled first century Apostles. The process of forming
members of many societies.[citation needed] disciples is necessarily social. "Church" should
During this period missionaries, especially be understood in the widest sense, as a body of
evangelical and Pentecostal missionaries, believers of Christ rather than simply a building.
witnessed a substantial increase in the number In this view, even those who are already
of conversions of Muslims to Christianity. In an culturally Christian must be "evangelized".
interview published in 2013 a leader of a key Church planting by cross-cultural missionaries
missionary agency focused on Muslims claimed leads to the establishment of self-governing,
that the world is living in a "day of salvation for self-supporting and self-propagating
Muslims everywhere." communities of believers. This is the famous
The word "mission" was historically often "three-self" formula formulated by Henry Venn
applied to the building, the "mission station" in of the London Church Missionary Society in the
which the missionary lives or works. In some 19th century. Cross-cultural missionaries are
colonies, these mission stations became a focus persons who accept church-planting duties to
of settlement of displaced or formerly nomadic evangelize people outside their culture, as
people. Particularly in rural Australia, missions Christ commanded in the Great Commission
have become localities or ghettoes on the edges (Matthew 28:18-20).
of towns which are home to many Indigenous The objective of these missionaries is to give an
understandable presentation of their beliefs
266
with the hope that people will choose to accelerating, self-propelled conversion of large
following the teaching of Jesus Christ and live portions of the culture.
their lives as His disciples. As a matter of
A typical modern mission is a co-operative
strategy, many evangelical Christians around
effort by many different ministries, often
the world now focus on what they call the
including several coordinating ministries, such
"10/40 window", a band of countries between
as the Faith2Share network, often with separate
10 and 40 degrees north latitude and reaching
funding sources. One typical effort proceeded
from western Africa through Asia. Christian
as follows:
missions strategist Luis Bush pinpointed the
need for a major focus of evangelism in the A missionary radio group recruits, trains and
"10/40 Window", a phrase he coined in his broadcasts in the main dialect of the target
presentation at the missionary conference culture's language. Broadcast content is
Lausanne 1989 in Manila. Sometimes referred carefully adapted to avoid syncretism yet help
to as the "Resistant Belt", it is an area that the Christian Gospel seem like a native, normal
includes 35% of the world's land mass, 90% of part of the target culture. Broadcast content
the world's poorest peoples and 95% of those often includes news, music, entertainment and
who have yet to hear anything about education in the language, as well as purely
Christianity. Christian items.
Modern pioneering missionary doctrines now Broadcasts might advertise programs,
focus on inserting a culturally adapted seed of inexpensive radios (possibly spring-wound), and
Christian doctrines into a self-selected, self- a literature ministry that sells a Christian mail-
motivated group of indigenous believers, order correspondence course at nominal costs.
without removing them from their culture in The literature ministry is key, and is normally a
any way. separate organization from the radio ministry.
Modern literature missions are shifting to web-
Modern mission techniques are sufficiently
based content where it makes sense (as in
refined that within ten to fifteen years, most
Western Europe and Japan).
indigenous churches are locally pastored,
managed, taught, self-supporting and When a person or group completes a
evangelizing. The process can be substantially correspondence course, they are invited to
faster if a preexisting translation of the Bible contact a church-planting missionary group
and higher pastoral education are already from (if possible) a related cultural group. The
available, perhaps left-over from earlier, less church-planting ministry is usually a different
effective missions. ministry from either the literature or radio
ministries. The church-planting ministry usually
One strategy is to let indigenous cultural groups
requires its missionaries to be fluent in the
decide to adopt Christian doctrines and
target language, and trained in modern church-
benefits, when (as in most cultures) such major
planting techniques.
decisions are normally made by groups. In this
way, opinion leaders in the groups can The missionary then leads the group to start a
persuade much or most of the groups to church. Churches planted by these groups are
convert. When combined with training in usually a group that meets in a house. The
discipleship, church planting and other modern object is the minimum organization that can
missionary doctrine, the result is an perform the required character development
and spiritual growth. Buildings, complex
267
ministries and other expensive items are translated. Missionaries actively experiment
mentioned, but deprecated until the group with advanced linguistic techniques to speed
naturally achieves the size and budget to afford translation and literacy. Bible translation not
them. The crucial training is how to become a only speeds a church's growth by aiding self-
Christian (by faith in Jesus Christ) and then how training, but it also assures that Christian
to set up a church (meet to study the Bible, and information becomes a permanent part of the
perform communion and worship), usually in native culture and literature. Some ministries
that order. also use modern recording techniques to reach
groups with audio that could not be soon
A new generation of churches is created, and
reached with literature.
the growth begins to accelerate geometrically.
Frequently, daughter churches are created only
a few months after a church's creation. In the
fastest-growing Christian movements, the
pastoral education is "pipelined", flowing in a
just-in-time fashion from the central churches
to daughter churches. That is, planting of
churches does not wait for the complete
training of pastors.
The most crucial part of church planting is

selection and training of leadership. Classically,
leadership training required an expensive stay
at a seminary, a Bible college. Modern church
planters deprecate this because it substantially
slows the growth of the church without much
immediate benefit. Modern mission doctrines
replace the seminary with programmed
curricula or (even less expensive) books of
discussion questions, and access to real Chapter Six
theological books. The materials are usually Christian Salvation
made available in a major trading language in
which most native leaders are likely to be
Salvation, in Christianity, is the saving of the
fluent. In some cases, the materials can be
soul from sin and its consequences. It may also
adapted for oral use.
be called "deliverance" or "redemption" from
It turns out that new pastors' practical needs for sin and its effects.
theology are well addressed by a combination
Variant views on salvation are among the main
of practical procedures for church planting,
fault lines dividing the various Christian
discussion in small groups, and motivated Bible-
denominations, both between Roman
based study from diverse theological texts. As a
Catholicism and Protestantism and within
culture's church's wealth increases, it will
Protestantism, notably in the Calvinist–
naturally form classic seminaries on its own.
Arminian debate, and the fault lines include
Another related mission is Bible translation. The conflicting definitions of depravity,
above-mentioned literature has to be
268
predestination, atonement, and most pointedly, The moral transformation view was the
justification. predominant understanding of salvation among
Christians during the first three centuries AD,
According to Christian belief, salvation is made
and continues to be held by some
possible by the life, death, and resurrection of
denominations such as the Eastern Orthodox
Jesus, which in the context of salvation is
today. In this view, Jesus saved people from
referred to as the "atonement" Christian
sinfulness through his life and teachings, thus
soteriology ranges from exclusive salvati]:p.123
transforming their character to become
to universal reconciliation concepts. While
righteous. This salvation is seen as undeserved,
some of the differences are as widespread as
since God graciously sent Jesus to save people
Christianity itself, the overwhelming majority
when they were unrighteous and did not in any
agrees that salvation is made possible by the
way deserve such a favour. In the moral
work of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, dying on
transformation paradigm, a person is saved
the cross.
from sinfulness by faithfully following the
"At the heart of Christian faith is the reality and teachings of Jesus, and the example he set of
hope of salvation in Jesus Christ. Christian faith how to live. Consequently, a person becomes
is faith in the God of salvation revealed in Jesus righteous in God's sight, and can expect a
of Nazareth. The Christian tradition has always positive final judgment by God. Perfection is not
equated this salvation with the transcendent, required, and mistakes are forgiven after
eschatological fulfillment of human existence in repentance. In this view, Jesus' crucifixion is
a life freed from sin, finitude, and mortality and understood primarily as a martyrdom.
united with the triune God. This is perhaps the
The moral transformation view has been
non-negotiable item of Christian faith. What has
criticised and rejected by many Protestant
been a matter of debate is the relation between
Christians, for a variety of reasons. Critics
salvation and our activities in the world."
believe that the moral transformation view
—Anselm Kyongsuk Min:p.79 conflicts with various biblical passages
(particularly ones by Paul regarding 'faith' and
'works'), underestimates the seriousness of sin
and denies the atoning value of Jesus' death.
[citation needed]
Paradigms of salvation
Christus Victor
Jesus as Saviour
In the Christus Victor view, people needed
Different theories of atonement have been salvation from the powers of evil. Jesus
proposed for how Christian salvation can be achieved salvation for people by defeating the
understood. Over the centuries, Christians have powers of evil, particularly Satan. This view has
held different ideas about how Jesus saved been dated in writings of the Church Fathers to
people, and different views still exist within the 4th centuries AD, although it remained
different Christian denominations. The main popular for several centuries. Several
paradigms of salvation that have been proposed perspectives on this idea existed, which can be
are: roughly divided into conquest of Satan and
Moral transformation rescue from Satan's power. In the conquest of
Satan version, writers such as Eusebius of
Caesarea depicted Jesus defeating Satan in a
269
great spiritual battle that occurred between his humanity owed God, thus satisfying the offence
death and resurrection. By winning this battle, to God's honour and doing away with the need
Jesus overthrew Satan and saved people from for punishment. When Anselm proposed the
his dominion. The Christus Victor view is not satisfaction view, it was immediately criticised
widely held in the West. by Peter Abelard.
Ransom from Satan Penal substitution and faith
The ransom theory of atonement entails the In the 16th century, the Protestant Reformers
idea that Satan had power over people's souls reinterpreted Anselm's satisfaction theory of
in the afterlife, but that Christ rescued people salvation within a legal paradigm. In the legal
from his power. Often, the death of Christ plays system, offences required punishment, and no
an important role in this rescue. The view satisfaction could be given to avert this need.
appears to have arisen during the 3rd century, They proposed a theory known as penal
in the writings of Origen and other theologians. substitution, in which Christ takes the penalty of
In one version of the idea, Satan attempted to people's sin as their substitute, thus saving
take Jesus' soul after he had died, but in doing people from God's wrath against sin. Penal
so over-extended his authority, as Jesus had substitution thus presents Jesus saving people
never sinned. As a consequence, Satan lost his from the divine punishment of their past
authority completely, and all humanity gained wrongdoings. However, this salvation is not
freedom. In another version, God entered into a presented as automatic. Rather, a person must
deal with Satan, offering to trade Jesus' soul in have faith in order to receive this free gift of
exchange for the souls of all people, but after salvation. In the penal substitution view,
the trade, God raised Jesus from the dead and salvation is not dependent upon human effort
left Satan with nothing. Other versions held that or deeds.
Jesus' divinity was masked by his human form,
The penal substitution paradigm of salvation is
so Satan tried to take Jesus’ soul without
widely held among Protestants, who often
realizing that his divinity would destroy Satan's
consider it central to Christianity. However, it
power. Another idea is that Jesus came to teach
has also been widely critiqued.Advocates of the
how not to sin and Satan, in anger with this,
New Perspective on Paul also argue that many
tried to take his soul. The ransom theory is not
New Testament books by Paul the Apostle used
widely held in the West.
to support the theory of penal substitution
Satisfaction should be interpreted differently.
In the 11th century, Anselm of Canterbury Catholicism

rejected the ransom view, and proposed the
A crucial difference between the Catholic and
satisfaction theory of atonement. He depicted
Protestant understanding of salvation is that,
God as a feudal lord, whose honour had been
unlike Protestantism, Catholicism believes that,
offended by the sins of humankind. In this view,
after the Fall, humanity did not become totally
people needed salvation from the divine
corrupt but was “wounded by sin” (rather than
punishment that these offences would bring,
destroyed) and “stands in need of salvation
since nothing they could do could repay the
from God. Divine help comes in Christ through
honour debt. Anselm held that Christ had
the law that guides and the grace that sustains”.
infinitely honoured God through his life and
That divine help, that grace, is a favour, a free
death and that Christ could repay what
270
and undeserved gift from God which helps us to of God, his Father. By his death he has
respond to his invitation to enter relationship. conquered death, and so opened the possibility
of salvation to all men." As Pope John Paul II
Catholics profess belief that Christ alone is the
stated in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio,
Saviour of the human race. Christ is God
incarnate, bringing about redemption from sin, "The universality of salvation means that it is
for "…all salvation comes through Christ." granted not only to those who explicitly believe
in Christ and have entered the Church. Since
"…she (the Church) proclaims, and ever must
salvation is offered to all, it must be made
proclaim Christ 'the way, the truth, and the life'
concretely available to all. But it is clear that
(John 14:6), in whom men may find the fullness
today, as in the past, many people do not have
of religious life, in whom God has reconciled all
an opportunity to come to know or accept the
things to Himself."
Gospel revelation or to enter the Church. The
In Catholicism justification is granted by God social and cultural conditions in which they live
from baptism firstly, instead of plainly by faith, do not permit this, and frequently they have
and from the sacrament of reconciliation after if been brought up in other religious traditions.
a mortal sin is committed. A mortal sin makes For such people salvation in Christ is accessible
justification lost even if faith is still present. The by virtue of a grace which, while having a
Catholic Church declared in the ecumenical mysterious relationship to the Church, does not
Council of Trent that, "If anyone says that the make them formally part of the Church but
sinner is justified by faith alone, meaning that enlightens them in a way which is
nothing else is required to cooperate in order to accommodated to their spiritual and material
obtain the grace of justification, and that it is situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the
not in any way necessary that he be prepared result of his Sacrifice and is communicated by
and disposed by the action of his own will, let the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain
him be anathema." in canon 9 of session VI. It salvation through his or her free cooperation."
also said in the VII session in canon IV, "If any
This encyclical echoes what the Church
one saith, that the sacraments of the New Law
solemnly declared in the documents of the
are not necessary unto salvation, but
Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) and is thus
superfluous; and that, without them, or without
binding on all Catholics. Concerning Jews and
the desire thereof, men obtain of God, through
Muslims, the Dogmatic Constitution on the
faith alone, the grace of justification;-though all
Church, Lumen Gentium, states:
(the sacraments) are not indeed necessary for
every individual; let him be anathema "In the first place we must recall the people to
(excommunicated)." whom the testament and the promises were
given and from whom Christ was born
Salvation of non-Catholics
according to the flesh; the Jews On account of
In Catholicism, Christ provides the Church with their fathers this people remains most dear to
"'the fullness of the means of salvation' which God, for God does not repent of the gifts He
he has willed: correct and complete confession makes nor of the calls He issues. But the plan of
of faith, full sacramental life, and ordained salvation also includes those who acknowledge
ministry in apostolic succession." This does not the Creator. In the first place amongst these
mean that only Christians can enter heaven, for there are the Muslims, who, professing to hold
"Jesus, the Son of God, freely suffered death for the faith of Abraham, along with us adore the
us in complete and free submission to the will
271
one and merciful God, who on the last day will from coercion on the part of individuals or of
judge humanity" social groups and of any human power, in such
wise that no one is to be forced to act in a
Paragraph 16 of Lumen Gentium takes a step
manner contrary to his own beliefs, whether
further and declares:
privately or publicly, whether alone or in
"Nor is God far distant from those who in association with others, within due limits.
shadows and images seek the unknown God,
The council further declares that the right to
for it is He who gives to all men life and breath
religious freedom has its foundation in the very
and all things, and as Saviour wills that all men
dignity of the human person as this dignity is
be saved. Those also can attain to salvation who
known through the revealed word of God and
through no fault of their own do not know the
by reason itself. This right of the human person
Gospel of Christ or His Church, yet sincerely
to religious freedom is to be recognized in the
seek God and moved by grace strive by their
constitutional law whereby society is governed
deeds to do His will as it is known to them
and thus it is to become a civil right"
through the dictates of conscience. Nor does
Divine Providence deny the helps necessary for Anselm
salvation to those who, without blame on their
Shortly after 1100, Anselm, appointed as
part, have not yet arrived at an explicit
archbishop of Canterbury, wrote a classic
knowledge of God and with His grace strive to
treatise about atonement. In it he puts forward
live a good life. Whatever good or truth is found
the "satisfaction theory" of the atonement in
amongst them is looked upon by the Church as
salvation. Man's offense of rebellion against
a preparation for the Gospel"
God is one that demands a payment or
Thus, the Catholic Church teaches that, satisfaction. Fallen man is incapable of making
although Christ is the Saviour of humanity, it is adequate satisfaction. Nevertheless, such is
not necessary to know of him, or have a God's love that God will not simply abandon us
relationship with him, to be saved. This is (at least not all of us) to the consequences of
because the Church teaches that the salvation our sins. Anselm wrote, "This debt was so great
of humanity takes place because of Christ's that, while none but man must solve the debt,
death and resurrection, and that this salvation none but God was able to do it; so that he who
applies to all people whether or not they are does it must be both God and man." The
aware of this act. This does not mean that the suffering of Christ, the God-man who is God's
Church teaches that all religions are equal, but only son, pays off what human beings owe to
rather that everyone does not have the same God's honor, and we are thereby reconciled to
access to Christ and his teachings, or may have God. So God took human nature upon himself
had the Gospel presented in such a manner as so that a perfect man might make perfect
to have turned them away (e.g. by missionaries satisfaction and so restore the human race. His
who were poor examples of the Christian life). foundational work is seen later in Calvinism and
Arminianism.
In its Declaration on Religious Freedom,
Dignitatis humanae, the Second Vatican Council Eastern Christianity
also stated:
Eastern Christianity was much less influenced
"This Vatican Council declares that the human by Augustine. It asks different questions, and it
person has a right to religious freedom. This generally views salvation less in legalistic terms
freedom means that all men are to be immune (e.g. grace and punishment), more in medical
272
terms (sickness, healing etc.). It views salvation to be saved, though he can claim no credit of
more along the lines of theosis, a seeking to his own, as any progress he makes is possible
become holy or draw closer to God, a only by the grace of God.
traditional concept of Eastern Orthodox,
Besides, the Orthodox Church supposes that the
Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic
person has salvation not only by his good
Christians. It also stresses teaching about
deeds, but also by his patient suffering of
forgiveness.
various griefs, illnesses, misfortunes, failures
The Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, (Luke 16:19-31, Mark 8:31-38, Romans 6:3-11,
Catholic, Eastern Church, known also as The Hebrews 12:1-3, Galatians 6:14).
Catechism of St. Philaret includes the questions
Protestantism
and answers: "155. To save men from what did
(the Son of God) come upon earth? From sin, Sola fide
the curse, and death." "208. How does the
death of Jesus Christ upon the cross deliver us The Protestant Christian perspective on
from sin, the curse, and death? That we may salvation is that no one can merit the grace of
the more readily believe this mystery, the Word God by performing rituals, good works,
of God teaches us of it, so much as we may be asceticism or meditation, because grace is the
able to receive, by the comparison of Jesus result of God's initiative without any regard
Christ with Adam. Adam is by nature the head whatsoever to the one initiating the works.
of all humanity, which is one with him by Broadly speaking, Protestants hold to the five
natural descent from him. Jesus Christ, in whom solas of the Reformation which declare that
the Godhead is united with manhood, salvation is by faith alone in Christ alone
graciously made himself the new almighty Head through grace alone for the Glory of God alone
of men, whom he unites to himself through as told in Scripture alone.
faith. Therefore as in Adam we had fallen under Some Protestants understand this to mean that
sin, the curse, and death, so we are delivered God saves solely by grace and that works follow
from sin, the curse, and death in Jesus Christ. as a necessary consequence of saving grace (see
His voluntary suffering and death on the cross Lordship salvation). Others rigidly believe that
for us, being of infinite value and merit, as the salvation is accomplished by faith alone without
death of one sinless, God and man in one any reference to works whatsoever, including
person, is both a perfect satisfaction to the the works that may follow salvation (see Free
justice of God, which had condemned us for sin Grace theology). Still others believe that
to death, and a fund of infinite merit, which has salvation is by faith alone but that salvation can
obtained him the right, without prejudice to be forfeited if it is not accompanied by
justice, to give us sinners pardon of our sins, continued faith and the works that naturally
and grace to have victory over sin and death. follow from it. Most Protestants believe that
Orthodox theology teaches prevenient grace, salvation is achieved through God's grace alone,
meaning that God makes the first movement and once salvation is secured in the person,
toward man, and that salvation is impossible good works will be a result of this, allowing
from our own will alone. However, man is good works to often operate as a signifier for
endowed with free will, and an individual can salvation.
either accept or reject the grace of God. Thus Karl Barth notes a range of alternative themes:
an individual must cooperate with God's grace forensic (we are guilty of a crime, and Christ
273
takes the punishment), financial (we are

indebted to God, and Christ pays our debt) and
cultic (Christ makes a sacrifice on our behalf).
For various cultural reasons, the oldest themes
(honor and sacrifice) prove to have more depth
than the more modern ones (payment of a
debt, punishment for a crime). But in all these
alternatives, the understanding of atonement
has the same structure. Human beings owe
something to God that we cannot pay. Christ
pays it on our behalf. Thus God remains both
perfectly just (insisting on a penalty) and
perfectly loving (paying the penalty himself). A
great many Christians would define such a
substitutionary view of the atonement as simply
part of what orthodox Christians believe.
According to Christian theologian Frank Stagg,

salvation is rooted in the grace of God. "For
bankrupt sinners with no ground of their own
upon which to stand, with nothing of their own
upon which to stand, with nothing of their own
to hold up to God for [one's] reward, it is their
only hope, but it is their sufficient hope."[36]:80
"Debates about how Christ saves us have

tended to divide Protestants into conservatives
who defended some form of substitutionary
atonement theory and liberals who were more
apt to accept a kind of moral influence theory.
Both those approaches were about 900 years
old. Recently, new accounts of Christ's salvific
work have been introduced or reintroduced,
and the debates have generally grown angrier,
at least from the liberal side. Those who
defended substitutionary atonement were
always ready to dismiss their opponents as
heretics; now some of their opponents Chapter Seven
complain that a focus on substitutionary Christian Theology
atonement leads to violence against women
and to child abuse."
The doctrine of the Trinity, considered the core
—William C. Placher of Christian theology by Trinitarians, is the
result of continuous exploration by the church
of the biblical data, thrashed out in debate and
treatises, eventually formulated at the First
274
Council of Nicaea in 325 AD in a way they In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of
believe is consistent with the biblical witness, Alexandria, gave a list exactly the same in
and further refined in later councils and number and order with what would become the
writings.The most widely recognized Biblical New Testament canon and be accepted by the
foundations for the doctrine's formulation are Greek church. The African Synod of Hippo, in
in the Gospel of John. 393, approved the New Testament, as it stands
today, together with the Septuagint books, a
Nontrinitarianism is any of several Christian
decision that was repeated by Councils of
beliefs that reject the Trinitarian doctrine that
Carthage in 397 and 419. Pope Damasus I's
God is three distinct persons in one being.
Council of Rome in 382, only if the Decretum
Modern nontrinitarian groups views differ
Gelasianum is correctly associated with it,
widely on the nature of God, Jesus, and the
issued a biblical canon identical to that
Holy Spirit.
mentioned above. In 405, Pope Innocent I sent
The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop,
regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting Exsuperius of Toulouse. Nonetheless, a full
the Christian Bible. Though the early church dogmatic articulation of the canon was not
used the Old Testament according to the canon made until the Council of Trent in the 16th
of the Septuagint (LXX), the apostles did not century.
otherwise leave a defined set of new scriptures;
Emergence of Christian theology
instead the New Testament developed over
time. Split of early Christianity and Judaism
The writings attributed to the apostles The emergence of Christian theology has
circulated amongst the earliest Christian sometimes been presented as the triumph of
communities. The Pauline epistles were Hellenistic rationality over the Hebraic faith of
circulating in collected form by the end of the Jesus and the early disciples. The early African
1st century AD. The Bryennios list is an early theologian Tertullian, for instance, complained
Christian canon found in Codex that the 'Athens' of philosophy was corrupting
Hierosolymitanus and dated to around the 'Jerusalem' of faith. More recent discussions
100.Justin Martyr, in the early 2nd century, have qualified and nuanced this picture.
mentions the "memoirs of the apostles", but his
From the very beginning of the Christian
references are not detailed. Around 160
movement, followers of Jesus tried to make
Irenaeus of Lyons argued for only four Gospels
sense of the impact of Jesus of Nazareth, and
(the Tetramorph), and argued that it would be
began arguing about differing ways of making
illogical to reject Acts of the Apostles but accept
sense. There has never been an uncontested,
the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the same
unrationalized Christian faith.
author. By the early 200's, Origen may have
been using the same 27 books as in the modern These processes of making sense initially drew
New Testament, though there were still upon the ideas and narratives of contemporary
disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, Judaism, which was already Hellenized in
II Peter, II and III John, and Revelation. Likewise various degrees. As time went by, ideas and
by 200 the Muratorian fragment shows that narratives from other Hellenistic context were
there existed a set of Christian writings drawn on, but the Jewish scriptures remained a
somewhat similar to what is now the 27-book key driver of theological development, and too
New Testament. sharp a distinction between Hebraic and
275
Hellenistic is unsustainable. Some elements of with Christological disputes. The two Councils of
early Christian theologizing previously thought Niceaea (324, 382) condemned Arian teachings
to be thoroughly 'Hellenistic' (e.g., the Prologue and produced a creed (see Nicene Creed). The
of John's Gospel) are now regularly argued to Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorianism
be thoroughly Jewish. and affirmed the Blessed Virgin Mary to be
Theotokos ("God-bearer" or "Mother of God").
The ideas and narratives drawn on in this
Perhaps the most significant council was the
process were transformed as they were given a
Council of Chalcedon that affirmed that Christ
new context in Christian practices of devotion,
had two natures, fully God and fully man,
community - formation and evangelism - and
distinct yet always in perfect union. This was
the extent to which borrowings from Hellenistic
based largely on Pope Leo the Great's Tome.
culture (for instance) were given new meanings
Thus, it condemned Monophysitism and would
in this process should not be underestimated.
be influential in refuting Monothelitism.
One of the characteristics of those strands of
Patristic theology
early Christianity (in the 2nd and 3rd centuries)
sometimes called 'proto-orthodox' (because Apostolic Fathers
they are the most direct ancestors of the forms
As Christianity spread, it acquired certain
of Christianity that in the 4th century were
members from well-educated circles of the
defined as Orthodox), invested a great deal of
Hellenistic world; they sometimes became
time and energy in communication between
bishops but not always. They produced two
widely spread conversations, and in pursuing a
sorts of works: theological and "apologetic", the
deep interest in each other's beliefs and
latter being works aimed at defending the faith
practices. This concern and communication
by using reason to refute arguments against the
seems to have been as much a driver of the
veracity of Christianity. These authors are
development of theological activity as the
known as the church fathers, and study of them
desire to communicate Christianity to, or make
is called Patristics. Notable early Fathers include
it acceptable in, a Hellenistic culture.
Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of
Early Christian theology Alexandria, Origen, etc.
Theologies of the New Testament A huge quantity of theological reflection

emerged in the early centuries of the Christian
The New Testament contains evidence of some
church—in a wide variety of genres, in a variety
of the earliest forms of reflection upon the
of contexts, and in several languages—much of
meanings and implications of Christian faith,
it the product of attempts to discuss how
mostly in the form of guidance offered to
Christian faith should be lived in cultures very
Christian congregations on how to live a life
different from the one in which it was born. So,
consistent with their convictions—most notably
for instance, a good deal of the Greek language
in the Sermon on the Mount, the Pauline
literature can be read as an attempt to come to
epistles and the Johannine corpus.
terms with Hellenistic culture. The period sees
Ecumenical councils: First seven ecumenical the slow emergence of orthodoxy (the idea of
councils which seems to emerge from the conflicts
between catholic Christianity and Gnostic
During this era, several ecumenical councils Christianity), the establishment of a Biblical
were convened. These were mostly concerned canon, debates about the doctrine of the Trinity
276
(most notably between the councils of Nicaea in the Catholic Church (Catholic as in 'universal',
325 and Constantinople in 381), about not just Roman) and most significantly resulted
Christology (most notably between the councils in the first declaration of a uniform Christian
of Constantinople in 381 and Chalcedon in 451), doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. With the
about the purity of the Church (for instance in creation of the creed, a precedent was
the debates surrounding the Donatists), and established for subsequent 'general
about grace, free will and predestination (for (ecumenical) councils of Bishops' (Synods) to
instance in the debate between Augustine of create statements of belief and canons of
Hippo and Pelagius). doctrinal orthodoxy—the intent being to define
unity of beliefs for the whole of Christendom.
Ante-Nicene Father
The purpose of the council was to resolve
Influential texts and writers in the 2nd century
disagreements in the Church of Alexandria over
include:
the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father;
The collection known as the Apostolic Fathers in particular, whether Jesus was of the same
(mostly 2nd century) substance as God the Father or merely of
similar substance. St. Alexander of Alexandria
Justin Martyr (c. 100/114–c. 162/168) and Athanasius took the first position; the
Clement of Alexandria (died c. 215) popular presbyter Arius, from whom the term
Arian controversy comes, took the second. The
Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130–202) council decided against the Arians
Various 'Gnostic' authors, such as Valentinius (c. overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250-318
100–c. 153) and Basilides (c. 117–138) attendees, all but 2 voted against Arius).
Another result of the council was an agreement
Some of the texts commonly referred to as the on the date of the Christian Passover (Pascha in
New Testament apocrypha. Greek; Easter in modern English), the most
important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar.
Influential texts and writers between c. 200 and
The council decided in favour of celebrating the
325 (the First Council of Nicaea) include:
resurrection on the first Sunday after the first
Tertullian (c. 155–230) full moon following the vernal equinox,
independently of the Bible's Hebrew Calendar
Hippolytus (died 235)
(see also Quartodecimanism), and authorized
Origen (c. 182–c. 251) the Bishop of Alexandria (presumably using the
Alexandrian calendar) to announce annually the
Cyprian (died c. 258) exact date to his fellow bishops.
Arius (256–336) The Council of Nicaea was historically significant
Other Gnostic texts and texts from the New because it was the first effort to attain
Testament apocrypha. consensus in the church through an assembly
representing all of Christendom. "It was the first
First Council of Nicaea occasion for the development of technical
The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Christology." Further, "Constantine in convoking
Bithynia (in present-day Turkey), convoked by and presiding over the council signaled a
the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was measure of imperial control over the church."
the first ecumenical conference of bishops of With the creation of the Nicene Creed, a
277
precedent was established for subsequent of Milan, Jerome, and others. What resulted
general councils to create a statement of belief was a golden age of literary and scholarly
and canons which were intended to become activity unmatched since the days of Virgil and
guidelines for doctrinal orthodoxy and a source Horace. Some of these fathers, such as John
of unity for the whole of Christendom—a Chrysostom and Athanasius, suffered exile,
momentous event in the history of the church persecution, or martyrdom from heretical
and subsequent history of Europe. Byzantine Emperors. Many of their writings are
translated into English in the compilations of
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.
Nicene Creed
Influential texts and writers between 325 AD
Each phrase in the Nicene Creed, which was and c. 500 AD include:
hammered out at the Council of Nicaea,
Athanasius (298–373)
addresses some aspect that had been under
passionate discussion and closes the books on The Cappadocian Fathers (late 4th century)
the argument, with the weight of the
Ambrose (c. 340–397)
agreement of the over 300 bishops in
attendance. [Constantine had invited all 1800 Jerome (c. 347–420)
bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in
the east and 800 in the west). The number of Chrysostom (347–407)
participating bishops cannot be accurately Augustine of Hippo (354–430)
stated; Socrates Scholasticus and Epiphanius of
Salamis counted 318; Eusebius of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria (376–444)
only 250.] In spite of the agreement reached at Texts from patristic authors after 325 AD are
the council of 325 the Arians who had been collected in the Nicene and Post-Nicene
defeated dominated most of the church for the Fathers. Important theological debates also
greater part of the 4th century, often with the surrounded the various Ecumenical Councils—
aid of Roman emperors who favored them. In Nicaea in 325, Constantinople in 381, Ephesus
the East, the successful party of Cyril cast out in 431 and Chalcedon in 451.
Nestorius and his followers as heretics and
collected and burned his writings. Papacy and primacy
Main article: Historical development of the

doctrine of Papal Primacy
The theology of the Bishop of Rome having a

monarchal papacy developed over time. This is
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers Roman doctrine and rejected by most if not all
Reformed churches. As a bishopric, its origin is
Augustine consistent with the development of an
episcopal structure in the 1st century. The
origins of papal primacy concept are historically
Late antique Christianity produced a great many obscure; theologically, it is based on three
renowned church fathers who wrote volumes of ancient Christian traditions: (1) that the apostle
theological texts, including SS. Augustine, Peter was preeminent among the apostles, (2)
Gregory Nazianzus, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose that Peter ordained his successors as Bishop of
278
Rome, and (3) that the bishops are the against false prophets and false christs within
successors of the apostles. As long as the Papal the gospels themselves Mark 13:22 (some will
See also happened to be the capital of the arise and distort the truth in order to draw
Western Empire, prestige of the Bishop of Rome away disciples), Matthew 7:5-20, Matthew 24:4,
could be taken for granted without the need of Matthew 24:11 Matthew 24:24 (For false christs
sophisticated theological argumentation and false prophets will arise). On many
beyond these points; after its shift to Milan and occasions in Paul's epistles, he defends his own
then Ravenna, however, more detailed apostleship, and urges Christians in various
arguments were developed based on Matthew places to beware of false teachers, or of
16:18-19 etc. Nonetheless, in antiquity the anything contrary to what was handed to them
Petrine and Apostolic quality, as well as a by him. The epistles of John and Jude also warn
"primacy of respect", concerning the Roman of false teachers and prophets, as does the
See went unchallenged by emperors, eastern writer of the Book of Revelation and 1 Jn. 4:1,
patriarchs, and the Eastern Church alike. The as did the Apostle Peter warn in 2 Pt. 2:1-3:.
Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381
One of the roles of bishops, and the purpose of
affirmed Rome as "first among equals". By the
many Christian writings, was to refute heresies.
close of antiquity, the doctrinal clarification and
The earliest of these were generally
theological arguments on the primacy of Rome
Christological in nature, that is, they denied
were developed. Just what exactly was entailed
either Christ's (eternal) divinity or humanity. For
in this primacy, and its being exercised, would
example, Docetism held that Jesus' humanity
become a matter of controversy at certain later
was merely an illusion, thus denying the
times.
incarnation; whereas Arianism held that Jesus
Early heresies was not eternally divine. Many groups were
dualistic, maintaining that reality was composed
Urgent concerns with the uniformity of belief
into two radically opposing parts: matter,
and practice have characterized Christianity
usually seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good.
from the outset. The New Testament itself
Orthodox Christianity, on the other hand, held
speaks of the importance of maintaining
that both the material and spiritual worlds were
orthodox doctrine and refuting heresies,
created by God and were therefore both good,
showing the antiquity of the concern. The
and that this was represented in the unified
development of doctrine, the position of
divine and human natures of Christ.
orthodoxy, and the relationship between the
early Church and early heretical groups is a Irenaeus (c. 130–202) was the first to argue that
matter of academic debate. Some scholars, his "proto-orthodox" position was the same
drawing upon distinctions between Jewish faith that Jesus gave to the apostles, and that
Christians, Gentile Christians, and other groups the identity of the apostles, their successors,
such as Gnostics, see Early Christianity as and the teachings of the same were all well-
fragmented and with contemporaneous known public knowledge. This was therefore an
competing orthodoxies. early argument supported by apostolic
succession. Irenaeus first established the
The process of establishing orthodox
doctrine of four gospels and no more, with the
Christianity was set in motion by a succession of
synoptic gospels interpreted in the light of John.
different interpretations of the teachings of
Irenaeus' opponents, however, claimed to have
Christ being taught after the crucifixion. Though
received secret teachings from Jesus via other
Christ himself is noted to have spoken out
279
apostles which were not publicly known. churches, it remained without the power to
Gnosticism is predicated on the existence of persecute them. However, those called
such hidden knowledge, but brief references to "heretics" were also called a number of other
private teachings of Jesus have also survived in things (e.g. "fools," "wild dogs," "servants of
the canonic Scripture as did warning by the Satan"), so the word "heretic" had negative
Christ that there would be false prophets or associations from the beginning, and
false teachers. Irenaeus' opponents also intentionally so.
claimed that the wellsprings of divine
Before 325 AD, the "heretical" nature of some
inspiration were not dried up, which is the
beliefs was a matter of much debate within the
doctrine of continuing revelation.
churches. After 325 AD, some opinion was
In the middle of the 2nd century, three groups formulated as dogma through the canons
of Christians adhered to a range of doctrines promulgated by the councils.
that divided the Christian communities of
Medieval Christian theology
Rome: the teacher Marcion, the pentecostal
outpourings of ecstatic Christian prophets of a Byzantine theology
continuing revelation, in a movement that was
called "Montanism" because it had been While the Western Roman Empire declined and
initiated by Montanus and his female disciples, fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on
and the gnostic teachings of Valentinus. Early Constantinople, remained standing until 1453,
attacks upon alleged heresies formed the and was the home of a wide range of
matter of Tertullian's Prescription Against theological activity that was seen as standing in
Heretics (in 44 chapters, written from Rome), strong continuity with the theology of the
and of Irenaeus' Against Heresies (ca 180, in five Patristic period; indeed the division between
volumes), written in Lyons after his return from Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be
a visit to Rome. The letters of Ignatius of recognised by many Orthodox theologians and
Antioch and Polycarp of Smyrna to various historians.
churches warned against false teachers, and the
Epistle of Barnabas accepted by many Christians
as part of Scripture in the 2nd century, warned
about mixing Judaism with Christianity, as did Gregory Palamas
other writers, leading to decisions reached in
the first ecumenical council, which was Mystical theology
convoked by the Emperor Constantine at Nicaea
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (working c.
in 325, in response to further disruptive
500)
polemical controversy within the Christian
community, in that case Arian disputes over the Symeon the New Theologian (949–1022)
nature of the Trinity.
Gregory Palamas (1296–1359)
During those first three centuries, Christianity
Council of Chalcedon
was effectively outlawed by requirements to
venerate the Roman emperor and Roman gods. The Council of Chalcedon was an ecumenical
Consequently, when the Church labelled its council that took place from October 8 to
enemies as heretics and cast them out of its November 1, 451, at Chalcedon (a city of
congregations or severed ties with dissident Bithynia in Asia Minor).
280
It is the fourth of the first seven ecumenical and the growing influence of Balkan forces in
councils in Christianity, and is therefore the army (generally considered to lack strong
recognized as infallible in its dogmatic iconoclast feelings) over the period may have
definitions by the Roman Catholic and Eastern been important factors in both beginning and
Orthodox churches. It repudiated the Eutychian ending imperial support for iconoclasm.
doctrine of monophysitism, and set forth the
Chalcedonian Creed, which describes the "full
humanity and full divinity" of Jesus, the second
person of the Holy Trinity.
Christological controversy after Chalcedon
Severus of Antioch (c. 465–518)
Leontius of Jerusalem (working 538–544)
Maximus the Confessor (c. 580–682)
John of Damascus
Iconoclasts and iconophiles
Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople

(patriarch 715–730)
John of Damascus (676–749)
Theodore the Studite (c. 758–c. 826)
A thorough understanding of the Iconoclastic

Period in Byzantium is complicated by the fact
that most of the surviving sources were written
by the ultimate victors in the controversy, the
iconodules. It is thus difficult to obtain a
complete, objective, balanced, and reliably
accurate account of events and various aspects
of the controversy.
As with other doctrinal issues in the Byzantine

period, the controversy was by no means
restricted to the clergy, or to arguments from
theology. The continuing cultural confrontation
with, and military threat from, the Islam
probably had a bearing on the attitudes of both
sides. Iconoclasm seems to have been
supported by many from the East of the Empire, Chapter Eight
and refugees from the provinces taken over by Christian doctrine of the Trinity
the Muslims. It has been suggested that their
strength in the army at the start of the period,
281
The doctrine of the Trinity defines God as three Divine Trinity) was by Theophilus of Antioch in
divine persons or hypostases: the Father, the about 170. He wrote:
Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit; "one God in
In like manner also the three days which were
three persons". The three persons are distinct,
before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity
yet are one "substance, essence or nature". A
[Τριάδος], of God, and His Word, and His
nature is what one is, while a person is who one
wisdom. And the fourth is the type of man, who
is.
needs light, that so there may be God, the
The Trinity is considered to be a mystery of Word, wisdom, man.
Christian faith. According to this doctrine, there
Tertullian, a Latin theologian who wrote in the
is only one God in three persons. Each person is
early 3rd century, is credited as being the first
God, whole and entire. They are distinct from
to use the Latin words "Trinity", "person" and
one another in their relations of origin: as the
"substance" to explain that the Father, Son, and
Fourth Lateran Council declared, "it is the
Holy Spirit are "one in essence—not one in
Father who generates, the Son who is begotten,
Person".
and the Holy Spirit who proceeds". While
distinct in their relations with one another, they History
are one in all else. The whole work of creation
and grace is a single operation common to all Pope Clement I prays to the Trinity, in a typical
three divine persons, who at the same time post-Renaissance depiction by Gianbattista
operate according to their unique properties, so Tiepolo.
that all things are from the Father, through the Trinity of the Church Fathers
Son and in the Holy Spirit. The three persons
are co-equal, co-eternal and consubstantial. The Ante-Nicene Fathers affirmed Christ's deity
and spoke of "Father, Son and Holy Spirit", even
Trinitarianism contrasts with nontrinitarian though their language is not that of the
positions which include Binitarianism (one deity traditional doctrine as formalised in the fourth
in two persons, or two deities), Unitarianism century. Trinitarians view these as elements of
(one deity in one person, analogous to Jewish the codified doctrine. Ignatius of Antioch
interpretation of the Shema and Muslim belief provides early support for the Trinity around
in Tawhid), Oneness Pentecostalism or 110, exhorting obedience to "Christ, and to the
Modalism (one deity manifested in three Father, and to the Spirit". Justin Martyr (AD
separate aspects). 100–c. 165) also writes, "in the name of God,
the English word "trinity" is derived from Latin the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our
trinitas, meaning "the number three, a triad". Saviour Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit". The
This abstract noun is formed from the adjective first of the early church fathers to be recorded
trinus (three each, threefold, triple), as the using the word "Trinity" was Theophilus of
word unitas is the abstract noun formed from Antioch writing in the late 2nd century. He
unus (one). defines the Trinity as God, His Word (Logos) and
His Wisdom (Sophia) in the context of a
The corresponding word in Greek is Τριάς, discussion of the first three days of creation.
meaning "a set of three" or "the number three". The first defence of the doctrine of the Trinity
was in the early 3rd century by the early church
The first recorded use of this Greek word in
father Tertullian. He explicitly defined the
Christian theology (although not about the
Trinity as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and
282
defended the Trinitarian theology against the years of debate, homoousios was recognised as
"Praxean" heresy. the hallmark of orthodoxy, and was further
developed into the formula of "three persons,
Although there is much debate as to whether
one being".
the beliefs of the Apostles were merely
articulated and explained in the Trinitarian Athanasius, who was present at the Council as
Creeds, or were corrupted and replaced with one of the Bishop of Alexandria's assistants,
new beliefs, all scholars recognize that the stated that the bishops were forced to use this
Creeds themselves were created in reaction to terminology, which is not found in Scripture,
disagreements over the nature of the Father, because the biblical phrases that they would
Son, and Holy Spirit. These controversies, have preferred to use were claimed by the
however, were great and many, and took some Arians to be capable of being interpreted in
centuries to be resolved. what the bishops considered to be a heretical
sense. Moreover, the meanings of "ousia" and
Of these controversies, the most significant
"hypostasis" overlapped then, so that
developments were articulated in the first four
"hypostasis" for some meant "essence" and for
centuries by the Church Fathers in reaction to
others "person". Athanasius of Alexandria (293–
Adoptionism, Sabellianism, and Arianism.
373) helped to separate the terms.
Adoptionism was the belief that Jesus was an
ordinary man, born of Joseph and Mary, who The Confession of the Council of Nicaea said
became the Christ and Son of God at his little about the Holy Spirit. The doctrine of the
baptism. In 269, the Synods of Antioch divinity and personality of the Holy Spirit was
condemned Paul of Samosata for his developed by Athanasius in the last decades of
Adoptionist theology, and also condemned the his life.[30] He defended and refined the Nicene
term homoousios (ὁμοούσιος, "of the same formula. By the end of the 4th century, under
being") in the sense he used it. the leadership of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of
Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus (the
Sabellianism taught that the Father, the Son,
Cappadocian Fathers), the doctrine had reached
and the Holy Spirit are essentially one and the
substantially its current form.
same, the difference being simply verbal,
describing different aspects or roles of a single Theology
being. For this view Sabellius was
excommunicated for heresy in Rome c. 220.
Trinitarian baptismal formula
In the fourth century, Arianism, as traditionally
understood, taught that the Father existed prior In the synoptic Gospels the baptism of Jesus is
to the Son who was not, by nature, God but often interpreted as a manifestation of all three
rather a changeable creature who was granted persons of the Trinity: "And when Jesus was
the dignity of becoming "Son of God". In 325, baptized, he went up immediately from the
the Council of Nicaea adopted the Nicene Creed water, and behold, the heavens were opened
which described Christ as "God of God, Light of and he saw the spirit of God descending like a
Light, very God of very God, begotten, not dove, and alighting on him; and lo, a voice from
made, being of one substance with the Father". heaven, saying, 'This is my beloved Son, with
The creed used the term homoousios (of one whom I am well pleased.'"[Mt 3:16–17] Baptism
substance) to define the relationship between is generally conferred with the Trinitarian
the Father and the Son. After more than fifty formula, "in the name of the Father, and of the
283
Son, and of the Holy Spirit".[Mt 28:19] Monotheism

Trinitarians identify this name with the Christian
Christianity, having emerged from Judaism, is a
faith into which baptism is an initiation, as seen
monotheistic religion. Never in the New
for example in the statement of Basil the Great
Testament does the Trinitarian concept become
(330–379): "We are bound to be baptized in the
a "tritheism" (three Gods) nor even two. God is
terms we have received, and to profess faith in
one, and that the Godhead is a single being is
the terms in which we have been baptized." The
strongly declared in the Bible:
First Council of Constantinople (381) also says,
"This is the Faith of our baptism that teaches us The Shema of the Hebrew Scriptures: "Hear, O
to believe in the Name of the Father, of the Son Israel: the LORD our God, the LORD is
and of the Holy Spirit. According to this Faith one."[Deut 6:4]
there is one Godhead, Power, and Being of the
Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." The first of the Ten Commandments—"Thou
Matthew 28:19 may be taken to indicate that shalt have no other gods before me."[5:7]
baptism was associated with this formula from And "Thus saith the LORD the King of Israel and
the earliest decades of the Church's existence. his redeemer the LORD of hosts: I am the first
Nontrinitarian groups, such as Oneness and I am the last; and beside me there is no
Pentecostals, demur from the Trinitarian view God."[Isa 44:6]
on baptism. For them, the omission of the In the New Testament: "The Lord our God is
formula in Acts outweighs all other one."[Mk 12:29]
considerations, and is a liturgical guide for their
own practice. For this reason, they often focus In the Trinitarian view, the Father and the Son
on the baptisms in Acts, citing many and the Holy Ghost share the one essence,
authoritative theological works. Those who substance or being. The central and crucial
place great emphasis on the baptisms in Acts affirmation of Christian faith is that there is one
often likewise question the authenticity of savior, God, and one salvation, manifest in Jesus
Matthew 28:19 in its present form. Most Christ, to which there is access only because of
scholars of New Testament textual criticism the Holy Spirit. The God of the Old Testament is
accept the authenticity of the passage, since still the same as the God of the New. In
there are no variant manuscripts regarding the Christianity, statements about a single God are
formula, and the extant form of the passage is intended to distinguish the Hebraic
attested in the Didache. understanding from the polytheistic view, which
see divine power as shared by several beings,
Commenting on Matthew 28:19, Gerhard Kittel beings which can and do disagree and have
states: conflicts with each other.
This threefold relation [of Father, Son and God in three persons
Spirit] soon found fixed expression in the triadic
formulae in 2 Cor. 13:14 and in 1 Cor. 12:4–6. In Trinitarian doctrine, God exists as three
The form is first found in the baptismal formula persons or hypostases, but is one being, having
in Matthew 28:19; Did., 7. 1 and 3....[I]t is self- a single divine nature. The members of the
evident that Father, Son and Spirit are here Trinity are co-equal and co-eternal, one in
linked in an indissoluble threefold relationship. essence, nature, power, action, and will. As
stated in the Athanasian Creed, the Father is
One God uncreated, the Son is uncreated, and the Holy
284
Spirit is uncreated, and all three are eternal concept refers for its basis to John 14–17,
with no beginning. "The Father and the Son and where Jesus is instructing the disciples
the Holy Spirit" are not names for different concerning the meaning of his departure. His
parts of God, but one name for God because going to the Father, he says, is for their sake; so
three persons exist in God as one entity. They that he might come to them when the "other
cannot be separate from one another. Each comforter" is given to them. Then, he says, his
person is understood as having the identical disciples will dwell in him, as he dwells in the
essence or nature, not merely similar natures. Father, and the Father dwells in him, and the
Father will dwell in them. This is so, according
God has always loved, and there has always
to the theory of perichoresis, because the
existed perfectly harmonious communion
persons of the Trinity "reciprocally contain one
between the three persons of the Trinity. One
another, so that one permanently envelopes
consequence of this teaching is that God could
and is permanently enveloped by, the other
not have created man to have someone to talk
whom he yet envelopes". (Hilary of Poitiers,
to or to love: God "already" enjoyed personal
Concerning the Trinity 3:1).
communion; being perfect, he did not create
man because of a lack or inadequacy he had. Perichoresis effectively excludes the idea that
Another consequence, according to Rev. Fr. God has parts, but rather is a simple being. It
Thomas Hopko, an Eastern Orthodox also harmonizes well with the doctrine that the
theologian, is that if God were not a Trinity, he Christian's union with the Son in his humanity
could not have loved prior to creating other brings him into union with one who contains in
beings on whom to bestow his love. Thus God himself, in the Apostle Paul's words, "all the
says, "Let us make man in our image, in our fullness of deity" and not a part. (See also:
likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the Divinization (Christian)). Perichoresis provides
sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, an intuitive figure of what this might mean. The
over all the earth, and over all the creatures Son, the eternal Word, is from all eternity the
that move along the ground. So God created dwelling place of God; he is the "Father's
man in his own image, in the image of God he house", just as the Son dwells in the Father and
created him; male and female he created the Spirit; so that, when the Spirit is "given",
them."[Gen 1:26–7] For Trinitarians, emphasis then it happens as Jesus said, "I will not leave
in Genesis 1:26 is on the plurality in the Deity, you as orphans; for I will come to you."[John
and in 1:27 on the unity of the divine Essence. A 14:18]
possible interpretation of Genesis 1:26 is that
According to the words of Jesus, married
God's relationships in the Trinity are mirrored in
persons are in some sense no longer two but
man by the ideal relationship between husband
are joined into one. Therefore, Orthodox
and wife, two persons becoming one flesh, as
theologians also see the marriage relationship
described in Eve's creation later in the next
between a man and a woman to be an example
chapter.[2:22]
of this sacred union. "Therefore shall a man
Perichoresis leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave
unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh." Gen.
Perichoresis from Greek ("going around",
2:24. "Wherefore they are no more twain but
"envelopment") is a term used by some
one flesh. What therefore God hath joined
theologians to describe the relationship
together, let no man put asunder." Matt. 19: 6
between the members of the Trinity. The Latin
equivalent for this term is circumincessio. This Eternal generation and procession
285
is usually not controversial among them

because their conception is often less exact
Trinitarianism affirms that the Son is "begotten"
than is discussed above[citation needed]
(or "generated") of the Father and that the
(exceptions being the Presbyterian Westminster
Spirit "proceeds" from the Father, but the
Confession 2:3, the London Baptist Confession
Father is "neither begotten nor proceeds". The
2:3, and the Lutheran Augsburg Confession 1:1–
argument over whether the Spirit proceeds
6, which specifically address those issues).
from the Father alone, or from the Father and
the Son, was one of the catalysts of the Great Economic and ontological Trinity
Schism, in this case concerning the Western
The economic Trinity refers to the acts of the
addition of the Filioque clause to the Nicene
triune God with respect to the creation, history,
Creed. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that,
salvation, the formation of the Church, the daily
in the sense of the Latin verb procedere (which
lives of believers, etc. and describes how the
does not have to indicate ultimate origin and is
Trinity operates within history in terms of the
therefore compatible with proceeding through),
roles or functions performed by each Person of
but not in that of the Greek verb ἐκπορεύεσθαι
the Trinity—God's relationship with creation.
(which implies ultimate origin), the Spirit
The ontological (or essential or immanent)
"proceeds" from the Father and the Son, and
Trinity speaks of the interior life of the Trinity
the Eastern Orthodox Church, which teaches
[John 1:1–2]—the reciprocal relationships of
that the Spirit "proceeds" from the Father
Father, Son, and Spirit to each other without
alone, has made no statement on the claim of a
reference to God's relationship with creation.
difference in meaning between the two words,
one Greek and one Latin, both of which are The ancient Nicene theologians argued that
translated as "proceeds". The Eastern Orthodox everything the Trinity does is done by Father,
Churches object to the Filioque clause on Son, and Spirit working in unity with one will.
ecclesiological and theological grounds, holding The three persons of the Trinity always work
that "from the Father" means "from the Father inseparably, for their work is always the work of
alone". the one God. Because of this unity of will, the
Trinity cannot involve the eternal subordination
This language is often considered difficult
of the Son to the Father. Eternal subordination
because, if used regarding humans or other
can only exist if the Son's will is at least
created things, it would imply time and change;
conceivably different from the Father's. But
when used here, no beginning, change in being,
Nicene orthodoxy says it is not. The Son's will
or process within time is intended and is
cannot be different from the Father's because it
excluded. The Son is generated ("born" or
is the Father's. They have but one will as they
"begotten"), and the Spirit proceeds, eternally.
have but one being. Otherwise they would not
Augustine of Hippo explains, "Thy years are one
be one God. If there were relations of command
day, and Thy day is not daily, but today;
and obedience between the Father and the Son,
because Thy today yields not to tomorrow, for
there would be no Trinity at all but rather three
neither does it follow yesterday. Thy today is
gods. On this point St. Basil observes "When
eternity; therefore Thou begat the Co-eternal,
then He says, 'I have not spoken of myself', and
to whom Thou saidst, 'This day have I begotten
again, 'As the Father said unto me, so I speak',
Thee.'"[Ps 2:7]
and 'The word which ye hear is not mine, but
Most Protestant groups that use the creed also [the Father's] which sent me', and in another
include the Filioque clause. However, the issue place, 'As the Father gave me commandment,
286
even so I do', it is not because He lacks Chapter Nine

deliberate purpose or power of initiation, nor
Christian Reformation
yet because He has to wait for the preconcerted
key-note, that he employs language of this kind.
His object is to make it plain that His own will is The Protestant Reformation was the schism
connected in indissoluble union with the Father. within Western Christianity initiated by John
Do not then let us understand by what is called Wycliffe, Jan Hus, Martin Luther, John Calvin,
a 'commandment' a peremptory mandate and other early Protestants. It was sparked by
delivered by organs of speech, and giving orders the 1517 posting of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses.
to the Son, as to a subordinate, concerning The efforts of the self-described "reformers",
what He ought to do. Let us rather, in a sense who objected to ("protested") the doctrines,
befitting the Godhead, perceive a transmission rituals, leadership, and ecclesiastical structure
of will, like the reflexion of an object in a mirror, of the Roman Catholic Church, led to the
passing without note of time from Father to creation of new national Protestant churches.
Son." The Reformation was precipitated by earlier
events within Europe, such as the Black Death
and the Western Schism, which eroded people's
faith in the Catholic Church and the Papacy that
governed it. This, as well as many other factors,
such as the spread of Renaissance ideas, the
spread of the printing press, and the fall of the
Eastern Roman Empire, contributed to the
creation of Protestantism.
The Roman Catholic Church responded with a

Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of
Trent and spearheaded by the new order of the
Society of Jesus (Jesuits) specifically organised
to counter the Protestant movement. In
general, Northern Europe, with the exception of
most of Ireland, turned Protestant. Southern
Europe remained Roman Catholic, while fierce
battles which turned into warfare took place in
central Europe.
The first of the new churches was the Unitas

Fratrum (Unity of the Brethren) dating their
origins to Jan Hus in the early 15th century. The
largest of the new churches were the Lutherans
(mostly in Germany, the Baltics and
Scandinavia) and the Reformed churches
(mostly in Germany, France, Switzerland, the
Netherlands and Scotland). There were many
smaller bodies such as the Free Christians, as
well.
287
Although there had been a reformation sacraments, the mandatory clerical celibacy,
movement significantly predating Luther, the monasticism, further on the authority of the
most common dating of the Protestant Pope, the ecclesiastical Ban (Law), Censure and
Reformation begins in 1517, when Luther Excommunication, the prerogatives of the
published The Ninety-Five Theses, and secular rulers in religious matters (To the
concludes in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia Christian Nobility of the German Nation), the
that ended years of European religious wars. Freedom of a Christian, Good Works, and the
sacraments (On the Babylonian Captivity of the
Church). In the event, other religious reformers,
The Reformation began as an attempt to reform such as Ulrich Zwingli, soon followed Martin
the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who Luther's example.
opposed what they perceived as false doctrines
The reformers soon disagreed among
and ecclesiastic malpractice—especially the
themselves and divided their movement
teaching and the sale of indulgences or the
according to doctrinal differences—first
abuses thereof, and simony, the selling and
between Luther and Zwingli, later between
buying of clerical offices—that the reformers
Luther and John Calvin—consequently resulting
saw as evidence of the systemic corruption of
in the establishment of different and rival
the Church's Roman Catholic Church hierarchy,
Denominations, such as the Lutheran, the
which included the Pope.
Reformed, the Puritans, and the Presbyterian.
In Germany, reformation ideals developed in Elsewhere, the religious reformation causes,
1517-1521 when Martin Luther expressed processes, and effects were different;
doubts over the legitimacy of indulgences and Anglicanism arose in England with the English
the plenitudo potestatis of the pope. Martin Reformation, and most Protestant
Luther's excommunication on 3 January 1521, denominations derive from the Germanic
from the Catholic Church, was a main cause for denominations. The reformers also accelerated
the Protestant Reformation. the development of the Counter-Reformation
by the Catholic Church.
Martin Luther's spiritual predecessors included
John Wycliffe and Jan Hus, who likewise had History and origins
attempted to reform the Roman Catholic
Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum
Church. The Protestant Reformation began the
(Unity of the Brethren), Moravian Church
All Hallows' Eve of 31 October 1517, in
(Bohemian Brethren) date their origins to Jan
Wittenberg, Electorate of Saxony, where Martin
Hus in the early 15th century. As it was led by a
Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses on the
Bohemian noble majority, and recognised, for a
Power and Efficacy of Indulgences to the door
time, by the Basel Compacts, the Hussite
of the Castle Church, in Wittenberg. The theses
Reformation was Europe's first "Magisterial
debated and criticised the Church and the Pope,
Reformation" because the ruling magistrates
but concentrated upon the selling of
supported them; unlike the "Radical
indulgences and doctrinal policies about
Reformation", which the State did not support.
purgatory, particular judgment, and the
One hundred years later, in Germany the
authority of the Pope. He would later in the
protests erupted simultaneously, whilst under
period 1517-1521 write works on the Catholic
threat of Islamic Ottoman invasion ¹, which
devotion to Mary, "The Mother of God", the
especially distracted the German princes
intercession of and devotion to the saints, the
responsible for military defence. Mainline
288
Protestants generally date their doctrinal children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia,
separation from the Roman Catholic Church to by at least two mistresses. Fourteen years after
the 16th century. his death, the corruption of the papacy that
Pope Alexander VI exemplified—particularly the
History of Protestantism
sale of indulgences—prompted Luther to write
Earlier schisms The Ninety-Five Theses, which he nailed to the
door of a church at Wittenberg in Saxony.
Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western
Christianity (1378–1416) excited wars between 16th century
princes, uprisings among the peasants, and
Martin Luther initiated the Protestant
widespread concern over corruption in the
Reformation in 1517
church. New perspectives came from John
Wycliffe at Oxford University, then from Jan Hus The protests against the corruption emanating
at the University of Prague. Hus objected to from Rome began in earnest when Martin
some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Luther, an Augustinian monk at the university of
Church and wanted to return the church in Wittenberg, called in 1517 for a reopening of
Bohemia and Moravia to early Byzantine- the debate on the sale of indulgences and the
inspired practices: liturgy in the language of the authority to absolve sin and remit one from
people (i.e. Czech), having lay people receive purgatory. The Reformation was born of
communion in both kinds (bread and wine - Luther's dual declaration – first, the discovering
that is, in Latin, communio sub utraque specie), of Jesus and salvation by faith alone; and
married priests, and eliminating indulgences second, identifying the Papacy as the Antichrist.
and the idea of Purgatory. Jan Hus rejected The reformers were unanimous in agreement
indulgences and adopted a doctrine of and this understanding of prophecy furnished
justification by grace through faith alone. The importance to their deeds. It was the rallying
Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this point and the battle cry that made the
debate at the Council of Constance (1414– Reformation nearly unassailable. The Reformers
1417). The conclave condemned Jan Hus, who made heavy use of inexpensive pamphlets
was executed by burning in spite of a promise (using the relatively new printing press invented
of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously by Johannes Gutenberg) so there was swift
burned as a heretic. movement of both ideas and documents,
including The Ninety-Five Theses.
The Council of Constance confirmed and
strengthened the traditional medieval Parallel to events in Germany, a movement
conception of church and empire. It did not began in Switzerland under the leadership of
address the national tensions, or the theological Ulrich Zwingli. These two movements quickly
tensions stirred up during the previous century. agreed on most issues, but some unresolved
The council could not prevent schism and the differences kept them separate. Some followers
Hussite Wars in Bohemia. of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was
too conservative, and moved independently
Sixtus IV (1471–1484) established the practice
toward more radical positions, some of which
of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead,
survive among modern day Anabaptists. Other
thereby establishing a new stream of revenue
Protestant movements grew up along lines of
with agents across Europe. Pope Alexander VI
mysticism or humanism, sometimes breaking
(1492–1503) was one of the most controversial
of the Renaissance Popes. He fathered seven
289
from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming English national church proceeded more
outside of the churches. conservatively than elsewhere in Europe.
Reformers in the Church of England accepted
Protestant doctrine but the structure of the
church ministry remained, and the Church
alternated, for centuries, between sympathies
Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses for older traditions and radical Protestantism
After this first stage of the Reformation, represented by the puritans, progressively
following the excommunication of Luther and forging a compromise between adherence to
condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, ancient tradition and Protestantism. In the
the work and writings of John Calvin were Victorian period John Henry Newman
influential in establishing a loose consensus reinterpreted this as the establishment of a via
among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, media.
Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. Literacy
The Reformation foundations engaged with Matin Luther's 1534 Bible translated into
Augustinianism. Both Luther and Calvin thought German
along lines linked with the theological teachings
of Augustine of Hippo. The Augustinianism of The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and
the Reformers struggled against Pelagianism, a the new printing press.[1] Luther's translation
heresy that they perceived in the Roman of the Bible into German was a decisive
Catholic Church of their day. In the course of moment in the spread of literacy, and
this religious upheaval, the German Peasants' stimulated as well the printing and distribution
War of 1524–1525 swept through the Bavarian, of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517
Thuringian and Swabian principalities, including onward, religious pamphlets flooded Germany
the Black Company of Florian Geier, a knight and much of Europe.
from Giebelstadt who joined the peasants in
By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known,
the general outrage against the Roman Catholic
with a total of ten million copies. The
hierarchy. Martin Luther, however, condemned
Reformation was thus a media revolution.
the revolt, thus contributing to its eventual
Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by
defeat. Some 100,000 peasants were killed.
depicting a "good" against "bad" church. From
Even though Luther and Calvin had very similar there, it became clear that print could be used
theological teachings, the relationship between for propaganda in the Reformation for
their followers turned quickly to conflict. particular agendas. Reform writers used pre-
Frenchman Michel de Montaigne told a story of Reformation styles, clichés, and stereotypes and
a Lutheran pastor who declared over dinner changed items as needed for their own
that he would rather hear a hundred masses purposes. Especially effective were writings in
than take part in one of Calvin's sacraments. German, including Luther's translation of the
Bible, his Small Catechism for parents teaching
The political separation of the Church of their children, and his Larger Catechism, for
England from Rome under Henry VIII, beginning pastors.
in 1529 and completed in 1536, brought
England alongside this broad Reformed Using the German vernacular they expressed
movement. However, religious changes in the the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal,
Trinitarian language. Illustrations in the German
290
Bible and in many tracts popularised Luther's now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which
ideas. Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553), the has become infamous for its complete failure.
great painter patronised by the electors of The two men could not come to any agreement
Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and due to their disputation over one key doctrine.
illustrated Luther's theology for a popular Although Luther preached consubstantiation in
audience. He dramatised Luther's views on the the Eucharist over transubstantiation, he
relationship between the Old and New believed in the spiritual presence of Christ at
Testaments, while remaining mindful of the mass. Zwingli believed that the mass was
Luther's careful distinctions about proper and only representative and memorial – Christ was
improper uses of visual imagery. not present. Luther became so angry that he
famously carved into the meeting table 'Hoc Est
Reformation outside Germany
Corpus Meum' – a Biblical quotation from the
Switzerland Last Supper meaning 'this is my body'. Some
followers of Zwingli believed that the
Reformation in Switzerland Reformation was too conservative, and moved
Ulrich Zwingli independently toward more radical positions,
some of which survive among modern day
Huldrych Zwingli Anabaptists. One famous incident illustrating
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement this was when radical Zwinglians fried and ate
began in the Swiss Confederation under the sausages during Lent in Zurich city square by
leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a way of protest against the Church teaching of
scholar and preacher who moved to Zurich – good works. Other Protestant movements grew
the then-leading city state – in 1518, a year up along lines of mysticism or humanism (cf.
after Martin Luther began the Reformation in Erasmus), sometimes breaking from Rome or
Germany with his 95 Theses. Although the two from the Protestants, or forming outside of the
movements agreed on many issues of theology, churches.
as the recently introduced printing press spread John Calvin
ideas rapidly from place to place, some
unresolved differences kept them separate. A Following the excommunication of Luther and
long-standing resentment between the German condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope,
states and the Swiss Confederation led to the work and writings of John Calvin were
heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his influential in establishing a loose consensus
ideas to Lutheranism. Although Zwinglianism among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland,
does hold uncanny resemblance to Lutheranism Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the
(it even had its own equivalent of the 95 expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the
Theses, called the 67 Conclusions), historians unsuccessful attempts of the Berne reformer
have been unable to prove that Zwingli had any Guillaume (William) Farel, Calvin was asked to
contact with Luther's publications before 1520, use the organisational skill he had gathered as a
and Zwingli himself maintained that he had student of law to discipline the 'fallen city' of
prevented himself from reading them. The Geneva. His 'Ordinances' of 1541 involved a
German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in collaboration of Church affairs with the City
creating an alliance between Zwingli and council and consistory to bring morality to all
Luther, seeing strength in a united Protestant areas of life. After the establishment of the
front. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the
291
unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, churches and taught in the schools—effectively
providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all granting official sanction to Lutheran ideas.
over Europe and educating them as Calvinist
Under the reign of Frederick I (1523–33),
missionaries. These missionaries dispersed
Denmark remained officially Roman Catholic.
Calvinism widely, and formed the French
But though Frederick initially pledged to
Huguenots in Calvin's own lifetime, as well as
persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy
causing the conversion of Scotland under the
of protecting Lutheran preachers and
leadership of the cantankerous John Knox in
reformers, of whom the most famous was Hans
1560. The faith continued to spread after
Tausen. During his reign, Lutheranism made
Calvin's death in 1563 and reached as far as
significant inroads among the Danish
Constantinople by the start of the 17th century.
population. Frederick's son, Christian, was
The Reformation foundations engaged with openly Lutheran, which prevented his election
Augustinianism. Both Luther and Calvin thought to the throne upon his father's death. In 1536,
along lines linked with the theological teachings the authority of the Roman Catholic bishops
of Augustine of Hippo. The Augustinianism of was terminated by national assembly. The next
the Reformers struggled against Pelagianism, a year, following his victory in the Count's War,
heresy that they perceived in the Roman he became king as Christian III and continued
Catholic Church of their day. Unfortunately, the reformation of the state church with
since Calvin and Luther disagreed strongly on assistance of Johannes Bugenhagen.
certain matters of theology (such as double-
English Reformation
predestination and Holy Communion), the
relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists Elizabeth I, Queen of England and Ireland.
was one of conflict.
This section does not cite any references or
Scandinavia sources. Please help improve this section by
All of Scandinavia ultimately adopted
material may be challenged and removed.
Lutheranism over the course of the 16th
(February 2013)
century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also
ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who The separation of the Church of England (or
also ruled Finland) converted to that faith. Anglican Church) from Rome under Henry VIII,
beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537,
In Sweden, the Reformation was spearheaded
brought England alongside this broad
by Gustav Vasa, elected king in 1523. Friction
Reformation movement; however, religious
with the pope over the latter's interference in
changes in the English national church
Swedish ecclesiastical affairs led to the
proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere
discontinuance of any official connection
in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England
between Sweden and the papacy from 1523.
alternated, for centuries, between sympathies
Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the
for ancient Catholic tradition and more
king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his
Reformed principles, gradually developing into
dominion over the national church. The king
a tradition considered a middle way (via media)
was given possession of all church property,
between the Roman Catholic and Protestant
church appointments required royal approval,
traditions.
the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the
"pure Word of God" was to be preached in the
292
The English Reformation followed a different created made for a powerful force in support of
course from the Reformation in continental the dissolutions.
Europe. There had long been a strong strain of
There were some notable opponents to the
anti-clericalism and England had already given
Henrician Reformation, such as St. Thomas
rise to the Lollard movement of John Wycliffe,
More and Bishop St. John Fisher, who were
which played an important part in inspiring the
executed for their opposition. There was also a
Hussites in Bohemia. Lollardy was suppressed
growing party of reformers who were imbued
and became an underground movement, so the
with the Zwinglian and Calvinistic doctrines now
extent of its influence in the 1520s is difficult to
current on the Continent. When Henry died he
assess. The different character of the English
was succeeded by his Protestant son Edward VI,
Reformation came rather from the fact that it
who, through his empowered councillors (with
was driven initially by the political necessities of
the King being only nine years old at his
Henry VIII.
succession and not yet sixteen at his death) the
Henry had once been a sincere Roman Catholic Duke of Somerset and the Duke of
and had even authored a book strongly Northumberland, ordered the destruction of
criticising Luther, but he later found it images in churches, and the closing of the
expedient and profitable to break with the chantries. Under Edward VI the reform of the
Papacy. His wife, Catherine of Aragon, bore him Church of England was established
only a single child that survived infancy, Mary. unequivocally in doctrinal terms.
As England had recently gone through a lengthy
Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was
dynastic conflict (see Wars of the Roses), Henry
still in a state of flux. Following a brief Roman
feared that his lack of a male heir might
Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary
jeopardise his descendants' claim to the throne.
1553–1558, a loose consensus developed
However, Pope Clement VII, concentrating
during the reign of Elizabeth I, though this point
more on Charles V's sack of Rome, denied his
is one of considerable debate among historians.
request for an annulment. Had Clement granted
Yet it is this "Elizabethan Religious Settlement"
the annulment and therefore admitted that his
which largely formed Anglicanism into a
predecessor, Julius II, had erred, Clement would
distinctive church tradition. The compromise
have given support to the Lutheran assertion
was uneasy and was capable of veering
that Popes replaced their own judgment for the
between extreme Calvinism on the one hand
will of God.
and Roman Catholicism on the other, but
King Henry decided to remove the Church of compared to the bloody and chaotic state of
England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively
the Act of Supremacy made Henry the Supreme successful until the Puritan Revolution or
Head of the Church of England. Between 1535 English Civil War in the 17th century.
and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy
Puritan and English Civil War
known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries
was put into effect. The veneration of some
saints, certain pilgrimages and some pilgrim
shrines were also attacked. Huge amounts of This section needs additional citations for
church land and property passed into the hands verification. Please help improve this article by
of the Crown and ultimately into those of the adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
nobility and gentry. The vested interest thus material may be challenged and removed.
(February 2013)
293
The success of the Counter-Reformation on the legitimised their colony, allowing them to do
Continent and the growth of a Puritan party trade and commerce with merchants in
dedicated to further Protestant reform England, in accordance with the principles of
polarised the Elizabethan Age, although it was mercantilism. This successful, though initially
not until the '40s that England underwent quite difficult, colony marked the beginning of
religious strife comparable to what its the Protestant presence in America (the earlier
neighbours had suffered some generations French, Spanish and Portuguese settlements
before. had been Roman Catholic), and became a kind
of oasis of spiritual and economic freedom, to
The early Puritan movement (late 16th–17th
which persecuted Protestants and other
centuries) was Reformed or Calvinist and was a
minorities from the British Isles and Europe
movement for reform in the Church of England.
(and later, from all over the world) fled to for
Its origins lay in the discontent with the
peace, freedom and opportunity. The Pilgrims
Elizabethan Religious Settlement. The desire
of New England disapproved of Christmas and
was for the Church of England to resemble
celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659
more closely the Protestant churches of Europe,
to 1681. The ban was revoked in 1681 by Sir
especially Geneva. The Puritans objected to
Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan
ornaments and ritual in the churches as
ban against festivities on Saturday night.
idolatrous (vestments, surplices, organs,
Despite the removal of the ban, it wouldn't be
genuflection), which they castigated as "popish
until the middle of the 19th century that
pomp and rags". (See Vestments controversy.)
Christmas would become a popular holiday in
They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. They
the Boston region.
refused to endorse completely all of the ritual
directions and formulas of the Book of Common The original intent of the colonists was to
Prayer; the imposition of its liturgical order by establish spiritual Puritanism, which had been
legal force and inspection sharpened Puritanism denied to them in England and the rest of
into a definite opposition movement. Europe, to engage in peaceful commerce with
England and the native American Indians, and
The later Puritan movement were often
to Christianize the peoples of the Americas.
referred to as dissenters and nonconformists
and eventually led to the formation of various Scotland
reformed denominations.
John Knox
The most famous and well-known emigration to
The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated
America was the migration of the Puritan
ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church
separatists from the Anglican Church of
along reformed lines, and politically in the
England, who fled first to Holland, and then
triumph of English influence over that of France.
later to America, to establish the English colony
John Knox is regarded as the leader of the
of Massachusetts in New England, which later
Scottish reformation
became one of the original United States.
The Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated
These Puritan separatists were also known as
the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction
"the Pilgrims". After establishing a colony at
Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the mass
Plymouth (which became part of the colony of
and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith.
Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims
It was made possible by a revolution against
received a charter from the King of England that
French hegemony under the regime of the
294
regent Mary of Guise, who had governed kingdom's stability. This led to the first major
Scotland in the name of her absent daughter phase of anti-Protestant persecution in France,
Mary, Queen of Scots (then also Queen of in which the Chambre Ardente ("Burning
France). Chamber") was established within the
Parlement of Paris to deal with the rise in
The Scottish reformation decisively shaped the
prosecutions for heresy. Several thousand
Church of Scotland and, through it, all other
French Protestants fled the country during this
Presbyterian churches worldwide.
time, most notably John Calvin, who settled in
A spiritual revival also broke out among Roman Geneva.
Catholics soon after Martin Luther's actions,
Calvin continued to take an interest in the
and led to the Scottish Covenanters' movement,
religious affairs of his native land and, from his
the precursor to Scottish Presbyterianism. This
base in Geneva, beyond the reach of the French
movement spread, and greatly influenced the
king, regularly trained pastors to lead
formation of Puritanism among the Anglican
congregations in France. Despite heavy
Church in England. The Scottish covenanters
persecution by Henry II, the Reformed Church
were persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church.
of France, largely Calvinist in direction, made
This persecution by the Catholics drove some of
steady progress across large sections of the
the Protestant covenanter leadership out of
nation, in the urban bourgeoisie and parts of
Scotland, and into France and later,
the aristocracy, appealing to people alienated
Switzerland.
by the obduracy and the complacency of the
France Catholic establishment.
Huguenot, Reformed Church of France, and French Protestantism, though its appeal
French Wars of Religion increased under persecution, came to acquire a
distinctly political character, made all the more
Although a Roman Catholic clergyman himself, obvious by the noble conversions of the 1550s.
Cardinal Richelieu allied France with Protestant This had the effect of creating the preconditions
states. for a series of destructive and intermittent
Protestantism also spread into France, where conflicts, known as the Wars of Religion. The
the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots, civil wars were helped along by the sudden
and this eventually led to decades of civil death of Henry II in 1559, which began a
warfare. prolonged period of weakness for the French
crown. Atrocity and outrage became the
Though he was not personally interested in defining characteristic of the time, illustrated at
religious reform, Francis I (1515–47) initially its most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day
maintained an attitude of tolerance, arising massacre of August 1572, when the Roman
from his interest in the humanist movement. Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and
This changed in 1534 with the Affair of the 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars
Placards. In this act, Protestants denounced the only concluded when Henry IV, himself a former
Catholic Mass in placards that appeared across Huguenot, issued the Edict of Nantes, promising
France, even reaching the royal apartments. official toleration of the Protestant minority,
The issue of religious faith having been thrown but under highly restricted conditions. Roman
into the arena of politics, Francis was prompted Catholicism remained the official state religion,
to view the movement as a threat to the and the fortunes of French Protestants
295
gradually declined over the next century,

culminating in Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau
—which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made
Roman Catholicism the sole legal religion of
France. In response to the Edict of
Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of
Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam,
giving free passage to Huguenot refugees, and
tax-free status to them for ten years.
In the late 17th century, many Huguenots fled

to England, the Netherlands, Prussia,
Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas
colonies. A significant community in France
remained in the Cévennes region. A separate
Protestant community, of the Lutheran faith,
Chapter Ten
existed in the newly conquered province of Christian Symbolism
Alsace, its status not affected by the Edict of
Fontaineblea. Christian symbolism is the use of symbols,
including archetypes, acts, artwork or events,
by Christianity. It invests objects or actions with
an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas.
The symbolism of the early Church was

characterized by being understood by initiates
only, while after the legalization of Christianity
in the 4th-century more recognizable symbols
entered in use. Christianity has borrowed from
the common stock of significant symbols known
to most periods and to all regions of the world.
Christianity has not generally practised

Aniconism, or the avoidance or prohibition of
types of images, even if the early Jewish
Christians sects, as well as some modern
denominations, preferred to some extent not to
use figures in their symbols, by invoking the
Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry.
The cross, which is today one of the most

widely recognised symbols in the world, was
used as a symbol from the earliest times. This is
indicated in the anti-Christian arguments cited
in the Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapters IX
and XXIX, written at the end of the 2. century
(cited as AD 197) or the beginning of the next,
296
By the early 3rd century the cross had become Symbolism as it developed in the Middle Ages in
so closely associated with Christ that Clement of Western Europe.
Alexandria, who died between 211 and 216,
Ichthys
could without fear of ambiguity use the phrase
τὸ κυριακὸν σημεῖον (the Lord's sign) to mean Among the symbols employed by the early
the cross, when he repeated the idea, current Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked
as early as the Epistle of Barnabas, that the first in importance. Its popularity among
number 318 (in Greek numerals, ΤΙΗ) in Genesis Christians was due principally to the famous
14:14 was a foreshadowing (a "type") of the acrostic consisting of the initial letters of five
cross (T, an upright with crossbar, standing for Greek words forming the word for fish
300) and of Jesus (ΙΗ, the first two letters of his (Ichthus), which words briefly but clearly
name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, standing for 18). described the character of Christ and the claim
to worship of believers: "Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ
His contemporary Tertullian could designate the
Υἱός, Σωτήρ", (Iēsous Christos, Theou Huios,
body of Christian believers as crucis religiosi, i.e.
Sōtēr), meaning, Jesus Christ, Son of God,
"devotees of the Cross". In his book De Corona,
Saviour. This explanation is given among others
written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was
by Augustine in his Civitate Dei, where he also
already a tradition for Christians to trace
notes that the generating sentence "Ίησοῦς
repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the
Χρειστός Θεοῦ Υἱός Σωτήρ" has 27 letters, i.e. 3
cross.
x 3 x 3, which in that age indicated power.
The Jewish Encyclopedia states:
Alpha and Omega Alpha-omega.
The cross as a Christian symbol or "seal" came
The use since the earliest Christianity of the first
into use at least as early as the second century
and the last letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha
(see "Apost. Const." iii. 17; Epistle of Barnabas,
(α or Α) and omega (ω or Ω), derives from the
xi.-xii.; Justin, "Apologia," i. 55-60; "Dial. cum
statement said by Jesus (or God) himself "I am
Tryph." 85-97); and the marking of a cross upon
the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the
the forehead and the chest was regarded as a
Last, the Beginning and the End" (Revelation
talisman against the powers of demons
22:13, also 1:8 and 21:6).
(Tertullian, "De Corona," iii.; Cyprian,
"Testimonies," xi. 21-22; Lactantius, "Divinæ Staurogram Christliche Symbolik (Menzel)
Institutiones," iv. 27, and elsewhere).
Accordingly the Christian Fathers had to defend The Staurogram (meaning monogram of the
themselves, as early as the second century, cross, from the Greek: ΣTAΥPOΣ meaning cross),
against the charge of being worshipers of the or Monogrammatic Cross or Tau-Rho symbol, is
cross, as may be learned from Tertullian, composed by a tau (Τ) superimposed on a rho
"Apologia," xii., xvii., and Minucius Felix, (Ρ). The Staurogram was first used to abbreviate
"Octavius," xxix. Christians used to swear by the the Greek word for cross in very early New
power of the cross. Testament manuscripts such as P66, P45 and
P75, almost like a nomen sacrum.
Although the cross was known to the early
Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use Ephrem the Syrian in the 4th-century explained
until the 5th century. French Medievalist these two united letters stating that the tau
scholar and historian of ideas M.-M. Davy has refers to the cross, and the rho refers to the
described in great details Romanesque Greek word "help" (Greek: Βoηθια) which has
297
the numeric value of 100 as the letter rho has. IX Monogram Christliche Symbolik (Menzel) I
In such a way the symbol expresses the idea 193 4.
that the Cross saves. The two letters tau and
An early form of the monogram of Christ, found
rho can also be found separately as symbols on
in early Christian ossuaries in Palestinia, was
early Christian ossuaries.
formed by superimposing the first (capital)
The tau was considered a symbol of salvation letters of the Greek words for Jesus and Christ,
due to the identification of the tau with the sign i.e. iota Ι and chi Χ, so that this monogram
which in Ezechiel 9:4 was marked on the means "Jesus Christ".[15]:166 Another more
forehead of the saved ones, or due to the tau- complicated explanation of this monogram was
shaped outstretched hands of Moses in Exodus given by Ireneaus[18] and Pachomius: because
17:11. The rho by itself can refer to Christ as the numeric value of iota is 10 and the chi is the
Messiah because Abraham, taken as symbol of initial of the word "Christ" (Greek: XPEIΣTOΣ)
the Messiah, generated Isaac according to a which has 8 letters, these early fathers calculate
promise made by God when he was one 888 ((10*8)*10)+((10*8)+8) which was a
hundred years old, and 100 is the value of number already known to represent Jesus,
rho.:158 being the sum of the value of the letters of the
name "Jesus" (Greek: IHΣΟΥΣ)
The Monogrammatic Cross was later seen also
(10+8+200+70+400+200).[15]:169–170
as a variation of the Chi Rho symbol, and it
spread over Western Europe in the 5th and 6th- Other Christian symbols
century.
Chi Rho Christliche Symbolik (Menzel) I 193

The Good Shepherd
1.jpg
The image of the Good Shepherd, often with a
Chi Rho
sheep on his shoulders, is the most common of
The Chi Rho is formed by superimposing the the symbolic representations of Christ found
first two (capital) letters chi and rho (ΧΡ) of the the Catacombs of Rome, and it is related to the
Greek word "ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ" =Christ in such a way to Parable of the Lost Sheep. Initially it was also
produce the monogram. Widespread in ancient understood as a symbol like others used in Early
Christianity, it was the symbol used by the Christian art. By about the 5th century the
Roman emperor Constantine I as vexillum figure more often took on the appearance of
(named Labarum). the conventional depiction of Christ, as it had
developed by this time, and was given a halo
and rich robes.
The initials of the name of Jesus in Greek, iota
Dove
(Ι) and eta (Η), sometime superimposed one on
the other, or their numeric value 18, was a well Sign of the Dove
known and very early way to represent Christ.
The dove as a Christian symbol is of very
This symbol was already explained in the Epistle
frequent occurrence in ancient ecclesiastical
of Barnabas and by Clement of Alexandria.[5]
art. According to Matthew 3:16, during the
For other christograms such as IHS, see Article
Baptism of Jesus the Holy Spirit descended like
Christogram.
a dove and came to rest on Jesus. For this
reason the dove became a symbol of the Holy
298
Spirit and in general it occurs frequently in symbol of the Passion of Jesus and of the
connection with early representations of Eucharist since about the twelfth century.
baptism. It signifies also the Christian soul, not
Anchor Anchor pictogram
the human soul as such, but as indwelt by the
Holy Spirit; especially, therefore, as freed from The Christians adopted the anchor as a symbol
the toils of the flesh and entered into rest and of hope in future existence because the anchor
glory.[2] The Peristerium or Eucharistic dove was regarded in ancient times as a symbol of
was often used in the past, and sometime still safety. For Christians, Christ is the unfailing
used in Eastern Christianity, as Church hope of all who believe in him: Saint Peter,
tabernacle. Saint Paul, and several of the early Church
Fathers speak in this sense. The Epistle to the
However the more ancient explanation of the
Hebrews 6:19-20 for the first time connects the
dove as a Christian symbol refers to it as a
idea of hope with the symbol of the anchor.
symbol of Christ: Ireneaus in the 2nd-century
explains that the number 801 is both the sum of A fragment of inscription discovered in the
the numeric values of the letters of the word catacomb of St. Domitilla contains the anchor,
"dove" (in Greek: περιστερα) and the sum of and dates from the end of the first century.
the numeric values of the letters Alpha and During the second and third centuries the
Omega, which refers to Christ. In the Bible story anchor occurs frequently in the epitaphs of the
of Noah and the Flood, after the flood a dove catacombs. The most common form of anchor
returns to Noah bringing an olive branch as a found in early Christian images was that in
sign that the water had receded, and this scene which one extremity terminates in a ring
recalled to the Church Fathers Christ who brings adjoining the cross-bar while the other ends in
salvation through the cross. This biblical scene two curved branches or an arrowhead; There
led to interpreting the dove also as a symbol of are, however, many deviations from this form.
peace. In general the anchor can symbolize hope,
steadfastness, calm and composure.
Peacock
Elemental symbols
Ancient people believed that the flesh of a
peafowl did not decay after death, and it so Elemental symbols were widely used by the
became a symbol of immortality. This early Church. Water has specific symbolic
symbolism was adopted by early Christianity, significance for Christians. Outside of baptism,
and thus many early Christian paintings and water may represent cleansing or purity. Fire,
mosaics show the peacock. The peacock is still especially in the form of a candle flame,
used in the Easter season especially in the east. represents both the Holy Spirit and light. The
sources of these symbols derive from the Bible;
A pelican vulning itself.
for example from the tongues of fire that
Pelican symbolized the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, and
from Jesus' description of his followers as the
In medieval Europe, the pelican was thought to
light of the world; or God is a consuming fire
be particularly attentive to her young, to the
found in Hebrews 12.
point of providing her own blood by wounding
her own breast when no other food was Lily crucifix
available. As a result, the pelican became a
299
A lily crucifix is a rare symbol of Anglican Shield of the Trinity (or Scutum Fidei)
churches in England. It depicts Christ crucified
Trefoil
on a lily, or holding such a plant. The symbolism
may be from the medieval belief that the Triquetra
Annunciation of Christ and his crucifixion
occurred on the same day of the year, March Tomb paintings
25.
There are few depictions of a lily crucifix in Christians from the very beginning adorned
England. One of the most notable is a painting their catacombs with paintings of Christ, of the
on a wall above the altar at All Saint's Church, saints, of scenes from the Bible and allegorical
Godshill, Isle of Wight. Other examples include: groups. The catacombs are the cradle of all
An alabaster example on a tomb in St Mary's Christian art. Early Christians accepted the art of
Church, Nottingham. their time and used it, as well as a poor and
persecuted community could, to express their
The Lady Chapel of St Helen's, Abingdon, religious ideas.
Oxfordshire, has a wall painting.
From the second half of the 1st century to the
Five examples are in glass as at Holy Trinity time of Constantine the Great they buried their
Church, Long Melford. dead and celebrated their rites in these
underground chambers. The Christian tombs
At All Saints, Great Glemham, Suffolk, the image
were ornamented with indifferent or symbolic
is on the base of a font.
designs—palms, peacocks, with the chi-rho
At St Mary, Binham, Norfolk, an image in a monogram, with bas-reliefs of Christ as the
bench end may be a lily crucifix. Good Shepherd, or seated between figures of
saints, and sometimes with elaborate scenes
In Tong, Shropshire, St. Bartholomew's choir
from the New Testament.
stall No. 8 depicts a lily crucifix.
Other Christian symbols include the dove
The Church of St John the Baptist, Wellington
(symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb
includes a Lily crucifix in the carving of the
(symbolic of Christ's sacrifice), the vine
centre mullion of the east window of the Lady
(symbolizing the necessary connectedness of
chapel.
the Christian with Christ) and many others.
These all derive from the writings found in the
New Testament. Other decorations that were
The coat of arms of the Anglican diocese of common included garlands, ribands, stars
Trinidad contains several Christian visual landscapes, which had symbolic meanings, as
symbols well.
Christian flag Symbols of Christian Churches
Cross and Crown Sacraments
IHS (monogram) Some of the oldest symbols in the Christian
INRI church are the sacraments, the number of
which vary between denominations. Always
Lamb included are Eucharist and baptism. The others
300
which may or may not be included are Though significant in the history of religious
ordination, unction, confirmation, penance and doctrine, the Byzantine controversy over
marriage. They are together commonly images is not seen as of primary importance in
described as an outward and visible sign of an Byzantine history. "Few historians still hold it to
inward and spiritual grace or, as in the Roman have been the greatest issue of the period..."
Catholic system, "outward signs and media of
The Byzantine Iconoclasm began when images
grace."
were banned by Emperor Leo III the Isaurian
At the very least, the rite is seen as a symbol of sometime between 726 and 730. Under his son
the spiritual change or event that takes place. In Constantine V, a council forbidding image
the Eucharist, the bread and wine are, at the veneration was held at Hieria near
least, symbolic of the broken body and shed Constantinople in 754. Image veneration was
blood of Jesus, and in Roman Catholicism, later reinstated by the Empress Regent Irene,
become the actual Body of Christ and Blood of under whom another council was held reversing
Christ through Transubstantiation, which in turn the decisions of the previous iconoclast council
represent salvation brought to the recipient by and taking its title as Seventh Ecumenical
the death of Jesus. Council. The council anathematized all who held
to iconoclasm, i.e. those who held that
The rite of baptism is, at the least, symbolic of
veneration of images constitutes idolatry. Then
the cleansing of the sinner by God, and,
the ban was enforced again by Leo V in 815.
especially where baptism is by immersion, of
And finally icon veneration was decisively
the spiritual death and resurrection of the
restored by Empress Regent Theodora.
baptized person. Opinion differs as to the
symbolic nature of the sacraments, with some Today icons are used particularly among
Protestant denominations considering them Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Coptic
entirely symbolic, and Roman Catholics, and Eastern Catholic Churches.
Orthodox, Lutherans, and some Reformed
Christians believing that the outward rites truly
do, by the power of God, act as media of grace.
The tomb paintings of the early Christians led to

the development of icons. An icon is an image,
picture, or representation; it is likeness that has
symbolic meaning for an object by signifying or
representing it, or by analogy, as in semiotics.
The use of icons, however, was never without
opposition. It was recorded that, "there is no
century between the fourth and the eighth in
which there is not some evidence of opposition
to images even within the Church.[29]
Nonetheless, popular favor for icons
guaranteed their continued existence, while no
systematic apologia for or against icons, or
doctrinal authorization or condemnation of
icons yet existed.
301
302
Father, later became controversial among

Christian theologians. Origen was declared
anathema in 553 AD by the Second Ecumenical
Council of Constantinople and by three
subsequent ecumenical councils. For this reason
Origen was and is not called a saint in either the
Catholic or Orthodox churches.
Origen was born in Alexandria to Christian

parents. He was educated by his father,
Leonides of Alexandria, who gave him a
standard Hellenistic education, but also had him
study the Christian Scriptures. The name of his
mother is unknown.
In 202, Origen's father was martyred in the

outbreak of the persecution during the reign of
Septimius Severus. A story reported by Eusebius
has it that Origen wished to follow him in
martyrdom, but was prevented only by his
Module Seven the study of mother hiding his clothes. The death of
Early Leonides left the family of nine impoverished
Esoteric/Theological/Spiritual when their property was confiscated. Origen,
however, was taken under the protection of a
teachers of the Christian Faith woman of wealth and standing; but as her
household already included a heretic named
Chapter One Paul, the strictly orthodox Origen seems to have
remained with her only a short time.
Adamantius, Origen
Origen allegedly studied under Clement of
Alexandria and was influenced by his thought.
Adamantius, Origen (/ˈɒrɪdʒən/; Greek: Eusebius, our chief witness to Origen's life, says
Ὠριγένης Ōrigénēs), or Origen Adamantius that in 203 Origen revived the Catechetical
(184/185 – 253/254), was a scholar, early School of Alexandria where Clement of
Christian theologian and Church Father, who Alexandria had once taught but had apparently
was born and spent the first half of his career in been driven out during the persecution under
Alexandria. He was a prolific writer in multiple Severus. Many modern scholars, however,
branches of theology, including textual doubt that Clement's school had been an official
criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, ecclesiastical institution as Origen's was and
philosophical theology, preaching, and thus deny continuity between the two. But the
spirituality. Some of his reputed teachings, such persecution still raged, and the young teacher
as the pre-existence of souls, the final visited imprisoned Christians, attended the
reconciliation of all creatures, including perhaps courts, and comforted the condemned, himself
even the devil (the apokatastasis), and the preserved from persecution because the
subordination of the Son of God to God the persecution was probably limited only to
303
converts to Christianity. His fame and the these circumstances, Origen entrusted the
number of his pupils increased rapidly, so that teaching of the catechumens to Heraclas, the
Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria, made him brother of the martyr Plutarch, his first pupil.
restrict himself to instruction in Christian
His own interests became more and more
doctrine alone.
centered in exegesis, and he accordingly studied
Asceticism and Castration Hebrew, though there is no certain knowledge
concerning his instructor in that language. From
Origen, to be entirely independent, sold his
about this period (212-213) dates Origen's
library for a sum which netted him a daily
acquaintance with Ambrose of Alexandria,
income of 4 obols, on which he lived by
whom he was instrumental in converting from
exercising the utmost frugality. Teaching
Valentinianism to orthodoxy. Later (about 218)
throughout the day, he devoted the greater
Ambrose, a man of wealth, made a formal
part of the night to the study of the Bible and
agreement with Origen to promulgate his
lived a life of rigid asceticism.
writings, and all the subsequent works of
Eusebius reported that Origen, following Origen (except his sermons, which were not
Matthew 19:12 literally, castrated himself.[8] expressly prepared for publication) were
This story was accepted during the Middle Ages dedicated to Ambrose.
and was cited by Peter Abelard in his letters to
In 213 or 214, Origen visited Arabia at the
Heloise.[9] Edward Gibbon, in his work The
request of the prefect, who wished to have an
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
interview with him; and Origen accordingly
Empire, also accepts this story as true. During
spent a brief time in Petra, after which he
the past century, scholars have often
returned to Alexandria. In the following year, a
questioned this, surmising that this may have
popular uprising at Alexandria caused Caracalla
been a rumor circulated by his detractors.
to let his soldiers plunder the city, shut the
Henry Chadwick points out that, while the story
schools, and expel all foreigners. The latter
may be true, it seems unlikely, given that
measure caused Ambrose to take refuge in
Origen's exposition of Matthew 19:12 "strongly
Caesarea, where he seems to have made his
deplored any literal interpretation of the
permanent home; and Origen left Egypt,
words". However, many noted historians, such
apparently going with Ambrose to Caesarea,
as Peter Brown and William Placher, continue to
where he spent some time. Here, in conformity
find no reason to deny the truth of Eusebius'
with local usage based on Jewish custom,
claims.
Origen, though not ordained, preached and
Travels interpreted the Scriptures at the request of the
bishops Alexander of Jerusalem and Theoctistus
During the reign of emperor Caracalla, about of Caesarea. When, however, the confusion in
211-212, Origen paid a brief visit to Rome, but Alexandria subsided, Demetrius recalled Origen,
the relative laxity during the pontificate of probably in 216.
Zephyrinus seems to have disillusioned him, and
on his return to Alexandria he resumed his Of Origen's activity during the next decade little
teaching with zeal increased by the contrast. is known, but it was probably devoted to
But the school had far outgrown the strength of teaching and writing. The latter was rendered
a single man; the catechumens pressed eagerly the more easy for him by Ambrose, who
for elementary instruction, and the baptized provided him with more than seven
sought for interpretation of the Bible. Under stenographers to take dictation in relays, as
304
many scribes to prepare long-hand copies, and alleged heterodoxy is unknown; but at all
a number of girls to multiply the copies. At the events these fulminations were heeded only at
request of Ambrose, he now began a huge Rome, while Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, and
commentary on the Bible, beginning with John, Achaia paid no attention to them. At Alexandria,
and continuing with Genesis, Psalms 1-25, and Heraclas became head of Origen's school, and
Lamentations, besides brief exegeses of shortly afterward, on the death of Demetrius,
selected texts (forming the ten books of his was consecrated bishop.
Stromateis), two books on the resurrection, and
During this time at Caesarea in Palestine (232-
the work On First Principles.
5), he resumed work on the Commentary on
Demetrius, the bishop of Alexandria, at first John, composing at least books 6-10, wrote the
supported Origen but later opposed him, treatise On Prayer, and, some time in the first
disputing his ordination in another diocese half of the year 235, composed his Exhortation
(Caesarea Maritima in Palestine). This to Martyrdom. Approximately three years after
ecclesiastical turmoil eventually caused Origen his arrival in Caesarea in Palestine, Origen's life
to relocate to Caesarea, a move which he as a scholar was again interrupted by the
characterized as divine deliverance from Egypt persecution of Maximinus Thrax(AD235-8). He
akin to that the ancient Hebrews received. took refuge at Caesarea in Cappadocia. At
About 230, Origen entered on the fateful Caesarea, Origen was joyfully received, was the
journey which was to compel him to give up his guest of Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea in
work at Alexandria and embittered the next Cappadocia, and perhaps also of the empress-
years of his life. Sent to Greece on some dowager Julia Avita Mamaea.
ecclesiastical mission, he paid a visit to
After the death of Maximinus, Origen resumed
Caesarea, where he was heartily welcomed and
his life in Caesarea of Palestine. Little is known
was ordained a priest, that no further cause for
of the last twenty years of Origen's life. He
criticism might be given Demetrius, who had
founded a school where Gregory
strongly disapproved his preaching before
Thaumaturgus, later bishop of Pontus, was one
ordination while at Caesarea. But Demetrius,
of the pupils. He preached regularly on
taking this well-meant act as an infringement of
Wednesdays and Fridays, and later daily. He
his rights, was furious, for not only was Origen
taught dialectics, physics, ethics, and
under his jurisdiction as bishop of Alexandria,
metaphysics. He evidently, however, developed
but, if Eastern sources may be believed,
an extraordinary literary productivity, broken by
Demetrius had been the first to introduce
occasional journeys; one of which, to Athens
episcopal ordination in Egypt. The metropolitan
during some unknown year, was of sufficient
accordingly convened a synod of bishops and
length to allow him time for research.
presbyters which banished Origen from
Alexandria, while a second synod declared his After his return from Athens, he succeeded in
ordination invalid. converting Beryllus, bishop of Bostra, from his
adoptionistic (i.e., belief that Jesus was born
Origen accordingly fled from Alexandria in 231-
human and only became divine after his
2, and made his permanent home in Caesarea
baptism) views to the orthodox faith; yet in
in Palestine, where his friend Theoctistus was
these very years (about 240) probably occurred
bishop. A series of attacks on him seems to have
the attacks on Origen's own orthodoxy which
emanated from Alexandria, whether for his self-
compelled him to defend himself in writing to
castration (a capital crime in Roman law) or for
Pope Fabian and many bishops. Neither the
305
source nor the object of these attacks is known, the early Church, having written commentaries
though the latter may have been connected on most of the books of the Bible, though few
with Novatianism (a strict refusal to accept are extant. He interpreted scripture both
Christians who had denied their faith under literally and allegorically. Origen was largely
persecution). responsible for the collection of usage
information regarding the texts which became
After his conversion of Beryllus, however, his
the New Testament. The information used to
aid was frequently invoked against heresies.
create the late-fourth-century Easter Letter,
Thus, when the doctrine was promulgated in
which declared accepted Christian writings, was
Arabia that the soul died and decayed with the
probably based on the Ecclesiastical History
body, being restored to life only at the
[HE] of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses
resurrection (see soul sleep), appeal was made
the information passed on to him by Origen to
to Origen, who journeyed to Arabia, and
create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen’s list
successfully battled this doctrine.
at HE 6:25. Eusebius got his information about
There was second outbreak of the Antonine what texts were accepted by the third-century
Plague, which at its height in 251 to 266 took churches throughout the known world, a great
the lives of 5,000 a day in Rome. This time it deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his
was called the Plague of Cyprian. Emperor extensive travels, from the library and writings
Decius, believing the plague to be a product of of Origen. In fact, Origen would have possibly
magic, caused by the failure of Christians to included in his list of “inspired writings” other
recognize him as Divine, began Christian texts which were kept out by the likes of
persecutions. This time Origen did not escape Eusebius, including the Epistle of Barnabas,
the Decian persecution. Eusebius recounted Shepherd of Hermas, and 1 Clement. "Origen is
how Origen suffered "bodily tortures and not the originator of the idea of biblical canon,
torments under the iron collar and in the but he certainly gives the philosophical and
dungeon; and how for many days with his feet literary-interpretative underpinnings for the
stretched four spaces in the stocks" Though he whole notion." As a theologian, in De principiis
did not die while being tortured, he died three (On First Principles), he articulated one of the
years later due to injuries sustained at the age first philosophical expositions of Christian
of 69. A later legend, recounted by Jerome and doctrine. Having been educated in classical and
numerous itineraries, places his death and philosophical studies, some of his teachings
burial at Tyre, but to this little value can be were influenced by and engaged with aspects of
attached. Neo-Pythagorean, Neo-Platonist, and other
strains of contemporary philosophical thought.
Works An ordained priest in Palestine, he has left
Origen excelled in multiple branches of posterity numerous homilies on various books
theological scholarship. For instance, he was the of the Bible. Finally, he has also been regarded
greatest textual critic of the early Church, as a spiritual master for such works as An
directing the production of the massive Hexapla Exhortation to Martyrdom and On Prayer.
("Sixfold"), an Old Testament in six columns:
Hebrew, Hebrew in Greek characters, the
Septuagint, and the Greek versions of
Theodotion, Aquila of Sinope, and Symmachus.
He was one of the greatest biblical scholars of
306
reform Christianity. According to The Heavenly

Doctrine the Lord had opened Swedenborg's
spiritual eyes, so that from then on he could
freely visit heaven and hell, and talk with
angels, demons and other spirits; and that the
Last Judgement had already occurred, in 1757.
However, he tells us that at this day it is very
dangerous to talk with spirits, unless a person is
in true faith, and is led by the Lord.
For the remaining 28 years of his life,

Swedenborg wrote 18 published theological
works, and several more which were
unpublished. Some followers of The Heavenly
Doctrine believe that, of his theological works,
only those which Swedenborg published himself
are fully divinely inspired.
Swedenborg's father, Jesper Swedberg (1653–

1735), descended from a wealthy mining family.
He travelled abroad and studied theology, and
on returning home he was eloquent enough to
impress the Swedish king, Charles XI, with his
Chapter Two sermons in Stockholm. Through the King's
Emanuel Swedenborg influence he would later become professor of
theology at Uppsala University and Bishop of
Skara.
Emanuel Swedenborg; born Emanuel Jesper took an interest in the beliefs of the
Swedberg; 29 January 1688 – 29 March 1772) dissenting Lutheran Pietist movement, which
was a Swedish scientist, philosopher, emphasised the virtues of communion with God
theologian, revelator, and, in the eyes of some, rather than relying on sheer faith (sola fide).
Christian mystic. He termed himself a "Servant Sola fide is a tenet of the Lutheran Church, and
of the Lord Jesus Christ" in True Christian Jesper was charged with being a pietist heretic.
Religion, a work he published himself. He is best While controversial, the beliefs were to have a
known for his book on the afterlife, Heaven and major impact on his son Emanuel's spirituality.
Hell (1758). Jesper furthermore held the unconventional
belief that angels and spirits were present in
Swedenborg had a prolific career as an inventor everyday life. This also came to have a strong
and scientist. In 1741, at the age of 53, he impact on Emanuel.
entered into a spiritual phase in which he began
to experience dreams and visions, beginning on Swedenborg completed his university course at
Easter weekend of April 6, 1744. This Uppsala in 1709, and in 1710 made his grand
culminated in a 'spiritual awakening', in which tour through the Netherlands, France, and
he received revelation that he was appointed by Germany, before reaching London, where he
the Lord to write the The Heavenly Doctrine to would spend the next four years. It was also a
307
flourishing center of scientific ideas and Upon the death of Charles XII, Queen Ulrika
discoveries. Emanuel studied physics, Eleonora ennobled Swedenborg and his siblings.
mechanics, and philosophy, and read and wrote It was common in Sweden during the 17th and
poetry. According to the preface of a book by 18th centuries for the children of bishops to
the Swedish critic Olof Lagercrantz, Swedenborg receive this honour as a recognition of the
wrote to his benefactor and brother-in-law Eric services of their father. The family name was
Benzelius that he believed he (Swedenborg) changed from Swedberg to Swedenborg.
might be destined to be a great scientist.
In 1724, he was offered the chair of
Scientific period mathematics at Uppsala University, but he
declined and said that he had mainly dealt with
geometry, chemistry and metallurgy during his
The Flying Machine, sketched in his notebook career. He also said that he did not have the gift
from 1714. The operator would sit in the of eloquent speech because of a stutter, as
middle, and paddle himself through the air. See recognized by many acquaintances of his; it
Smithsonian model and explanation by Dr. Paul forced him to speak slowly and carefully, and
Garber, former Curator of the Smithsonian Air there are no known occurrences of his speaking
and Space Museum, on the principle of flight of in public. The Swedish critic Olof Lagerkrantz
the aircraft. His descriptions may be found in a proposed that Swedenborg compensated for his
chapter of the Söderburg book, p. 32, or on the impediment by extensive argumentation in
video clip at 5:48 on its timeline. writing.
In 1715 Swedenborg returned to Sweden, New direction of studies, ahead of his time
where he devoted himself to natural science
During the 1730s, Swedenborg undertook many
and engineering projects for the next two
studies of anatomy and physiology. He had the
decades. A first step was his meeting with King
first anticipation, as far as known, of the neuron
Charles XII of Sweden in the city of Lund, in
concept. It was not until a century later that
1716. The Swedish inventor Christopher
science recognized the full significance of the
Polhem, who became a close friend of
nerve cell. He also had prescient ideas about
Swedenborg, was also present. Swedenborg's
the cerebral cortex, the hierarchical
purpose was to persuade the king to fund an
organization of the nervous system, the
observatory in northern Sweden. However, the
localization of the cerebrospinal fluid, the
warlike king did not consider this project
functions of the pituitary gland, the perivascular
important enough, but did appoint Swedenborg
spaces, the foramen of Magendie, the idea of
assessor-extraordinary on the Swedish Board of
somatotopic organization, and the association
Mines (Bergskollegium) in Stockholm.
of frontal brain regions with the intellect. In
From 1716 to 1718, Swedenborg published a some cases his conclusions have been
scientific periodical entitled Daedalus experimentally verified in modern times.
Hyperboreus ("The Northern Daedalus"), a
In the 1730s Swedenborg became increasingly
record of mechanical and mathematical
interested in spiritual matters and was
inventions and discoveries. One notable
determined to find a theory which would
description was that of a flying machine, the
explain how matter relates to spirit.
same he had been sketching a few years earlier
Swedenborg's desire to understand the order
(see Flying Machine (Swedenborg)).
and purpose of creation first led him to
308
investigate the structure of matter and the By 1744 Swedenborg had traveled to the
process of creation itself. In the Principia he Netherlands. Around this time he began having
outlined his philosophical method, which strange dreams. Swedenborg carried a travel
incorporated experience, geometry (the means journal with him on most of his travels, and did
whereby the inner order of the world can be so on this journey. The whereabouts of the
known), and the power of reason. He also diary were long unknown, but it was discovered
outlined his cosmology, which included the first in the Royal Library in the 1850s and published
presentation of his Nebular hypothesis. (There in 1859 as Drömboken, or Journal of Dreams.
is evidence that Swedenborg may have
Swedenborg experienced many different
preceded Kant by as much as 20 years in the
dreams and visions, some greatly pleasurable,
development of this hypothesis.
others highly disturbing. The experiences
In Leipzig, 1735, he published a three volume continued as he traveled to London to progress
work entitled Opera philosophica et mineralis the publication of Regnum animale. This
("Philosophical and mineralogical works"), process, which one biographer has proposed as
where he tries to conjoin philosophy and cathartic and comparable to the Catholic
metallurgy. The work was mainly appreciated concept of Purgatory, continued for six months.
for its chapters on the analysis of the smelting He also proposed that what Swedenborg was
of iron and copper, and it was this work which recording in his Journal of Dreams was a battle
gave Swedenborg international reputation. The between the love of his self and the love of
same year he also published the small God.
manuscript de Infinito ("On the Infinite"), where
Visions and spiritual insights
he attempted to explain how the finite is
related to the infinite, and how the soul is In the last entry of the journal from October
connected to the body. This was the first 26–27, 1744, Swedenborg appears to be clear
manuscript where he touched upon these as to which path to follow. He felt he should
matters. He knew that it might clash with drop his current project, and write a new book
established theologies, since he presents the about the worship of God. He soon began
view that the soul is based on material working on De cultu et amore Dei, or The
substances. He also conducted dedicated Worship and Love of God. It was never fully
studies of the fashionable philosophers of the completed, but Swedenborg still had it
time such as John Locke, Christian von Wolff, published in London in June 1745.
Leibniz, and Descartes; and earlier thinkers such
as Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus and Augustine. One explanation why the work was never
finished is given in a well-known and often
In 1743, at the age of 55, Swedenborg referenced story. In April 1745, Swedenborg
requested a leave of absence to go abroad. His was dining in a private room at a tavern in
purpose was to gather source material for London. By the end of the meal, a darkness fell
Regnum animale (The Animal Kingdom, or upon his eyes, and the room shifted character.
Kingdom of Life), a subject on which books were Suddenly he saw a person sitting at a corner of
not readily available in Sweden. The aim of the the room, telling Swedenborg: "Do not eat too
book was to explain the soul from an much!". Swedenborg, scared, hurried home.
anatomical point of view. He had planned to Later that night, the same man appeared in his
produce a total of seventeen volumes. dreams. The man told Swedenborg that He was
the Lord, that He had appointed Swedenborg to
Journal of Dreams
309
reveal the spiritual meaning of the Bible, and His life from 1747 until his death in 1772 was
that He would guide Swedenborg in what to spent in Stockholm, Holland, and London.
write. The same night, the spiritual world was During these 25 years he wrote another 14
opened to Swedenborg. works of a spiritual nature of which most were
published during his lifetime.
However, the Robsahm transcriptions on which
this story is based were second hand, despite The Last Judgment and Second Coming of
Robsahm's presenting them in the first person Christ
and accuracy cannot be achieved since there
One of Swedenborg's lesser known works
are several versions of this story, in whole or
presents a startling claim, that the Last
part differing in important respects, e.g. Lord
Judgment had begun in the previous year
figure seen in corner vs. close by, conditions of
(1757) and was completed by the end of that
dimness or darkness vs. bright light and date of
year and that he had witnessed the whole
1744 vs. 1745. However, Swedenborg did not
thing. According to Swedenborg, the Last
publish any of these documents himself so the
Judgment took place, not in the physical world,
doctrinal aspects are not authoritative.
but in the World of Spirits, which is located half-
Scriptural commentary and writings way between heaven and hell, and which
everyone passes through on their way to
Arcana Cœlestia, first edition (1749), title page
heaven or hell. The Judgment took place
In June 1747, Swedenborg resigned his post as because the Christian church had lost its charity
assessor of the board of mines. He explained and faith, resulting in a loss of spiritual free will
that he was obliged to complete a work he had that threatened the equilibrium between
begun and requested to receive half his salary heaven and hell in everyone’s life
as a pension. He took up afresh his study of
The Heavenly Doctrine also teach that the Last
Hebrew and began to work on the spiritual
Judgement was followed by the Second Coming
interpretation of the Bible with the goal of
of Jesus Christ, which occurred, not by Christ in
interpreting the spiritual meaning of every
person, but by a revelation from Him through
verse. From sometime between 1746 and 1747,
the inner, spiritual sense of the Word through
and for ten years henceforth, he devoted his
Swedenborg.
energy to this task. Usually abbreviated as
Arcana Cœlestia and under the Latin variant In another of his theological works, Swedenborg
Arcana Caelestia (translated as Heavenly wrote that eating meat, regarded in itself, "is
Arcana, Heavenly Mysteries, or Secrets of something profane," and was not practiced in
Heaven depending on modern English-language the early days of the human race. However, he
editions), the book became his magnum opus said, meat-eating today is a matter of
and the basis of his further theological works. conscience and no one is condemned for doing
it.[59] Nonetheless, the early-days ideal appears
The work was anonymous and Swedenborg was
to have given rise to the idea that Swedenborg
not identified as the author until the late 1750s.
was a vegetarian. This conclusion may have
It consisted of eight volumes, published
been reinforced by the fact that a number of
between 1749 and 1756. It attracted little
Swedenborg's early followers were part of the
attention, as few people could penetrate its
vegetarian movement that arose in Great
meaning.
Britain in the 19th century. However, the only
reports on Swedenborg himself are
310
contradictory. His landlord in London, Methodism, in February, saying he

Shearsmith, said he ate no meat but his maid, (Swedenborg) had been told in the world of
who served Swedenborg, said that he ate eels spirits that Wesley wanted to speak with him.
and pigeon pie. Wesley, startled, since he had not told anyone
of his interest in Swedenborg, replied that he
In Earths in the Universe, it is stated that he
was going on a journey for six months and
conversed with spirits from Jupiter, Mars,
would contact Swedenborg on his return.
Mercury, Saturn, Venus, the Moon, as well as
Swedenborg replied that that would be too late
spirits from planets beyond our solar system.
since he (Swedenborg) would be going to the
From these 'encounters' he concluded that the
spiritual world for the last time on March 29.
planets of our solar system are inhabited, and
(Wesley later read and commented extensively
that such an enormous undertaking as the
on Swedenborg's work.) Swedenborg's
universe could not have been created for just
landlord's servant girl, Elizabeth Reynolds, also
one race of people; nor one 'heaven' derived
said Swedenborg had predicted this date, and
from it.He argued: “What would this be to God,
that Swedenborg was as happy about it as if
Who is infinite, and to whom a thousand or tens
was "going on holiday or to some
of thousands of planets, and all of them full of
merrymaking".
inhabitants, would be scarcely anything!”.[65]
Swedenborg and the life on other planets
question has been extensively reviewed
elsewhere.
Swedenborg published his work in London or

Holland due to the freedom of the press unique
to those countries.
In July 1770, at the age of 82, he traveled to

Amsterdam to complete the publication of his
last work. The book, Vera Christiana Religio (The
True Christian Religion), was published in
Amsterdam in 1771 and was one of the most
appreciated of his works. Designed to explain
his teachings to Lutheran Christians, it was the
most concrete of his works.
In the summer of 1771, he traveled to London.

Shortly before Christmas he suffered a stroke
and was partially paralyzed and confined to
bed. His health improved somewhat, but he
died on March 29, 1772. There are several
accounts of his last months, made by those he
stayed with, and by Arvid Ferelius, a pastor of
the Swedish Church in London, who visited him
several times.
There is evidence that Swedenborg wrote a

letter to John Wesley, the founder of
311
In the English-speaking world, she was one of

the most widely read writers on such matters in
the first half of the 20th century. No other book
of its type—until the appearance in 1946 of
Aldous Huxley's The Perennial Philosophy—met
with success to match that of her best-known
work, Mysticism, published in 1911.
Underhill was born in Wolverhampton. She was

a poet and novelist, as well as a pacifist and
mystic. An only child, she described her early
mystical insights as "abrupt experiences of the
peaceful, undifferentiated plane of reality—like
the "still desert" of the mystic—in which there
was no multiplicity nor need of explanation."
The meaning of these experiences became a
lifelong quest and a source of private angst,
provoking her to research and write.
Both her father and her husband were writers

(on the law), London barristers and yachtsmen.
She and her husband, Hubert Stuart Moore,
grew up together and were married on 3 July
1907. The couple had no children. She travelled
regularly within Europe, primarily Switzerland,
France and Italy where she pursued her
interests in art and Catholicism, visiting
numerous churches and monasteries. Neither
her husband (a Protestant) nor her parents
shared her interest in spiritual matters.
Underhill was called simply "Mrs Moore" by

many of her friends, but was not without her
detractors. She was a prolific author and
Chapter Three published over 30 books either under her
Evelyn Underhill maiden name, Underhill, or under the
pseudonym "John Cordelier", as was the case
for the 1912 book The Spiral Way. Initially an
agnostic, she gradually began to acquire an
interest in Neoplatonism and from there
became increasingly drawn to Catholicism
Evelyn Underhill (6 December 1875 – 15 June against the objections of her husband,
1941) was an English Anglo-Catholic writer and becoming eventually a prominent Anglo-
pacifist known for her numerous works on Catholic. Her spiritual mentor from 1921 to
religion and spiritual practice, in particular 1924 was Baron Friedrich von Hügel, who was
Christian mysticism. appreciative of her writing yet concerned with
312
her focus on mysticism and who encouraged She was a cousin of Francis Underhill, Bishop of
her to adopt a much more Christocentric view Bath and Wells.
as opposed to the theistic and intellectual one
Education
she had previously held. She described him as
"the most wonderful personality. ..so saintly, Underhill was educated at home, except for
truthful, sane and tolerant" (Cropper, p. 44) and three years at a private school in Folkestone,
was influenced toward more charitable, down- and subsequently read history and botany at
to-earth activities. After his death in 1925, her King's College London. She was conferred with
writings became more focused on the Holy an honorary Doctorate of Divinity from
Spirit and she became prominent in the Aberdeen University and made a fellow of
Anglican Church as a lay leader of spiritual King's College. She was the first woman to
retreats, a spiritual director for hundreds of lecture to the clergy in the Church of England as
individuals, guest speaker, radio lecturer and well as the first woman to officially conduct
proponent of contemplative prayer. spiritual retreats for the Church. She was also
the first woman to establish ecumenical links
Underhill came of age in the Edwardian era, at
between churches and one of the first woman
the turn of the 20th century and like most of
theologians to lecture in English colleges and
her contemporaries had a decided romantic
universities, which she did frequently. Underhill
bent. The enormous excitement in those days
was an award-winning bookbinder, studying
was mysteriously compounded of the psychic,
with the most renowned masters of the time.
the psychological, the occult, the mystical, the
She was schooled in the classics, well read in
medieval, the advance of science, the
Western spirituality, well informed (in addition
apotheosis of art, the re-discovery of the
to theology) in the philosophy, psychology, and
feminine and an unashamedly sensuous and the
physics of her day, and acquired the prestigious
most ethereally "spiritual". Anglicanism seemed
post of editor of The Spectator.
to her out-of-key with this, her world. She
sought the centre of life as she and many of her Early work
generation conceived it, not in the state
religion, but in experience and the heart. This Before undertaking many of her better known
age of "the soul" was one of those periods expository works on mysticism, she first
when a sudden easing of social taboos brings on published a small book of satirical poems on
a great sense of personal emancipation and legal dilemmas, The Bar-Lamb's Ballad Book,
desire for an El Dorado despised by an older, which received a favorable welcome. Underhill
more morose and insensitive generation. then wrote three highly unconventional though
profoundly spiritual novels. Like Charles
As an only child she was devoted to her parents, Williams and later, Susan Howatch, Underhill
and later to her husband. She was fully engaged uses her narratives to explore the sacramental
in the life of a barrister's daughter and wife, intersection of the physical with the spiritual.
including the entertainment and charitable She then uses that sacramental framework very
work that entailed, and pursued a daily regimen effectively to illustrate the unfolding of a human
that included writing, research, worship, prayer drama. Her novels are entitled The Grey World
and meditation. It was a fundamental axiom of (1904), The Lost Word (1907), and The Column
hers that all of life was sacred, as that was what of Dust (1909). In her first novel, The Grey
"incarnation" was about. World, described by one reviewer as an
extremely interesting psychological study, the
313
hero's mystical journey begins with death, and with the first beatific vision. Her two later
then moves through reincarnation, beyond the novels are built on the ideal of total self-
grey world, and into the choice of a simple life surrender even to the apparent sacrifice of the
devoted to beauty, reflecting Underhill's own vision itself, as necessary for the fullest possible
serious perspective as a young woman. integration of human life. This was for her the
equivalent of working out within, the
"It seems so much easier in these days to live
metaphorical intent of the life story of Jesus.
morally than to live beautifully. Lots of us
One is reunited with the original vision—no
manage to exist for years without ever sinning
longer as mere spectator but as part of it. This
against society, but we sin against loveliness
dimension of self-loss and resurrection is
every hour of the day."
worked out in The Lost Word, but there is some
The Lost Word and The Column of Dust are also doubt as to its general inevitability. In The
concerned with the problem of living in two Column of Dust, the heroine's physical death
worlds and reflect the writer's own spiritual reinforces dramatically the mystical death to
challenges. In the 1909 novel, her heroine which she has already surrendered to. Two lives
encounters a rift in the solid stuff of her are better than one but only on the condition
universe: that a process of painful re-integration
intervenes to re-establish unity between Self
She had seen, abruptly, the insecurity of those and Reality.
defences which protect our illusions and ward
off the horrors of truth. She had found a little All her characters derive their interest from the
hole in the wall of appearances; and peeping theological meaning and value which they
through, had caught a glimpse of that seething represent and it is her ingenious handling of so
pot of spiritual forces whence, now and then, a much difficult symbolic material that makes her
bubble rises to the surface of things. . work psychologically interesting as a forerunner
of such 20th-century writers as Susan Howatch,
Underhill's novels suggest that perhaps for the whose successful novels also embody the
mystic, two worlds may be better than one. For psychological value of religious metaphor and
her, mystical experience seems inseparable the traditions of Christian mysticism. Her first
from some kind of enhancement of novel received critical acclaim, but her last was
consciousness or expansion of perceptual and generally derided. However, her novels give
aesthetic horizons—to see things as they are, in remarkable insight into what we may assume
their meanness and insignificance when viewed was her decision to avoid what St. Augustine
in opposition to the divine reality, but in their described as the temptation of fuga in
luminosity and grandeur when seen bathed in solitudinem ("the flight into solitude"), but
divine radiance. But at this stage the mystic's instead acquiescing to a loving, positive
mind is subject to fear and insecurity, its powers acceptance of this world. Not looking back, by
undeveloped. The first novel takes us only to this time she was already working on her
this point. Further stages demand suffering, magnum opus.
because mysticism is more than merely vision
or cultivating a latent potentiality of the soul in Writings on religion
cosy isolation. According to Underhill's view,
the subsequent pain and tension, and final loss
of the private painful ego-centered life for the Mysticism (1911)
sake of regaining one's true self, has little to do
314
Underhill's greatest book, Mysticism: A Study of throughout history to be the world's spiritual
the Nature and Development of Man's Spiritual pioneers.
Consciousness, was published in 1911, and is
She divided her map of "the way" into five
distinguished by the very qualities which make
stages: the first was the "Awakening of Self."
it inappropriate as a straightforward textbook.
She quotes Henry Suso (disciple of Meister
The spirit of the book is romantic, engaged, and
Eckhart):
theoretical rather than historical or scientific.
Underhill has little use for theoretical "That which the Servitor saw had no form
explanations and the traditional religious neither any manner of being; yet he had of it a
experience, formal classifications or analysis. joy such as he might have known in the seeing
She dismisses William James' pioneering study, of shapes and substances of all joyful things. His
The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902), heart was hungry, yet satisfied, his soul was full
and his "four marks of the mystic state" of contentment and joy: his prayers and his
(ineffability, noetic quality, transcience, and hopes were fulfilled." (Cropper p. 46)
passivity). James had admitted that his own
constitution shut him off almost entirely from Underhill tells how Suso's description of how
the enjoyment of mystical states thus his the abstract truth (related to each soul's true
treatment was purely objective. Underhill nature and purpose), once remembered,
substituted (1) mysticism is practical, not contains the power of fulfilment became the
theoretical, (2) mysticism is an entirely spiritual starting point of her own path. The second
activity, (3) The business and method of stage she presents as psychological "Purgation
mysticism is love. (4) mysticism entails a of Self," quoting the Theologia Germanica (14th
definite psychological experience. Her century, anonymous) regarding the
insistence on the psychological approach was transcendence of ego (Underhill's "little self"):
that it was the glamorous science of the pre- "We must cast all things from us and strip
war period, offering the potential key to the ourselves of them and refrain from claiming
secrets of human advances in intelligence, anything for our own."
creativity, and genius, and already psychological
findings were being applied in theology (i.e., The third stage she titles "Illumination" and
William Sanday's Christologies Ancient and quotes William Law:
Modern). "Everything in ...nature, is descended out that
She divided her subject into two parts; the first, which is eternal, and stands as a. ..visible
an introduction, and the second, a detailed outbirth of it, so when we know how to
study of the nature and development of human separate out the grossness, death, and
consciousness. In the first section, in order to darkness. ..from it, we find. ..it in its eternal
free the subject of mysticism from confusion state."
and misapprehension, she approached it from The fourth stage she describes as the "Dark
the point of view of the psychologist, the Night of the Soul" (which her correspondence
symbolist and the theologian. To separate leads us to believe she struggled with
mysticism from its most dubious connection she throughout her life) where one is deprived of all
included a chapter on mysticism and magic. At that has been valuable to the lower self, and
the time, and still today, mysticism is associated quoting Mechthild of Magdeburg:
with the occult, magic, secret rites, and
fanaticism, while she knew the mystics
315
"...since Thou hast taken from me all that I had awakened a heroic response. For them the
of Thee, yet of Thy grace leave me the gift winter is over. ..Life new, unquenchable and
which every dog has by nature: that of being lovely comes to meet them with the
true to Thee in my distress, when I am deprived dawn."(Cropper, p.47)
of all consolation. This I desire more fervently
The book ends with an extremely valuable
than Thy heavenly Kingdom."
appendix, a kind of who's who of mysticism,
And last she devotes a chapter to the unitive which shows its persistence and
life, the sum of the mystic way: interconnection from century to century.
"When love has carried us above all things into Ruysbroeck (1914)
the Divine Dark, there we are transformed by
A work on the 14th-century Flemish mystic, Jan
the Eternal Word Who is the image of the
van Ruusbroec or Ruysbroeck (1293–1381),
Father; and as the air is penetrated by the sun,
published in London in 1914. She had discussed
thus we receive in peace the Incomprehensible
him from several different perspectives during
Light, enfolding us, and penetrating us.'
the course of her earlier book on Mysticism in
(Ruysbroech)
1911.
Where Underhill struck new ground was in her
I. Life. She starts with a biography, drawn
insistence that this state of union produced a
mainly from two works on his life written by
glorious and fruitful creativeness, so that the
fellow monastics, Pomerius and Gerard Naghel.
mystic who attains this final perfectness is the
most active doer - not the reclusive dreaming His childhood was spent in the village of
lover of God. Ruysbroeck. At eleven he ran away to Brussels,
where he began to live with his uncle, John
We are all the kindred of the mystics. ..Strange
Hinckaert, a Canon at the Cathedral of St.
and far away from us though they seem, they
Gudule, and a younger Canon, Francis van
are not cut off from us by some impassable
Coudenberg. At twenty-four he was ordained a
abyss. They belong to us; the giants, the heroes
priest and became a prebend at St. Gudule. At
of our race. As the achievement of genius
his first mass he envisioned his mother's spirit
belongs not to itself only but also to the society
released from Purgatory and entering Heaven.
that brought it forth;...the supernal
From age 26 to 50 Ruysbroeck was a cathedral
accomplishment of the mystics is ours
chaplain at St. Gudule. Although he "seemed a
also. ..our guarantee of the end to which
nobody to those who did not know him," he
immanent love, the hidden steersman. ..is
was developing a strong spiritual life, "a
moving. ..us on the path toward the Real. They
penetrating intellect, a fearless heart, deep
come back to us from an encounter with life's
knowledge of human nature, remarkable
most august secret. ..filled with amazing tidings
powers of expression". At one point he wrote
which they can hardly tell. We, longing for some
strong pamphlets and led a campaign against a
assurance. ..urge them to pass on their
heretical group, the Brethren of the Free Spirit
revelation. ..the old demand of the dim-sighted
led by Bloemardinne, who practiced a self-
and incredulous. ..But they cannot. ..only
indulgent "mysticality". Later, with the two
fragments of the Symbolic Vision. According to
now elderly Canons, he moved into the
their strength and passion, these lovers of the
countryside at Groenendael ("Green Valley").
Absolute. ..have not shrunk from the
Pomerius writes that he retired not to hide his
suffering. ..Beauty and agony have called. ..have
light "but that he might tend it better" . Five
316
years later their community became a Priory III. Doctrine of God. Several types of mystics are
under the Augustinian Canons. described. The first (e.g., St. Teresa) deals with
personal psychological experiences and
Many of his works were written during this
emotional reactions, leaving the nature of God
period, often drawing lessons from nature. He
to existing theology. [page 52] The second (e.g.,
had a favorite tree under which he would sit
Plotinus) has passion sprung from the vision of
and write what the 'Spirit' gave to him. He
a philosopher; the intellect often is more active
solemnly affirmed that his works were
than the heart, yet like a poet such a mystic
composed under the "domination of an
strives to sketch his vision of the Ultimate. [53]
inspiring power," she writes. Pomerius says
The greatest mystics (e.g., St. Augustine)
that Ruysbroeck could enter a state of
embrace at once "the infinite and the intimate"
contemplation in which he appeared
so that "God is both near and far, and the
surrounded by radiant light. Alongside his
paradox of transcendent-immanent Reality is a
spiritual ascent, Naghel says, he cultivated the
self-evident if an inexpressible truth." Such
friendship of those around him, enriching their
mystics "give us by turns a subjective and
lives. He also worked in the garden of the
psychological, an objective and metaphysical,
priory, and sought to help out creatures of the
reading of spiritual experience." Here is
forest. [29-30] He moved from the senses to the
Ruysbroeck.
transcendent without frontiers or cleavage, she
writes, these being for him "but two moods An apostolic mystic represents humanity in its
within the mind of God". He counseled many quest to discern the Divine Reality, being like
who came to him, including Gerard Groot of the "the artist extending our universe, the pioneer
Brothers of the Common Life. His advice would cutting our path, the hunter winning food for
plumb the "purity and direction" of the seeker's our souls." Yet, although his experience is
will, and love. There, at Groenendael he finally personal, his language is often drawn from
"leap to a more abundant life". In The Sparkling tradition, but the words may "enchant rather
Stone Ruysbroec wrote about coming to know than inform the soul" so ineffable is the nature
the love "which giveth more than one can take, of God. Ruysbroeck goes venturing "to hover
and asketh more than one can pay." over that Abyss which is 'beyond Reason,'
stammering and breaking into wild poetry in the
II. Works. Next, she gives a bibliography of his
desperate attempt to seize the unseizable
eleven admittedly authentic works, providing
truth." "[T]he One is 'neither This nor That'."
details concerning each work's origin, nature,
and contents, as well as their place in his "God as known by man" is the Absolute One
writings. 1. The Spiritual Tabernacle; 2. The who combines and resolves the contradictory
Twelve Points of True Faith; 3. The Book of the natures of time and eternity, becoming and
Four Temptations; 4. The Book of the Kingdom being; who is both transcendent and immanent,
of God's Lovers; 5. The Adornment of the abstract and personal, work and rest, the
Spiritual Marriage; 6. The Mirror of Eternal unmoved mover and movement itself. God is
Salvation or Book of the Blessed Sacraments; 7. above the storm, yet inspires the flux. The
The Seven Cloisters; 8. The Seven Degrees of "omnipotent and ever-active Creator" who is
the Ladder of Love; 9. The Book of the Sparkling "perpetually breathing forth His energetic Life
Stone; 10. The Book of the Supreme Truth; 11. in new births of being and new floods of grace."
The Twelve Béguines. Yet the soul may pierce beyond this fruitful
nature to the simple essence of God. There we
317
humans would find that "absolute and abiding simple and infinite Bliss of God and of all the
Reality, which seems to man Eternal Rest, the Saints." "The simple light of this Being...
'Deep Quiet of the Godhead,' the 'Abyss,' the embraces the unity of the Divine Persons" as
'Dim Silence'; and which we can taste indeed well as envelopes and irradiates the ground and
but never know. There, 'all lovers lose fruition of human souls in the Divine life-
themselves'." process. "And this is the union of God and the
souls that love Him."
The Trinity, according the Ruysbroeck, works in
living distinctions, "the fruitful nature of the IV. Doctrine of Humankind. For Ruysbroeck,
Persons." Yet the Trinity in itself is Unity of the "God is the 'Living Pattern of Creation' who has
Three Persons, which is the Godhead. Beyond impressed His image on each soul, and in every
and within the Trinity, or the Godhead, then, is adult spirit the character of that image must be
the "fathomless Abyss" that is the "Simple brought from the hiddenness and realized." The
Being of God" that is "an Eternal Rest of God pattern is trinitarian; there are three properties
and of all created things." of the human soul. First, resembling the Father,
"the bare, still place to which consciousness
The Father is the unconditioned Origin, Strength
retreats in introversion... ." Second, following
and Power, of all things. The Son is the Eternal
the Son, "the power of knowing Divine things by
Word and Wisdom that shines forth in the
intuitive comprehension: man's fragmentary
world of conditions. The Holy Spirit is Love and
share in the character of the Logos, or Wisdom
Generosity emanating from the mutual
of God." [67-68] "The third property we call the
contemplation of Father and Son. The Three
spark of the soul. It is the inward and natural
Persons "exist in an eternal distinction
tendency of the soul towards its Source; and
[emphasis added] for that world of conditions
here do we receive the Holy Spirit, the Charity
wherein the human soul is immersed". By the
of God." So will God work within the human
acts of the Three Persons all created things are
being; in later spiritual development we may
born; by the incarnation and crucifixion we
form with God a Union, and eventually a Unity.
human souls are adorned with love, and so to
be drawn back to our Source. "This is the The mighty force of Love is the 'very self-hood
circling course of the Divine life-process." of God' in this mysterious communion. "As we
lay hold upon the Divine Life, devour and
But beyond and above this eternal distinction
assimilate it, so in that very act the Divine Life
lies "the superessential world, transcending all
devours us, and knits us up into the mysical
conditions, inaccessible to thought-- 'the
Body," she writes. "It is the nature of love," says
measureless solitude of the Godhead, where
Ruysbroeck, "ever to give and to take, to love
God possesses Himself in joy.' This is the
and be loved, and these two things meet in
ultimate world of the mystic." There, she
whomsoever loves. Thus the love of Christ is
continues, quoting Ruysbroeck: "we can speak
both avid and generous... as He devours us, so
no more of Father, Son and Holy Spirit nor of
He would feed us. If He absorbs us utterly into
any creature; but only of one Being, which is the
Himself, in return He gives us His very self
very substance of the Divine Persons. There
again." [75-76] "Hungry love," "generous love,"
were we all one before our creation; for this is
"stormy love" touches the human soul with its
our superessence... . There the Godhead is, in
Divine creative energy and, once we become
simple essence, without activity; Eternal Rest,
conscious of it, evokes in us an answering storm
Unconditioned Dark, the Nameless Being, the
of love. "The whole of our human growth within
Superessence of all created things, and the
318
the spiritual order is conditioned by the quality Godhead in life and in love, at work and at rest,
of this response; by the will, the industry, the in union and in bliss. The analogy with the
courage, with which [we accept our] part in the traditional threefold way of Purgation,
Divine give-and-take." As Ruysbroeck puts it: Illumination, and Union, is not exact. The
Interior life of Ruysbroeck contains aspects of
"That measureless Love which is God Himself,
the traditional Union also, while the
dwells in the pure deeps of our spirit, like a
Superessential life "takes the soul to heights of
burning brazier of coal. And it throws forth
fruition which few amongst even the greatest
brilliant and fiery sparks which stir and enkindle
unitive mystics have attained or described."
heart and senses, will and desire, and all the
powers of the soul, with a fire of love; a storm, V, VI, VII, VIII. In her last four chapters, Evelynn
a rage, a measureless fury of love. These be the Underhill continues the discussion concerning
weapons with which we fight against the the Active life [94-114], the Interior life [115-
terrible and immense Love of God, who would 163], and the Superessential or glorious life
consume all loving spirits and swallow them in [164-185].
Himself. Love arms us with its own gifts, and
"The Mysticism of Plotinus" (1919)
clarifies our reason, and commands, counsels
and advises us to oppose Him, to fight against An essay originally published in The Quarterly
Him, and to maintain against Him our right to Review (1919), and later collected in The
love, so long as we may." Essentials of Mysticism and other essays
(London: J.M.Dent 1920) at 116-140. Underhill
The drama of this giving and receiving Love
here addresses Plotinus (204-270) of Alexandria
constitutes a single act, for God is as an "ocean
and later of Rome.
which ebbs and flows" or as an "inbreathing and
outbreathing". "Love is a unifying power, A Neoplatonist as well as a spiritual guide,
manifested in motion itself, 'an outgoing Plotinus writes regarding both formal
attraction, which drags us out of ourselves and philosophy and hands-on, personal, inner
calls us to be melted and naughted in the experience. Underhill makes the distinction
Unity'." between the geographer who draws maps of
the mind, and the seeker who actually travels in
Next, the spiritual development of the soul is
the realms of spirit. [page 118] She observes
addressed. Ruysbroeck adumbrates how one
that usually mystics do not follow the mere
may progress from the Active life, to the
maps of metaphysicians.
Interior life, to the Superessential life; these
correspond to the three natural orders of In the Enneads Plotinus presents the Divine as
Becoming, Being, and God, or to the three rôles an unequal triune, in descending order: (a) the
of the Servant, the Friend, and the "hidden One, perfection, having nothing, seeking
child" of God. The Active life focuses on ethics, nothing, needing nothing, yet it overflows
on conforming the self's daily life to the Will of creatively, the source of being; (b) the emitted
God, and takes place in the world of the senses, Nous or Spirit, with intelligence, wisdom, poetic
"by means". The Interior life embraces a vision intuition, the "Father and Companion" of the
of spiritual reality, where the self's contacts soul; and, (c) the emitted Soul or Life, the vital
with the Divine take place "without means". essence of the world, which aspires to
The Superessential life transcends the communion with the Spirit above, while also
intellectual plane, whereby the self does not directly engaged with the physical world
merely behold, but rather has fruition of the beneath.
319
People "come forth from God" and will find

happiness once re-united, first with the Nous,
later with the One. Such might be the merely Chapter Four
logical outcome for the metaphysician, yet Jacobus Arminius
Plotinus the seeker also presents this return to
the Divine as a series of moral purgations and a
shedding of irrational delusions, leading
eventually to entry into the intuitively beautiful. Arminianism is based on the theological ideas
This intellectual and moral path toward a life of the previously Dutch Reformed theologian
aesthetic will progressively disclose an invisible Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) and his historic
source, the Nous, the forms of Beauty. Love is supporters known as the Remonstrants. His
the prevailing inspiration, although the One is teachings however, departed from the
impersonal. The mystic will pass through stages Sovereign Grace teaching of the Reformers and
of purification, and of enlightenment, resulting as such he cannot be regarded as Reformed.
in a shift in the center of our being "from sense Jacobus Arminius (Jacobus Hermanszoon) was a
to soul, from soul to spirit," in preparation for student of Beza (successor of Calvin) at the
an ultimate transformation of consciousness. Theological University of Geneva. It is known as
Upon our arrival, we shall know ectasy and "no a soteriological sect of Protestant
longer sing out of tune, but form a divine Christianity.Dutch Arminianism was originally
chorus round the One." articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a
theological statement signed by 45 ministers
St. Augustine (354-430) criticizes such and submitted to the States-General of the
Neoplatonism as neglecting the needs of Netherlands. The Synod of Dort (1618–19) was
struggling and imperfect human beings. The called by the States General to consider the Five
One of Plotinus may act as a magnet for the Articles of Remonstrance. They asserted that:
human soul.
election (and condemnation on the day of
judgment) was conditioned by the rational faith
or nonfaith of man;
the Atonement, while qualitatively adequate for

all men, is efficacious only for the man of faith;
unaided by the Holy Spirit, no person is able to

respond to God’s will;
grace is resistible; and
believers are able to resist sin but are not

beyond the possibility of falling from grace.
Many Christian denominations have been

influenced by Arminian views, notably the
Baptists (See A History of the Baptists Third
Edition by Robert G. Torbet) in the 16th
century, the Methodists, and the Universalists
and Unitarians in the 18th and 19th centuries.
320
Denominations such as the Anabaptists unconditionally elects some for salvation.

(beginning in 1525), and Waldensians (pre- Instead Arminius proposed that the election of
Reformation), and other groups prior to the God was of believers, thereby making it
Reformation have also held this view of the conditional on faith. Arminius's views were
Free Will of man. challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, especially
Franciscus Gomarus, but Arminius died before a
The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself
national synod could occur.
are commonly defined as Arminianism, but
more broadly, the term may embrace the Arminius's followers, not wanting to adopt their
teachings of Hugo Grotius, John Wesley, and leader's name, called themselves the
others as well. Classical Arminianism, to which Remonstrants. When Arminius died before he
Arminius is the main contributor, and Wesleyan could satisfy Holland's State General's request
Arminianism, to which John Wesley is the main for a 14-page paper outlining his views, the
contributor, are the two main schools of Remonstrants replied in his stead crafting the
thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often Five articles of Remonstrance. After some
identical with Methodism. Some Arminian political maneuvering, the Dutch Calvinists were
schools of thought share certain similarities able to convince Prince Maurice of Nassau to
with Semipelagianism, believing the first step of deal with the situation. Maurice systematically
salvation is by human will but classical removed Arminian magistrates from office and
Arminianism holds that the first step of called a national synod at Dordrecht. This Synod
salvation is the grace of God. of Dort was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists
(Arminians were excluded) with Calvinist
The two systems share both history and many
representatives from other countries, and in
doctrines, and the variety of the history of
1618 published a condemnation of Arminius
Christian theology. Arminianism is related to
and his followers as heretics. Part of this
Calvinism (or Reformed theology). However,
publication was the famous Five points of
because of their differences over the doctrines
Calvinism in response to the five articles of
of divine predestination and salvation, many
Remonstrance.
people view these schools of thought as
opposed to each other. In short, because Arminians across Holland were removed from
ultimately God's Sovereignty can be overruled office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to
by man's free will in the Arminian doctrine and silence. Twelve years later Holland officially
their synergistic system of Salvation is not only granted Arminianism protection as a religion,
by Grace, these differences cannot be seen as although animosity between Arminians and
mere details. Calvinists continued.
The debate between Calvin's followers and

Arminius's followers is distinctive of post-
History of Calvinist–Arminian debate and Free
Reformation church history. The emerging
will in theology
Baptist movement in 17th-century England, for
Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch pastor and example, was a microcosm of the historic
theologian in the late 16th and early 17th debate between Calvinists and Arminians. The
centuries. He was taught by Theodore Beza, first Baptists–called "General Baptists" because
Calvin's hand-picked successor, but after of their confession of a "general" or unlimited
examination of the Scriptures, he rejected his atonement, were Arminians. The Baptist
teacher's theology that it is God who movement originated with Thomas Helwys,
321
who left his mentor John Smyth (who had salvation. Wesley also clarified the doctrine of
moved into shared belief and other distinctives prevenient grace and preached the ability of
of the Dutch Waterlander Mennonites of Christians to attain to perfection. While Wesley
Amsterdam) and returned to London to start freely made use of the term "Arminian," he did
the first English Baptist Church in 1611. Later not self-consciously root his soteriology in the
General Baptists such as John Griffith, Samuel theology of Arminius but was highly influenced
Loveday, and Thomas Grantham defended a by 17th-century English Arminianism and
Reformed Arminian theology that reflected thinkers such as John Goodwin, Jeremy Taylor
more the Arminianism of Arminius than that of and Henry Hammond of the Anglican "Holy
the later Remonstrants or the English Living" school, and the Remonstrant Hugo
Arminianism of Arminian Puritans like John Grotius.
Goodwin or Anglican Arminians such as Jeremy
Arminianism
Taylor and Henry Hammond. The General
Baptists encapsulated their Arminian views in Religions
numerous confessions, the most influential of
which was the Standard Confession of 1660. In Evangelicalism, Methodism, General Baptists,
the 1640s the Particular Baptists were formed, Holiness movement, Charismatic Movement,
diverging strongly from Arminian doctrine and Pentecostalism
embracing the strong Calvinism of the Advocates of both Arminianism and Calvinism
Presbyterians and Independents. Their robust find a home in many Protestant denominations,
Calvinism was publicized in such confessions as and sometimes both exist within the same
the London Baptist Confession of 1644 and the denomination. Faiths leaning at least in part in
Second London Confession of 1689. the Arminian direction include Methodists, Free
Interestingly, the London Confession of 1689 Will Baptists, Christian Churches and Churches
was later used by Calvinistic Baptists in America of Christ, General Baptists, Seventh-day
(called the Philadelphia Baptist Confession), Adventists, Church of the Nazarene, The
whereas the Standard Confession of 1660 was Salvation Army, Conservative Mennonites, Old
used by the American heirs of the English Order Mennonites, Amish and Charismatics.
General Baptists, who soon came to be known Denominations leaning in the Calvinist direction
as Free Will Baptists. are grouped as the Reformed churches and
This same dynamic between Arminianism and include Particular Baptists, Reformed Baptists,
Calvinism can be seen in the heated discussions Presbyterians, and Congregationalists. The
between friends and fellow Methodist ministers majority of Southern Baptists, including Billy
John Wesley and George Whitefield. Wesley Graham, accept Arminianism with an exception
was a champion of Arminian teachings, allowing for a doctrine of perseverance of the
defending his soteriology in a periodical titled saints ("eternal security"). Many see Calvinism
The Arminian and writing articles such as as growing in acceptance, and some prominent
Predestination Calmly Considered. He defended Reformed Baptists, such as Albert Mohler and
Arminianism against charges of semi- Mark Dever, have been pushing for the
Pelagianism, holding strongly to beliefs in Southern Baptist Convention to adopt a more
original sin and total depravity. At the same Calvinistic orientation (it should be noted,
time, Wesley attacked the determinism that he however, that no Baptist church is bound by any
claimed characterized unconditional election resolution adopted by the Southern Baptist
and maintained a belief in the ability to lose Convention). Lutherans espouse a view of
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salvation and election distinct from both the the teaching of Jacobus Arminius — and
Calvinist and Arminian schools of soteriology. Wesleyan Arminian, drawing primarily from
Wesley. Both groups overlap substantially.
The current scholarly support for Arminianism is
wide and varied. One particular thrust is a Classical Arminianism
return to the teachings of Arminius. F. Leroy
Classical Arminianism (sometimes titled
Forlines, Robert Picirilli, Stephen Ashby and
Reformed Arminianism or Reformation
Matthew Pinson (see citations) are four of the
Arminianism) is the theological system that was
more prominent supporters. Forlines has
presented by Jacobus Arminius and maintained
referred to this type of Arminianism as
by some of the Remonstrants; its influence
"Classical Arminianism," while Picirilli, Pinson,
serves as the foundation for all Arminian
and Ashby have termed it "Reformation
systems. A list of beliefs is given below:
Arminianism" or "Reformed Arminianism."
Through Methodism, Wesley's teachings also Depravity is total: Arminius states "In this
inspire a large scholarly following, with vocal [fallen] state, the free will of man towards the
proponents including J. Kenneth Grider, Stanley true good is not only wounded, infirm, bent, and
Hauerwas, Thomas Oden, Thomas Jay Oord, and weakened; but it is also imprisoned, destroyed,
William Willimon. and lost. And its powers are not only debilitated
and useless unless they be assisted by grace,
Recent influence of the New Perspective on
but it has no powers whatever except such as
Paul movement has also reached Arminianism
are excited by Divine grace."
— primarily through a view of corporate
election. The New Perspective scholars propose Atonement is intended for all: Jesus's death was
that the 1st century, Second Temple Judaism for all people, Jesus draws all people to himself,
understood election primarily as national and all people have opportunity for salvation
(Israelites) and racial (Jews), not as individual. through faith.
Their conclusion is thus that Paul's writings on
election should be interpreted in a similar Jesus's death satisfies God's justice: The penalty
corporate light. for the sins of the elect is paid in full through
Jesus's work on the cross. Thus Christ's
Theology atonement is intended for all, but requires faith
to be effected. Arminius states that
"Justification, when used for the act of a Judge,
The Five Articles is either purely the imputation of righteousness
through mercy… or that man is justified before
of Remonstrance
God… according to the rigor of justice without
Conditional election any forgiveness." Stephen Ashby clarifies:
"Arminius allowed for only two possible ways in
Unlimited atonement which the sinner might be justified: (1) by our
Total depravity absolute and perfect adherence to the law, or
(2) purely by God's imputation of Christ's
Prevenient grace righteousness."
Conditional preservation Grace is resistible: God takes initiative in the
Arminian theology usually falls into one of two salvation process and his grace comes to all
groups — Classical Arminianism, drawn from people. This grace (often called prevenient or
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pre-regenerating grace) acts on all people to condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is
convince them of the Gospel, draw them conditioned on faith, therefore perseverance is
strongly towards salvation, and enable the also conditioned. Apostasy (turning from Christ)
possibility of sincere faith. Picirilli states that is only committed through a deliberate, willful
"indeed this grace is so close to regeneration rejection of Jesus and renunciation of saving
that it inevitably leads to regeneration unless faith. Such apostasy is irremediable.
finally resisted." The offer of salvation through
The Five articles of Remonstrance that
grace does not act irresistibly in a purely cause-
Arminius's followers formulated in 1610 state
effect, deterministic method but rather in an
the above beliefs regarding (I) conditional
influence-and-response fashion that can be
election, (II) unlimited atonement, (III) total
both freely accepted and freely denied.
depravity, (IV) total depravity and resistible
Man has free will to respond or resist: Free will grace, and (V) possibility of apostasy. Note,
is limited by God's sovereignty, but God's however, that the fifth article did not
sovereignty allows all men the choice to accept completely deny perseverance of the saints;
the Gospel of Jesus through faith, Arminius, himself, said that "I never taught that
simultaneously allowing all men to resist. a true believer can… fall away from the faith…
yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of
Election is conditional: Arminius defined
Scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect;
election as "the decree of God by which, of
and those answers to them which I have been
Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in
permitted to see, are not of such as kind as to
Christ, believers, and to accept them unto
approve themselves on all points to my
eternal life." God alone determines who will be
understanding." Further, the text of the Articles
saved and his determination is that all who
of Remonstrance says that no believer can be
believe Jesus through faith will be justified.
plucked from Christ's hand, and the matter of
According to Arminius, "God regards no one in
falling away, "loss of salvation" required further
Christ unless they are engrafted in him by
study before it could be taught with any
faith."
certainty.
God predestines the elect to a glorious future:
The core beliefs of Jacobus Arminius and the
Predestination is not the predetermination of
Remonstrants are summarized as such by
who will believe, but rather the
theologian Stephen Ashby:
predetermination of the believer's future
inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined Prior to being drawn and enabled, one is unable
to sonship through adoption, glorification, and to believe… able only to resist.
eternal life.
Having been drawn and enabled, but prior to
Christ's righteousness is imputed to the regeneration, one is able to believe… able also
believer: Justification is sola fide. When to resist.
individuals repent and believe in Christ (saving
After one believes, God then regenerates; one
faith), they are regenerated and brought into
is able to continue believing… able also to resist.
union with Christ, whereby the death and
righteousness of Christ are imputed to them for Upon resisting to the point of unbelief, one is
their justification before God. unable again to believe… able only to resist.
Eternal security is also conditional: All believers Wesleyan Arminianism
have full assurance of salvation with the
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John Wesley has historically been the most Christian perfection – According to Wesley's
influential advocate for the teachings of teaching, Christians could attain a state of
Arminian soteriology. Wesley thoroughly practical perfection, meaning a lack of all
agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius voluntary sin by the empowerment of the Holy
himself taught, maintaining strong doctrines of Spirit, in this life. Christian perfection (or entire
original sin, total depravity, conditional election, sanctification), according to Wesley, is "purity of
prevenient grace, unlimited atonement, and intention, dedicating all the life to God" and
possibly apostasy. "the mind which was in Christ, enabling us to
walk as Christ walked." It is "loving God with all
Wesley departs from Classical Arminianism
our heart, and our neighbor as ourselves". It is
primarily on three issues:
'a restoration not only to the favour, but
Atonement – Wesley's atonement is a hybrid of likewise to the image of God," our "being filled
the penal substitution theory and the with the fullness of God". Wesley was clear that
governmental theory of Hugo Grotius, a lawyer Christian perfection did not imply perfection of
and one of the Remonstrants. Steven Harper bodily health or an infallibility of judgment. It
states "Wesley does not place the substitionary also does not mean we no longer violate the
element primarily within a legal will of God, for involuntary transgressions
framework...Rather [his doctrine seeks] to bring remain. Perfected Christians remain subject to
into proper relationship the 'justice' between temptation, and have continued need to pray
God's love for persons and God's hatred of for forgiveness and holiness. It is not an
sin...it is not the satisfaction of a legal demand absolute perfection but a perfection in love.
for justice so much as it is an act of mediated Furthermore, Wesley did not teach a salvation
reconciliation." by perfection, but rather says that, "Even
perfect holiness is acceptable to God only
Possibility of apostasy – Wesley fully accepted through Jesus Christ."
the Arminian view that genuine Christians could
apostatize and lose their salvation, as his
famous sermon "A Call to Backsliders" clearly
demonstrates. Harper summarizes as follows:
"the act of committing sin is not in itself ground
for the loss of salvation...the loss of salvation is
much more related to experiences that are
profound and prolonged. Wesley sees two
primary pathways that could result in a
permanent fall from grace: unconfessed sin and
the actual expression of apostasy." Wesley
disagrees with Arminius, however, in
maintaining that such apostasy was not final.
When talking about those who have made
"shipwreck" of their faith (1 Tim 1:19), Wesley
claims that "not one, or a hundred only, but I
am persuaded, several thousands...innumerable
are the instances...of those who had fallen but
now stand upright."
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authority. During this period, Michael Servetus,

a Spaniard known for his heretical views,
arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin
and executed by the city council. Following an
influx of supportive refugees and new elections
to the city council, Calvin's opponents were
forced out. Calvin spent his final years
promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and
throughout Europe.
Calvin was a tireless polemic and apologetic

writer who generated much controversy. He
Chapter Five
also exchanged cordial and supportive letters
John Calvin with many reformers, including Philipp
Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger. In addition
to the Institutes, he wrote commentaries on
most books of the Bible, as well as theological
John Calvin (French: Jean Calvin, born Jehan treatises and confessional documents. He
Cauvin: 10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564) was an regularly preached sermons throughout the
influential French theologian and pastor during week in Geneva. Calvin was influenced by the
the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal Augustinian tradition, which led him to expound
figure in the development of the system of the doctrine of predestination and the absolute
Christian theology later called Calvinism. sovereignty of God in salvation of the human
Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he soul from death and eternal damnation.
broke from the Roman Catholic Church around
1530. After religious tensions provoked a Calvin's writing and preachings provided the
violent uprising against Protestants in France, seeds for the branch of theology that bears his
Calvin fled to Basel, Switzerland, where he name. The Reformed, Congregational, and
published the first edition of his seminal work Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as
Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread
throughout the world.
In that year, Calvin was recruited by William
Farel to help reform the church in Geneva. The John Calvin was born as Jehan Cauvin on 10 July
city council resisted the implementation of 1509, in the town of Noyon in the Picardy
Calvin's and Farel's ideas, and both men were region of France. He was the first of four sons
expelled. At the invitation of Martin Bucer, who survived infancy. His father, Gérard Cauvin,
Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg, where he had a prosperous career as the cathedral notary
became the minister of a church of French and registrar to the ecclesiastical court. He died
refugees. He continued to support the reform in his later years, after suffering two years with
movement in Geneva, and was eventually testicular cancer. His mother, Jeanne le Franc,
invited back to lead its church. was the daughter of an innkeeper from
Cambrai. She died a few years after Calvin's
Following his return, Calvin introduced new birth from an unknown cause. Gérard intended
forms of church government and liturgy, his three sons—Charles, Jean, and Antoine—for
despite the opposition of several powerful the priesthood.
families in the city who tried to curb his
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Jean was particularly precocious; by age 12, he In his second account he speaks of a long
was employed by the bishop as a clerk and process of inner turmoil, followed by spiritual
received the tonsure, cutting his hair to and psychological anguish.
symbolise his dedication to the Church. He also
"Being exceedingly alarmed at the misery into
won the patronage of an influential family, the
which I had fallen, and much more at that
Montmors. Through their assistance, Calvin was
which threatened me in view of eternal death, I,
able to attend the Collège de la Marche, in
duty bound, made it my first business to betake
Paris, where he learned Latin from one of its
myself to your way, condemning my past life,
greatest teachers, Mathurin Cordier. Once he
not without groans and tears. And now, O Lord,
completed the course, he entered the Collège
what remains to a wretch like me, but instead
de Montaigu as a philosophy student.
of defence, earnestly to supplicate you not to
In 1525 or 1526, Gérard withdrew his son from judge that fearful abandonment of your Word
the Collège de Montaigu and enrolled him in according to its deserts, from which in your
the University of Orléans to study law. wondrous goodness you have at last delivered
According to contemporary biographers me."
Theodore Beza and Nicolas Colladon, Gérard
Scholars have argued about the precise
believed his son would earn more money as a
interpretation of these accounts, but it is
lawyer than as a priest. After a few years of
agreed that his conversion corresponded with
quiet study, Calvin entered the University of
his break from the Roman Catholic Church. The
Bourges in 1529. He was intrigued by Andreas
Calvin biographer, Bruce Gordon, has stressed
Alciati, a humanist lawyer. Humanism was a
that "the two accounts are not antithetical,
European intellectual movement which stressed
revealing some inconsistency in Calvin's
classical studies. During his 18-month stay in
memory, but rather [are] two different ways of
Bourges, Calvin learned Greek, a necessity for
expressing the same reality."
studying the New Testament.
By 1532, Calvin received his licentiate in law and
During the autumn of 1533 Calvin experienced a
published his first book, a commentary on
religious conversion. In his later life, John Calvin
Seneca's De Clementia. After uneventful trips to
wrote two different accounts of his conversion
Orléans and his hometown of Noyon, Calvin
that differ in significant ways. In the first
returned to Paris in October 1533. During this
account he portrays his conversion as a sudden
time, tensions rose at the Collège Royal (later to
change of mind, brought about by God. This
become the Collège de France) between the
account can be found in his Commentary on the
humanists/reformers and the conservative
Book of Psalms:
senior faculty members. One of the reformers,
"God by a sudden conversion subdued and Nicolas Cop, was rector of the university. On 1
brought my mind to a teachable frame, which November 1533 he devoted his inaugural
was more hardened in such matters than might address to the need for reform and renewal in
have been expected from one at my early period the Catholic Church.
of life. Having thus received some taste and
The address provoked a strong reaction from
knowledge of true godliness, I was immediately
the faculty, who denounced it as heretical,
inflamed with so intense a desire to make
forcing Cop to flee to Basel. Calvin, a close
progress therein, that although I did not
friend of Cop, was implicated in the offence,
altogether leave off other studies, yet I pursued
and for the next year he was forced into hiding.
them with less ardour."
327
He remained on the move, sheltering with his Calvin had only intended to stay a single night,
friend Louis du Tillet in Angoulême and taking but William Farel, a fellow French reformer
refuge in Noyon and Orléans. He was finally residing in the city, implored a most reluctant
forced to flee France during the Affair of the Calvin to stay and assist him in work of
Placards in mid-October 1534. In that incident, reforming the church there – it was his duty
unknown reformers had posted placards in before God, Farel insisted. Yet Calvin, for his
various cities attacking the Catholic mass, which part, desired only peace and privacy. But it was
provoked a violent backlash against Protestants. not to be; Farel's entreaties prevailed, but not
In January 1535, Calvin joined Cop in Basel, a before his having had recourse to the sternest
city under the influence of the reformer imprecations. Calvin recalls the rather intense
Johannes Oecolampadius. encounter:
Reform work commences (1536–1538) Then Farel, who was working with incredible
zeal to promote the gospel, bent all his efforts
William Farel was the reformer who convinced
to keep me in the city. And when he realized
Calvin to stay in Geneva. 16th Century painting.
that I was determined to study in privacy in
In the Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire,
some obscure place, and saw that he gained
Geneva.
nothing by entreaty, he descended to cursing,
In March 1536, Calvin published the first edition and said that God would surely curse my peace
of his Institutio Christianae Religionis or if I held back from giving help at a time of such
Institutes of the Christian Religion. The work great need. Terrified by his words, and
was an apologia or defense of his faith and a conscious of my own timidity and cowardice, I
statement of the doctrinal position of the gave up my journey and attempted to apply
reformers. He also intended it to serve as an whatever gift I had in defense of my faith.
elementary instruction book for anyone
Calvin accepted without any preconditions on
interested in the Christian religion. The book
his tasks or duties. The office to which he was
was the first expression of his theology. Calvin
initially assigned is unknown. He was eventually
updated the work and published new editions
given the title of "reader", which most likely
throughout his life. Shortly after its publication,
meant that he could give expository lectures on
he left Basel for Ferrara, Italy, where he briefly
the Bible. Sometime in 1537 he was selected to
served as secretary to Princess Renée of France.
be a "pastor", although he never received any
By June he was back in Paris with his brother
pastoral consecration. For the first time, the
Antoine, who was resolving their father's
lawyer-theologian took up pastoral duties such
affairs. Following the Edict of Coucy, which gave
as baptisms, weddings, and church services.
a limited six-month period for heretics to
reconcile with the Catholic faith, Calvin decided Throughout the fall of 1536, Farel drafted a
that there was no future for him in France. In confession of faith while Calvin wrote separate
August he set off for Strasbourg, a free imperial articles on reorganizing the church in Geneva.
city of the Holy Roman Empire and a refuge for On 16 January 1537, Farel and Calvin presented
reformers. Due to military manoeuvres of their Articles concernant l'organisation de
imperial and French forces, he was forced to l'église et du culte à Genève (Articles on the
make a detour to the south, bringing him to Organization of the Church and its Worship at
Geneva. Geneva) to the city council. The document
described the manner and frequency of their
celebrations of the eucharist, the reason for and
328
the method of excommunication, the of French refugees in Strasbourg by that city's

requirement to subscribe to the confession of leading reformers, Martin Bucer and Wolfgang
faith, the use of congregational singing in the Capito. Initially Calvin refused because Farel
liturgy, and the revision of marriage laws. The was not included in the invitation, but relented
council accepted the document on the same when Bucer appealed to him. By September
day. 1538 Calvin had taken up his new position in
Strasbourg, fully expecting that this time it
Throughout the year, however, Calvin and
would be permanent; a few months later, he
Farel's reputation with the council began to
applied for and was granted citizenship of the
suffer. The council was reluctant to enforce the
city.
subscription requirement, as only a few citizens
had subscribed to their confession of faith. On Minister in Strasbourg (1538–1541)
26 November, the two ministers heatedly
Martin Bucer invited Calvin to Strasbourg after
debated the council over the issue.
he was expelled from Geneva. Illustration by
Furthermore, France was taking an interest in
Jean-Jacques Boissard.
forming an alliance with Geneva and as the two
ministers were Frenchmen, councillors began to During his time in Strasbourg, Calvin was not
question their loyalty. Finally, a major attached to one particular church, but held his
ecclesiastical-political quarrel developed when office successively in the Saint-Nicolas Church,
Bern, Geneva's ally in the reformation of the the Sainte-Madeleine Church and the former
Swiss churches, proposed to introduce Dominican Church, renamed the Temple Neuf.
uniformity in the church ceremonies. One (All of these churches still exist, but none is in
proposal required the use of unleavened bread the architectural state of Calvin's days.) Calvin
for the eucharist. The two ministers were ministered to 400–500 members in his church.
unwilling to follow Bern's lead and delayed the He preached or lectured every day, with two
use of such bread until a synod in Zurich could sermons on Sunday. Communion was
be convened to make the final decision. The celebrated monthly and congregational singing
council ordered Calvin and Farel to use of the psalms was encouraged. He also worked
unleavened bread for the Easter eucharist; in on the second edition of the Institutes.
protest, the ministers did not administer Although the first edition sold out within a year,
communion during the Easter service. This Calvin was dissatisfied with its structure as a
caused a riot during the service and the next catechism, a primer for young Christians.
day, the council told the ministers to leave
Geneva. For the second edition, published in 1539,
Calvin dropped this format in favour of
Farel and Calvin went to Bern and Zurich to systematically presenting the main doctrines
plead their case. The synod in Zurich placed from scripture. In the process, the book was
most of the blame on Calvin for not being enlarged from six chapters to seventeen. He
sympathetic enough toward the people of concurrently worked on another book, the
Geneva. However, it asked Bern to mediate Commentary on Romans, which was published
with the aim of restoring the ministers. The in March 1540. The book was a model for his
Geneva council refused to readmit the two later commentaries: it included his own Latin
men, who took refuge in Basel. Subsequently translation from the Greek rather than the Latin
Farel received an invitation to lead the church in Vulgate, an exegesis, and an exposition. In the
Neuchâtel. Calvin was invited to lead a church dedicatory letter, Calvin praised the work of his
329
predecessors Philipp Melanchthon, Heinrich suggestion was one of horror in which he wrote,
Bullinger, and Martin Bucer, but he also took "Rather would I submit to death a hundred
care to distinguish his own work from theirs and times than to that cross on which I had to perish
to criticise some of their shortcomings. daily a thousand times over."
Calvin's friends urged him to marry. Calvin took Calvin also wrote that he was prepared to
a prosaic view, writing to one correspondent: follow the Lord's calling. A plan was drawn up in
which Viret would be appointed to take
"I, who have the air of being so hostile to
temporary charge in Geneva for six months
celibacy, I am still not married and do not know
while Bucer and Calvin would visit the city to
whether I will ever be. If I take a wife it will be
determine the next steps. However, the city
because, being better freed from numerous
council pressed for the immediate appointment
worries, I can devote myself to the Lord."
of Calvin in Geneva. By summer 1541,
Several candidates were presented to him Strasbourg decided to loan Calvin to Geneva for
including one young woman from a noble six months. Calvin returned on 13 September
family. Reluctantly, Calvin agreed to the 1541 with an official escort and a wagon for his
marriage, on the condition that she would learn family.
French. Although a wedding date was planned
for March 1540, he remained reluctant and the
wedding never took place. He later wrote that
he would never think of marrying her, "unless
Reform in Geneva (1541–1549)
the Lord had entirely bereft me of my wits".
Instead, in August of that year, he married
Idelette de Bure, a widow who had two children
from her first marriage. In supporting Calvin's proposals for reforms, the
council of Geneva passed the Ordonnances
Geneva reconsidered its expulsion of Calvin. ecclésiastiques (Ecclesiastical Ordinances) on 20
Church attendance had dwindled and the November 1541. The ordinances defined four
political climate had changed; as Bern and orders of ministerial function: pastors to preach
Geneva quarrelled over land, their alliance and to administer the sacraments; doctors to
frayed. When Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a instruct believers in the faith; elders to provide
letter to the city council inviting Geneva to discipline; and deacons to care for the poor and
return to the Catholic faith, the council needy. They also called for the creation of the
searched for an ecclesiastical authority to Consistoire (Consistory), an ecclesiastical court
respond to him. At first Pierre Viret was composed of the lay elders and the ministers.
consulted, but when he refused, the council The city government retained the power to
asked Calvin. He agreed and his Responsio ad summon persons before the court, and the
Sadoletum (Letter to Sadoleto) strongly Consistory could judge only ecclesiastical
defended Geneva's position concerning reforms matters having no civil jurisdiction. Originally,
in the church. On 21 September 1540 the the court had the power to mete out sentences,
council commissioned one of its members, Ami with excommunication as its most severe
Perrin, to find a way to recall Calvin. An penalty. However, the government contested
embassy reached Calvin while he was at a this power and on 19 March 1543 the council
colloquy, a conference to settle religious decided that all sentencing would be carried out
disputes, in Worms. His reaction to the by the government.
330
In 1542, Calvin adapted a service book used in learned or developed a system of shorthand,
Strasbourg, publishing La Forme des Prières et was assigned to record all of Calvin's sermons.
Chants Ecclésiastiques (The Form of Prayers and An analysis of his sermons by T.H.L. Parker
Church Hymns). Calvin recognised the power of suggests that Calvin was a consistent preacher
music and he intended that it be used to and his style changed very little over the years.
support scripture readings. The original
Very little is known about Calvin's personal life
Strasbourg psalter contained twelve psalms by
in Geneva. His house and furniture were owned
Clément Marot and Calvin added several more
by the council. The house was big enough to
hymns of his own composition in the Geneva
accommodate his family as well as Antoine's
version. At the end of 1542, Marot became a
family and some servants. On 28 July 1542,
refugee in Geneva and contributed nineteen
Idelette gave birth to a son, Jacques, but he was
more psalms. Louis Bourgeois, also a refugee,
born prematurely and survived only briefly.
lived and taught music in Geneva for sixteen
Idelette fell ill in 1545 and died on 29 March
years and Calvin took the opportunity to add his
1549. Calvin never married again. He expressed
hymns, the most famous being the Old
his sorrow in a letter to Viret:
Hundredth.
I have been bereaved of the best friend of my
In the same year of 1542, Calvin published
life, of one who, if it has been so ordained,
Catéchisme de l'Eglise de Genève (Catechism of
would willingly have shared not only my
the Church of Geneva), which was inspired by
poverty but also my death. During her life she
Bucer's Kurze Schrifftliche Erklärung of 1534.
was the faithful helper of my ministry. From her
Calvin had written an earlier catechism during
I never experienced the slightest hindrance.
his first stay in Geneva which was largely based
on Martin Luther's Large Catechism. The first Throughout the rest of his life in Geneva, he
version was arranged pedagogically, describing maintained several friendships from his early
Law, Faith, and Prayer. The 1542 version was years including Montmor, Cordier, Cop, Farel,
rearranged for theological reasons, covering Melanchthon and Bullinger.
Faith first, then Law and Prayer.
Discipline and opposition (1546–1553)
Idelette and Calvin had no children survive
infancy.
During his ministry in Geneva, Calvin preached Calvin encountered bitter opposition to his
over two thousand sermons. Initially he work in Geneva. Around 1546, the
preached twice on Sunday and three times uncoordinated forces coalesced into an
during the week. This proved to be too heavy a identifiable group whom he referred to as the
burden and late in 1542 the council allowed him libertines, but who preferred to be called either
to preach only once on Sunday. However, in Spirituels or Patriots. According to Calvin, these
October 1549, he was again required to preach were people who felt that after being liberated
twice on Sundays and, in addition, every through grace, they were exempted from both
weekday of alternate weeks. His sermons lasted ecclesiastical and civil law. The group consisted
more than an hour and he did not use notes. An of wealthy, politically powerful, and interrelated
occasional secretary tried to record his families of Geneva. At the end of January 1546,
sermons, but very little of his preaching was Pierre Ameaux, a maker of playing cards who
preserved before 1549. In that year, had already been in conflict with the Consistory,
professional scribe Denis Raguenier, who had attacked Calvin by calling him a "Picard", an
331
epithet denoting anti-French sentiment, and council to allow him to resign. Although the
accused him of false doctrine. Ameaux was libertines controlled the council, his request
punished by the council and forced to make was refused. The opposition realised that they
expiation by parading through the city and could curb Calvin's authority, but they did not
begging God for forgiveness. A few months later have enough power to banish him.
Ami Perrin, the man who had brought Calvin to
Geneva, moved into open opposition. Perrin
had married Françoise Favre, daughter of
François Favre, a well-established Genevan
merchant. Both Perrin's wife and father-in-law
had previous conflicts with the Consistory. The
court noted that many of Geneva's notables,
including Perrin, had breached a law against
dancing. Initially, Perrin ignored the court when
he was summoned, but after receiving a letter
from Calvin, he appeared before the Consistory.
By 1547, opposition to Calvin and other French

refugee ministers had grown to constitute the
majority of the syndics, the civil magistrates of
Geneva. On 27 June an unsigned threatening
letter in Genevan dialect was found at the pulpit
of St. Pierre Cathedral where Calvin preached.
Suspecting a plot against both the church and Chapter Six
the state, the council appointed a commission
Martin Luther
to investigate. Jacques Gruet, a Genevan
member of Favre's group, was arrested and
incriminating evidence was found when his
house was searched. Under torture, he
Martin Luther OSA (German: [ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈlʊtɐ]
confessed to several crimes including writing
( listen); 10 November 1483 – 18 February
the letter left in the pulpit which threatened the
1546) was a German monk, Catholic priest,
church leaders. The civil court condemned him
professor of theology and seminal figure of a
to death and, with Calvin's consent, he was
reform movement in 16th century Christianity,
beheaded on 26 July.
subsequently known as the Protestant
The libertines/Spirituels and Patriots continued Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim
organizing opposition, insulting the appointed that freedom from God's punishment for sin
ministers, and challenging the authority of the could be purchased with money. He confronted
Consistory. The council straddled both sides of indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel, a
the conflict, alternately admonishing and Dominican friar, with his Ninety-Five Theses in
upholding Calvin. When Perrin was elected first 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at
syndic in February 1552, Calvin's authority the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy
appeared to be at its lowest point. After some Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms
losses before the council, Calvin believed he in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the
was defeated; on 24 July 1553 he asked the
332
Pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the and smelters and served as one of four citizen
Emperor. representatives on the local council. The
religious scholar Martin Marty describes
Luther taught that salvation and subsequently
Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of
eternity in heaven is not earned by good deeds
"trading-class stock and middling means" and
but is received only as a free gift of God's grace
notes that Luther's enemies later wrongly
through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from
described her as a whore and bath attendant.
sin and subsequently eternity in hell. His
He had several brothers and sisters, and is
theology challenged the authority of the Pope
known to have been close to one of them,
of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that
Jacob. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself
the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed
and his family, and he was determined to see
knowledge from God and opposed
Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He
sacerdotalism by considering all baptized
sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then
Christians to be a holy priesthood. Those who
Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a
identify with these, and all of Luther's wider
school operated by a lay group called the
teachings, are called Lutherans.
Brethren of the Common Life, and Eisenach in
His translation of the Bible into the vernacular 1498. The three schools focused on the so-
(instead of Latin) made it more accessible, called "trivium": grammar, rhetoric, and logic.
which had a tremendous impact on the church Luther later compared his education there to
and on German culture. It fostered the purgatory and hell.
development of a standard version of the
In 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the
German language, added several principles to
University of Erfurt, which he later described as
the art of translation, and influenced the writing
a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to
of an English translation, the King James Bible.
wake at four every morning for what has been
His hymns influenced the development of
described as "a day of rote learning and often
singing in churches. His marriage to Katharina
wearying spiritual exercises." He received his
von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical
master's degree in 1505.
marriage, allowing Protestant priests to marry.
In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther
In his later years, in deteriorating health, Luther
enrolled in law school at the same university
became increasingly critical of adherents of
that year but dropped out almost immediately,
Judaism, writing that Jewish synagogues and
believing that law represented
homes should be destroyed, their money
uncertainty.Luther sought assurances about life
confiscated, and liberty curtailed. These
and was drawn to theology and philosophy,
statements and their influence on antisemitism
expressing particular interest in Aristotle,
have contributed to his controversial status.
William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel. He was
Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder (or deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomaeus
Ludher, later Luther) and his wife Margarethe Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter,
(née Lindemann) on 10 November 1483 in who taught him to be suspicious of even the
Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman greatest thinkers and to test everything himself
Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next by experience. Philosophy proved to be
morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use
His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where of reason but none about loving God, which to
his father was a leaseholder of copper mines Luther was more important. Reason could not
333
lead men to God, he felt, and he thereafter penances and punishments but rather a change
developed a love-hate relationship with of heart.
Aristotle over the latter's emphasis on reason.
In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and
For Luther, reason could be used to question
in 1508 von Staupitz, first dean of the newly
men and institutions, but not God. Human
founded University of Wittenberg, sent for
beings could learn about God only through
Luther, to teach theology. He received a
divine revelation, he believed, and Scripture
Bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on 9 March
therefore became increasingly important to
1508, and another Bachelor's degree in the
him.
Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509. On 19
He later attributed his decision to an event: on October 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of
2 July 1505, he was returning to university on Theology and, on 21 October 1512, was
horseback after a trip home. During a received into the senate of the theological
thunderstorm, a lightning bolt struck near him. faculty of the University of Wittenberg, having
Later telling his father he was terrified of death been called to the position of Doctor in Bible.
and divine judgment, he cried out, "Help! Saint He spent the rest of his career in this position at
Anna, I will become a monk!" He came to view the University of Wittenberg.
his cry for help as a vow he could never break.
The start of the Reformation
He left law school, sold his books, and entered a
closed Augustinian friary in Erfurt on 17 July According to one account, Luther nailed his
1505. One friend blamed the decision on Ninety-Five Theses to the door of All Saints'
Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Church in Wittenberg on 31 October 1517,
Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. sparking the Reformation. The original wooden
Those who attended a farewell supper walked door has not been preserved; Luther's theses
him to the door of the Black Cloister. "This day were engraved into today's bronze gate.
you see me, and then, not ever again," he said.
His father was furious over what he saw as a In 1516, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar and
waste of Luther's education. papal commissioner for indulgences, was sent
to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to
Monastic and academic life sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St.
Peter's Basilica in Rome. Roman Catholic
Luther dedicated himself to monastic life,
theology stated that faith alone, whether
devoting himself to fasting, long hours in
fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;
prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession. He
justification rather depends only on such faith
would later remark, "If anyone could have
as is active in charity and good works (fides
gained heaven as a monk, then I would certainly
caritate formata). The benefits of good works
have done so." Luther described this period of
could be obtained by donating money to the
his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said,
church.
"I lost touch with Christ the Savior and
Comforter, and made of him the jailer and On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to his
hangman of my poor soul." Johann von bishop, Albert of Mainz, protesting the sale of
Staupitz, his superior, pointed Luther’s mind indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of
away from continual reflection upon his sins his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power
toward the merits of Christ. He taught that true and Efficacy of Indulgences," which came to be
repentance does not involve self-inflicted known as The Ninety-Five Theses. Hans
Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention
334
of confronting the church, but saw his controversy one of the first in history to be
disputation as a scholarly objection to church aided by the printing press. Within two weeks,
practices, and the tone of the writing is copies of the theses had spread throughout
accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire." Germany; within two months throughout
Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an Europe.
undercurrent of challenge in several of the
Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching
theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks:
France, England, and Italy as early as 1519.
"Why does the pope, whose wealth today is
Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther
greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus,
speak. He published a short commentary on
build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of
Galatians and his Work on the Psalms. This early
poor believers rather than with his own
part of Luther's career was one of his most
money?"
creative and productive. Three of his best-
Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann known works were published in 1520: To the
Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the
rings, the soul from purgatory [also attested as Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the
'into heaven'] springs." Freedom of a Christian.
He insisted that, since forgiveness was God's Justification by faith : Sola fide
alone to grant, those who claimed that
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the
indulgences absolved buyers from all
Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and
punishments and granted them salvation were
Galatians. As he studied these portions of the
in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in
Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as
following Christ on account of such false
penance and righteousness by the Catholic
assurances.
Church in new ways. He became convinced that
However, this oft-quoted saying of Tetzel was the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost
by no means representative of contemporary sight of what he saw as several of the central
Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather a truths of Christianity. The most important for
reflection of his capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Luther was the doctrine of justification – God's
Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to act of declaring a sinner righteous – by faith
indulgences for the dead, his teaching on alone through God's grace. He began to teach
indulgences for the living was in line with that salvation or redemption is a gift of God's
Catholic dogma of the time. grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as
the Messiah. "This one and firm rock, which we
According to scholars Walter Krämer, Götz
call the doctrine of justification," he wrote, "is
Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter and Gerhard Prause,
the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine,
the story of the posting on the door, even
which comprehends the understanding of all
though it has settled as one of the pillars of
godliness."
history, has little foundation in truth.€ The story
is based on comments made by Philipp Luther came to understand justification as
Melanchthon, though it is thought that he was entirely the work of God. This teaching by
not in Wittenberg at the time. Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525
publication On the Bondage of the Will, which
It was not until January 1518 that friends of
was written in response to On Free Will by
Luther translated the 95 Theses from Latin into
Desiderius Erasmus (1524). Luther based his
German, printed, and widely copied, making the
335
position on Predestination on St. Paul's epistle Breach with the papacy

to the Ephesians 2:8–10. Against the teaching of
Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Magdeburg
his day that the righteous acts of believers are
did not reply to Luther's letter containing the 95
performed in cooperation with God, Luther
Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy
wrote that Christians receive such
and in December 1517 forwarded them to
righteousness entirely from outside themselves;
Rome. He needed the revenue from the
that righteousness not only comes from Christ
indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for
but actually is the righteousness of Christ,
his tenure of more than one bishopric. As
imputed to Christians (rather than infused into
Luther later noted, "the pope had a finger in the
them) through faith. "That is why faith alone
pie as well, because one half was to go to the
makes someone just and fulfills the law," he
building of St Peter's Church in Rome".
wrote. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit
through the merits of Christ." Faith, for Luther, Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics,
was a gift from God; the experience of being and he responded slowly, "with great care as is
justified by faith was "as though I had been proper." Over the next three years he deployed
born again." His entry into Paradise, no less, a series of papal theologians and envoys against
was a discovery about "the righteousness of Luther, which served only to harden the
God" – a discovery that "the just person" of reformer's anti-papal theology. First, the
whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives Dominican theologian Sylvester Mazzolini
by faith. He explained his concept of drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo
"justification" in the Smalcald Articles: then summoned to Rome. The Elector Frederick
persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ,
Augsburg, where the Imperial Diet was held.
our God and Lord, died for our sins and was
[50] There, in October 1518, under questioning
raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–
by papal legate Cardinal Cajetan Luther stated
25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes
that he did not consider the papacy part of the
away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God
biblical Church because historistical
has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah
interpretation of Bible prophecy concluded that
53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely,
the papacy was the Antichrist. The prophecies
without their own works and merits, by His
concerning the Antichrist soon became the
grace, through the redemption that is in Christ
center of controversy. The hearings
Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is
degenerated into a shouting match. More than
necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise
his writing the 95 Theses, Luther's confrontation
acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit.
with the church cast him as an enemy of the
Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith
pope. Cajetan's original instructions had been
alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can
to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but
be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven
desisted from doing so. Luther slipped out of
and earth and everything else falls (Mark
the city at night, unbeknownst to Cajetan.
13:31).
In January 1519, at Altenburg in Saxony, the
Luther's rediscovery of "Christ and His
papal nuncio Karl von Miltitz adopted a more
salvation" was the first of two points that
conciliatory approach. Luther made certain
became the foundation for the Reformation. His
concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of
railing against the sale of indulgences was based
the Elector, and promised to remain silent if his
on it.
opponents did. The theologian Johann Eck,
336
however, was determined to expose Luther's Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the Empire as
doctrine in a public forum. In June and July assistant of the Archbishop of Trier, presented
1519, he staged a disputation with Luther's Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a
colleague Andreas Karlstadt at Leipzig and table and asked him if the books were his, and
invited Luther to speak. Luther's boldest whether he stood by their contents. Luther
assertion in the debate was that Matthew 16:18 confirmed he was their author, but requested
does not confer on popes the exclusive right to time to think about the answer to the second
interpret scripture, and that therefore neither question. He prayed, consulted friends, and
popes nor church councils were infallible. For gave his response the next day:
this, Eck branded Luther a new Jan Hus,
Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the
referring to the Czech reformer and heretic
Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust
burned at the stake in 1415. From that
either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is
moment, he devoted himself to Luther's defeat.
well known that they have often erred and
Excommunication contradicted themselves), I am bound by the
Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is
On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with
captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will
the papal bull (edict) Exsurge Domine that he
not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor
risked excommunication unless he recanted 41
right to go against conscience. May God help
sentences drawn from his writings, including
me. Amen.
the 95 Theses, within 60 days. That autumn,
Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and Eck informed Luther that he was acting like a
other towns. Karl von Miltitz, a papal nuncio, heretic:
attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who
"'Martin,' said he, 'there is no one of the
had sent the Pope a copy of On the Freedom of
heresies which have torn the bosom of the
a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the
church, which has not derived its origin from
bull and decretals at Wittenberg on 10
the various interpretation of the Scripture. The
December 1520, an act he defended in Why the
Bible itself is the arsenal whence each innovator
Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and
has drawn his deceptive arguments. It was with
Assertions Concerning All Articles. As a
biblical texts that Pelagius and Arius maintained
consequence, Luther was excommunicated by
their doctrines. Arius, for instance, found the
Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet
negation of the eternity of the Word—an
Romanum Pontificem.
eternity which you admit, in this verse of the
Diet of Worms New Testament—Joseph knew not his wife till
she had brought forth her first-born son; and he
The enforcement of the ban on the 95 Theses
said, in the same way that you say, that this
fell to the secular authorities. On 18 April 1521,
passage enchained him. When the fathers of
Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of
the council of Constance condemned this
Worms. This was a general assembly of the
proposition of John Huss— The church of Jesus
estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took
Christ is only the community of the elect, they
place in Worms, a town on the Rhine. It was
condemned an error; for the church, like a good
conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521,
mother, embraces within her arms all who bear
with Emperor Charles V presiding. Prince
the name of Christian, all who are called to
Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained a safe
enjoy the celestial beatitude.'"
conduct for Luther to and from the meeting.
337
Luther refused to recant his writings. He is can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther
sometimes also quoted as saying: "Here I stand. wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: "Be
I can do no other". Recent scholars consider the a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let
evidence for these words to be unreliable, since your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in
they were inserted before "May God help me" Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the
only in later versions of the speech and not world. We will commit sins while we are here,
recorded in witness accounts of the for this life is not a place where justice resides."
proceedings.
In the summer of 1521, Luther widened his
Over the next five days, private conferences target from individual pieties like indulgences
were held to determine Luther's fate. The and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of
Emperor presented the final draft of the Diet of Church practices. In On the Abrogation of the
Worms on 25 May 1521, declaring Luther an Private Mass, he condemned as idolatry the
outlaw, banning his literature, and requiring his idea that the mass is a sacrifice, asserting
arrest: "We want him to be apprehended and instead that it is a gift, to be received with
punished as a notorious heretic." It also made it thanksgiving by the whole congregation. His
a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther essay On Confession, Whether the Pope has the
food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Power to Require It rejected compulsory
Luther without legal consequence. confession and encouraged private confession
and absolution, since "every Christian is a
Wartburg Castle, Eisenach
confessor." In November, Luther wrote The
Luther's disappearance during his return trip Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows.
back to Wittenberg was planned. Frederick III He assured monks and nuns that they could
had him intercepted on his way home in the break their vows without sin, because vows
forest near Wittenberg by masked horsemen were an illegitimate and vain attempt to win
who were made to appear as armed salvation.
highwaymen. They escorted Luther to the
In 1521 Luther dealt largely with prophecy, in
security of the Wartburg Castle at Eisenach.
which he broadened the foundations of the
During his stay at Wartburg, which he referred
Reformation placing them on prophetic faith.
to as "my Patmos", Luther translated the New
His main interest was centered on the prophecy
Testament from Greek into German and poured
of the Little Horn in Daniel 8:9-12, 23-25. The
out doctrinal and polemical writings. These
antichrist of 2 Thessalonians 2 was identified as
included a renewed attack on Archbishop
the power of the Papacy. So too was the Little
Albrecht of Mainz, whom he shamed into
Horn of Daniel 7, coming up among the
halting the sale of indulgences in his
divisions of Rome, explicitly applied.
episcopates,[66] and a "Refutation of the
Argument of Latomus," in which he expounded Luther made his pronouncements from
the principle of justification to Jacobus Latomus, Wartburg in the context of rapid developments
an orthodox theologian from Louvain. at Wittenberg, of which he was kept fully
informed. Andreas Karlstadt, supported by the
In this work, one of his most emphatic
ex-Augustinian Gabriel Zwilling, embarked on a
statements on faith, he argued that every good
radical programme of reform there in June
work designed to attract God's favor is a sin. All
1521, exceeding anything envisaged by Luther.
humans are sinners by nature, he explained,
The reforms provoked disturbances, including a
and God's grace, which cannot be earned, alone
revolt by the Augustinian monks against their
338
prior, the smashing of statues and images in A native of Tarsus, the capital city in the Roman
churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. province of Cilicia, Paul wrote that he was "a
After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early Hebrew born of Hebrews", a Pharisee, and one
December 1521, Luther wrote A Sincere who advanced in Judaism beyond many of his
Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to peers. He zealously persecuted the early
Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion. followers of Jesus of Nazareth and violently
Wittenberg became even more volatile after tried to destroy the newly forming Christian
Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the church. Paul's dramatic conversion on the road
so-called Zwickau prophets, arrived, preaching to Damascus radically changed the course of his
revolutionary doctrines such as the equality of life.
man, adult baptism, and Christ's imminent
After his conversion, Paul began to preach that
return. When the town council asked Luther to
Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God.[9] His
return, he decided it was his duty to act.
leadership, influence, and legacy led to the
formation of communities dominated by
Gentile groups that worshiped Jesus, adhered
to the "Judaic moral code", but relaxed or
abandoned the ritual and dietary teachings of
the Law of Moses. He taught that these laws
and rituals had either been fulfilled in the life of
Christ or were symbolic precursors of Christ,
though the exact relationship between Paul the
Apostle and Judaism is still disputed. Paul
taught of the life and works of Jesus Christ and
his teaching of a new testament, established
through Jesus' death and resurrection.
Thirteen of the twenty-seven books in the New

Testament (Romans through Philemon) have
been attributed to Paul, and approximately half
Chapter Seven of the Acts of the Apostles deals with Paul's life
and works. However, only seven of the epistles
Apostle Paul
are undisputed by scholars as being authentic,
with varying degrees of argument about the
Paul the Apostle (Ancient Greek: Παῦλος remainder. The authorship of Hebrews has the
Paulos, c.5 – c. 67), original name Saul of Tarsus most doubt cast against it. Even in the 2nd
(Ancient Greek: Σαῦλος Saulos), was an apostle century there was doubt in some regions that
who took the gospel of Christ to the first- Paul was the author and since the Protestant
century world. He is generally considered one of Reformation, most scholars have not believed it
the most important figures of the Apostolic Age. to have been written by Paul. The other six are
In the mid-30s to the mid-50s, he founded believed by some scholars to have come from
several churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul followers writing in his name, using material
used his status as both a Jew and a Roman from Paul's surviving letters and letters written
citizen to advantage in his ministry to both by him that no longer survive. More
Jewish and Roman audiences. conservative scholars argue that the idea of a
339
pseudonymous author for the disputed epistles his encounter with Christ on the Road to
itself raises many problems. Damascus,[Acts 9:1-19] that is not the case. His
Jewish name was "Saul" (Hebrew: ‫ָׁש אּול‬,
Today, his epistles continue to be deeply rooted
Modern Sha'ul Tiberian Šāʼûl ; "asked for,
in the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the
prayed for, borrowed"), perhaps after the
Roman and Protestant traditions of the West, as
biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjamite and the
well as the Orthodox traditions of the East.
first king of Israel. The testimony of the book of
Among the many other apostles and
Acts is that he inherited Roman citizenship from
missionaries involved in the spread of the
his father. As a Roman citizen he also bore the
Christian faith, his influence on Christian
Latin name of "Paul"—in biblical Greek: Παῦλος
thought and practice has been characterized as
(Paulos), and in Latin: Paulus.[Acts 16:37]
being as "profound as it is pervasive". Augustine
[22:25-28] It was quite usual for the Jews of
of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvation is
that time to have two names, one Hebrew, the
based on faith and not "works of the law".
other Latin or Greek.
Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings
heavily influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide. In the book of Acts, when he had the vision that
The Bible does not record Paul's death. led to his conversion on the Road to Damascus,
Jesus called him "Saul, Saul", in the Hebrew
Further information: Historical reliability of the
tongue, Aramaic. Later, in a vision to Ananias of
Acts of the Apostles
Damascus, "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul,
The main source for information about Paul's of Tarsus". When Ananias came to restore his
life is the material found in his epistles and in sight, he called him "Brother Saul".
the book of Acts. However, these epistles
In Acts 13:9, Saul is called Paul for the first time
contain little information about Paul's past. The
on the island of Cyprus — much later than the
book of Acts also recounts Paul's career but
time of his conversion. The author (Luke)
leaves several parts of Paul's life out of its
indicates the names were interchangeable:
narrative, such as his probable but
"...Saul, who also is called Paul...". He thereafter
undocumented execution in Rome.
refers to him as Paul, apparently Paul's
Sources outside of the New Testament that preference since he is called Paul in all other
mention Paul include: Bible books where he is mentioned, including
those he authored. Adopting his Roman name
Pope Clement I's epistle to the Corinthians (late was typical of Paul's missionary style. His
1st/early 2nd century) method was to put people at their ease and to
Ignatius of Antioch's letter To the Romans (early approach them with his message in a language
2nd century) and style they could relate to.
Polycarp's letter to the Philippians (early 2nd Early life

century) The two main sources of information by which
The 2nd century document Martyrdom of we have access to the earliest segments of
Polycarp Paul's career are the Bible's Book of Acts and
the autobiographical elements of Paul's letters
Although it has been popularly assumed that his to the early church communities. Paul was likely
name was changed when he converted from born between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD. The
Judaism to Christianity, which happened during Book of Acts implies that Paul was a Roman
340
citizen by birth, more affirmatively describing Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee".[Acts 23:6] Paul
his father as such, but some scholars have taken refers to his mother in Romans 16:13 as among
issue with the evidence presented by the text. those at Rome. In Romans 16:7 he states that
[Acts 16:37][Acts 22:25-29] his relatives, Andronicus and Junia, were
Christians before he was and were prominent
His was a devout Jewish family in the city of
among the apostles.
Tarsus—one of the largest trade centers on the
Mediterranean coast. It had been in existence The family had a history of religious piety.[2
several hundred years prior to his birth. It was Timothy 1:3] Apparently the family lineage had
renowned for its university, one in which been very attached to Pharisaic traditions and
students could receive a superior education. observances for generations.[Philippians 3:5-6]
During the time of Alexander the Great, Tarsus Young Saul learned how to make the mohair
was the most influential city in Asia Minor. with which tents were made.[Acts 18:1-3] Later
as a Christian missionary, that trade became a
Stoicism was the dominant philosophy there. In
means of support for him, one that he could
addition to his becoming steeped in Orthodox
practice anywhere. It also was to become an
Pharisaic Judaism, his early life in Tarsus
initial connection with Priscilla and Aquila with
allowed him to learn "Classic Greek", Greek
whom he would partner in tentmaking[Acts
philosophy, and Koine Greek which was the
18:3] and later become very important
lingua franca of the Roman Empire, spoken by
teammates as fellow missionaries.[Rom. 16:4]
the common people. In his letters, Paul
reflected heavily from his knowledge of Stoic While he was still fairly young, he was sent to
philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to Jerusalem to receive his education at the school
assist his new Gentile converts in their of Gamaliel,[Acts 22:3] one of the most noted
understanding of the revealed word of God. rabbis in history. The Hillel school was noted for
giving their students a balanced education,
He would also rely heavily on the training he
likely giving Paul broad exposure to classical
received concerning the law and the prophets,
literature, philosophy, and ethics. Some of his
utilizing this knowledge to convince his Jewish
family may have resided in Jerusalem since later
countrymen of the unity of past Old Testament
the son of one of his sisters saved his life there.
prophecy and covenants with the fulfilling of
[Acts 23:16] Nothing more is known of his
these in Jesus Christ. His wide spectrum of
background until he takes an active part in the
experiences and education gave the "Apostle to
martyrdom of Stephen.[Acts 7:58-60;22:20]
the Gentiles"[Rom. 1:5] [11:13] [Gal. 2:8] the
Paul confesses that "beyond measure" he
tools which he later would use to effectively
persecuted the church of God prior to his
spread the Gospel and to establish the church
conversion.[Gal. 1:13-14] [Phil. 3:6] [Acts 8:1-3]
solidly in many parts of the Roman Empire.
Conversion and mission
Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock
of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Conversion of Paul
the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee".
Damascus Road
[Phil. 3:5]
Paul's conversion can be dated by his reference
The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family.
to it in one of his letters. There are three
Paul's nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in
accounts of his conversion (Ancient Greek:
Acts 23:16. Acts also quotes Paul indirectly
referring to his father by saying he, Paul, was "a
341
μετάνοια metanoia) in the Acts of the Apostles: those who call on this name? And hasn't he
Acts 9:1-31, 22:1-22, and 26:9-24. come here to take them as prisoners to the
chief priests?" Yet Saul grew more and more
It took place on the road to Damascus where he
influential and baffled the Jews living in
reported to have experienced a vision of the
Damascus by proving that Jesus is the Messiah.
resurrected Jesus. The account in Acts 9 says
that both Saul/Paul and the men that were with
him heard the voice asking, "Saul! Saul! Why
— Acts 9:20-22
are you persecuting me?" (The account in Acts
22:9 says his companions saw the light, but did
not understand the voice of him who was
speaking to Saul.) Saul asked, "Who are you, Paul said that he received the Gospel not from
lord?", to which the voice replied, "I am Jesus, any man, but by "the revelation of Jesus Christ".
the one you are persecuting! Now get up and go [Gal 1:11-16] Paul claimed independence from
into the city, and you will be told what you must the Jerusalem community[3]:pp.316–320
do". (possibly in the Cenacle), but was just as quick
to claim agreement with it on the nature and
From that experience he was blinded for three content of the gospel.[Gal 1:22-24]
days and had to be led into Damascus by the
hand. His sight was restored by Ananias of In the opening verses of Romans 1, Paul
Damascus. This life-changing experience and provides a litany of his own apostolic
revelation convinced Paul that God indeed had appointment to preach among the Gentiles
chosen Jesus to be the promised messiah. Luke, [Gal. 1:16] and his post-conversion convictions
the author of Acts of the Apostles, likely learned about the risen Christ.
of his conversion from Paul, from the church in Paul described himself as:
Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch.
a servant of Christ Jesus having experienced an
Paul's letters do not refer directly to this unforeseen, sudden, startling change, due to
experience on the Damascus road. In Galatians all-powerful grace—not the fruit of his
1:16 he writes that God "was pleased to reveal reasoning or thoughts.[Gal. 1:12-15] [1 Cor.
his son to me". In 1 Corinthians 15:8, in listing 15:10]
the order in which Jesus appeared to his
disciples after his resurrection, Paul says "last of having seen Christ as did the other Apostles
all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me when Christ appeared to him[1 Cor. 15:8] as He
also".(NASB) These two passages have been appeared to Peter, to James, to the Twelve,
interpreted to refer to his road to Damascus after His Resurrection[1 Cor. 9:1]
conversion experience which he elsewhere had called to be an apostleset apart for the gospel
described as the resurrected Jesus appearing to of God
him, but in none of his own epistles does he
mention that profound epiphany. Paul described Jesus as
Post-conversion having been promised by God beforehand

through his prophets in the holy Scripturesbeing
At once he began to preach in the synagogues the true messiah and the Son of Godhaving
that Jesus is the Son of God. All those who biological lineage from David ("according to the
heard him were astonished and asked, "Isn't he flesh")having been declared to be the Son of
the man who raised havoc in Jerusalem among
342
God in power according to the Spirit of holiness had believed his violent persecution of the
by his resurrection from the deadbeing Jesus church to be an indication of his zeal for his
Christ our Lordthe One through whom we have religion[Phil. 3:6]
received grace and apostleship to bring about
he now believed Jewish hostility toward the
the obedience of faith for the sake of his name
church was sinful opposition that would incur
among all the nations, "including you who are
God's wrath[1 Thess. 2:14-16] [5]:p.236 He
called to belong to Jesus Christ"
believed he was halted by Christ when his fury
Jesus lives in heaven is God's Sonwould soon was at its height.[Acts 9:1-2] It was "through
return zeal" that he persecuted the Church,[Philippians
3:6] and he obtained mercy because he had
The Cross he had believed death by crucifixion
"acted ignorantly in unbelief".[1 Tim. 1:13]
was a shameful sign that signified being cursed
by God he now believed Jesus' death was a The Last Days
voluntary sacrifice that reconciled sinners with
had believed God's messiah would put an end
God[Rom. 5:6-10] [Phil. 2:8]
to the old age of evil and initiate a new age of
The Law righteousness
he had believed the law (Jewish Torah) kept he now believed this would happen in stages
people in a right relationship with God[Gal. that had begun with the resurrection of Jesus,
2:16] [Gal. 3:12]he now believed the law only but the old age would continue until Jesus
reveals the extent of people's enslavement to returns[Rom. 16:25] [1 Cor. 10:11] [Gal.
the power of sin—a power that must be broken 1:4] :p.236
by Christ[Rom. 3:20b] [7:7-12]
Paul's writings give some insight into his
Gentiles thinking regarding his relationship with Judaism.
He is strongly critical both theologically and
he had believed Gentiles were outside the
empirically of claims of moral or lineal
covenant that God made with Israelhe now
superiority [Rom. 2:16-26] of Jews while
believed Gentiles and Jews were united as the
conversely strongly sustaining the notion of a
people of God in Christ Jesus[Gal. 3:28]
special place for the Children of Israel.
Circumcision
What is remarkable about such a conversion is
had believed circumcision was the rite through the changes in the thinking that had to take
which males became part of Israel, an exclusive place. He had to change his concept of who the
community of God's chosen people[Phil. 3:3-5] messiah was, particularly what he had
perceived as the absurdity of accepting a
he now believed that neither circumcision nor crucified messiah. Perhaps more challenging
uncircumcision means anything, but that the was changing his conception of the ethnic
new creation is what counts in the sight of God, superiority of the Jewish people. There are
[Gal. 6:15] and that this new creation is a work debates as to whether Paul understood himself
of Christ in the life of a believer, making them as commissioned to take the gospel to the
part of the church, an inclusive community of Gentiles at the moment of his conversion.
Jews and Gentiles reconciled with God through
faith[Rom. 6:4]
Persecution
343
important Church Fathers. Among his most

important works are City of God and
Confessions, which continue to be read widely
today.
According to his contemporary, Jerome,

Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith."
In his early years, he was heavily influenced by
Manichaeism and afterward by the Neo-
Platonism of Plotinus. After his conversion to
Christianity and his baptism in 387, Augustine
developed his own approach to philosophy and
theology, accommodating a variety of methods
and different perspectives. Believing that the
grace of Christ was indispensable to human
freedom, he helped to formulate the doctrine
of original sin and made seminal contributions
to the development of just war theory.
When the Western Roman Empire began to

disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept
of the Catholic Church as a spiritual City of God
(in a book of the same name), distinct from the
material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly
influenced the medieval worldview. Augustine's
City of God was closely identified with the
segment of the Church that adhered to the
concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council
of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople.
Chapter Eight
In the Catholic Church and the Anglican
Augustine of Hippo Communion, he is a saint, a pre-eminent Doctor
of the Church, and the patron of the
Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28
August, the day of his death. He is the patron
Augustine of Hippo (/ɔːˈɡʌstɨn/ or /ˈɔːɡəstɪn/; saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the
Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities
November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially
Saint Augustine or Saint Austin, was an early Calvinists, consider him to be one of the
Christian theologian whose writings are theological fathers of the Protestant
considered very influential in the development Reformation due to his teachings on salvation
of Western Christianity and Western and divine grace.
philosophy. He was bishop of Hippo Regius
(present-day Annaba, Algeria) located in the In the Eastern Orthodox Church, many of his
Roman province of Africa. Writing during the teachings are not accepted. The most important
Patristic Era, he is viewed as one of the most doctrinal controversy surrounding his name is
344
the filioque. Other doctrines that are At age 17, through the generosity of his fellow
sometimes unacceptable to the Eastern citizen Romanianus, Augustine went to
Orthodox Church are his view of original sin, the Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric.
doctrine of grace, and predestination. Although raised as a Christian, Augustine left
Nonetheless, though considered to be mistaken the church to follow the Manichaean religion,
on some points, he is still considered a saint, much to the despair of his mother, Monica. As a
and his feast day is celebrated on 15 June. He youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a
carries the additional title of Blessed among the time, associating with young men who boasted
Orthodox, either as "Blessed Augustine" or "St. of their sexual exploits with women and urged
Augustine the Blessed the inexperienced boys, like Augustine, to seek
out experiences or to make up stories about
Childhood and education
experiences in order to gain acceptance and
Augustine was born in 354 in the municipium of avoid ridicule. It was during this period that he
Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in Roman uttered his famous prayer, "Grant me chastity
Africa. His mother, Monica, was a devout and continence, but not yet."
Christian; his father Patricius was a Pagan who
At a young age, he began an affair with a young
converted to Christianity on his deathbed.
woman in Carthage. Possibly because his
Scholars believe that Augustine's ancestors
mother wanted him to marry a person of his
included Berbers, Latins, and Phoenicians. He
class, the woman remained his lover for over
considered himself to be Punic. Augustine's
thirteen years and gave birth to his son
family name, Aurelius, suggests that his father's
Adeodatus, who was viewed as extremely
ancestors were freedmen of the gens Aurelia
intelligent by his contemporaries. He
given full Roman citizenship by the Edict of
abandoned her finally on his conversion in 389
Caracalla in 212. Augustine's family had been
when the boy was 17.
Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a
century when he was born. It is assumed that Teaching rhetoric
his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on
During the years 373 and 374, Augustine taught
the basis of her name, but as his family were
grammar at Thagaste. The following year he
honestiores, an upper class of citizens known as
moved to Carthage to conduct a school of
honorable men, Augustine's first language is
rhetoric, and would remain there for the next
likely to have been Latin. At the age of 11, he
nine years. Disturbed by the unruly behavior of
was sent to school at Madaurus (now
the students in Carthage, in 383 he moved to
M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about 19
establish a school in Rome, where he believed
miles south of Thagaste. There he became
the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced.
familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan
However, Augustine was disappointed with the
beliefs and practices. His first insight into the
Roman schools, where he was met with apathy.
nature of sin occurred when he and a number
Once the time came for his students to pay
of friends stole fruit they did not even want
their fees, they simply fled. Manichaean friends
from a neighborhood garden. While at home in
introduced him to the prefect of the City of
369 and 370, he read Cicero's dialogue
Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked to
Hortensius (now lost), which he described as
provide a professor of rhetoric for the imperial
leaving a lasting impression on him and sparking
court at Milan.
his interest in philosophy.
345
Augustine won the job and headed north to never renewed his relationship with either of
take up his position in late 384. At the age of his concubines.
thirty, he had won the most visible academic
Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine away
position in the Latin world, at a time when such
from marriage, saying that they could not live a
posts gave ready access to political careers.
life together in the love of wisdom if he
During this period, although Augustine showed
married. Augustine looked back years later on
some fervor for Manichaeism, he was never an
the life at Cassiciacum, a villa outside of Milan
initiate or "elect", but remained an "auditor",
where he gathered with his followers, and
the lowest level in the sect's hierarchy and he
described it as Christianae vitae otium – the
became a teacher .
Christian life of leisure. Augustine had been
While still at Carthage, he had begun to move awarded a job of professor of rhetoric in Milan
away from Manichaeism, in part because of a at the time he was living at Cassiciacum around
disappointing meeting with the Manichaean 383.
Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of
Christian conversion and priesthood
Manichaean theology. In Rome, he is reported
to have completely turned away from In the summer of 386, after having heard and
Manichaeanism, and instead embraced the been inspired and moved by the story of
scepticism of the New Academy movement. At Placianus's and his friends' first reading of the
Milan, his mother pressured him to become a life of Saint Anthony of the Desert, Augustine
Christian. Augustine's own studies in converted to Christianity. As Augustine later
Neoplatonism were also leading him in this told it, his conversion was prompted by a
direction, and his friend Simplicianus urged him childlike voice he heard telling him to "take up
that way as well. But it was the bishop of Milan, and read" (Latin: tolle, lege), which he took as a
Ambrose, who had most influence over divine command to open the Bible and read the
Augustine. Like Augustine, Ambrose was a first thing he saw. Augustine read from Paul's
master of rhetoric, but older and more Epistle to the Romans – the so-called
experienced. "Transformation of Believers" section,
consisting of chapters 12 through 15 – wherein
Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan
Paul outlines how the Gospel transforms
and he allowed her to arrange a marriage, for
believers, and the believers' resulting
which he abandoned his concubine. It is
behaviour. The specific part to which Augustine
believed that Augustine truly loved the woman
opened his Bible was Romans chapter 13,
he had lived with for so long and was deeply
verses 13 and 14, to wit:
hurt by ending this relationship. In fact, there is
evidence that Augustine may have considered Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in
his relationship with the concubine to be chambering and wantonness, not in strife and
equivalent to marriage, though not legally envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and
recognized as such. In his Confessions, he make no provision for the flesh to fulfill the
admitted that the experience eventually lusts thereof.
produced a decreased sensitivity to pain over
time. He had to wait two years until his fiancée He later wrote an account of his conversion –
came of age, and he soon took another his very transformation, as Paul described – in
concubine. Augustine eventually broke off his his Confessions (Latin: Confessiones), which has
engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancée, but since become a must-read classic of Christian
theology.
346
Ambrose baptized Augustine, along with his son tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the
Adeodatus, on Easter Vigil in 387 in Milan. A temptations of the flesh, and exercised
year later, in 388, Augustine completed his prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.
apology On the Holiness of the Catholic Church.
Death and veneration
That year, also, Adeodatus and Augustine
returned to Africa, Augustine's home country, Saint Augustine of Hippo
during which trip Augustine's mother Monica
died. Upon their arrival, they began a life of Pavia San Pietro Arca Sant'Agostino.JPG
aristocratic leisure at Augustine's family's Tomb in San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro Basilica, Pavia.
property. Soon after, Adeodatus, too, passed
away. Augustine then sold his patrimony and Bishop, Philosopher, Theologian
gave the money to the poor. The only thing he Honored in All Christianity
kept was the family house, which he converted
into a monastic foundation for himself and a Major shrine San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia,
group of friends. Italy
In 391 Augustine was ordained a priest in Hippo Feast 28 August (Western Christianity)
Regius (now Annaba), in Algeria. He became a
15 June (Eastern Christianity)
famous preacher (more than 350 preserved
sermons are believed to be authentic), and was 4 November (Assyrian)
noted for combating the Manichaean religion,
Attributes child; dove; pen; shell, pierced
to which he had formerly adhered.
heart, holding book with a small church,
In 395 he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo, bishop's staff, miter
and became full Bishop shortly thereafter,
Patronage brewers; printers; theologians
hence the name "Augustine of Hippo"; and he
gave his property to the church of Thagaste. He Bridgeport, Connecticut; Cagayan de Oro,
remained in that position until his death in 430. Philippines;San Agustin, Isabela;
Augustine worked tirelessly in trying to Shortly before Augustine's death the Vandals, a
convince the people of Hippo to convert to Germanic tribe that had converted to Arianism,
Christianity. Though he had left his monastery, invaded Roman Africa. The Vandals besieged
he continued to lead a monastic life in the Hippo in the spring of 430, when Augustine
episcopal residence. He left a regula for his entered his final illness. According to Possidius,
monastery that led to his designation as the one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine,
"patron saint of regular clergy." the healing of an ill man, took place during the
siege. According to Possidius, Augustine spent
Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by
his final days in prayer and repentance,
his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-
requesting that the penitential Psalms of David
day Guelma, Algeria), in his Sancti Augustini
be hung on his walls so that he could read
Vita. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of
them. He directed that the library of the church
powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took
in Hippo and all the books therein should be
every opportunity to defend Christianity against
carefully preserved. He died on 28 August 430.
its detractors. Possidius also described
Shortly after his death, the Vandals lifted the
Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a
siege of Hippo, but they returned not long
portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked
thereafter and burned the city. They destroyed
347
all of it but Augustine's cathedral and library, Influences and followers

which they left untouched.
Plotinus · St. Monica · Ambrose · Possidius ·
According to Bede's True Martyrology, Thomas Aquinas · Bonaventure · Luther · Calvin
Augustine's body was later translated or moved · Jansen
to Cagliari, Sardinia, by the Catholic bishops
Anthropology
expelled from North Africa by Huneric. Around
720, his remains were translated again by Peter, Augustine was one of the first Christian ancient
bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king Latin authors with very clear anthropological
Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel vision. He saw the human being as a perfect
d'Oro, in order to save them from frequent unity of two substances: soul and body. In his
coastal raids by Muslims. In January 1327, Pope late treatise On Care to Be Had for the Dead,
John XXII issued the papal bull Veneranda section 5 (420 AD) he exhorted to respect the
Santorum Patrum, in which he appointed the body on the grounds that it belonged to the
Augustinians guardians of the tomb of very nature of the human person. Augustine's
Augustine, which was remade in 1362 and favourite figure to describe body-soul unity is
elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes marriage: caro tua, coniunx tua — your body is
from Augustine's life. By that time, however, your wife. Initially, the two elements were in
the actual remains of Augustine could not be perfect harmony. After the fall of humanity they
authenticated. The Augustinians were expelled are now experiencing dramatic combat
from Pavia in 1700, taking refuge in Milan with between one another. They are two
the relics of Augustine, and the disassembled categorically different things. The body is a
Arca, which were removed to the cathedral three-dimensional object composed of the four
there. San Pietro fell into disrepair, but was elements, whereas the soul has no spatial
finally rebuilt in the 1870s, under the urging of dimensions. Soul is a kind of substance,
Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in participating in reason, fit for ruling the body.
1896 when the relics of Augustine and the Augustine was not preoccupied, as Plato and
shrine were once again reinstalled. Descartes were, with going too much into
details in efforts to explain the metaphysics of
Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim,
the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit
and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church
that they are metaphysically distinct: to be a
in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII. His feast day is 28
human is to be a composite of soul and body,
August, the day on which he died. He is
and the soul is superior to the body. The latter
considered the patron saint of brewers,
statement is grounded in his hierarchical
printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number
classification of things into those that merely
of cities and dioceses.
exist, those that exist and live, and those that
Thought exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.
Original sin · Divine grace · Invisible church · Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras,
Predestination · Incurvatus in se · Augustinian St. Augustine "vigorously condemned the
hypothesis · Just War · Augustinian theodicy practice of induced abortion" as a crime, in any
stage of pregnancy, although he accepted the
Works
distinction between "formed" and "unformed"
The City of God · Confessions · On Christian fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation
Doctrine · Soliloquies · Enchiridion of Exodus 21:22–23, a text that, he observed,
348
did not classify as murder the abortion of an be taken non-literally. Augustine also does not
"unformed" fetus, since it could not be said envision original sin as originating structural
with certainty that it had already received a changes in the universe, and even suggests that
soul (see, e.g., De Origine Animae4.4). the bodies of Adam and Eve were already
created mortal before the Fall. Apart from his
Astrology
specific views, Augustine recognizes that the
Augustine's contemporaries often believed interpretation of the creation story is difficult,
astrology to be an exact and genuine science. and remarks that we should be willing to
Its practitioners were regarded as true men of change our mind about it as new information
learning and called mathemathici. Astrology comes up.
played a prominent part in Manichaean
doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted
by their books in his youth, being particularly
fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the
future. Later, as a bishop, he used to warn that
one should avoid astrologers who combine
science and horoscopes. (Augustine's term
"mathematici", meaning "astrologers", is
sometimes mistranslated as "mathematicians".)
According to Augustine, they were not genuine
students of Hipparchus or Eratosthenes but
"common swindlers":
Creation
Allegorical interpretations of Genesis
In City of God, Augustine rejected both the

immortality of the human race proposed by
pagans, and contemporary ideas of ages (such
as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that
differed from the Church's sacred writings.[65]
In "The Literal Interpretation of Genesis"
Augustine took the view that everything in the
universe was created simultaneously by God,
and not in seven calendar days like a literal Chapter Nine
account of Genesis would require. He argued Quintus Septimius Florens
that the six-day structure of creation presented Tertullianus, anglicised as
in the book of Genesis represents a logical Tertullian
framework, rather than the passage of time in a
physical way — it would bear a spiritual, rather
than physical, meaning, which is no less literal.
One reason for this interpretation is the Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus,
passage in Sirach 18:1, creavit omni simul ("he anglicised as Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 225 AD),was
created all things at once"), which Augustine a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in
took as proof that the days of Genesis 1 had to
349
the Roman province of Africa. He is the first Further, Tertullian has been thought to be a
Christian author to produce an extensive corpus lawyer based on his use of legal analogies and
of Latin Christian literature. He also was a an identification of him with the jurist
notable early Christian apologist and a Tertullianus, who is quoted in the Pandects.
polemicist against heresy. Tertullian has been Although Tertullian used a knowledge of Roman
called "the father of Latin Christianity" and "the law in his writings, his legal knowledge does not
founder of Western theology." Though demonstrably exceed that of what could be
conservative, he did originate and advance new expected from a sufficient Roman education.
theology to the early Church. He is perhaps The writings of Tertullianus, a lawyer of the
most famous for being the oldest extant Latin same cognomen, exist only in fragments and do
writer to use the term Trinity (Latin, trinitas), not denote a Christian authorship. (Tertullianus
and giving the oldest extant formal exposition was misidentified only much later with the
of a Trinitarian theology. Other Latin Christian Tertullian by church historians.)
formulations that first appear in his work are Finally, any notion of Tertullian being a priest is
"three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin also questionable. In his extant writings, he
"tres Personae, una Substantia" (itself from the never describes himself as ordained in the
Koine Greek "treis Hypostases, Homoousios"). church and seems to place himself among the
He wrote his trinitarian formula after becoming laity.
a Montanist. However, unlike many Church
Roman Africa was famous as the home of
fathers, he was never canonized by the Catholic
orators. This influence can be seen in his style
Church, as several of his later teachings directly
with its archaisms or provincialisms, its glowing
contradicted the actions and teachings of the
imagery and its passionate temper. He was a
apostles.
scholar with an excellent education. He wrote
at least three books in Greek. In them he refers
to himself, but none of these are extant. His
Life
principal study was jurisprudence and his
methods of reasoning reveal striking marks of
his juridical training. He shone among the
Scant reliable evidence exists to inform us advocates of Rome, as Eusebius reports.
about Tertullian's life. Most history about him
comes from passing references in his own His conversion to Christianity perhaps took
writings. place about 197–198 (cf. Adolf Harnack,
Bonwetsch, and others), but its immediate
According to church tradition, he was raised in antecedents are unknown except as they are
Carthage and was thought to be the son of a conjectured from his writings. The event must
Roman centurion, a trained lawyer, and an have been sudden and decisive, transforming at
ordained priest. These assertions rely on the once his own personality. He said of himself
accounts of Eusebius of Caesarea, Church that he could not imagine a truly Christian life
History, II, ii. 4, and Jerome's De viris illustribus without such a conscious breach, a radical act of
(On famous men) chapter 53. Jerome claimed conversion: "Christians are made, not born"
that Tertullian's father held the position of (Apol, xviii).
'centurio proconsularis' ("aide-de-camp") in the
Roman army in Africa However, it is unclear Two books addressed to his wife confirm that
whether any such position in the Roman he was married to a Christian wife.
military ever existed.
350
In middle life (about 207), he was attracted to writing, or that, as antedating others (cf.
the "New Prophecy" of Montanism, and seems Harnack, Litteratur ii.260–262), and by definite
to have split from the mainstream church. In historic data (e.g., the reference to the death of
the time of Augustine, a group of Septimius Severus, Ad Scapulam, iv). In his work
"Tertullianists" still had a basilica in Carthage against Marcion, which he calls his third
which, within that same period, passed to the composition on the Marcionite heresy, he gives
orthodox Church. It is unclear whether the its date as the fifteenth year of the reign of
name was merely another for the Montanists or Severus (Adv. Marcionem, i.1, 15)—which
that this means Tertullian later split with the would be approximately the year 208.
Montanists and founded his own group.
The writings may be divided with reference to
Jerome says that Tertullian lived to a great age, the two periods of Tertullian's Christian activity,
but there is no reliable source attesting to his the Catholic and the Montanist (cf. Harnack,
survival beyond the estimated year 225 AD. In ii.262 sqq.), or according to their subject-
spite of his schism from the Church, he matter. The object of the former mode of
continued to write against heresy, especially division is to show, if possible, the change of
Gnosticism. Thus, by the doctrinal works he views Tertullian's mind underwent. Following
published, Tertullian became the teacher of the latter mode, which is of a more practical
Cyprian and the predecessor of Augustine, who, interest, the writings fall into two groups.
in turn, became the chief founder of Latin Apologetic and polemic writings, like
theology. Apologeticus, De testimonio animae, the anti-
Jewish De Adversus Iudeaos, Adv. Marcionem,
Writings
Adv. Praxeam, Adv. Hermogenem, De
General character praescriptione hereticorum, and Scorpiace were
written to counteract Gnosticism and other
Thirty-one works are extant, together with religious or philosophical doctrines. The other
fragments of more. Some fifteen works in Latin group consists of practical and disciplinary
or Greek are lost, some as recently as the 9th writings, e.g., De monogamia, Ad uxorem, De
century (De Paradiso, De superstitione saeculi, virginibus velandis, De cultu feminarum, De
De carne et anima were all extant in the now patientia, De pudicitia, De oratione, and Ad
damaged Codex Agobardinus in 814 AD). martyras.
Tertullian's writings cover the whole theological
field of the time — apologetics against Among his apologetic writings, the
paganism and Judaism, polemics, polity, Apologeticus, addressed to the Roman
discipline, and morals, or the whole magistrates, is a most pungent defense of
reorganization of human life on a Christian Christianity and the Christians against the
basis; they gave a picture of the religious life reproaches of the pagans, and an important
and thought of the time which is of the greatest legacy of the ancient Church, proclaiming the
interest to the church historian. principle of freedom of religion as an
inalienable human right and demands a fair trial
Chronology and contents for Christians before they are condemned to
The chronology of these writings is difficult to death.
fix with certainty. It is in part determined by the Tertullian was the first to break the force of
Montanistic views that are set forth in some of such charges as that the Christians sacrificed
them, by the author's own allusions to this infants at the celebration of the Lord's Supper
351
and committed incest. He pointed to the acceptance of the traducian theory of the origin
commission of such crimes in the pagan world of the soul. He despised Greek philosophy, and,
and then proved by the testimony of Pliny that far from looking at Plato, Aristotle, and other
Christians pledged themselves not to commit Greek thinkers whom he quotes as forerunners
murder, adultery, or other crimes. He adduced of Christ and the Gospel, he pronounces them
also the inhumanity of pagan customs such as the patriarchal forefathers of the heretics (De
feeding the flesh of gladiators to beasts. He anima, iii.). He held up to scorn their
argued that the gods have no existence and inconsistency when he referred to the fact that
thus there is no pagan religion against which Socrates in dying ordered a cock to be sacrificed
Christians may offend. Christians do not engage to Aesculapius (De anima, i). Tertullian always
in the foolish worship of the emperors. They do wrote under stress of a felt necessity. He was
better: they pray for them. Christians can afford never so happy as when he had opponents like
to be put to torture and to death, and the more Marcion and Praxeas, and, however abstract
they are cast down the more they grow; "the the ideas may be which he treated, he was
blood of the martyrs is seed" (Apologeticum, always moved by practical considerations to
50). In the De Praescriptione he develops as its make his case clear and irresistible. It was partly
fundamental idea that, in a dispute between this element which gave to his writings a
the Church and a separating party, the whole formative influence upon the theology of the
burden of proof lies with the latter, as the post-Nicene period in the West and has
Church, in possession of the unbroken tradition, rendered them fresh reading to this day. He was
is by its very existence a guarantee of its truth. a born disputant. It is true that during the 3rd
century no mention is made of his name by
The five books against Marcion, written 207 or
other authors. Lactantius at the opening of the
208, are the most comprehensive and elaborate
4th century is the first to do this, but Augustine
of his polemical works, invaluable for gauging
treats him openly with respect. Cyprian,
the early Christian view of Gnosticism. Of the
Tertullian's North African compatriot, though he
moral and ascetic treatises, the De patientia and
nowhere mentions his name, was well read in
De spectaculis are among the most interesting,
his writings, as Cyprian's secretary told Jerome.
and the De pudicitia and De virginibus velandis
among the most characteristic.[citation needed] Specific teachings
Theology Tertullian's main doctrinal teachings are as

follows:
General character
The soul was not preexistent, as Plato affirmed,
nor subject to metempsychosis or
Though thoroughly conversant with the Greek reincarnation, as the Pythagoreans held. In each
theology, Tertullian was independent of its individual it is a new product, proceeding
metaphysical speculation. He had learned from equally with the body from the parents, and not
the Greek apologies, and forms a direct contrast created later and associated with the body (De
to Origen of Alexandria, who drew much of his anima, xxvii). This position is called
theories regarding creation from middle traducianism in opposition to 'creationism', or
platonism. Tertullian, the prince of realists and the idea that each soul is a fresh creation of
practical theologian, carried his realism to the God. For Tertullian the soul is, however, a
verge of materialism. This is evident from his distinct entity and a certain corporeity and as
ascription to God of corporeity and his
352
such it may be tormented in Hell (De anima, "There was a time when there was no Son and
lviii). no sin, when God was neither Father nor
Judge.". Similarly J.N.D. Kelly has stated:
The soul's sinfulness is easily explained by its
"Tertullian followed the Apologists in dating His
traducian origin (De anima, xxxix). It is in
“perfect generation” from His extrapolation for
bondage to Satan (whose works it renounces in
the work of creation; prior to that moment God
baptism), but has seeds of good (De anima, xli),
could not strictly be said to have had a Son,
and when awakened, it passes to health and at
while after it the term “Father”, which for
once calls upon God (Apol., xvii.) and is
earlier theologians generally connoted God as
naturally Christian. It exists in all men alike; it is
author of reality, began to acquire the
a culprit and yet an unconscious witness by its
specialized meaning of Father and Son.". As
impulse to worship, its fear of demons, and its
regards the subjects of subordination of the Son
musings on death to the power, benignity, and
to the Father, the New Catholic Encyclopedia
judgment of God as revealed in the Christian's
has commented: "In not a few areas of
Scriptures (De testimonio, v-vi).
theology, Tertullian’s views are, of course,
God, who made the world out of nothing completely unacceptable. Thus, for example, his
through his Son, the Word, has corporeity teaching on the Trinity reveals a subordination
though he is a spirit (De praescriptione, vii.; of Son to Father that in the later crass form of
Adv. Praxeam, vii.). However Tertullian used Arianism the Church rejected as heretical."
'corporeal' only in the stoic sense, to mean
In soteriology, Tertullian does not dogmatize;
something with actual existence, rather than
he prefers to keep silence at the mystery of the
the later idea of flesh. In the statement of the
cross (De Patientia, iii). The sufferings of Christ's
Trinity, Tertullian was a forerunner of the
life as well as of the crucifixion are efficacious to
Nicene doctrine, approaching the subject from
redemption. In the water of baptism, which
the standpoint of the Logos doctrine, though he
(upon a partial quotation of John 3:5) is made
did not state the immanent Trinity. His use of
necessary (De baptismo, vi.), humans are born
trinitas (Latin: 'Threeness') emphasised the
again; the baptized does not receive the Holy
manifold character of God. In his treatise
Spirit in the water, but is prepared for the Holy
against Praxeas, who taught patripassianism in
Spirit. Humans are little fishes—after the
Rome, he used the words, " Trinity and
example of the ichthys, fish, Jesus Christ—are
economy, persons and substance." The Son is
born in water (De baptismo, i). In discussing
distinct from the Father, and the Spirit from
whether sins committed subsequent to baptism
both the Father and the Son (Adv. Praxeam,
may be forgiven, Tertullian calls baptism and
xxv). "These three are one substance, not one
penance "two planks" on which the sinner may
person; and it is said, 'I and my Father are one'
be saved from shipwreck — language which he
in respect not of the singularity of number but
gave to the Church (De penitentia, xii).
the unity of the substance." The very names
"Father" and "Son" indicate the distinction of With reference to the 'rule of faith', it may be
personality. The Father is one, the Son is one, said that Tertullian is constantly using this
and the Spirit is one (Adv. Praxeam, ix). As expression, and by it means now the
regards the question whether the Son was authoritative tradition handed down in the
coeternal with the Father, many believe that Church, now the Scriptures themselves, and,
Tertullian did not teach that. The Catholic perhaps, a definite doctrinal formula. While he
Encyclopedia comments that for Tertullian, nowhere gives a list of the books of Scripture,
353
he divides them into two parts and calls them that [that first bishop of theirs] bishop shall be
the instrumentum and testamentum (Adv. able to show for his ordainer and predecessor
Marcionem, iv.1). He distinguishes between the some one of the apostles or of apostolic men,
four Gospels and insists upon their apostolic — a man, moreover, who continued steadfast
origin as accrediting their authority (De with the apostles. For this is the manner in
praescriptione, xxxvi; Adv. Marcionem, iv.1–5); which the apostolic churches transmit their
in trying to account for Marcion's treatment of registers: as the church of Smyrna, which
the Lucan Gospel and the Pauline writings he records that Polycarp was placed therein by
sarcastically queries whether the "shipmaster John; as also the church of Rome, which makes
from Pontus" (Marcion) had ever been guilty of Clement to have been ordained in like manner
taking on contraband goods or tampering with by Peter. In exactly the same way the other
them after they were aboard (Adv. Marcionem, churches likewise exhibit (their several
v.1). The Scripture, the rule of faith, is for him worthies), whom, as having been appointed to
fixed and authoritative (De corona, iii-iv). As their episcopal places by apostles, they regard
opposed to the pagan writings they are divine as transmitters of the apostolic seed."
(De testimonio animae, vi). They contain all
Fornicators and Murderers should never be
truth (De praescriptione, vii, xiv) and from them
admitted into the church under any
the Church drinks (potat) her faith (Adv.
circumstances. In de pudicitia, Tertullian
Praxeam, xiii). The prophets were older than
condemns Pope Callixtus I for allowing such
the Greek philosophers and their authority is
people in when they show repentance.
accredited by the fulfilment of their predictions
(Apol., xix-xx). The Scriptures and the teachings
of philosophy are incompatible, insofar as the
latter are the origins of sub-Christian heresies.
"What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" he
exclaims, "or the Academy with the Church?"
(De praescriptione, vii). Philosophy as pop-
paganism is a work of demons (De anima, i); the
Scriptures contain the wisdom of heaven.
However, Tertullian was not averse to using the
technical methods of Stoicism to discuss a
problem (De anima). The rule of faith, however,
seems to be also applied by Tertullian to some
distinct formula of doctrine, and he gives a
succinct statement of the Christian faith under
this term (De praescriptione, xiii).
Tertullian was a defender of the necessity of

apostolicity. In his Prescription Against Heretics,
he explicitly challenges heretics to produce
evidence of the apostolic succession of their
communities. "Let them produce the original
records of their churches; let them unfold the
roll of their bishops, running down in due
succession from the beginning in such a manner
354
Chapter Ten death. The Lutheran Church commemorates

Irenaeus on that same date for his life of
Irenaeus
exemplary Christian witness. In the Orthodox
Church his feast day is 23 August.
Biography
Irenaeus (/aɪrəˈniːəs/; Greek: Εἰρηναῖος) (2nd
century – c. AD 202), referred to by some as
Saint Irenaeus, was Bishop of Lugdunum in Irenaeus was born during the first half of the
Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire (now 2nd century (the exact date is disputed:
Lyons, France). He was an early Church Father between the years 115 and 125 according to
and apologist, and his writings were formative some, or 130 and 142 according to others), and
in the early development of Christian theology. he is thought to have been a Greek from
He was a hearer of Polycarp, who in turn was Polycarp's hometown of Smyrna in Asia Minor,
traditionally a disciple of John the Evangelist. now İzmir, Turkey. Unlike many of his
Irenaeus' best-known book, Adversus Haereses contemporaries, he was brought up in a
or Against Heresies (c. 180) is a detailed attack Christian family rather than converting as an
on Gnosticism, which was then a serious threat adult.
to the Church, and especially on the system of During the persecution of Marcus Aurelius, the
the Gnostic Valentinus. As one of the first great Roman Emperor from 161–180, Irenaeus was a
Christian theologians, he emphasized the priest of the Church of Lyons. The clergy of that
traditional elements in the Church, especially city, many of whom were suffering
the episcopate, Scripture, and tradition. Against imprisonment for the faith, sent him in 177 to
the Gnostics, who said that they possessed a Rome with a letter to Pope Eleuterus
secret oral tradition from Jesus himself, concerning the heresy Montanism, and that
Irenaeus maintained that the bishops in occasion bore emphatic testimony to his merits.
different cities are known as far back as the While Irenaeus was in Rome, a massacre took
Apostles—and none of them was a Gnostic— place in Lyons. Returning to Gaul, Irenaeus
and that the bishops provided the only safe succeeded the martyr Saint Pothinus and
guide to the interpretation of Scripture. His became the second Bishop of Lyons.
writings, with those of Clement and Ignatius,
are taken as among the earliest signs of the During the religious peace which followed the
developing doctrine of the primacy of the persecution of Marcus Aurelius, the new bishop
Roman see. Irenaeus is the earliest witness to divided his activities between the duties of a
recognition of the canonical character of all four pastor and of a missionary (as to which we have
gospels. but brief data, late and not very certain). Almost
all his writings were directed against
Irenaeus is recognized as a saint by the Roman Gnosticism. The most famous of these writings
Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox is Adversus haereses (Against Heresies).
Church. His feast day is on June 28 in the Irenaeus alludes to coming across Gnostic
Roman Catholic calendar of saints, where it was writings, and holding conversations with
inserted for the first time in 1920; in 1960 it was Gnostics, and this may have taken place in Asia
transferred to July 3, leaving June 28 for the Minor or in Rome. However, it also appears
Vigil of the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, but in that Gnosticism was present near Lyon: he
1969 it was returned to June 28, the day of his writes that there were followers of 'Magus the
355
Magician' living and teaching in the Rhone accidental creation of an evil god, from which
valley. we are to escape by the pursuit of gnosis.
Irenaeus argued that the true gnosis is in fact
Little is known about the career of Irenaeus
knowledge of Christ, which redeems rather than
after he became bishop. The last action
escapes from bodily existence. Until the
reported of him (by Eusebius, 150 years later) is
discovery of the Library of Nag Hammadi in
that in 190 or 191, he exerted influence on
1945, Against Heresies was the best-surviving
Pope Victor I not to excommunicate the
description of Gnosticism. According to some
Christian communities of Asia Minor which
biblical scholars, the findings at Nag Hammadi
persevered in the practice of the
have shown Irenaeus' description of Gnosticism
Quartodeciman celebration of Easter.
to be largely inaccurate and polemic in nature.
Nothing is known of the date of his death, Though correct in some details about the belief
which must have occurred at the end of the 2nd systems of various groups, Irenaeus' main
or the beginning of the 3rd century. The Roman purpose was to warn Christians against
Catholic Church celebrates him as a martyr. $He Gnosticism, rather than catalog those beliefs.
was buried under the Church of Saint John in He described Gnostic groups as sexual
Lyons, which was later renamed St Irenaeus in libertines, for example, when some of their own
his honour. The tomb and his remains were writings advocated chastity more strongly than
utterly destroyed in 1562 by the Huguenots. did orthodox texts—yet the gnostic texts cannot
be taken as guides to their actual practices,
Writings about which almost nothing is reliably known
today. However, at least one scholar, Rodney
Stark, claims that it is the same Nag Hammadi
Irenaeus wrote a number of books, but the library that proves Ireneaus right.
most important that survives is the Against
Heresies (or, in its Latin title, Adversus It seemed that Irenaeus's critiques against the
Haereses). In Book I, Irenaeus talks about the gnostics were exaggerated, which led to his
Valentinian Gnostics and their predecessors, scholarly dismissal for a long time. For example,
who go as far back as the magician Simon he wrote: "They declare that Judas the traitor
Magus. In Book II he attempts to provide proof was thoroughly acquainted with these things,
that Valentinianism contains no merit in terms and that he alone, knowing the truth as no
of its doctrines. In Book III Irenaeus purports to other did, accomplished the mystery of
show that these doctrines are false, by betrayal; by him all things were thus thrown
providing counter-evidence gleaned from the into confusion. They produce a fictitious history
Gospels. Book IV consists of Jesus' sayings, and of this kind, which they style the Gospel of
here Irenaeus also stresses the unity of the Old Judas." These claims turned out to be truly
Testament and the Gospel. In the final volume, mentioned in the Gospel of Judas where Jesus
Book V, Irenaeus focuses on more sayings of asked Judas to betray him. In any case the
Jesus plus the letters of Paul the Apostle. gnostics were not a single group, but a wide
array of sects. Some groups were indeed
The purpose of "Against Heresies" was to refute libertine because they considered bodily
the teachings of various Gnostic groups; existence meaningless; others praise chastity,
apparently, several Greek merchants had begun and strongly prohibited any sexual activity, even
an oratorial campaign in Irenaeus' bishopric, within marriage.
teaching that the material world was the
356
Irenaeus also wrote The Demonstration of the Minor preferred the Gospel of John. The Gospel
Apostolic Preaching (also known as Proof of the of Matthew was the most popular overall.
Apostolic Preaching), an Armenian copy of Irenaeus asserted that four Gospels, Matthew,
which was discovered in 1904. This work seems Mark, Luke, and John, were canonical scripture.
to have been an instruction for recent Christian Thus Irenaeus provides the earliest witness to
converts. the assertion of the four canonical Gospels,
possibly in reaction to Marcion's edited version
Eusebius attests to other works by Irenaeus,
of the Gospel of Luke, which Marcion asserted
today lost, including On the Ogdoad, an untitled
was the one and only true gospel.
letter to Blastus regarding schism, On the
Subject of Knowledge, On the Monarchy or How Based on the arguments Irenaeus made in
God is not the Cause of Evil. support of only four authentic gospels, some
interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel
Irenaeus exercised wide influence on the
must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus' time.
generation which followed. Both Hippolytus and
Against Heresies 3.11.7 acknowledges that
Tertullian freely drew on his writings. However,
many heterodox Christians use only one gospel
none of his works aside from Against Heresies
while 3.11.9 acknowledges that some use more
and The Demonstration of the Apostolic
than four. The success of Tatian's Diatessaron in
Preaching survive today, perhaps because his
about the same time period is "... a powerful
literal hope of an earthly millennium may have
indication that the fourfold Gospel
made him uncongenial reading in the Greek
contemporaneously sponsored by Irenaeus was
East. Even though no complete version of
not broadly, let alone universally, recognized."
Against Heresies in its original Greek exists, we
possess the full ancient Latin version, probably Irenaeus is also our earliest attestation that the
of the third century, as well as thirty-three Gospel of John was written by John the apostle,
fragments of a Syrian version and a complete and that the Gospel of Luke was written by
Armenian version of books 4 and 5. Luke, the companion of Paul.
Irenaeus' works were first translated into The apologist and ascetic Tatian had previously
English by John Keble and published in 1872 as harmonized the four gospels into a single
part of the Library of the Fathers series. narrative, the Diatesseron (c 150–160).
Scripture Scholars contend that Irenaeus quotes from 21

of the 27 New Testament Texts:
Development of the New Testament canon
Matthew (Book 3, Chapter 16)
Irenaeus pointed to Scripture as a proof of
orthodox Christianity against heresies, Mark (Book 3, Chapter 10)
classifying as Scripture not only the Old
Luke (Book 3, Chapter 14)
Testament but most of the books now known as
the New Testament,$ while excluding many John (Book 3, Chapter 11)
works, a large number by Gnostics, that
flourished in the 2nd century and claimed Acts of the Apostles (Book 3, Chapter 14)
scriptural authority. Romans (Book 3, Chapter 16)
Before Irenaeus, Christians differed as to which 1 Corinthians (Book 1, Chapter 3)
gospel they preferred. The Christians of Asia
2 Corinthians (Book 3, Chapter 7)
357
Galatians (Book 3, Chapter 22) Irenaeus' point when refuting the Gnostics was
that all of the Apostolic churches had preserved
Ephesians (Book 5, Chapter 2)
the same traditions and teachings in many
Philippians (Book 4, Chapter 18) independent streams. It was the unanimous
agreement between these many independent
Colossians (Book 1, Chapter 3) streams of transmission that proved the
1 Thessalonians (Book 5, Chapter 6) orthodox Faith, current in those churches, to be
true. Had any error crept in, the agreement
2 Thessalonians (Book 5, Chapter 25) would be immediately destroyed. The Gnostics
1 Timothy (Book 1, Preface) had no such succession, and no agreement
amongst themselves.
2 Timothy (Book 3, Chapter 14)
Titus (Book 3, Chapter 3)
1 Peter (Book 4, Chapter 9)
1 John (Book 3, Chapter 16)
2 John (Book 1, Chapter 16)
Revelation to John (Book 4, Chapter 20)
He may refer to Hebrews (Book 2, Chapter 30)

and James (Book 4, Chapter 16) and maybe
even 2 Peter (Book 5, Chapter 28) but does not
cite Philemon, 3 John or Jude.[citation needed]
Apostolic authority
In his writing against the Gnostics, who claimed

to possess a secret oral tradition from Jesus
himself, Irenaeus maintained that the bishops in
different cities are known as far back as the
Apostles — and none were Gnostic — and that
the bishops provided the only safe guide to the
interpretation of Scripture. In a passage that
became a locus classicus of Catholic-Protestant
polemics, he emphasized the unique position of
the bishop of Rome.
With the lists of bishops to which Irenaeus

referred, the later doctrine of the apostolic
succession of the bishops could be linked.This
succession was important to establish a chain of
custody for orthodoxy. He felt it important,
however, to also speak of a succession of elders
(presbyters).
358
As a result of their views on the nature of

baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were
heavily persecuted during the 16th century and
into the 17th by both Magisterial Protestants
Module eight: Major Christian
and Roman Catholics.
Denominations
While most Anabaptists adhered to a literal
interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount
Chapter One which precluded taking oaths, participating in
Anabaptist military actions, and participating in civil
government, some who practiced re-baptism
felt otherwise.[b] They were thus technically
Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish,
Anabaptists (from Neo-Latin anabaptista, from Mennonites, and Hutterites and some historians
the Greek ἀναβαπτισμός: ἀνά- "over again" and tend to consider them as outside of true
βαπτισμός "baptism") are Christians of the Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to
Radical Reformation of 16th-century Europe, Thomas Müntzer in 1524:
considered Protestant by some, although some
True Christian believers are sheep among
consider Anabaptism to be a distinct movement
wolves, sheep for the slaughter... Neither do
from Protestantism. The Amish, Hutterites, and
they use worldly sword or war, since all killing
Mennonites are direct descendants of the
has ceased with them...:45
movement.
Medieval forerunners
The name Anabaptist is derived from the Greek
term anabaptista, or "one who baptizes over Although Anabaptists began with the Radical
again." This name was given them by their Reformers in the 16th century, certain people
enemies in reference to the practice of "re- and groups may still legitimately be considered
baptizing" converts who "already had been their forerunners due to a similar approach to
baptized" (or sprinkled) as infants.Anabaptists the interpretation and application of the Bible.
required that baptismal candidates be able to Petr Chelčický, a 15th-century Bohemian
make their own confessions of faith and so reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered
rejected baptism of infants. The early members integral to Anabaptist theology.[8] Medieval
of this movement abhorred the name antecedents may include the Brethren of the
"Anabaptist", claiming that since infant baptism Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch
was unscriptural and null and void, the Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism.
baptizing of believers was not a "re-baptism" The Waldensians also represent a faith similar
but in fact the first baptism for them. Balthasar to the Anabaptists.
Hübmaier wrote:
In the following points Anabaptists who held to
I have never taught Anabaptism. ...But the right a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the
baptism of Christ, which is preceded by Mount resembled the medieval dissenters:
teaching and oral confession of faith, I teach,
They condemned oaths, and also the reference
and say that infant baptism is a robbery of the
of disputes between believers to law-courts in
right baptism of Christ...:204
accordance with 1 Corinthians 6:1–11.
359
The believer must not bear arms or offer Anabaptists to have been active participants in
forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the the peasant uprising.
sword. No Christian has the jus gladii (the right
of the sword).Matthew 5:39
Views on origins
Civil government (i.e., "Caesar") belongs to the
world. The believer, who belongs to God's Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has
kingdom, must not fill any office, nor hold any been tainted both by the attempts of their
rank under government, which is to be passively enemies to slander them and the attempts of
obeyed.John 18:36 Romans 13:1-7 their supporters to vindicate them. It was long
popular to simply lump all Anabaptists as
Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be
Munsterites and radicals associated with the
excommunicated, and excluded from the
Zwickau Prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden,
sacraments and from intercourse with believers
and Thomas Müntzer. Those desiring to correct
unless they repent, according to 1 Corinthians
this error tended to over-correct and deny all
5:9–13 and Matthew 18:15 seq. But no force is
connections between the larger Anabaptist
to be used towards them.
movement and the most radical elements.
Thomas Müntzer, Zwickau prophets, and
The modern era of Anabaptist historiography
German Peasants' War
arose with the work of Roman Catholic scholar
On December 27, 1521, three "prophets", Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of Die
influenced by and in turn influencing Thomas Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs (The
Müntzer, appeared in Wittenberg from History of the Münster Riot) in 1855. Baptist
Zwickau: Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch and historian Albert Henry Newman (1852–1933),
Mark Thomas Stübner preaching an apocalyptic, who Harold S. Bender said occupied "first
radical alternative to Lutheranism. Preaching position in the field of American Anabaptist
such as that done by the "prophets" helped to historiography," made a major contribution
stir the feelings concerning the social crisis, with his A History of Anti-Pedobaptism.
which erupted in the German Peasants' War in
Though a number of theories exist concerning
southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against
origins, the three main ideas are:
feudal oppression. Under the leadership of
Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted that Anabaptism began in a single expression in
authorities and an attempt to establish by Zürich and spread from there (Monogenesis);
revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth,
with absolute equality and the community of that Anabaptism began through several
goods. Although the Zwickau prophets were not independent movements (polygenesis); and
Anabaptists (that is, they did not practice "re- that Anabaptism was a continuation of true
baptism"), the prevalent social inequities and New Testament Christianity (apostolic
the preaching of men like this have been seen succession or church perpetuity).
as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist
movement. Although the social ideals of the Monogenesis
Anabaptist movement coincided closely with A number of scholars (e.g., Harold S. Bender,
those of the German Peasants' War, studies William Estep, Robert Friedmann[citation
have found a very low percentage of later needed]) have seen the Anabaptist movement
as radiating from the Swiss Brethren movement
360
of Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, George Blaurock, Anabaptism "arose out of Reformed
et al. They generally held that Anabaptism had congregationalism", and Dutch Anabaptism was
its origins in Zürich, and that the Anabaptism of formed by "Social unrest and the apocalyptic
the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern visions of Melchior Hoffman". As examples of
Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and how the Anabaptist movement was influenced
northern Germany, where it developed into its from sources other than the Swiss Brethren
various branches. The monogenesis theory movement, mention has been made of how
usually rejects the Münsterites and other Pilgram Marpeck's Vermanung of 1542 was
radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. deeply influenced by the Bekenntnisse of 1533
In the monogenesis view the time of origin is by Münster theologian Bernhard Rothmann.
January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized Melchior Hoffman influenced the Hutterites
George Blaurock, and Blaurock in turn baptized when they used his commentary on the
several others immediately. These baptisms Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it.
were the first "re-baptisms" known in the
Others who have written in support of
movement and therefore remains the most
polygensis include Grete Mecenseffy and
popular date posited for the establishment of
Walter Klaassen, who established links between
Anabaptism.
Thomas Müntzer and Hans Hut. In another
Polygenesis work, Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull
showed the influence of Thomas Müntzer on
James M. Stayer, Werner O. Packull, and Klaus
the formation of South German Anabaptism.
Deppermann disputed the idea of a single origin
Similarly, author Steven Ozment linked Hans
of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From
Denck and Hans Hut with Thomas Müntzer,
Monogenesis to Polygenesis," suggesting that
Sebastian Franck, and others. Author Calvin
February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper
Pater showed how that Andreas Karlstadt
date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date
influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas,
the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief
including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the
called the Schleitheim Confession. The authors
church, and views on baptism.
of the essay noted the agreement among
previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, Apostolic succession
even when disputing the date for a single
Baptist successionists have, at times, pointed to
starting point: "Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl
16th century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic
and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there
succession of churches ("church perpetuity")
was a single dispersion of Anabaptism..., which
from the time of Christ. This view is held by
certainly ran through Zurich. The only question
some Baptists, some Mennonites, and a
was whether or not it went back further to
number of "true church" movements.
Saxony.":83 After criticizing the standard
polygenetic history, the authors found six The opponents of the Baptist successionism
groups in early Anabaptism which could be theory emphasize that these non-Catholic
collapsed into three originating "points of groups clearly differed from each other, that
departure": "South German Anabaptism, the they held some heretical views, or that the
Swiss Brethren, and the Melchiorites." groups had no connection with one another and
According to their polygenesis theory, South had origins that were separate both in time and
German–Austrian Anabaptism "was a diluted place.
form of Rhineland mysticism," Swiss
361
A different strain of successionism is the theory To the radicals, the council had no right to make
that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. that decision, but rather the Bible was the final
Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated,
part of the apostolic succession, while others some of them began to meet on their own for
simply believe they were an independent group Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin
out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig began to preach against infant baptism in
Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, H. C. Vedder, villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging
Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman parents to not baptize their children.
J. van Braght (author of Martyrs Mirror) all held,
Seeking fellowship with other reform-minded
in varying degrees, the position that the
people, the radical group wrote letters to
Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin.
Martin Luther, Andreas Karlstadt, and Thomas
History Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of
Karlstadt's writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this
Spread of the early anabaptists in Central
time the question of infant baptism had
Europe
become agitated and the Zurich council had
Switzerland instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those
who rejected infant baptism "until the matter
Anabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot could be resolved." Zwingli broke off the
of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich meetings after two sessions, and Felix Manz
Zwingli. As early as 1522 it became evident that petitioned the Council to find a solution, since
Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The
he began to question or criticize such Catholic council then called a meeting for January 17,
practices as tithes, the mass, and even infant 1525.
baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of
reform-minded men around him, with whom he The Council ruled in this meeting that all who
studied Classic literature and the Scriptures. continued to refuse to baptize their infants
However, some of these young men began to should be expelled from Zurich if they did not
feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in have them baptized within one week. Since
his reform. The division between Zwingli and his Conrad Grebel had refused to baptize his
more radical disciples became apparent in an daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the
October, 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When Council decision was extremely personal to him
the discussion of the mass was about to be and others who had not baptized their children.
ended without making any actual change in Thus, when sixteen of the radicals met on
practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked Saturday evening, January 21, 1525, the
"what should be done about the mass?" Zwingli situation seemed particularly dark. The
responded by saying the Council would make Hutterian Chronicle records the event:
that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a
After prayer, George of the House of Jacob
radical priest from Hongg, answered saying,
(George Blaurock) stood up and besought
"The decision has already been made by the
Conrad Grebel for God's sake to baptize him
Spirit of God."
with the true Christian baptism upon his faith
This incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and and knowledge. And when he knelt down with
his more radical disciples had different such a request and desire, Conrad baptized him,
expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would since at that time there was no ordained
only go as fast as the city Council allowed them. minister to perform such work.
362
After Blaurock was baptized, he in turn baptized captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on
others at the meeting. Even though some had September 6, 1529.
rejected infant baptism before this date, these
Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in
baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those
South Tyrol, and later became a leader among
who had been baptized as infants and thus,
the Hutterites, who received their name from
technically, Swiss Anabaptism was born on that
him. Hutter made several trips between
day.
Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists
Tyrol in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia
due to the fierce persecution unleashed by
Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol
Ferdinand I. In November 1535, Hutter was
through the labors of George Blaurock. Similar
captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck
to the German Peasants' War, the Gasmair
where he was burned at the stake on February
uprising set the stage by producing a hope for
25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol
social justice. Michael Gasmair had tried to
was beginning to die out, due largely to the
bring religious, political, and economical reform
emigration to Moravia of the converts because
through a violent peasant uprising, but the
of incessant persecution.
movement was squashed. Although little hard
evidence exists of a direct connection between The Low Countries
Gasmair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at
Melchior Hoffman is credited with the
least a few of the peasants involved in the
introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low
uprising later became Anabaptists. While a
Countries. Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and
connection between a violent social revolution
Reformed ideas, but on 23 April 1530 he was
and non-resistant Anabaptism may be hard to
"re-baptized" at Strasbourg and within two
imagine, the common link was the desire for a
months had gone to Emden and baptized about
radical change in the prevailing social injustices.
300 persons. For several years Hoffman
Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt,
preached in the Low Countries until he was
Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just
arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where
society probably resonated on the ears of the
he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's
disappointed peasants.
apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to the
Before Anabaptism proper was introduced to Münster Rebellion, even though he was "of a
South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been different spirit." Obbe and Dirk Philips had been
propagated in the region by men such as Hans baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs, but were
Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those opposed to the violence that occurred at
who participated in conventicles where Münster. Obbe later became disillusioned with
Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement
Anabaptists. As well, the population in general in about 1540, but not before ordaining David
seemed to have a favorable attitude towards Joris, his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons, the
reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. George latter from whom the Mennonites received
Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly their name. David Joris and Menno Simons
in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis
likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist on "spirit and prophecy," while Menno
ideas in the area. Another visit through the area emphasized the authority of the Bible. For the
in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was Mennonite side, the emphasis on the "inner"
and "spiritual" permitted compromise to
363
"escape persecution," while to the Joris side,

the Mennonites were under the "dead letter of
the Scripture." Due to persecution and
expansion, many of the Low Country
Mennonites emigrated to Prussia, and from
Chapter Two
there to the Ukraine (which at the time was
part of Russia). In the late 1800s, many of the Angelican
Russian Mennonites emigrated to the Prairie
states and provinces of the U.S. and Canada, The Anglican Communion is an international
and also to Mexico, Belize, and South America association of churches consisting of the Church
(Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil) where of England and of national and regional
thousands of them still live in colonies. Anglican churches in full communion with it and
specifically with its principal primate, the
Archbishop of Canterbury. There is no single
"Anglican Church" with universal juridical
authority as each national or regional church
has full autonomy.
The status of full communion means, ideally,

that there is mutual agreement on essential
doctrines and that full participation in the
sacramental life of each church is available to all
communicant Anglicans.
With a membership currently estimated at

around 80 million members worldwide, the
Anglican Communion is the third largest
Christian communion in the world, after the
Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern
Orthodox Churches. Some of these churches are
known as Anglican, such as the Anglican Church
of Canada, due to their historical link to England
(Ecclesia Anglicana means "English Church").
Some, for example the Church of Ireland, the
Scottish and American Episcopal churches, and
some other associated churches have a
separate name. Each church has its own
doctrine and liturgy, based in most cases on
that of the Church of England; and each church
has its own legislative process and overall
episcopal polity, under the leadership of a local
primate.
The Archbishop of Canterbury, religious head of

the Church of England, has no formal authority
364
outside that jurisdiction, but is recognised as the writings of early Anglican divines that have
symbolic head of the worldwide communion. influenced the ethos of the Communion.
Among the other primates, he is considered as
Originally, the Church of England was self-
primus inter pares.
contained and relied for its unity and identity
The Anglican Communion considers itself to be on its own history, its traditional legal and
part of the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic episcopal structure and its status as an
Church and to be both Catholic and Reformed. established church of the state. As such
For some adherents it represents a non-papal Anglicanism was, from the outset, a movement
Catholicism, for others a form of Protestantism with an explicitly episcopal polity, a
though without a dominant guiding figure such characteristic which has been vital in
as Luther, Knox, Calvin, Zwingli or Wesley. For maintaining the unity of the Communion by
others, their self-identity represents some conveying the episcopate's role in manifesting
combination of the two. The communion visible catholicity and ecumenism.
encompasses a wide spectrum of belief and
Early in its development, Anglicanism
practice including evangelical, liberal, and
developed a vernacular prayer book, called the
Catholic.
Book of Common Prayer. Unlike other
The Anglican Communion Office is headed by its traditions, Anglicanism has never been
Secretary General, the Reverend Canon governed by a magisterium nor by appeal to
Kenneth Kearon. one founding theologian, nor by an extra-credal
summary of doctrine (such as the Westminster
Ecclesiology, polity and ethos
Confession of the Presbyterian Church). Instead,
Anglican doctrine Anglicans have typically appealed to the Book of
Common Prayer (1662) and its offshoots as a
The Anglican Communion has no official legal guide to Anglican theology and practice. This
existence nor any governing structure which had the effect of inculcating the principle of lex
might exercise authority over the member orandi, lex credendi ("the law of prayer is the
churches. There is an Anglican Communion law of belief") as the foundation of Anglican
Office in London, under the aegis of the identity and confession.
Archbishop of Canterbury, but it only serves in a
supporting and organisational role. The Protracted conflict through the seventeenth
Communion is held together by a shared century with more radical Protestants on the
history, expressed in its ecclesiology, polity and one hand and Roman Catholics who still
ethos and also by participation in international recognised the primacy of the Pope on the
consultative bodies. other, resulted in an association of churches
that were both deliberately vague about
Three elements have been important in holding doctrinal principles, yet bold in developing
the Communion together: first, the shared parameters of acceptable deviation. These
ecclesial structure of the component churches, parameters were most clearly articulated in the
manifested in an episcopal polity maintained various rubrics of the successive prayer books,
through the apostolic succession of bishops and as well as the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion.
synodical government; second, the principle of These Articles (though no longer binding) have
belief expressed in worship, investing had an influence on the ethos of the
importance in approved prayer books and their Communion, an ethos reinforced by their
rubrics; and third, the historical documents and interpretation and expansion by such influential
365
early theologians as Richard Hooker, Lancelot of Institution, and of the elements ordained by
Andrewes, John Cosin, and others. Him.
With the expansion of the British Empire, and (d) The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in
hence the growth of Anglicanism outside Great the methods of its administration to the varying
Britain and Ireland, the Communion sought to needs of the nations and peoples called of God
establish new vehicles of unity. The first major into the Unity of His Church.
expression of this were the Lambeth
Instruments of communion
Conferences of the communion's bishops, first
convened by Archbishop of Canterbury Charles As mentioned above, the Anglican Communion
Longley in 1867. From the outset, these were has no international juridical organisation. The
not intended to displace the autonomy of the Archbishop of Canterbury's role is strictly
emerging provinces of the Communion, but to symbolic and unifying and the Communion's
"discuss matters of practical interest, and three international bodies are consultative and
pronounce what we deem expedient in collaborative, their resolutions having no legal
resolutions which may serve as safe guides to effect on the autonomous provinces of the
future action." Communion. Taken together, however, the four
do function as "instruments of communion",
Chicago Lambeth Quadrilateral
since all churches of the communion participate
One of the enduringly influential early in them. In order of antiquity, they are:
resolutions of the conference was the so-called
The Archbishop of Canterbury (ab origine)
Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888. Its
functions as the spiritual head of the
intent was to provide the basis for discussions
Communion. He is the focus of unity, since no
of reunion with the Roman Catholic and
church claims membership in the Communion
Orthodox Churches, but it had the ancillary
without being in communion with him. The
effect of establishing parameters of Anglican
present incumbent is Justin Welby.
identity. It establishes four principles with these
words: The Lambeth Conference (first held in 1867) is
the oldest international consultation. It is a
That, in the opinion of this Conference, the
forum for bishops of the Communion to
following Articles supply a basis on which
reinforce unity and collegiality through
approach may be by God's blessing made
manifesting the episcopate, to discuss matters
towards Home Reunion:
of mutual concern, and to pass resolutions
(a) The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New intended to act as guideposts. It is held roughly
Testaments, as "containing all things necessary every ten years and invitation is by the
to salvation," and as being the rule and ultimate Archbishop of Canterbury.
standard of faith.
The Anglican Consultative Council (first met in
(b) The Apostles' Creed, as the Baptismal 1971) was created by a 1968 Lambeth
Symbol; and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient Conference resolution, and meets usually at
statement of the Christian faith. three-yearly intervals. The council consists of
representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen
(c) The two Sacraments ordained by Christ
by the thirty-eight provinces. The body has a
Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord -
permanent secretariat, the Anglican
ministered with unfailing use of Christ's Words
366
Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Since membership is based on a province's

Canterbury is president. communion with Canterbury, expulsion would
require the Archbishop of Canterbury's refusal
The Primates' Meeting (first met in 1979) is the
to be in communion with the affected
most recent manifestation of international
jurisdiction(s). In line with the suggestion of the
consultation and deliberation, having been first
Windsor Report, Rowan Williams
convened by Archbishop Donald Coggan as a
forum for "leisurely thought, prayer and deep
consultation".
Since there is no binding authority in the

Chapter Three
Communion, these international bodies are a
vehicle for consultation and persuasion. In Baptist
recent years, persuasion has tipped over into
debates over conformity in certain areas of
doctrine, discipline, worship, and ethics. The
most notable example has been the objection Baptists are Christians who comprise a group of
of many provinces of the Communion denominations and churches that subscribe to a
(particularly in Africa and Asia) to the changing doctrine that baptism should be performed only
role of homosexuals in the North American for professing believers (believer's baptism, as
churches (e.g., by blessing same-sex unions and opposed to infant baptism), and that it must be
ordaining and consecrating gays and lesbians in done by immersion (as opposed to affusion or
same-sex relationships), and to the process by sprinkling). Other tenets of Baptist churches
which changes were undertaken. include soul competency (liberty), salvation
through faith alone, scripture alone as the rule
Those who objected condemned these actions of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the
as unscriptural, unilateral, and without the local congregation. Baptists recognize two
agreement of the Communion prior to these ministerial offices, pastors and deacons. Baptist
steps being taken. In response, the American churches are widely considered to be
Episcopal Church and the Anglican Church of Protestant churches, though some Baptists
Canada answered that the actions had been disavow this identity.
undertaken after lengthy scriptural and
theological reflection, legally in accordance with Diverse from their beginning, those identifying
their own canons and constitutions and after as Baptists today differ widely from one another
extensive consultation with the provinces of the in what they believe, how they worship, their
Communion. attitudes toward other Christians, and their
understanding of what is important in Christian
The Primates' Meeting voted to request the two discipleship.
churches to withdraw their delegates from the
2005 meeting of the Anglican Consultative Historians trace the earliest church labeled
Council. Canada and the United States decided "Baptist" back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with
to attend the meeting but without exercising English Separatist John Smyth as its pastor. In
their right to vote. They have not been expelled accordance with his reading of the New
or suspended, since there is no mechanism in Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and
this voluntary association to suspend or expel instituted baptism only of believing adults.
an independent province of the Communion. Baptist practice spread to England, where the
367
General Baptists considered Christ's atonement widely accepted.Adherents to this position

to extend to all people, while the Particular consider the influence of Anabaptists upon
Baptists believed that it extended only to the early Baptists to be minimal. It was a time of
elect. In 1638, Roger Williams established the considerable political and religious turmoil.
first Baptist congregation in the North American Both individuals and churches were willing to
colonies. In the mid-18th century, the First give up their theological roots if they became
Great Awakening increased Baptist growth in convinced that a more biblical "truth" had been
both New England and the South. The Second discovered.
Great Awakening in the South in the early 19th
During the Protestant Reformation, the Church
century increased church membership, as did
of England (Anglicans) separated from the
the preachers' lessening of support for abolition
Roman Catholic Church. There were some
and manumission of slavery, which had been
Christians who were not content with the
part of the 18th-century teachings. Baptist
achievements of the mainstream Protestant
missionaries have spread their church to every
Reformation. There also were Christians who
continent.
were disappointed that the Church of England
The Baptist World Alliance reports more than had not made corrections of what some
41 million members in more than 150,000 considered to be errors and abuses. Of those
congregations. In 2002, there were over 100 most critical of the Church's direction, some
million Baptists and Baptistic group members chose to stay and try to make constructive
worldwide and over 33 million in North changes from within the Anglican Church. They
America. The largest Baptist association is the became known as "Puritans" and are described
Southern Baptist Convention, with the by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists.
membership of associated churches totaling Others decided they must leave the Church
more than 16 million because of their dissatisfaction and became
known as the Separatists.
Baptist Historian Bruce Gourley outlines four
main views of Baptist origins: (1) The modern Historians trace the earliest Baptist church back
scholarly consensus that the movement traces to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its
its origin to the 17th century via the English pastor. Even prior to that, in 1606, John Smyth,
Separatists, (2) the view that it was an a Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge, had
outgrowth of Anabaptist traditions, (3) the broken his ties with the Church of England.
perpetuity view which assumes that the Baptist Reared in the Church of England, he became
faith and practice has existed since the time of "Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist
Christ, and (4) the successionist view, or Separatist," and ended his days working with
"Baptist successionism", which argues that the Mennonites. He began meeting in England
Baptist churches actually existed in an unbroken with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of
chain since the time of Christ. "great danger." The persecution of religious
nonconformists in England led Smyth to go into
English separatist view
exile in Amsterdam with fellow Separatists from
Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the congregation he had gathered in
the English Separatist movement in the century Lincolnshire, separate from the established
after the rise of the original Protestant church (Anglican). Smyth and his lay supporter,
denominations. This view of Baptist origins has Thomas Helwys, together with those they led,
the most historical support and is the most broke with the other English exiles because
368
Smyth and Helways were convinced they should Baptist Theological Seminary, "Spilsbury's
be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first cogent arguments for a gathered, disciplined
baptized himself and then baptized the others. congregation of believers baptized by
immersion as constituting the New Testament
In 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract
church gave expression to and built on insights
titled "The Character of the Beast," or "The
that had emerged within separatism, advanced
False Constitution of the Church." In it he
in the life of John Smyth and the suffering
expressed two propositions: first, infants are
congregation of Thomas Helwys, and matured
not to be baptized; and second, "Antichristians
in Particular Baptists.”
converted are to be admitted into the true
Church by baptism." Hence, his conviction was Anabaptist influence view
that a scriptural church should consist only of
Another view is that early seventeenth-century
regenerate believers who have been baptized
Baptists were influenced by continental
on a personal confession of faith. He rejected
Anabaptists. According to this view, the Dutch
the Separatist movement's doctrine of infant
Mennonites (Anabaptists) shared similarities
baptism (paedobaptism). Shortly thereafter,
with General Baptists (believer's baptism,
Smyth left the group, and layman Thomas
religious liberty, separation of church and state,
Helwys took over the leadership, leading the
and Arminian views of salvation, predestination
church back to England in 1611. Ultimately,
and original sin). Representative writers include
Smyth became committed to believers' baptism
AC Underwood and William R Estep. Gorley
as the only biblical baptism. He was convinced
writes that among some contemporary Baptist
on the basis of his interpretation of Scripture
scholars who emphasize the faith of the
that infants would not be damned should they
community over soul liberty, the Anabaptist
die in infancy.
influence theory is making a comeback.
Smyth, convinced that his self-baptism was
The relations between Baptists and Anabaptists
invalid, applied with the Mennonites for
were early strained. In 1624, the then five
membership. He died while waiting for
existing Baptist churches of London issued a
membership, and some of his followers became
condemnation of the Anabaptists.
Mennonites. Thomas Helwys and others kept
their baptism and their Baptist commitments. Perpetuity view
The modern Baptist denomination is an
outgrowth of Smyth's movement. Baptists Baptist successionism
rejected the name Anabaptist when they were Prior to the 20th century, Baptist historians
called that by opponents in derision. McBeth generally wrote from the perspective that
writes that as late as the 18th century, many Baptists had existed since the time of Christ.
Baptists referred to themselves as "the Proponents of the Baptist perpetuity view
Christians commonly—though falsely—called consider the Baptist movement to have always
Anabaptists." been historically separate from Catholicism and
Another milestone in the early development of in existence prior to the Protestant
Baptist doctrine was in 1638 with John Reformation.
Spilsbury, a Calvinistic minister who helped The perpetuity view is often identified with The
recover the practice of believer's baptism by Trail of Blood, a pamphlet by J.M. Carrol
immersion.[8] According to Tom Nettles, published in 1931. Other Baptist writers holding
professor of historical theology at Southern
369
the perpetuity view are John T. Christian, Wolfville) in Wolfville, Nova Scotia on October
Thomas Crosby, G.H. Orchard, JM Cramp, 29, 1778. The church was established with the
William Cathcart, Adam Taylor and DB assistance of the New Light evangelist Henry
Ray[1This view was also held by English Baptist Alline. Many of Alline's followers, after his
preacher, Charles Spurgeon as well as Jesse death, would convert and strengthen the
Mercer, the namesake of Mercer University. Baptist presence in the Atlantic region. Two
major groups of Baptists formed the basis of the
Baptist Origins in the UK
churches in the maritimes. These were referred
In 1612, Thomas Helwys established a Baptist to as Regular Baptist (Calvinistic in their
congregation in London, consisting of doctrine) and Free Will Baptists.
congregants from Smyth's church. A number of
In May 1845, the Baptist congregations in the
other Baptist churches sprang up, and they
United States split over slavery and missions.
became known as the General Baptists. The
The Home Mission Society prevented
Particular Baptists were established when a
slaveholders from being appointed as
group of Calvinist Separatists adopted believers’
missionaries.[28] The split created the Southern
Baptism.
Baptist Convention, while the northern
Baptist Origins in North America congregations formed their own umbrella
organization now called the American Baptist
Both Roger Williams and John Clarke, his Churches USA (ABC-USA). The Methodist
compatriot in working for religious freedom, are Episcopal Church, South had recently separated
variously credited as founding the earliest over the issue of slavery, and southern
Baptist church in North America.[24] In 1639, Presbyterians would do so shortly thereafter.
Williams established a Baptist church in
Providence, Rhode Island, and Clarke began a Baptist affiliations
Baptist church in Newport, Rhode Island.
According to a Baptist historian who has
researched the matter extensively, "There is Christian Denominations
much debate over the centuries as to whether
Many Baptist churches choose to affiliate with
the Providence or Newport church deserved the
organizational groups that provide fellowship
place of 'first' Baptist congregation in America.
without control. The largest such group is the
Exact records for both congregations are
Southern Baptist Convention. There also are a
lacking."
substantial number of smaller cooperative
The Great Awakening energized the Baptist groups. Finally, there are Baptist churches that
movement, and the Baptist community choose to remain autonomous and
experienced spectacular growth. Baptists independent of any denomination,
became the largest Christian community in organization, or association.
many southern states, including among the
In 1905, Baptists worldwide formed the Baptist
black population.
World Alliance (BWA). The BWA now counts
Baptist missionary work in Canada began in the 218 Baptist conventions and unions worldwide
British colony of Nova Scotia (current day Nova with over 41 million members. The BWA's goals
Scotia and New Brunswick) in the 1760s.:40 The include caring for the needy, leading in world
first official record of a Baptist church in Canada evangelism and defending human rights and
was that of the Horton Baptist Church (now religious freedom. Though it played a role in the
370
founding of the BWA, the Southern Baptist public profession of faith in Jesus, followed by
Convention severed its affiliation with BWA in water baptism.
2004.
Most baptists do not believe that baptism is a
Membership requirement for salvation, but rather a public
expression of one's inner repentance and faith.
Today, 46 million Baptists belong to churches
Therefore some churches will admit into
cooperating with the Baptist World Alliance.
membership persons who make a profession of
Many Baptist groups, including the Southern
faith but fail to follow through with believers'
Baptist Convention and the Baptist Bible
baptism.
Fellowship do not cooperate with the Alliance.
[citation needed] Their number can add up to a In general, Baptist churches do not have a
total of close to 100 million adherents in the stated age restriction on membership, but
world through 211 denominations, making believer's baptism requires that an individual be
Baptists the largest Protestant denomination in able to freely and earnestly profess their
the world. faithBaptist beliefs and principles
Baptists are present in almost all continents in

big denominations. The largest number by
baptized memberships are in Nigeria (3.5
million) and Democratic Republic of the Congo This section needs additional citations for
(2 million) in Africa, India (2.5 million) and verification. Please help improve this article by
Myanmar (1 million) in Asia, USA (35 million) adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
and Brazil (1.8 million) in the North and South material may be challenged and removed. (May
America. 2012)
According to the Barna Group researchers, movements
Baptists are the largest denominational
grouping of born again Christians in the USA A Anabaptism Anglicanism Calvinism Counter-
2009 ABCNEWS/Beliefnet phone poll of 1 022 Reformation Dissenters and Nonconformism
adults suggests that fifteen percent of Lutheranism Polish Brethren Remonstrants
Americans identify themselves as Baptists. Baptists, like other Christians, are defined by
A large percentage of Baptists in North America doctrine—some of it common to all orthodox
are found in five bodies—the Southern Baptist and evangelical groups and a portion of it
Convention (SBC); National Baptist Convention importantly distinctive. Through the years,
(NBC); National Baptist Convention of America, different Baptist groups have issued confessions
Inc.; (NBCA); American Baptist Churches in the of faith—without considering them to be creeds
USA (ABC); and Baptist Bible Fellowship —to express their particular doctrinal
International (BBF distinctions in comparison to other Christians as
well as in comparison to other Baptists. Most
Qualification for membership Baptists are evangelical in doctrine, but Baptist
beliefs can vary due to the congregational
Membership policies vary due to the autonomy
governance system that gives autonomy to
of churches, but the traditional method by
individual local Baptist churches. Historically,
which an individual becomes a member of a
Baptists have played a key role in encouraging
church is through believer's baptism, which is a
371
religious freedom and separation of church and Some additional distinctive Baptist principles
state. held by many Baptists
Shared doctrines would include beliefs about The supremacy of the canonical Scriptures as a
one God; the virgin birth; miracles; atonement norm of faith and practice. For something to
for sins through the death, burial, and bodily become a matter of faith and practice, it is not
resurrection of Jesus; the Trinity; the need for sufficient for it to be merely consistent with and
salvation (through belief in Jesus Christ as the not contrary to scriptural principles. It must be
son of God, his death and resurrection, and something explicitly ordained through
confession of Christ as Lord); grace; the command or example in the Bible. For instance,
Kingdom of God; last things (eschatology) (Jesus this is why Baptists do not practice infant
Christ will return personally and visibly in glory baptism—they say the Bible neither commands
to the earth, the dead will be raised, and Christ nor exemplifies infant baptism as a Christian
will judge everyone in righteousness); and practice. More than any other Baptist principle,
evangelism and missions. Some historically this one when applied to infant baptism is said
significant Baptist doctrinal documents include to separate Baptists from other evangelical
the 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith, Christians.
1742 Philadelphia Baptist Confession, the 1833
Baptists believe that faith is a matter between
New Hampshire Baptist Confession of Faith, the
God and the individual (religious freedom). To
Southern Baptist Convention's Baptist Faith and
them it means the advocacy of absolute liberty
Message, and written church covenants which
of conscience.
some individual Baptist churches adopt as a
statement of their faith and beliefs. Insistence on immersion as the only mode of
baptism. Baptists do not believe that baptism is
Most Baptists hold that no church or
necessary for salvation. Therefore, they do not
ecclesiastical organization has inherent
consider it to be a sacrament, since it imparts
authority over a Baptist church. Churches can
no saving grace. Beliefs that vary among
properly relate to each other under this polity
Baptists
only through voluntary cooperation, never by
any sort of coercion. Furthermore, this Baptist Since there is no hierarchical authority and each
polity calls for freedom from governmental Baptist church is autonomous, there is no
control. official set of Baptist theological beliefs. These
differences exist both among associations, and
Exceptions to this local form of local governance
even among churches within the associations.
include a few churches that submit to the
leadership of a body of elders, as well as the Some doctrinal issues on which there is
Episcopal Baptists that have an Episcopal widespread difference among Baptists are:
system.
Eschatology
Baptists generally believe in the literal Second
Coming of Christ. Beliefs among Baptists Calvinism vs. Arminianism
regarding the "end times" include The doctrine of separation from "the world"
amillennialism, dispensationalism, and historic and whether to associate with those who are
premillennialism, with views such as "of the world"
postmillennialism and preterism receiving some
support. Glossolalia (speaking in tongues
372
How the Bible should be interpreted

(hermeneutics)
The extent to which missionary boards should

be used to support missionaries
The extent to which non-members may

participate in the Lord's Supper services
Which translation of Scripture to use (see King-

James-Only movement)
The very nature of Gospel.
The role of women in marriage.
The ordination of women as deacons or pastors.
Whether or not to accept LGBT

members/ministers and whether or not to
perform gay marriage. Chapter Four
Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman

Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian
church, with 1.2 billion members, and the
world's second largest religious body after
Sunni Islam. The Catholic hierarchy includes
cardinals and bishops and is led by the Bishop of
Rome, known as the Pope. The Church teaches
that it is the one true church divinely founded
by Jesus Christ. It also teaches that its bishops
are the successors of Christ's apostles and that
the Bishop of Rome, as the successor to the
head of the apostles, Saint Peter, has supreme
authority over the Church. The Church
maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals
that it presents as definitive is infallible. There
are a variety of doctrinal and theological
emphases, including the Eastern Catholic
Churches, the personal ordinariates and
religious communities.
373
The Catholic Church is Trinitarian and defines its Further information: Roman Catholic (term) and
mission as spreading the Gospel of Jesus Christ, History of the term "Catholic"
administering the sacraments and exercising
The term "catholic" is derived from the Greek
charity. Catholic worship is highly liturgical,
word καθολικός (katholikos) meaning
focusing on the Mass or Divine Liturgy, in which
"universal" and was first used to describe the
the sacrament of the Eucharist is celebrated.
Church in the early 2nd century. The term
The Church teaches that when consecrated by a
katholikos is equivalent to καθόλου (katholou),
validly ordained priest the bread and wine used
a contraction of the phrase καθ' ὅλου (kath'
during the Mass become the body and blood of
holou) meaning "according to the whole".
Christ through transubstantiation. The Catholic
"Catholic Church" (he katholike ekklesia) first
Church practises closed communion and only
appears in a letter of St Ignatius written in
baptised members of the Church in a state of
about 110. In the "Catechetical Discourses" of
grace are ordinarily permitted to receive the
St. Cyril of Jerusalem, "Catholic Church" is used
Eucharist. It holds the Virgin Mary, as mother of
to distinguish it from other groups that also call
Jesus Christ, in special regard and has defined
themselves the church.
four specific Marian dogmatic teachings,
namely her Immaculate Conception without Since the East–West Schism of 1054, the church
original sin, her status as the Mother of God, that remained in communion with the See of
her perpetual virginity and her bodily Rome continued to call itself "Catholic" while
Assumption into Heaven at the end of her the Eastern churches have generally been
earthly life. known as "Orthodox" or "Eastern Orthodox".
Following the Protestant Reformation in the
Catholic social teaching emphasises support for
16th century, the Church continued to use the
the poor and the afflicted through the corporal
term "Catholic" to distinguish itself from the
works of mercy. It operates social programmes
various denominations that split off.
and institutions throughout the world, including
Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, The name "Catholic Church" is the most
missions and shelters, as well as charities such common designation used in official church
as Catholic Relief Services and Caritas that help documents. It is also the term which Paul VI
families, the poor, the elderly and the sick. used when signing documents of the Second
Catholic spiritual teaching emphasises spread of Vatican Council. However, Church documents
the Gospel message and growth in spiritual produced both by the Holy and by certain
discipline through the spiritual works of mercy. national episcopal conferences occasionally
refer to the Roman Catholic Church. The
The Catholic Church is among the oldest
Catechism of Pope Pius X published in 1908 also
institutions in the world and has played a
used the term "Roman" to distinguish the
prominent role in the history of Western
Catholic Church from other Christian
civilisation, inspiring art, culture and
communities who are not in full communion
philosophy. In the Middle Ages, the Church
with the Church of Rome.
replaced the Roman Empire as a unifying force
in Europe and the papacy became involved in Organisation and demographics
politics. In recent decades, the Church has been
criticised for its doctrines concerning sexual Catholic Church
issues and the ordination of women as well as Major sui iuris Churches
for its handling of sexual abuse cases.
374
Listed by Rite (Liturgical Tradition) Ethiopian Catholic Church
Western Tradition Catholicism
Latin Church Papacy and Roman Curia
Byzantine Tradition Hierarchy of the Catholic Church
Albanian Byzantine Catholic Church The Church's hierarchy is headed by the Bishop
of Rome, known as the Pope (Latin: papa;
Belarusian Greek Catholic Church
"father"), who is the leader of the worldwide
Bulgarian Greek Catholic Church Catholic Church composed of the Latin Church
and the Eastern Catholic Churches in full
Church of Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro communion with the see of Rome. The current
Greek Byzantine Catholic Church Pope is Francis, elected on 13 March 2013 by
papal conclave.
Hungarian Greek Catholic Church
The office of the Pope is known as the Papacy.
Italo-Albanian Catholic Church The Church holds that Christ instituted the
Macedonian Greek Catholic Church Papacy, upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint
Peter. His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the
Melkite Catholic Church "Holy See" (Sancta Sedes in Latin), or the
"Apostolic See" (meaning the see of the Apostle
Romanian Catholic Church
Saint Peter). Directly serving the Pope is the
Russian Catholic Church Roman Curia, the central governing body that
administers the day-to-day business of the
Ruthenian Catholic Church
Catholic Church. The Pope is also Sovereign of
Slovak Catholic Church Vatican City State, a city-state entirely enclaved
within the city of Rome. The legal entity of the
Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church Holy See is distinct from that of the Vatican City
Antiochian or West Syrian Tradition state and all foreign relations are accredited to
the Holy See.
Maronite Church
The position of cardinal is a rank of honour
Syriac Catholic Church bestowed by popes on certain ecclesiastics,
Syro-Malankara Catholic Church such as leaders within the Roman Curia, bishops
serving in major cities and distinguished
Chaldean or East Syrian Tradition theologians. For advice and assistance in
governing, the pope may turn to the College of
Chaldean Catholic Church
Cardinals.
Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
Following the death or resignation of a pope,
Armenian Tradition members of the College of Cardinals who are
under age 80 meet in the Sistine Chapel in
Armenian Catholic Church
Rome to elect a successor. Although this
Alexandrian Tradition election, known as a papal conclave, can
theoretically elect any male Catholic as Pope,
Coptic Catholic Church
375
since 1389 only fellow cardinals have been East–West Schism and earlier divisions. Some
elevated to that position. Eastern Catholic Churches are governed by a
patriarch who is elected by the synod of the
Autonomous particular churches
bishops of that church, others are headed by a
Latin Church and Eastern Catholic Churches major archbishop, others are under a
metropolitan, and others consist of individual
The Catholic Church is made up of 23 eparchies. The Roman Curia has a specific
autonomous particular churches, each of which department, Congregation for the Oriental
accepts the paramountcy of the Bishop of Rome Churches, to maintain relations with them.
on matters of doctrine. These churches, also
known by the Latin term sui iuris churches, are Dioceses, parishes and religious orders
communities of Catholic Christians whose forms
Individual countries, regions, or major cities are
of worship reflect different historical and
served by local particular Churches known as
cultural influences rather than differences in
dioceses or eparchies, each overseen by a
doctrine. In general, each sui iuris church is
Catholic bishop. Each diocese is united with one
headed by a patriarch or high ranking bishop,
of the worldwide "sui iuris" particular churches,
and has a degree of self-governance over the
such as the Latin Church, or one of the many
particulars of its internal organisation, liturgical
Eastern Catholic Churches. As of 2008, the
rites, liturgical calendar and other aspects of its
Catholic Church altogether comprised 2,795
spirituality.
dioceses. The bishops in a particular country or
The largest of the particular churches is the region are often organised into an episcopal
Latin Church, which reports over one billion conference, which aids in maintaining a uniform
members. It developed in southern Europe and style of worship and co-ordination of social
North Africa. Then it spread throughout justice programmes within the areas served by
Western, Central and Northern Europe, before member bishops.
expanding to the rest of the world. The Latin
Dioceses are further divided into numerous
Church considered itself to be the oldest and
individual communities called parishes, each
largest branch of Western Christianity, a
staffed by one or more priests, deacons and/or
heritage of certain beliefs and customs
lay ecclesial ministers. Parishes are responsible
originating in various European countries, some
for the day to day celebration of the sacraments
of which are shared also by many Christian
and pastoral care of the Catholic laity.
denominations that trace their origins to the
Protestant Reformation. Ordained Catholics, as well as members of the
laity, may enter into consecrated life either on
Relatively small in terms of adherents compared
an individual basis, as a hermit or consecrated
to the Latin Church, but important to the overall
virgin, or by joining an institute of consecrated
structure of the Church, are the 22 self-
life (a religious institute or a secular institute) in
governing Eastern Catholic Churches with a
which to take vows confirming their desire to
membership of 17.3 million as of 2010. The
follow the three evangelical counsels of
Eastern Catholic Churches follow the traditions
chastity, poverty and obedience. Examples of
and spirituality of Eastern Christianity and are
institutes of consecrated life are the
composed of Eastern Christians who have
Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Dominicans,
always remained in full communion with the
the Franciscans, the Missionaries of Charity and
Catholic Church or who have chosen to reenter
the Sisters of Mercy.
full communion in the centuries following the
376
Women constitute the majority of members of term is often limited to liturgical patrimony. The
the consecrated life within the church. In 2006, most commonly used liturgy is the Roman Rite
the number of nuns worldwide had been in in its ordinary form, but other rites are in use in
decline, but women still constituted around the Eastern Catholic Churches and even in the
753,400 members of the consecrated life, of a Latin Church.
total worldwide membership of around
Celebration of the Eucharist
945,210. Of these members, 191,810 were men
—including around 136,171 priests. Women In all rites the Mass, or Divine Liturgy, is the
were engaged in a variety of vocations, from centre of Catholic worship. The Catholic Church
contemplative prayer, to teaching, providing teaches that at each Mass the bread and wine
health care and working as missionaries. become the body and blood of Christ by the
words of consecration spoken by the priest.[40]
Membership statistics
The Church teaches that this happens through
Further information: Catholicism by country transubstantiation, in which the "accidents"
(perceptible aspects) of the sacramental bread
Church membership in 2011 was 1.214 billion
and wine remain, but the underlying substance
(17.5% of the world population), an increase
is transmuted into the body, blood, soul and
from 437 million in 1950 and 654 million in
divinity of Christ, and is not merely symbolic.
1970. Since 2010, the rate of increase was 1.5%
The words of consecration are drawn from the
with a 2.3% increase in Africa and a 0.3%
three synoptic Gospels and a Pauline letter. The
increase in the Americas and Europe. 48.8% of
Church teaches that Christ established a New
Catholics live in the Americas, 23.5% in Europe,
Covenant with humanity through the institution
16.0% in Africa, 10.9% in Asia and 0.8% in
of the Eucharist at the Last Supper, as described
Oceania.
in these biblical verses.
In 2011, the Church had 413,418 priests. The
Because the Church teaches that Christ is
main growth areas have been Asia and Africa
present in the Eucharist, there are strict rules
with 39% and 32% increases respectively since
about who may celebrate and who may receive
2000.
the Eucharist in the Catholic Church. The
Worship and liturgy sacrament can only be celebrated by a validly
ordained priest. Those who are conscious of
Catholic religious objects— Holy Bible, crucifix being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden to
and rosary. receive the sacrament until they have received
Among the 23 autonomous (sui iuris) churches, absolution through the sacrament of
numerous forms of worship and liturgical Reconciliation (Penance). Catholics are normally
traditions exist, called "rites", which reflect obliged to abstain from eating for at least an
historical and cultural diversity rather than hour before receiving the sacrament.
differences in belief.[38] In the definition of the Catholics, even if they were in danger of death
Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, "a rite and unable to approach a Catholic minister,
is the liturgical, theological, spiritual, and may not ask for the sacraments of the
disciplinary patrimony, culture and Eucharist, penance or anointing of the sick from
circumstances of history of a distinct people, by someone, such as a Protestant minister, who is
which its own manner of living the faith is not known to be validly ordained in line with
manifested in each Church sui iuris" but the Catholic teaching on ordination. Likewise, even
377
in grave and pressing need, Catholic ministers Eucharist in the Catholic Church
may not administer these sacraments to those
who do not manifest Catholic faith in the
sacrament. In relation to the churches of Preparation of the gifts
Eastern Christianity not in communion with the
Holy See, the Catholic Church is less restrictive, Prayer over the offerings
declaring that "a certain communion in sacris, Eucharistic Prayer
and so in the Eucharist, given suitable
circumstances and the approval of Church Communion rite:
authority, is not merely possible but is The Lord’s Prayer
encouraged."
Rite of peace
Western liturgical rites
Fraction
Catholic Church
Reception of Communion
Structure of the
D. Concluding rites
Roman Rite Mass
Source: General Instruction of the Roman
Roman Missal, chalice (with purificator, Missal
paten and pall), crucifix, lit candle Catholicism Portal
The Roman Rite is the most common rite of

A. Introductory rites worship used by the Catholic Church. Its use is
found worldwide, spread by missionary activity
Entrance originating in European Catholic nations
Greeting of the altar throughout Christian history.
Act of penitence Two forms of the Roman Rite are authorised at

present. The generally used ordinary form,
Kyrie Eleison celebrated mostly in the vernacular, is that of
the post-1969 editions of the Roman Missal,
Gloria
and is known as the Mass of Paul VI. The
Collect extraordinary form, celebrated only in Latin, is
that of the edition of 1962, the year of the
B. Liturgy of the Word
opening of the Second Vatican Council, and is
Biblical readings known as the Tridentine Mass. An outline of the
major liturgical elements of Roman Rite Mass
Responsorial psalm can be found in the side bar.
Homily "Anglican Use" parishes use a variation of the
Profession of faith Roman rite that retains some of the wording of
the Anglican liturgical rites. 2009 saw the
Prayer of the Faithful creation of ordinariates for groups of Anglicans
C. Liturgy of the Eucharist who have been approved for entrance into the
Catholic Church and who may also use a rite
378
that incorporates elements of Anglican Sacred tradition and the Magisterium.—and so

tradition. Other Western liturgical rites (non- protected infallibly from falling into doctrinal
Roman) include the Ambrosian Rite and the error.
Mozarabic Rite.
Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 book
Eastern liturgical rites Catholic Bible. This is made up of the 46 books
found in the ancient Greek version of the Old
The liturgical rites of the Eastern Catholic
Testament—known as the Septuagint—and the
Churches are very similar to, and often identical
27 New Testament writings first found in the
with, the rites used by the Eastern Orthodox
Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 and listed in
and other Eastern Christian churches that
Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter. Sacred
historically developed in Russia, Caucasus and
Tradition consists of those teachings believed
the Balkans, North Eastern Africa and the
by the Church to have been handed down since
Middle East, but are no longer in communion
the time of the Apostles. Sacred Scripture and
with the Holy See. The Eastern Catholic
Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the
Churches are either groups of faithful who have
"deposit of faith" (depositum fidei). These are in
restored full communion with the Pope, while
turn interpreted by the Magisterium (from
preserving their identity as Eastern Christians,
magister, Latin for "teacher"), the Church's
or groups with which full communion has never
teaching authority, which is exercised by the
been broken.
Pope and the College of Bishops in union with
The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches the Pope, the bishop of Rome.
include the Byzantine Rite, in its Antiochian,
Greek and Slavonic varieties, the Alexandrian
Rite, the Syriac Rite, the Armenian Rite, the
Maronite Rite and the Chaldean Rite. In the past
some of the rites used by the Eastern Catholic
Churches were subject to some degree of The Crucifixion of Christ featuring Saint Dismas
liturgical Latinisation. However, in recent years and criminal Gestas by Albrecht Altdorfer, 1526
Eastern Catholic Churches have returned to
traditional Eastern practices in accord with the The Catholic Church holds that there is one
Vatican II decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum. Each eternal God, who exists as a mutual indwelling
church has its own liturgical calendar. of three persons: God the Father; God the Son;
and God the Holy Spirit, which make up the
Doctrine Trinity.
Catholic theology Catholics believe that Jesus Christ is the second
person of the Trinity, God the Son. In an event
The fundamental beliefs of the Christian religion
known as the Incarnation, through the power of
are summarised in the Nicene Creed. For
the Holy Spirit, God became united with human
Catholics, they are detailed in the Catechism of
nature through the conception of Christ in the
the Catholic Church. The Church Catholic holds
womb of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Christ
that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic
therefore is both fully divine and fully human. It
Church. Based on the promises of Christ in the
is taught that Christ's mission on earth included
Gospels, the Church believes that it is
giving people his teachings and providing his
continually guided by the Holy Spirit—which
reveals God's truth through Sacred scripture,
379
example for them to follow as recorded in the towards Catholic unity" and thus bring people
four Gospels. to salvation. It teaches that anyone who is
saved is saved through the Church but that
The Church teaches that through the passion
people can be saved ex voto and by pre-
(suffering) of Christ and his crucifixion as
baptismal martyrdom as well as when
described in the Gospels, all people have an
conditions of invincible ignorance are present
opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from
although invincible ignorance in itself is not a
sin and so can be reconciled to God. The
means of salvation.
Resurrection of Jesus gained for humans a
possible spiritual immortality previously denied Sacraments
to them because of original sin.[68] By
Sacraments of the Catholic Church
reconciling with God and following Christ's
words and deeds, an individual can enter the According to the Council of Trent, Christ
Kingdom of God, which is the "... reign of God instituted seven sacraments and entrusted
over people's hearts and lives". them to the Church. These are Baptism,
Confirmation, the Eucharist, Reconciliation
The Greek term "Christ" and the Hebrew
(Penance), Anointing of the Sick (formerly called
"Messiah" both mean "anointed one", referring
Extreme Unction, one of the "Last Rites"), Holy
to the Christian belief that Jesus' death and
Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are
resurrection are the fulfilment of the Old
visible rituals that Catholics see as signs of
Testament's messianic prophecies.
God's presence and effective channels of God's
Apostolicity grace to all those who receive them with the
proper disposition (ex opere operato). The
According to the Catechism, the Catholic Church
Catechism of the Catholic Church categorises
professes to be the "sole Church of Christ",
the sacraments into three groups, the
which is described in the Nicene Creed as the
"sacraments of Christian initiation",
one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church. The
"sacraments of healing" and "sacraments at the
church teaches that its founder is Jesus Christ,
service of communion and the mission of the
who appointed the twelve Apostles to continue
faithful". These groups broadly reflect the
his work as the Church's earliest bishops.
stages of people's natural and spiritual lives
Catholic belief holds that the Church "is the
which each sacrament is intended to serve.
continuing presence of Jesus on earth", and
that all duly consecrated bishops have a lineal Sacraments of Christian initiation
succession from the apostles. In particular, the
As viewed by the Catholic Church, Baptism is
Bishop of Rome (the Pope), is considered the
the first of three sacraments of initiation as a
successor to the apostle Simon Peter, from
Christian. It washes away all sins, both original
whom the Pope derives his supremacy over the
sin and personal actual sins. It makes a person a
Church. The Church is further described in the
member of the Church. As a gratuitous gift of
papal encyclical Mystici Corporis Christi as the
God that requires no merit on the part of the
Mystical Body of Christ.
person who is baptised, it is conferred even on
The Church teaches that the fullness of the children, who, though they have no personal
"means of salvation" exists only in the Catholic sins, need it on account of original sin If a new-
Church, but the Church acknowledges that the born child is in a danger of death, anyone—be it
Holy Spirit can make use of Christian a doctor, a nurse, or a parent—may baptise the
communities separated from itself to "impel child. Baptism marks a person permanently and
380
cannot be repeated. The Catholic Church sign and sublime cause of that communion in
recognises as valid baptisms conferred even by the divine life and that unity of the People of
people who are not Catholics or Christians, God by which the Church is kept in being.
provided that they intend to baptise ("to do
The Eucharist includes prayers and Bible
what the Church does when she baptises") and
readings along with the consecration of the
that they use the Trinitarian baptismal formula.
bread and wine which, according to the Church,
Confirmation become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. The
ceremony in which a Catholic first receives the
The Catholic Church sees the sacrament of
Eucharist is known as First Communion.
confirmation as required to complete the grace
given in baptism. When adults are baptised, Sacraments of healing
confirmation is normally given immediately
The two sacraments of healing are the
afterwards, a practice followed even for infants
Sacrament of Penance and Anointing of the
in the Eastern Catholic Church. In the West
Sick.
confirmation of children is delayed until they
are old enough to understand or even until they Penance
are in their teens. In Western Christianity,
particularly Catholicism, the sacrament is called The Sacrament of Penance (also called
confirmation, because it confirms and Reconciliation, Forgiveness, Confession, and
strengthens the grace of baptism; in the Eastern Conversion exists for the conversion of those
Church, it is called chrismation, because the who, after baptism, separate themselves from
essential rite is the anointing of the person with Christ by sin. Essential to this sacrament are
chrism, a mixture of olive oil and some acts both by the sinner (examination of
perfumed substance, usually balsam, blessed by conscience, contrition with a determination not
a bishop. Those who receive confirmation must to sin again, confession to a priest, and
be in a state of grace, which for those who have performance of some act to repair the damage
reached the age of reason means that they caused by sin) and by the priest (determination
should first be cleansed spiritually by the of the act of reparation to be performed and
sacrament of Penance; they should also have absolution). Serious sins (mortal sins) must be
the intention of receiving the sacrament, and be confessed within at most a year and always
prepared to show in their lives that they are before receiving Holy Communion, while
Christians. confession of venial sins also is recommended.
The priest is bound under the severest penalties
Eucharist to maintain the "seal of confession", absolute
secrecy about any sins revealed to him in
For Catholics, the Eucharist is the sacrament
confession.
which completes Christian initiation. It is the
perpetuation of the sacrifice of Jesus on the Anointing of the Sick
cross, and a banquet in which Christ himself is
consumed. While chrism is used only for the three
sacraments that cannot be repeated, a different
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states oil is used by a priest or bishop to bless a
that: Catholic who, because of illness or old age, has
begun to be in danger of death. This sacrament,
The Eucharist is the source and summit of the
known as Anointing of the Sick, is believed to
Christian life and The Eucharist is the efficacious
381
give comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick Anointing of the Sick. Only bishops can
person is unable to make a confession, even administer the sacrament of Holy Orders, which
forgiveness of sins. ordains someone into the clergy.
The sacrament is also referred to as Unction, Matrimony

and in the past as Extreme Unction, and it is one
Marriage, understood as an indissoluble union
of the three sacraments that constitute the last
between a man and a woman, if entered into
rites, together with Penance and Viaticum
validly by any baptised man and baptised
(Eucharist).
woman, is considered a sacrament by the
Sacraments at the service of communion Catholic Church. The church does not recognise
divorce as ending a valid marriage and allows
According to the Catechism of the Catholic
state recognised divorce only as a means of
Church there are two sacraments of
protecting children or property, without
communion directed towards the salvation of
allowing remarriage following such a divorce.
others: priesthood and marriage. Within the
Apart from the requirements, such as freedom
general vocation to be a Christian, these two
of consent, that it sees as applicable to all, the
sacraments consecrate to specific mission or
church has established certain specific
vocation among the people of God. Men receive
requirements for the validity of marriages by
the holy orders to feed the Church by the word
Catholics. Failure to observe the Church's
and grace. Spouses marry so that their love may
regulations, as well as defects applicable to all
be fortified to fulfill duties of their state.
marriages, may be grounds for a church
Ordination declaration of the invalidity of a marriage, a
declaration usually referred to as an annulment.
Holy Orders is a sacrament in three degrees or
orders, episcopate (bishops), presbyterate Judgement after death
(priests) and diaconate (deacons), which
Before his resurrection from the dead, Jesus
consecrates and deputes some Christians to
Christ grants salvation to souls by the
serve the whole body by these specific
Harrowing of Hell. Oil on canvas, by Fra
titles.The Church has defined rules on who may
Angelico circa 1430s
be ordained into the clergy. In the Latin Rite,
the priesthood and diaconate are generally The Church teaches that, immediately after
restricted to celibate men. Men who are death, the soul of each person will receive a
already married may be ordained in the Eastern particular judgement from God. This teaching
Catholic Churches in most countries, and the also attests to another day when Christ will sit
personal ordinariates and may become deacons in a universal judgement of all mankind. This
even in the Western Church. But after becoming final judgement, according to Church teaching,
a Roman Catholic priest, a man may not marry will bring an end to human history and mark the
(see Clerical celibacy) unless he is formally beginning of a new and better heaven and earth
laicised. ruled by God in righteousness. The basis on
which each person's soul is judged is detailed in
All clergy, whether deacons, priests or bishops,
the Gospel of Matthew, which lists works of
may preach, teach, baptise, witness marriages
mercy to be performed even to people
and conduct funeral liturgies. Only bishops and
considered "the least of Christ's brothers".
priests can administer the sacraments of the
Emphasis is upon Christ's words that "Not
Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance) and
everyone who says to me, 'Lord, Lord,' shall
382
enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does Mary (mother of Jesus)
the will of my Father who is in heaven".
Devotions to Mary are part of Catholic piety but
According to the Catechism, "The Last are distinct from the worship of God. The
Judgement will reveal even to its furthest Church holds Mary, as Perpetual Virgin and
consequences the good each person has done Mother of God, in special regard. Catholic
or failed to do during his earthly life."Depending beliefs concerning Mary include her Immaculate
on the judgement rendered, a soul may enter Conception without the stain of original sin and
one of three states of afterlife: bodily assumption into heaven at the end of her
life, both of which have been infallibly defined
Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and
as dogma, by Pope Pius IX in 1854 and Pope
a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.
Pius XII in 1950 respectively.
Purgatory is a temporary condition for the
Mariology deals not only with her life but also
purification of souls who, although saved, are
her veneration in daily life, prayer and Marian
not free enough from sin to enter directly into
art, music and architecture. Several liturgical
heaven. Souls in purgatory may be aided in
Marian feasts are celebrated throughout the
reaching heaven by the prayers of the faithful
Church Year and she is honoured with many
on earth and by the intercession of saints.
titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI
Final Damnation: Finally, those who persist in called her Mother of the Church because, by
living in a state of mortal sin and do not repent giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the
before death subject themselves to hell, an spiritual mother to each member of the Body of
everlasting separation from God. The Church Christ. Because of her influential role in the life
teaches that no one is condemned to hell of Jesus, prayers and devotions such as the Hail
without having freely decided to reject God. No Mary, the Rosary, the Salve Regina and the
one is predestined to hell and no one can Memorare are common Catholic practices.
determine whether anyone else has been
The Church has affirmed certain Marian
condemned. Catholicism teaches that through
apparitions, such as at Lourdes, Fátima, and
God's mercy a person can repent at any point
Guadalupe.Pilgrimages to these sites are
before death and be saved. Some Catholic
popular Catholic devotions.
theologians have speculated that the souls of
unbaptised infants who die in original sin are Social teaching
assigned to limbo although this is not an official
Blessed Mother Teresa of Calcutta advocated
doctrine of the Church.
for the sick, the poor and the needy by
practising the acts of corporal works of mercy.
Virgin Mary The social Gospel espoused by Jesus and

Catholic social teaching place a heavy emphasis
The Blessed Virgin Mary is highly regarded in
on the corporal works of mercy and the spiritual
the Catholic Church, proclaiming her as Mother
works of mercy, namely the support and
of God, free from original sin and an
concern for the sick, the poor and the afflicted.
intercessor.
Church teaching calls for a preferential option
Veneration of Mary in Roman Catholicism and for the poor while canon law prescribes that
Roman Catholic Mariology "The Christian faithful are also obliged to
383
promote social justice and, mindful of the

precept of the Lord, to assist the poor."
The Church enumerates "corporal works of

mercy" and "spiritual works of mercy" as
follows:
Corporal Works of Mercy Spiritual Works

of Mercy
1. To feed the hungry. 1. To instruct the

ignorant.
2. To give drink to the thirsty. 2. To counsel

the doubtful
3. To clothe the naked. 3. To admonish sinners.
4. To harbour the harbourless (shelter the

homeless). 4. To bear wrongs patiently.
5. To visit the sick. 5. To forgive offences

willingly.
6. To ransom the captive. 6. To comfort

the afflicted.
7. To bury the dead. 7. To pray for both the

living and the dead.
The Catholic Church is the largest non-

government provider of education and medical
services in the world. In 2010, the Catholic
Church's Pontifical Council for Pastoral
Assistance to Health Care Workers said that the
Church manages 26% of health care facilities in
the world, including hospitals, clinics,
orphanages, pharmacies and centres for those
with leprosy.
Chapter Five
Church of the Latter Day Saint’s
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

(the LDS Church or, informally, the Mormon
Church) is a Christian primitivist church that
384
considers itself to be a restoration of the church local congregations. Bishops, drawn from the
founded by Jesus Christ. The church is laity, lead local congregations. Worthy male
headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and has members, after reaching age 12, may be
established congregations (called wards or ordained to the priesthood. Women do not hold
branches) and built temples worldwide. positions within the priesthood, but do occupy
According to the church, it has over 80,000 leadership roles in church auxiliary
missionaries worldwide and has a membership organizations.
of over 15 million. It is ranked by the National
Both men and women may serve as
Council of Churches as the fourth largest
missionaries, and the church maintains a large
Christian denomination in the United States. It
missionary program which proselytizes and
is the largest denomination in the Latter Day
conducts humanitarian services worldwide.
Saint movement started by Joseph Smith during
Faithful members adhere to laws regarding
the period of religious revival known as the
sexual purity, health, fasting, and Sabbath
Second Great Awakening.
observance, and contribute ten percent of their
Adherents, sometimes referred to as Latter-day income to the church as a tithe. In addition, the
Saints or, more informally, Mormons, view faith church teaches sacred ordinances through
in Jesus Christ and his atonement as the central which adherents make covenants with God,
tenet of their religion. LDS theology includes the including baptism, confirmation, the sacrament
Christian doctrine of salvation only through (holy communion), endowment, and celestial
Jesus Christ, though LDS doctrines regarding the marriage (marriage blessings which extend
nature of God and the potential of mankind beyond mortality), which are of great
differ significantly from mainstream Christianity. significance to church members.
The church has an open canon which includes
History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
four scriptural texts: the Bible (both Old and
day Saints
New Testaments), the Book of Mormon, the
Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great The history of the LDS Church is typically
Price. Other than the Bible, the majority of the divided into three broad time periods: (1) the
LDS canon constitutes revelation dictated by early history during the lifetime of Joseph
Joseph Smith and includes commentary and Smith, which is in common with all Latter Day
exegesis about the Bible, texts described as lost Saint movement churches; (2) a pioneer era
parts of the Bible, and other works believed to under the leadership of Brigham Young and his
be written by ancient prophets. 19th-century successors; and (3) a modern era
beginning around the turn of the 20th century
Under the doctrine of continuing revelation,
as Utah achieved statehood.
Latter-day Saints believe that Jesus Christ,
under the direction of Heavenly Father, leads Beginnings
the church by revealing his will to its president,
whom adherents regard as a modern-day Church members believe that Joseph Smith was
"prophet, seer, and revelator". The current called to be a modern-day prophet through,
president is Thomas S. Monson. Individual among other events, a visitation from God the
members believe that they can also receive Father and Jesus Christ.
personal revelation from God in conducting See also: History of the Latter Day Saint
their lives. The president heads a hierarchical movement and Church of Christ (Latter Day
structure with various levels reaching down to Saints)
385
The LDS Church traces its current dispensation institution to govern the millennial kingdom. He
beginnings to Joseph Smith on April 6, 1830 in also introduced the church to a full accounting
Western New York. Initial converts were drawn of his First Vision, in which two heavenly
to the church in part because of the newly "personages" (LDS interpret them to be God the
published Book of Mormon, a self-described Father and his Son, Jesus Christ) appeared to
chronicle of indigenous American prophets that him at age 14. This vision would come to be
Smith said he had translated from golden regarded by the LDS Church as the most
plates. important event in human history after the
resurrection of Jesus.
Smith intended to establish the New Jerusalem
in North America, called Zion. In 1831, the On June 27, 1844, Joseph Smith and his brother
church moved to Kirtland, Ohio (the eastern Hyrum were murdered by a mob in Carthage,
boundary of Zion), and began establishing an Illinois, while being held on charges of treason.
outpost in Jackson County, Missouri (Zion's Because Hyrum was Joseph's designated
"center place"), where he planned to eventually successor, their deaths caused a succession
move the church headquarters. However, in crisis, and Brigham Young assumed leadership
1833, Missouri settlers brutally expelled the over the majority of Saints. Young had been a
Latter Day Saints from Jackson County, and the close associate of Smith's and was senior
church was unable via a paramilitary expedition apostle of the Quorum of the Twelve. Other
to recover the land. Nevertheless, the church splinter groups, excommunicated from the
flourished in Kirtland as Smith published new Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints,
revelations and the church built the Kirtland followed other leaders in their own
Temple as the site of what they viewed as a interpretation of the Latter Day Saint
new Pentecost. The Kirtland era ended in 1838, movement.
after a financial scandal rocked the church and
Pioneer era
caused widespread defections Smith regrouped
with the remaining church in Far West, For two years after Smith's death, conflicts
Missouri, but tensions soon escalated into escalated between Mormons and other Illinois
violent conflicts with the old Missouri settlers. residents. To prevent war, Joseph Smith had
Believing the Saints to be in insurrection, the predicted that the church would go to the West
Missouri governor ordered that the Saints be and be established in the tops of Rocky
"exterminated or driven from the State". In Mountains. Brigham Young took Smith's advice
1839, the Saints converted a swampland on the and led his followers, known in modern times as
banks of the Mississippi River into Nauvoo, the Mormon pioneers, to Nebraska and then in
Illinois, which became the church's new 1847 to what became the Utah Territory. As
headquarters. groups (over 60,000) arrived over a period of
years, LDS settlers branched out and colonized a
Nauvoo grew rapidly as missionaries sent to
large region now known as the Mormon
Europe and elsewhere gained new converts
Corridor.
who then flooded into Nauvoo. Meanwhile,
Smith introduced polygamy to his closest Young incorporated the LDS Church as a legal
associates. He also established ceremonies, entity, and initially governed both the church
which he stated the Lord had revealed to him, and the state as a theocratic leader. He also
to allow righteous people to become gods (joint publicized the sacred practice of plural
heirs with Christ) in the afterlife, and a secular marriage, a form of polygamy.
386
By 1857, tensions had again escalated between itself from "fundamentalist" group’s still
Mormons and other Americans, largely as a practicing polygamy.
result of accusations involving polygamy and
Modern times
the theocratic rule of the Utah Territory by
Brigham Young. The Utah Mormon War ensued During the 20th century, the church grew
from 1857 to 1858, which resulted in the substantially and became an international
relatively peaceful invasion of Utah by the organization, due in part to the spread of
United States Army, after which Young agreed missionaries around the globe. In 2000, the
to step down from power and be replaced by a church reported 60,784 missionaries and global
non-Mormon territorial governor, Alfred church membership stood at just over 11
Cumming. Nevertheless, the LDS Church still million. Worldwide membership surpassed 13
wielded significant political power in the Utah million in 2007 and reached 14 million in July
Territory. 2010, with about six million of those within the
United States. However, it is estimated based
At Young's death in 1877, he was followed by
on demographic studies from the early 1990s
other church presidents, who resisted efforts by
that only one-third of the total worldwide
the United States Congress to outlaw Mormon
membership (about 4 million people as of 2005)
polygamous marriages. In 1878, the United
are considered "active churchgoers." The
States Supreme Court, in Reynolds v. United
church cautions against overemphasis of
States, decreed that "religious duty" to engage
growth statistics for comparison with other
in plural marriage was not a valid defense to
churches because relevant factors—including
prosecutions for violating state laws against
activity rates and death rates, methodology
polygamy. Conflict between Mormons and the
used in registering or counting members, what
U.S. government escalated to the point that in
factors constitute membership, and
1890, Congress disincorporated the LDS Church
geographical variations—are rarely accounted
and seized all its assets. Soon thereafter, church
for in the comparisons.
president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto
that officially suspended the practice. Although The church has become a stronger and more
this Manifesto did not yet dissolve existing public champion of the nuclear family and at
plural marriages, so that families would not be times played a prominent role in political
split apart or damaged, no new polygamous matters, including opposition to MX
marriages would be performed. Relations with Peacekeeper missile bases in Utah and Nevada,
the United States markedly improved after the Equal Rights Amendment, legalized
1890, such that Utah was admitted as a US state gambling, same-sex marriage, and physician-
in 1896. Relations further improved after 1904, assisted death. Apart from issues that it
when church president Joseph F. Smith again considers to be ones of morality, however, the
disavowed polygamy before the United States church usually maintains a position of political
Congress and issued a "Second Manifesto" neutrality, but encourages its members to be
calling for all plural marriages in the church to politically active, to participate in elections, and
cease, as they were already against church to be knowledgeable about current political and
doctrine since Woodruff issued the Manifesto. social issues within their communities, states,
Eventually, the church adopted a policy of and countries.
excommunicating its members found practicing
polygamy and today seeks to actively distance A number of official changes have taken place
to the organization during the modern era. One
387
significant change was the ordination of men of the same angel spoken of in the Bible in
black African descent (regardless of actual skin Revelation 14:6. The church characterizes the
color) to the priesthood in 1978, which reversed Book of Mormon as "the most correct of any
a policy originally instituted by Brigham Young book on earth and the keystone of [their]
in 1852. There are also periodic changes in the religion".
structure and organization of the church, mainly
The Bible, also part of the church's canon, is
to accommodate the organization's growth and
believed to be "the word of God as far as it is
increasing international presence. For example,
translated correctly". Most often, the church
since the early 1900s, the church has instituted
uses the Authorized King James Version.
a Priesthood Correlation Program to centralize
Sometimes, however, parts of the Joseph Smith
church operations and bring them under a
Translation of the Bible are considered
hierarchy of priesthood leaders. During the
authoritative. Some excerpts of Joseph Smith's
Great Depression, the church also began
translation have been included in the Pearl of
operating a church welfare system, and it has
Great Price, which also includes further
conducted numerous humanitarian efforts in
translations by Smith and church historical
cooperation with other religious organizations
items. Other historical items and revelations are
including Catholic Relief Services and Islamic
found in the Doctrine and Covenants.
Relief, as well as secular organizations such as
the American Red Cross. Another source of authoritative doctrine is the
pronouncements of the current Apostles and
Teachings and practices
members of the First Presidency. The church
The written canon of the LDS Church is referred teaches that the First Presidency (the prophet
to as its Standard Works. and his counselors) and the Quorum of Twelve
Apostles are prophets and that their teachings
Standard Works and Revelation (Latter Day
are generally given under inspiration from God
Saints)
through the Holy Spirit. Members of the church
The theology of the LDS Church consists of a acknowledge (sustain) them regularly as
combination of biblical doctrines with modern prophets, seers, and revelators—this is done
revelations and other commentary by LDS publicly twice a year at the church's worldwide
leaders, particularly Joseph Smith, Jr. The most general conference.
authoritative sources of theology are the faith's
Distinctive doctrines and practices
canon of four religious texts, called the
Standard Works. Included in the Standard Beliefs and practices of The Church of Jesus
Works are the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Christ of Latter-day Saints
Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great
Several doctrines and practices of the LDS
Price. Among these books, the church holds in
Church are unique within Christianity. For
equal esteem as the other Standard Works the
example, the Mormon cosmology and plan of
Book of Mormon, said by the church to be
salvation include the doctrines of a pre-mortal
"Another Testament of Jesus Christ" that Joseph
life, three degrees of heaven, and exaltation.
Smith translated from buried golden plates. The
According to these doctrines every human spirit
LDS Church believes that the Angel Moroni told
is a literal child of Heavenly Father, and each
Smith about these golden plates and guided
has the potential to continue to learn, grow,
him to find them buried in the Hill Cumorah.
and progress in the eternities, eventually
The church believes that this Angel Moroni is
achieving eternal life (which Latter-day Saints
388
view as distinct from immortality), which is to coffee, tea, and tobacco.The Word of Wisdom
become one with God in the same way that also encourages the use of wholesome herbs
Jesus Christ is one with the Father, thus and fruits within season, moderate
allowing the children of God to become divine consumption of meat, and consumption of
beings or "gods" themselves. Achieving this grains, as well as regular physical exercise.
same status is also referred to as becoming a
Latter-day Saints follow a moral code, called the
"joint-heir with Christ." The process by which
"law of chastity," which prohibits adultery, all
this is done is called exaltation, a doctrine which
homosexual behavior, and any sexual relations
includes the reunification of the mortal family
outside of marriage.
after the resurrection and the ability to have
spirit children in the afterlife and inherit a LDS faithful donate a ten percent tithe on their
portion of God's kingdom. To obtain this state annual income, which is used to carryout the
of godhood, the church teaches that one must operations of the church, including construction
have faith in Jesus Christ, repent of his or her of temples, meetinghouses and other buildings,
sins, strive to keep the commandments as well as other church uses. Faithful members
faithfully, and participate in a sequence of also set aside the first Sunday of each month to
ceremonial covenants called ordinances, which abstain from food and drink for at least two
include baptism, receiving the gift of the Holy consecutive meals, and donate at least the cost
Ghost, the Endowment, and celestial marriage. of the two skipped meals as a fast offering,
which the church uses to assist the poor and
This latter ordinance, known as a sealing
needy and expand its worldwide humanitarian
ceremony, reflects a singular LDS view with
efforts. Members are further instructed to set
respect to families. According to LDS Church
aside one night a week, typically Monday, for a
theology, men and women may be "sealed" to
"Family Home Evening," where they gather
one another so that their marital bond
together as a family to study gospel principles
continues into the eternities. Children may also
and participate in wholesome activities.
be sealed to their biological or adoptive parents
to form permanent familial bonds, thus Missionary service
allowing all immediate and extended family
relations to endure past death. The most Missionaries typically commit to 18–24 months
significant LDS ordinances may be performed of full-time service.
via proxy in behalf of those who have died, such Missionary (LDS Church)
as baptism for the dead. The church teaches
that all will have the opportunity to hear and The LDS Church expects all male members to
accept or reject the gospel of Jesus Christ and serve a two-year mission unless physical,
the blessings that come to those who faithfully mental, or emotional health issues prevent their
adhere to it, in this life or the next. Ordinances service. Missionaries generally do not choose
such as baptisms for the dead, sealings, and where they serve, and are expected to fund
endowments are performed in temples that are their missions themselves or with the aid of
built and dedicated specifically for these their family. Prospective missionaries must be
purposes. at least 18 years old and no older than 25, not
yet married, have completed secondary school,
The LDS faithful observe a health code called and meet certain criteria for physical fitness and
the "Word of Wisdom," in which they abstain spiritual worthiness. Prior to October 2012 the
from the consumption of alcoholic beverages, minimum age for full-time missionary service
389
was generally 19 for men and 21 for women. Christianity, and many people do not accept the
Missionary service is not compulsory, nor is it church as part of Christianity. The faith itself
required for young men to retain their church views other modern Christian faiths as having
membership. Unmarried women 19 years and departed from true Christianity via a general
older may also serve as missionaries, generally apostasy and that it is a restoration of 1st-
for a term of 18 months. However, the LDS century Christianity and the only true and
Church emphasizes that women are not under authorized Christian church. Differences
the same expectation to serve as male between the LDS Church and most of traditional
members are, and may serve solely as a Christianity include disagreement with aspects
personal decision. There is no maximum age for of the Nicene Creed, belief in a unique theory of
missionary service for women. Retired couples human salvation that includes three heavens
are encouraged to serve missions, and may (referred to as "degrees of glory")] a doctrine of
serve for either 6-, 12-, 18-, or 23-month terms. "exaltation" which includes the ability of
These senior missionaries may serve in non- humans to become gods and goddesses in the
proselyting capacities such as humanitarian aid afterlife, a dietary code called the Word of
workers or family history specialists. Wisdom, and unique ceremonies performed
privately in LDS temples, such as the
Comparisons with mainstream Christianity
endowment and sealing ceremonies.
Mormonism and Christianity
The LDS Church shares various teachings with

Officially, major Christian denominations view
other branches of Christianity. These include a
the LDS Church as standing apart from creedal
belief in the Bible (excluding parts the LDS
Christianity, a point the LDS Church itself does
believed to be translated incorrectly), the
not dispute.
divinity of Jesus, and his atonement and
resurrection. LDS theology also includes belief From the perspective of Christians who agree
in the doctrine of salvation through Jesus alone, with creeds, the most significant area of
restorationism (via a restoration of Christ's departure is the rejection by the LDS Church of
church revealed through Joseph Smith, Jr.), certain parts of ecumenical creeds such as the
millennialism, continuationism, penal Nicene Creed, which defines the predominant
substitution, and a form of apostolic succession. view of the Christian God as a Trinity of three
The practices of baptism by immersion and the separate persons in "one essence". LDS Church
Eucharist (referred to as the Sacrament) are theology includes the belief in a "Godhead"
also held in common. However, the Catholic composed of God the Father, his Son Jesus
Church considers doctrinal differences between Christ, and the Holy Ghost as three separate
the two groups to be so great that it will not Persons who share a unity of purpose or will;
accept a prior LDS baptism as evidence of however, they are viewed as three distinct
Christian initiation, as it will baptism by other Beings making one Godhead. Other significant
Christian groups, such as the Eastern Orthodox differences relate to the church's acceptance of
and Protestant churches. The LDS Church does additional scripture, doctrine, and practices
not accept baptisms performed in other beyond what is found in the Catholic,
churches. Protestant, or Orthodox versions of the Bible.
Nevertheless, the LDS Church differs from the Comparison with other Latter Day Saint
many other churches within contemporary movement faiths
390
List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement A typical meetinghouse of the church, where
Sunday worship and social gatherings during
The LDS Church shares a common heritage with
the week convene
a number of smaller faith groups that are
collectively called the Latter Day Saint The church teaches that it is a continuation of
movement. The largest of these smaller groups the Church of Christ established in 1830 by
is the Community of Christ (previously known as Joseph Smith, Jr. This original church underwent
the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter several name changes during the 1830s, being
Day Saints), based in Independence, Missouri, called the Church of Jesus Christ, the Church of
followed by the Church of Jesus Christ, based in God, and then in 1834, the name was officially
Monongahela, Pennsylvania. In common with changed to the Church of the Latter Day Saints.
the LDS Church, these faiths believe in Joseph In April 1838, the name was officially changed
Smith as a prophet and founder of their to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day
religion. They also accept the Book of Mormon, Saints. After Smith died, Brigham Young and the
and most, but not all, accept at least some largest body of Smith's followers incorporated
version of the Doctrine and Covenants. the LDS Church in 1851 by legislation of the
However, they tend to disagree to varying State of Deseret under the name The Church of
degrees with the LDS Church on matters of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints which included
doctrine and church leadership. a hyphenated "Latter-day" and a lower-case
"d".
The main branches of the Latter Day Saint
movement resulted from the crisis of In 1887, the LDS Church was legally dissolved in
succession upon the death of Joseph Smith, Jr. the United States by the Edmunds–Tucker Act
Other branches may be considered later off- because of the church's practice (now
shoots of the LDS Church branch, mainly as a abandoned) of polygamy. The Edmunds-Tucker
result of disagreements about plural marriage. Act was repealed in 1978. The church has
In the LDS Church, the practice of plural continued to operate under what remains its
marriage was abandoned around the turn of formal name, The Church of Jesus Christ of
the 20th century when the church's president Latter-day Saints. Accepted informal names
stated that God revealed that plural marriage include the LDS Church, the Latter-day Saints,
was no longer necessary, but it has continued and the Mormons. The term Mormon Church is
among the fundamentalist groups, who believe in common use, but the church began
the practice is a requirement for exaltation. The discouraging its use in the late 20th century,
LDS Church, by contrast, teaches that a single though takes no issue with the term Mormon
celestial marriage is sufficient for exaltation. itself. The church requests that the official
Fundamentalists also believe in a number of name be used when possible or, if necessary,
other doctrines taught and practiced by shortened to "the Church" or "the Church of
Brigham Young in the 19th century, which the Jesus Christ".
LDS Church has either abandoned, repudiated,
The church has organized several tax-exempt
or put in abeyance; e.g., the church has long
corporations to assist with the transfer of
excommunicated any members caught
money and capital. These include the
practicing polygamy.
Corporation of the Presiding Bishop of the
Organization and structure Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,
organized in 1916 under the laws of the state of
Utah to acquire, hold, and dispose of real
391
property. In 1923, the church incorporated the

Corporation of the President of The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Utah to
receive and manage money and church
donations. In 1997, the church incorporated
Chapter Six
Intellectual Reserve, Inc. to hold all the church's
copyrights, trademarks, and other intellectual Congregational Churches
property. The church also holds several non-tax-
exempt corporations, such as Bonneville Congregational churches are Protestant
International and the Deseret News. Christian churches practicing Congregationalist
church governance, in which each congregation
independently and autonomously runs its own
affairs.
Many Congregational churches claim their

descent from a family of Protestant
denominations formed on a theory of union
published by the theologian Robert Browne in
1592. These arose from the Nonconformist
religious movement during the Puritan
reformation of the Church of England. In Great
Britain, the early congregationalists were called
separatists or independents to distinguish them
from the similarly Calvinistic Presbyterians.
Some congregationalists in Britain still call
themselves Independent.
Congregational churches were widely

established in the Plymouth Colony and the
Massachusetts Bay Colony, later New England.
The model of Congregational churches was
carried by migrating settlers from New England
into New York State and then into the "Old
North West," the North-West Territory, won in
the American Revolution, now the states of
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin
(and a small portion of Minnesota). With their
insistence on independent local bodies, they
became important in many social reform
movements, including abolitionism,
temperance, and women's suffrage. Modern
congregationalism in the USA is split into three
bodies: the United Church of Christ, with which
most local Congregational churches affiliate and
which is also the most theologically progressive;
392
the National Association of Congregational a reciprocal influence on the Baptists. They

Christian Churches; and the Conservative differed in counting the children of believers in
Congregational Christian Conference, which is some sense members of the church. On the
the most theologically conservative. other hand, the Baptists required each member
to experience conversion, followed by baptism.
In England, the Anglican system of church

Congregationalists sympathetically interpreted
government was taken over by King Henry VIII.
various dissident movements among the
Influenced by movements for reform and by his
western churches that were suppressed in the
desire to legitimize his marriage to Anne Boleyn
Middle Ages. By the 16th century, political and
in 1533 (without the blessing of the Pope) after
cultural changes had created a climate in which
divorcing his first wife Catherine of Aragon,
men such as John Wycliffe, John Hus, Martin
Henry's government influenced Parliament to
Luther and John Calvin sought change, with new
enact the 1st Act of Supremacy in 1534. It
ideas about the relationship of individual men
declared the reigning sovereign of England to
to God. This influenced what they saw as the
be "the only supreme head on earth of the
power of people without priests to intercede
Church in England". In the reign of Elizabeth I,
between them and God, the need for the
this title was changed to Supreme Governor of
people to read and interpret the Bible, and
the Church of England, an act still in effect. The
correction of distortions from original Christian
Church of England thus replaced Catholicism as
thinking, as well as their protests against church
the established church.
abuses. These reformers advocated a return to
the simplicity and authenticity they believed Robert Browne (1550–1633), Henry Barrow (c.
was described in the New Testament. 1550–1593), John Greenwood (died 1593), John
Congregationalists believe their model of Penry (1559–1593), William Brewster (c. 1566–
church governance fulfils the description of the 1644), Thomas Jollie (1629–1703) and John
early church and allows people the most direct Robinson (1576–1625) were notable people
relationship with God. who established dissenting churches separate
from the Church of England.
Congregationalism is more easily identified as a
movement than a single denomination, given its The underground churches in England and
distinguishing commitment to the complete exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of
autonomy of the local congregation. The idea the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which
that each distinct congregation fully constitutes sailed from London in July 1620. They became
the visible Body of the church can, however, be known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers. The
traced to John Wycliffe and the Lollard early Congregationalists sought to separate
movement, which followed Wycliffe's removal themselves from the Anglican church in every
from teaching authority in the Roman Catholic possible way and even eschewed having church
Church. buildings. They met in homes for many years.
The early Congregationalists shared with In 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the
Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church. parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire,
They believed the adult conversion experience established the first Independent Church in
was necessary for an individual to become a full Wales "according to the New England pattern",
member in the church, unlike other Reformed i.e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United
churches. As such, the Congregationalists were
393
Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this urgently requested that denominational

day. recognition be given George Geier, who was
serving them. The Illinois Conference licensed
During the English Civil War, those who
Geier, who worked among Germans from
supported the Parliamentary cause were invited
Russia who were very similar to their kin in the
by Parliament to discuss religious matters. The
United States and in Canada. The South
Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) was
American Germans from Russia had learned
officially declared the statement of faith for
about Congregationalism in letters from
both the Church of England (Anglican/Episcopal)
relatives in the United States. In 1924 general
and Church of Scotland (Presbyterian), which
missionary John Hoelzer, whilst in Argentina for
was politically expedient for those in the
a brief visit, organized six churches.
Presbyterian dominated English Parliament who
approved of the Solemn League and Covenant Australia
(1643).
After the Second Civil War the New Model Army

In 1977, most congregations of the
which was dominated by Congregationalists (or
Congregational Union of Australia merged with
Independents) seized control of the parliament
all Churches of the Methodist Church of
with Pride's purge (1648), arranged for the trial
Australasia and a majority of Churches of the
and executed Charles I in January 1649 and
Presbyterian Church of Australia to form the
subsequently introduced a republican
Uniting Church in Australia.
Commonwealth dominated by Independents
such as Oliver Cromwell. This government Those congregations that did not join the
would last until 1660 when the monarch was Uniting Church formed the Fellowship of
restored and Episcopalism was re-established Congregational Churches or continued as
(see the Penal laws and Great Ejection). Presbyterians. Some more ecumenically minded
Congregationalists left the Fellowship of
In 1658 (during the interregnum) the
Congregational Churches in 1995 and formed
Congregationalists created their own version of
the Congregational Federation of Australia.
the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy
Declaration, which remains the principal Bulgaria
subordinate standard of Congregationalism.
For a summary of Congregationalism in

Scotland see the paper presented to a joint Congregationalists (called "Evangelicals" in
meeting of the ministers of the United Bulgaria, the word "Protestant" is not used
Reformed Church [Scottish Synod] and the were among the first Protestant missionaries to
Congregational Federation in Scotland by Rev'd the Ottoman Empire and to the Northwestern
A Paterson follow the link Congregationalism in part of the European Ottoman Empire which is
Scotland now Bulgaria, where their work to convert
these Orthodox Christians was unhampered by
Argentina the death penalty imposed by the Ottomans on
Muslim converts to Christianity.[4] These
The mission to Argentina was the second
missionaries were significant contributors to the
foreign field tended by German
Bulgarian National Revival movement. Today,
Congregationalists. The work in South America
Protestantism in Bulgaria represents the third
began in 1921, when four Argentine churches
394
largest religious group, behind Orthodox and school for boys in Plovdiv in 1860, followed
Muslim. Missionaries from the United States three years later by a primary school for girls in
first arrived in 1857–58, sent to Istanbul by the Stara Zagora. In 1871 the two schools were
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign moved to Samokov and merged as the
Missions (ABCFM). The ABCFM was proposed in American College, now considered the oldest
1810 by the Congregationalist graduates of American educational institution outside the
Williams College, MA, and was chartered in US. In 1928, new facilities were constructed in
1812 to support missions by Congregationalists, Sofia, and the Samokov operation transferred
Presbyterian (1812–1870), Dutch-Reformed to the American College of Sofia (ACS), now
(1819–1857) and other denominational operated at a very high level by the Sofia
members. The ABCFM focused its efforts on American Schools, Inc.
southern Bulgaria and the Methodist Church on
In 1874, a Bible College was opened in Ruse,
the region north of the Balkan Mountains (Stara
Bulgaria for people wanting to become pastors.
Planina, or "Old Mountains"). In 1857, Cyrus
At the 1876 annual conference of missionaries,
Hamlin and Charles Morse established three
the beginning of organizational activity in the
missionary centres in southern Bulgaria - in
country was established. The evangelical
Odrin (Edirne, former capital city of the
churches of Bulgaria formed a united
Ottoman Empire, in Turkey), Plovdiv and Stara
association in 1909.
Zagora. They were joined in 1859 by Russian
born naturalized America Frederic Flocken in The missionaries played a significant role in
1859. American Presbyterian Minister Elias assisting the Bulgarians throw off “the Turkish
Riggs commissioned, supported and edited the Yoke”, which included publishing the magazine
work of Bulgarian monk Neofit Rilski to create a Zornitsa (Зорница, "Dawn"), founded in 1864
Bible translations into Bulgarian which was then by the initiative of Riggs and Long. Zornitsa
distributed widely in Bulgaria in 1871 and became the most powerful and most
thereafter. This effort was supported by widespread newspaper of the Bulgarian
Congregationalist missionary Albert Long, Renaissance. A small roadside marker on
Konstantin Fotinov, Hristodul Sechan-Nikolov Bulgarian Highway 19 in the Rila Mountains,
and Petko Slaveikov. Reportedly, 2,000 copies close to Gradevo commemorates the support
of the newly translated Bulgarian language New given the Bulgarian Resistance by these early
Testament were sold within the first two weeks. Congregationalist missionaries.
Congregational churches were established in On 3 September 1901 Congregationalist
Bansko, Veliko Turnovo, and Svishtov between missionaries came to world attention in the
1840 to 1878, followed by Sofia in 1899. By Miss Stone Affair when missionary Ellen Maria
1909, there were 19 Congregational churches, Stone, of Roxbury, Massachusetts, and her
with a total congregation of 1,456 in southern pregnant fellow missionary friend Macedonian-
Bulgaria offering normal Sunday services, Bulgarian Katerina Stefanova–Tsilka, wife of an
Sunday schools for children, biblical instruction Albanian Protestant minister, were kidnapped
for adults; as well as women's groups and youth while traveling between Bansko and Gorna
groups. Summer Bible schools were held Dzhumaya (now Blagoevgrad), by an Internal
annually from 1896 to 1948. Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary
Organization detachment led by the voivoda
Congregationalists led by Dr James F. Clarke
Yane Sandanski and the sub-voivodas Hristo
opened Bulgaria's first Protestant primary
Chernopeev and Krǎstyo Asenov and ransomed
395
to provide funds for revolutionary activities. unobtainable. As a result, the number of

Eventually, a heavy ransom (14,000 Ottoman Congregationalists is small, and estimated by
lira (about US$62,000 at 1902 gold prices or $5 Paul Mojzes in 1982 to number about 5,000, in
million at 2012 gold prices) raised by public 20 churches. (Total Protestants in Bulgaria were
subscription in the USA was paid on 18 January estimated in 1965 to have been between
1902 in Bansko and the hostages (now including 10,000 and 20,000.)[16] More recent estimates
a newborn baby) were released on 2 February indicate enrollment in Protestant ("Evangelical"
near Strumica—a full five months after being or "Gospel") churches of between 100,000 and
kidnapped. Widely covered by the media at the 200,000, presumably reflecting the success of
time, the event has been often dubbed more recent missionary efforts of evangelical
"America's first modern hostage crisis". groups. The United Church of Christ has been
described as "the historic continuation of the
The Bulgarian royal house, of Catholic German
Congregational churches".
extraction, was unsympathetic to the American
inspired Protestants, and this mood became Canada
worse when Bulgaria sided with Germany in
WWI and WWII. Matters became much worse
when the Bulgarian Communist Party took In Canada, the first foreign field, thirty-one
power in 1944. Like the Royal Family, it too saw churches that had been affiliated with the
Protestantism closely linked to the West and General Conference became part of the United
hence more politically dangerous than Church of Canada when that denomination was
traditional Orthodox Christianity. This prompted founded in 1925 by the merger of the Canadian
repressive legislation in the form of Congregationalist and Methodist churches, and
"Regulations for the Organization and two-thirds of the congregations of the
Administration of the Evangelical Churches in Presbyterian Church of Canada. In 1988, a
the People's Republic of Bulgaria" and resulted number of UCC congregations separated from
in the harshest government repression, possibly the national church, which they felt was moving
the worst in the entire Eastern Bloc, intended to away theologically and in practice from Biblical
extinguish Protestantism altogether. Mass Christianity. Many of the former UCC
arrests of pastors (and often their families), congregations banded together as the new
torture, long prison sentences (including four Congregational Christian Churches in Canada.
life sentences) and even disappearance were
common. Similar tactics were used on Congregational Christian Churches in Canada
parishioners. In fifteen highly publicized mock The Congregational Christian Churches in
show-trials between 8 February and 8 March Canada (or 4Cs) is an evangelical, Protestant,
1949, all the accused pastors confessed to a Christian denomination, headquartered in
range of charges against them, including Brantford, Ontario, and a member of the World
treason, spying (for both the US and Evangelical Congregational Fellowship. The
Yugoslavia), black marketing, and various name "congregational" generally describes its
immoral acts. State appointed pastors were preferred organizational style, which promotes
foist on surviving congregations. As late as the local church autonomy and ownership, while
1980s, imprisonment and exile were still fostering fellowship and accountability between
employed to destroy the remaining Protestant churches at the National level.
churches. The Congregationalist magazine
"Zornitsa" was banned; Bibles became Ireland
396
United Reformed Church (URC). However,

about 600 Congregational churches have
The Congregational Union of Ireland was
continued in their historic independent
founded in 1829 and currently has around 26
tradition. Under the Act of Parliament that dealt
member churches. In 1899 it absorbed the Irish
with the financial and property issues arising
Evangelical Society. One of its ministers, Robert
from the merger between what had become by
McEvoy, is secretary of an evangelical and
then the Congregational Church of England and
creationist pressure group, the Caleb
Wales and the Presbyterian Church of England,
Foundation.
certain assets were divided between the various
Samoa parties.
In England there are three main groups of

continuing Congregationalists. These are the
The Congregational Christian Church of Samoa Congregational Federation, which has offices in
is one of the largest group of churches Nottingham, the Evangelical Fellowship of
throughout the Pacific Region. It was founded in Congregational Churches, and about 100
1830 by the London Missionary Society, Congregational churches that are loosely
missionary - John Williams on the Island of federated with other congregations in the
Savaii. As the church grew it established and Fellowship of Independent Evangelical
continues to support theological colleges in Churches, or are unaffiliated.
Samoa and Fiji. There are over 100,000
members attending over 2,000 congregations In 1981, the United Reformed Church merged
throughout the world, most of which are with the Re-formed Association of Churches of
located in Samoa, American Samoa, New Christ and, in 2000, just over half of the
Zealand, Australia and America. The Christian churches in the Congregational Union of
Congregational Church of Jamaica fall under the Scotland also joined the United Reformed
constitution of the Samoan Church. Church. The remainder of Congregational
churches in Scotland joined the Congregational
Southern Africa Federation.
Wales traditionally is the part of Europe which

There are many United Congregational has the largest share of Congregationalists
Churches in Southern Africa all independently among the population, most Congregationalists
run, however they all meet together to discuss being members of Undeb yr Annibynwyr
challenges. Visit www.uccsa.org.za/ Cymraeg (the Union of Welsh Independents),
which is particularly important in
United Kingdom Carmarthenshire and Brecknockshire.
This section does not cite any references or The London Missionary Society was effectively
sources. Please help improve this section by the world mission arm of British
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced Congregationalists. It sponsored missionaries
material may be challenged and removed. including Eric Liddell and David Livingstone. As
(December 2012) thinking developed, particularly in the context
In 1972, about three quarters of English of decolonisation, and churches wanted to
Congregational churches merged with the recognise the gifts of people of the South, the
Presbyterian Church of England to form the
397
London Missionary Society transformed into the conflict among its adherents on the one side
Council for World Mission. and hard-line Calvinists and sympathizers of the
First Great Awakening on the other. In another
United States
strain of change, the first church in the United
The Pilgrims sought to establish at Plymouth States with an openly Unitarian theology, the
Colony a Christian fellowship like that which belief in the single personality of God, was
gathered around Jesus himself.[20] established in Boston, Massachusetts in 1785
Congregationalists include the Pilgrims of (in a former Anglican parish.) By 1800, all but
Plymouth, and the Puritans of the one Congregational church in Boston had
Massachusetts Bay Colony, which were Unitarian preachers teaching the strict unity of
organized in union by the Cambridge Platform God, the subordinate nature of Christ, and
in 1648. These settlers had John Cotton as their salvation by character.
most influential leader, beginning in 1633.
Harvard University, founded by
Cotton's writings persuaded the Calvinist
Congregationalists, became a center of
theologian John Owen to separate from the
Unitarian training. Prompted by a controversy
Presbyterian church. He became very influential
over an appointment in the theology school at
in the development of Congregationalist
Harvard, in 1825 the Unitarian churches
theology and ideas of church government.
separated from Congregationalism. Most of the
Jonathan Edwards was also a Congregationalist.
Unitarian "descendants" hold membership in
The history of Congregational churches in the the Unitarian Universalist Association, founded
United States is closely intertwined with that of in the 1960s by a merger with the theologically
American Presbyterianism, especially in New similar Universalists. This group had dissented
England where Congregationalist influence from Calvinist orthodoxy on the basis of their
spilled over into Presbyterian churches farther belief that all persons could find salvation (as
west. Some of the first colleges and universities opposed to the Calvinist idea of double
in America, including Harvard, Yale, Dartmouth, predestination, excluding some from salvation.)
Williams, Bowdoin, Middlebury, and Amherst,
Congregational churches were at the same time
all were founded by the Congregationalists, as
the first example of the American theocratic
were later Carleton, Grinnell, Oberlin, Beloit,
ideal and also the seedbed from which
and Pomona.
American liberal religion and society arose.
Without higher courts to ensure doctrinal Many Congregationalists in the several
uniformity among the congregations, successor denominations to the original
Congregationalists have been more diverse than tradition consider themselves to be Reformed
other Reformed churches. Despite the efforts of first, whether of traditional or neo-orthodox
Calvinists to maintain the dominance of their persuasion.
system, some Congregational churches,
In 1931 the Congregational Churches and the
especially in the older settlements of New
General Convention of the Christian Church, a
England, gradually developed leanings toward
body from the Restoration Movement tradition
Arminianism, Unitarianism, Deism, and
of the early 19th century, merged to form the
Transcendentalism.
Congregational Christian Churches. The
By the 1750s, several Congregational preachers Congregationalists were used to a more formal,
were teaching the possibility of universal less evangelistic form of worship than Christian
salvation, an issue that caused considerable Church members, who mostly came from rural
398
areas of the South and the Midwest. Both

groups, however, held to local autonomy and
eschewed binding creedal authority.
In the early 20th century some Congregational

(later Congregational Christian) churches took
exception to the beginnings of a growth of
regional or national authority in bodies outside
the local church, such as mission societies,
national committees, and state conferences.
Some congregations opposed liberalizing Chapter Seven
influences that appeared to mitigate traditional Evangelicals
views of sin and corollary doctrines such as the
substitutionary atonement of Jesus. In 1948,
some adherents of these two streams of
thought (mainly the latter one) started a new
fellowship, the Conservative Congregational
Christian Conference (CCCC). It was the first Evangelicalism is a world-wide Protestant
major fellowship to organize outside of the Christian historical movement that began in the
mainstream Congregational body since 1825, 1730s with the emergence of the Methodists in
when the Unitarians formally founded their England. The movement became significant in
own body. the United States during the series of Great
Awakenings of the 18th and 19th centuries.
In 1957, the General Council of Congregational Pietism, Nicolaus Zinzendorf and the Moravian
Christian Churches in the U.S. merged with the Church, Presbyterianism and Puritanism have
Evangelical and Reformed Church to form the influenced Evangelicalism.
United Church of Christ. About 90% of the CC
congregations affiliated with the General The earliest leaders included John Wesley,
Council joined the United Church of Christ. George Whitfield and Jonathan Edwards in the
Some churches abstained from the merger English-speaking world. The United States has
while others voted it down. Most of the latter the largest concentration of Evangelicals by
congregations became members of either the country, with roughly a quarter of the world's
CCCC (mentioned above) or the National Evangelicals (over 90 million). Many
Association of Congregational Christian Evangelicals now live outside the English-
Churches. The latter was formed by churches speaking world, and over 42 million live in Brazil
and people who objected to the UCC merger alone. The movement continues to draw
because of concerns that the new national adherents globally in the 21st century,
church and its regional bodies represented especially in the developing world.
extra-congregational authorities that would Christian historian David Bebbington says,
interfere with a congregation's right to govern "Although 'evangelical', with a lower-case
itself. Thus, the NACCC includes congregations initial, is occasionally used to mean 'of the
of a variety of theological positions. Still other gospel', the term 'Evangelical', with a capital
congregations chose not to affiliate with any letter, is applied to any aspect of the movement
particular association of churches, or only with beginning in the 1730s."[2]:1 He notes four
regional or local ones. distinctive aspects of Evangelical faith:
399
conversionism, biblicism, crucicentrism, and Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a

activism, noting, "Together they form a quintessentially North American phenomenon,
quadrilateral of priorities that is the basis of deriving as it did from the confluence of
Evangelicalism.":3 This definition has been Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of
influential. Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the
peculiar characteristics from each strain –
Conversionism, or being "born again" is based
warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for
on passages in John 1:12–13 and 3:1–21 that
instance), doctrinal precisionism from the
call for a complete change of life. Biblicism is
Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection
defined as having a high regard for biblical
from the Puritans – even as the North American
authority and an identification with the biblical
context itself has profoundly shaped the various
story. Crucicentrism draws attention to
manifestations of evangelicalism:
teachings that proclaim the saving death and
fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the
resurrection of the Son of God, Jesus Christ,
holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the
offering forgiveness of sins and new life.
charismatic movement, and various forms of
Activism describes the tendency towards active
African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism."
expression and sharing of the gospel in diverse
ways that include preaching and social action. Usage
Development in the doctrine of assurance

underlies what differentiates Evangelicalism
The term Evangelical has its etymological roots
from what went before. Bebbington says, "The
in the Greek word for "gospel" or "good news":
dynamism of the Evangelical movement was
ευαγγελιον (evangelion), from eu- "good" and
possible only because its adherents were
angelion "message". In that sense, to be an
assured in their faith.":42 He goes on:
Evangelical would mean to be a believer of the
Whereas the Puritans had held that assurance is Gospel, that is the message of Jesus Christ.
rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the
By the English Middle Ages the term had been
experience of believers, the Evangelicals
expanded to include not only the message, but
believed it to be general, normally given at
also the New Testament which contained the
conversion and the result of simple acceptance
message, as well as more specifically the
of the gift of God. The consequence of the
Gospels in which the life, death and
altered form of the doctrine was a
resurrection of Jesus are portrayed. The first
metamorphosis in the nature of popular
published use of the term "evangelical" in
Protestantism. There was a change in patterns
English was in 1531 by William Tyndale, who
of piety, affecting devotional and practical life in
wrote "He exhorteth them to proceed
all its departments. The shift, in fact, was
constantly in the evangelical truth." One year
responsible for creating in Evangelicalism a new
later, the earliest recorded use in reference to a
movement and not merely a variation on
theological distinction was by Sir Thomas More,
themes heard since the Reformation."
who spoke of "Tyndale [and] his evangelical
This new assurance made way for the possibility brother Barns".
of Revivalism, another key discontinuity with
By the time of the Reformation, Protestant
the Protestantism of the previous era. Religion
theologians began to embrace the term
scholar Randall Balmer says that:
evangelical as referring to "gospel truth".
Martin Luther referred to the evangelische
400
Kirche or evangelical Church to distinguish D.W. Cloud wrote: "In the first half of the 20th
Protestants from Catholics in the Roman century, evangelicalism in America was largely
Catholic Church. In Germany, Switzerland and synonymous with fundamentalism. George
Denmark, and especially among Lutherans, the Marsden in Reforming Fundamentalism (1995)
term has continued to be used in a broad sense. writes, "There was not a practical distinction
This can be seen in the names of certain between fundamentalist and evangelical: the
Lutheran denominations such as the Evangelical words were interchangeable" (p. 48). When the
Lutheran Church in America, the Wisconsin National Association of Evangelicals (NAE)
Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Evangelical formed in 1942, for example, participants
Lutheran Church in Canada, and the Evangelical included such fundamentalist leaders as Bob
Church in Germany. Jones, Sr., John R. Rice, Charles Woodbridge,
Harry Ironside, and David Otis Fuller."
Current usage
By the mid-1950s, largely due to the ecumenical
Although often used in a religious context, the
evangelism of Billy Graham, the terms
term may also characterize a generic
Evangelicalism and fundamentalism began to
missionary, reforming, or redeeming impulse or
refer to two different approaches.
purpose. For example, the Times Literary
Fundamentalism aggressively attacked its liberal
Supplement refers to "the rise and fall of
enemies; Evangelicalism downplayed liberalism
evangelical fervor within the Socialist
and emphasized outreach and conversion of
movement".
new members.
The contemporary North American usage of the
While some conservative Evangelicals believe
term reflects the impact of the
the label has broadened too much beyond its
Evangelical/fundamentalist controversy of the
more limiting traditional distinctives, this trend
early 20th century. Evangelicalism may
is nonetheless strong enough to create
sometimes be perceived as the middle ground
significant ambiguity in the term. As a result,
between the theological liberalism of the
the dichotomy between "Evangelical" and
mainline denominations and the cultural
"mainline" denominations is increasingly
separatism of fundamentalism.Evangelicalism
complex, particularly with such innovations as
has therefore been described as "the third of
the "emergent church" movement.
the leading strands in American Protestantism,
straddl[ing] the divide between fundamentalists History
and liberals". In 2004 Andrew Crouch wrote in
Christianity Today: "The emerging movement is
a protest against much of evangelicalism as Influences from 17th century
currently practiced. It is post-evangelical in the
way that neo-evangelicalism (in the 1950s) was The work of the Pietists Philipp Jakob Spener
post-fundamentalist. It would not be unfair to and August Hermann Francke highly influenced
call it postmodern evangelicalism." Evangelicalism. The Francke Foundations in
Halle became the training ground for many
While the North American perception has a priests of the New World, above all for the
certain importance in understanding some United States. The German Pietists believed the
usage of the term, it by no means dominates a personal experience of enlightenment was the
wider global view: elsewhere the central reason to find the way to the good, and
fundamentalist debate had less direct influence.
401
the spreading of the faith was best pursued by on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and
individual piety. conversions that implanted within new
believers an intense love for God. Revivals
18th century
encapsulated those hallmarks and forwarded
Evangelicalism emerged in the early 18th the newly created Evangelicalism into the early
century in Britain and New England.[2]:20 republic.
Howell Harris and Daniel Rowland of Wales are
19th century
the first discernibly Evangelical preachers.[2]:20
At the same time, in Massachusetts, Jonathan The start of the 19th century saw an increase in
Edwards was involved in a revival in missionary work and many of the major
Northampton; he was heavily influenced by missionary societies were founded around this
Pietism—one historian has stressed his time (see Timeline of Christian missions). Both
"American Pietism." George Whitfield, the Evangelical and high church movements
converted in 1735, was next; his mentor Charles sponsored missionaries.
Wesley reported an evangelical conversion in
The Second Great Awakening (which actually
1738.:20 In the same week John Wesley felt his
began in 1790) was primarily an American
heart 'strangely warmed'.:20 Pietism directly
revivalist movement and resulted in substantial
influenced John Wesley, who had translated 33
growth of the Methodist and Baptist churches.
Pietist hymns from German to English.
Charles Grandison Finney was an important
Numerous German Pietist hymns became part
preacher of this period.
of the English Evangelical repertoire.
In Britain in addition to stressing the traditional
Whitfield joined forces with Edwards to "fan the
Wesleyan combination of "Bible, cross,
flame of revival"[2]:20 in the Thirteen Colonies
conversion, and activism," the revivalist
in 1739–40. Evangelical preachers emphasized
movement sought a universal appeal, hoping to
personal salvation and piety more than ritual
include rich and poor, urban and rural, and men
and tradition. Pamphlets and printed sermons
and women. Special efforts were made to
crisscrossed the Atlantic, encouraging the
attract children and to generate literature to
revivalists. Soon the First Great Awakening
spread the revivalist message.
stirred Protestants up and down the Thirteen
Colonies. The Awakening resulted from "Christian conscience" was used by the British
powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense Evangelical movement to promote social
of deep personal revelation of their need of activism. Evangelicals believed activism in
salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from government and the social sphere was an
ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening essential method in reaching the goal of
made Christianity intensely personal to the eliminating sin in a world drenched in
average person by fostering a deep sense of wickedness. The Evangelicals in the Clapham
spiritual conviction and redemption, and by Sect included figures such as William
encouraging introspection and a commitment Wilberforce who successfully campaigned for
to a new standard of personal morality. It the abolition of slavery.
reached people who were already church
members. It changed their rituals, their piety In the late 19th century, the revivalist Holiness
and their self-awareness. To the evangelical movement, based on the doctrine of "entire
imperatives of Reformation Protestantism, 18th sanctification," took a more extreme form in
century American Christians added emphases rural America and Canada, where it ultimately
402
broke away from institutional Methodism. In Christian ought to respond to an unbelieving

urban Britain the Holiness message was less world. The Evangelicals urged that Christians
exclusive and censorious. must engage the culture directly and
constructively, and they began to express
John Nelson Darby was a 19th-century Irish
reservations about being known to the world as
Anglican minister who devised modern
fundamentalists. As Kenneth Kantzer put it at
dispensationalism, an innovative Protestant
the time, the name fundamentalist had become
theological interpretation of the Bible that was
"an embarrassment instead of a badge of
incorporated in the development of modern
honor".
Evangelicalism. Cyrus Scofield further promoted
the influence of dispensationalism through the The term neo-evangelicalism was coined by
explanatory notes to his Scofield Reference Harold Ockenga in 1947 to identify a distinct
Bible. According to scholar Mark S. Sweetnam, movement within self-identified fundamentalist
who takes a cultural studies perspective, Christianity at the time, especially in the
dispensationalism can be defined in terms of its English-speaking world. It described the mood
Evangelicalism, its insistence on the literal of positivism and non-militancy that
interpretation of Scripture, its recognition of characterized that generation. The new
stages in God's dealings with humanity, its generation of Evangelicals set as their goal to
expectation of the imminent return of Christ to abandon a militant Bible stance. Instead, they
rapture His saints, and its focus on both would pursue dialogue, intellectualism, non-
apocalypticism and premillennialism. judgmentalism, and appeasement. They further
called for an increased application of the gospel
Notable figures of the latter half of the 19th
to the sociological, political, and economic
century include Charles Spurgeon in London
areas.
and Dwight L. Moody in Chicago. Their powerful
preaching reached very large audiences. The self-identified fundamentalists also
cooperated in separating their "neo-
An advanced theological perspective came from
Evangelical" opponents from the
the Princeton theologians from the 1850s to the
fundamentalist name, by increasingly seeking to
1920s, such as Charles Hodge, Archibald
distinguish themselves from the more open
Alexander and B.B. Warfield.
group, whom they often characterized
20th century derogatorily by Ockenga's term, "neo-
Evangelical" or just Evangelical.
Evangelicalism in the early part of the 20th
century was dominated by the Fundamentalist The fundamentalists saw the Evangelicals as
movement after 1910; it rejected liberal often being too concerned about social
theology and emphasized the inerrancy of the acceptance and intellectual respectability, and
Scriptures. being too accommodating to a perverse
generation that needed correction. In addition,
Following the Welsh Revival, the Azusa Street they saw the efforts of evangelist Billy Graham,
Revival in 1906 began the spread of who worked with non-Evangelical
Pentecostalism in North America. denominations, such as the Roman Catholics
In the post–World War II period, a split (which they claimed to be heretical), as a
developed amongst Evangelicals, as they mistake.
disagreed among themselves about how a
403
The post-war period also saw growth of the the surrounding community rather than
ecumenical movement and the founding of the separation from it. However, despite the
World Council of Churches, which was generally differences, some people, particularly those
regarded with suspicion by the Evangelical with a non-denominational background, may
community. consider themselves both Evangelical and
fundamentalist because they believe in the
In the United Kingdom, John Stott and Martyn
engaging practices of Evangelicalism and take a
Lloyd-Jones emerged as key leaders in
fundamental view of the Bible.
Evangelical Christianity.
On the American political spectrum, Evangelical
The charismatic movement began in the 1960s
Christians traditionally are socially conservative.
and resulted in Pentecostal theology and
Based on their belief that the biblical view of
practice being introduced into many mainline
marriage is only between one man and one
denominations. New charismatic groups such as
woman, they oppose both state and church
the Association of Vineyard Churches and
recognition of same-sex marriage. Since the
Newfrontiers trace their roots to this period
1970s they have also opposed legalizing
(see also British New Church Movement).
abortion on demand.
The closing years of the 20th century saw
controversial postmodern influences entering
some parts of Evangelicalism, particularly with Open Evangelicalism
the emerging church movement
Open Evangelical refers to a particular Christian
Types of Evangelicalism school of thought or Churchmanship, primarily
in the United Kingdom (especially in the Church
of England). Open Evangelicals describe their
Conservative Evangelicalism position as combining a traditional Evangelical
emphasis on the nature of scriptural authority,
British Conservative Evangelicalism the teaching of the ecumenical creeds and
Chinese evangelical church in Madrid, Spain other traditional doctrinal teachings, with an
approach towards culture and other theological
Toward the end of the 20th century, some have points of view which tends to be more inclusive
tended to confuse Evangelicalism and than that taken by other Evangelicals. Some
fundamentalism, but as noted above they are open Evangelicals aim to take a middle position
not the same. The labels represent very distinct between conservative and charismatic
differences of approach that both groups are Evangelicals, while others would combine
diligent to maintain, although because of conservative theological emphases with more
fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it liberal social positions.
often gets classified simply as an ultra-
conservative branch of Evangelicalism. Post-evangelicalism
Both groups seek to maintain an identity as British author Dave Tomlinson characterizes
theological conservatives; Evangelicals, post-evangelicalism as a movement comprising
however, seek to distance themselves from various trends of dissatisfaction among
stereotypical perceptions of the Evangelicals. The term is used by others with
"fundamentalist" posture of antagonism toward comparable intent, often to distinguish
the larger society and advocate involvement in Evangelicals in the so-called emerging church
404
movement from post-evangelicals and anti-

Evangelicals. Tomlinson argues that
In the 21st century, there are Evangelical
"linguistically, the distinction [between
churches active in Sudan, Angola, Mozambique,
evangelical and post-evangelical] is similar to
Zimbabwe, Malawi, Rwanda, Uganda, Ghana,
the one that sociologists make between the
Kenya, Zambia, South Africa, and Nigeria. They
modern and postmodern eras".
have grown especially since independence
There persists considerable and inevitable came in the 1960s, the strongest movements
confusion as to how best to classify the non- are based on Pentecostal-charismatic beliefs,
traditional/non-conservative forms of and comprise a way of life that has led to
Evangelicalism. Some call the emerging church upward social mobility and demands for
movement a version or manifestation of post- democracy. There is a wide range of theology
evangelicalism, whereas others distinguish both and organizations, including some sponsored by
under the broader umbrella of the "evangelical European missionaries and others that have
left" movement. As such developments are still emerged from African culture such as the
relatively new, it remains to be seen how the Apostolic and Zionist Churches which enlist 40%
categories and semantics will settle. of black South Africans, and their Aladura
counterparts in western Africa.
Global statistics
In Nigeria the Evangelical Church Winning All
(formerly "Evangelical Church of West Africa") is
According to a 2011 Pew Forum study on global the largest church organization with five
Christianity, 285,480,000 or 13.1 percent of all thousand congregations and over three million
Christians are Evangelicals. The largest members. It sponsors two seminaries and eight
concentration of Evangelicals can be found in Bible colleges, and 1600 missionaries who serve
the United States, with 28.9% of population or in Nigeria and other countries with the
91.76 million, less than a quarter of the world Evangelical Missionary Society (EMS). There
figure. The next most populous is Brazil with have been serious confrontations since 1999
26.3% or 51.33 million. The World Evangelical between Muslims and Evangelical Christians
Alliance is "a network of churches in 128 standing in opposition to the expansion of
nations that have each formed an Evangelical Sharia law in northern Nigeria. The
alliance and over 100 international confrontation has radicalized and politicized the
organizations joining together to give a Christians. Violence has been escalating.
worldwide identity, voice and platform" to an
In Kenya, mainstream Evangelical
estimated more than 420 million Evangelical
denominations have taken the lead in
Christians. The Alliance was formed in 1951 by
promoting political activism and backers, with
Evangelicals from 21 countries. It has worked to
the smaller Evangelical sects of less importance.
support its members to work together globally.
Daniel arap Moi was president 1978 to 2002
In most of the world, the 21st century growth and claimed to be an Evangelical; he proved
rate of Evangelical Christians is faster than the intolerant of dissent or pluralism or
population growth rate decentralization of power.
The Berlin Missionary Society (BMS) was one of

four German Protestant mission societies active
Africa in South Africa before 1914. It emerged from
405
the German tradition of Pietism after 1815 and In the late nineteenth century, while the vast
sent its first missionaries to South Africa in majority of Brazilians were nominal Catholics,
1834. There were few positive reports in the the nation was underserved by priests, and for
early years, but it was especially active 1859– large numbers their religion was only nominal.
1914. It was especially strong in the Boer The Catholic Church in Brazil was de-established
republics. The World War cut off contact with in 1890, and responded by increasing the
Germany, but the missions continued at a number of dioceses and the efficiency of its
reduced pace. After 1945 the missionaries had clergy. Many Protestants came from a large
to deal with decolonisation across Africa and German immigrant community, but they were
especially with the apartheid government. At all seldom engaged in proselytism and grew mostly
times the BMS emphasized spiritual inwardness, by natural increase.
and values such as morality, hard work and self-
discipline. It proved unable to speak and act
decisively against injustice and racial
discrimination and was disbanded in 1972.
Since 1974, young professionals have been the

active proselytizers of Evangelicalism in the
cities of Malawi.
In Mozambique, Evangelical Protestant

Christianity emerged around 1900 from black
migrants whose converted previously in South
Africa. They were assisted by European
missionaries, but, as industrial workers, they
paid for their own churches and proselytizing.
They prepared southern Mozambique for the
spread of Evangelical Protestantism. During its
time as a colonial power in Mozambique, the
Catholic Portuguese government tried to
counter the spread of Evangelical
Protestantism.
In modern Latin America, the word

"Evangelical" is often simply a synonym for
"Protestant".
Brazil
Protestantism in Brazil
Protestantism in Brazil largely originated with

German immigrants and British and American
missionaries in the 19th century, following up
on efforts that began in the 1820s.
406
from defending his ideas. The punishment

decreed for Lutheranism was seizure of all
property, with half going to the Imperial
government and half given to their accusers.
The divide centered over the doctrine of
Justification. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine
of justification "by grace alone through faith
alone because of Christ alone," which went
against the Roman view of "faith formed by
love" or "faith and works". Unlike the Reformed
Churches, Lutherans retain a high respect for
the authority of the Church Fathers, as well as
many of the liturgical practices and sacramental
teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a
particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lord's
Supper. Lutheran theology differs from
Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose
of God's Law, the divine grace, the concept of
perseverance of the saints, and predestination.
Like most denominations, Lutheranism is split
between Liberal and Conservative/Confessional
camps.
Chapter Eight
Lutheran
The Luther rose, a symbol of Lutheranism.
The name Lutheran originated as a derogatory

term used against Luther by German Scholastic
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western
theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the
Christianity that identifies with the theology of
Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other
Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's
Roman Catholics followed the traditional
efforts to reform the theology and practice of
practice of naming a heresy after its leader, thus
the Roman Catholic Church launched the
labeling all who identified with the theology of
Protestant Reformation. Beginning with the 95
Martin Luther as Lutherans. Martin Luther
Theses, Luther's writings were disseminated
always disliked the term, preferring instead to
internationally, spreading the ideas of the
describe the reform movement with the term
Reformation beyond the ability of
"Evangelical", which was derived from
governmental and churchly authorities to
euangelion, a Greek word meaning "good
control it.
news", i.e. "Gospel.” The followers of John
The split between the Lutherans and the Roman Calvin also began to use that term. To
Catholics began with the 1521 Edict of Worms, distinguish the two evangelical groups, others
which condemned Luther and officially began to call them "Evangelical Lutheran" and
outlawed citizens of the Holy Roman Empire "Evangelical Reformed." In time the word
407
"Evangelical" came to be dropped. Eventually Christian III and advanced the Reformation in
Lutherans themselves began to use the term in Denmark-Norway.
the middle of the 16th century in order to
The constitution upon which the Danish
distinguish themselves from other groups, such
Norwegian Church, according to the Church
as Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597,
Ordinance should rest was "The pure word of
theologians in Wittenberg defined the title
God, which is the Law and the Gospel". It does
"Lutheran" as referring to the true church.
not even mention the Augsburg Confession. The
History priests at least had to understand the Holy
Script well enough to preach and explain the
Martin Luther initiated the Protestant
Gospel and the Epistles for their congregations.
Reformation in 1517
The youths were taught from the Small
Lutheranism has its roots in the efforts of
Catechism, available in Danish since 1532. They
Martin Luther who sought to reform the
may in the end expect: "forgiving of their sins",
Western Church to a more biblical foundation.
"to be counted as just", and "the eternal life".
Spread into Northern Europe Instruction is still similar. The first Bible in
Danish was Martin Luther's. It was translated by
Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia 1550 and made available in 3,000 copies. It was
during the 16th century, as the monarch of sold out 30 years later. Important differences
Denmark-Norway (also ruling Iceland) and the from today's Roman Catholicism are the
monarch of Sweden (also ruling Finland) Lutherans' refutation of the ideas that tradition
adopted Lutheranism. Through Baltic-German is a carrier of the "Word of God", and that only
and Swedish rule Lutheranism also spread into the communion of the Bishop of Rome had
the Baltic countries of Estonia and Latvia. been entrusted to interpret the "Word of God".
Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been The Reformation in Sweden began with Olaus
held in Copenhagen. Under the reign of and Laurentius Petri, brothers who took the
Frederick I (1523–33), Denmark-Norway Reformation to Sweden after studying in
remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick Germany. They led Gustav Vasa, elected king in
initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he 1523, to Lutheranism. The pope's refusal to
soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran allow the replacement of an archbishop that
preachers and reformers, the most significant supported the invading forces opposing Gustav
being Hans Tausen. Vasa during the Stockholm Bloodbath led to the
During Frederick's reign, Lutheranism made discontinuance of any official connection
significant inroads among the Danish between Sweden and the papacy in 1523.
population. At an open meeting in Copenhagen Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the
attended by the king in 1536, the people king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his
shouted; "We will stand by the holy Gospel, and dominion over the national church. The king
do not want such bishops anymore". Frederick's was given possession of all church properties
son Christian was openly Lutheran, which such as the church appointments and the
prevented his election to the throne upon his clergy. While this effectively granted official
father's death. However, following his victory in sanction to Lutheran ideas, Lutheranism did not
the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became become official until 1593, when the Uppsala
Synod declared Holy Scripture the sole guideline
408
for faith, with four documents accepted as was finally established by Johann Gerhard.
faithful and authoritative explanations of it: the Abraham Calovius represents the climax of the
Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, the scholastic paradigm in orthodox Lutheranism.
Athanasian Creed, and the unaltered Augsburg Other orthodox Lutheran theologians include
Confession of 1530. Mikael Agricola's Martin Chemnitz, Aegidius Hunnius, Leonhard
translation of the first Finnish New Testament Hutter, Nicolaus Hunnius, Jesper Rasmussen
was published in 1548. Brochmand, Salomo Glassius, Johann
Hülsemann, Johann Conrad Dannhauer,
Schmalkaldic War and the Formula of Concor
Johannes Andreas Quenstedt, Johann Friedrich
After the death of Martin Luther in 1546, the König, and Johann Wilhelm Baier.
Schmalkaldic War started out as a conflict
Near the end of the Thirty Years' War, the
between two German Lutheran rulers in 1547.
compromising spirit seen in Philip Melanchthon
Soon, Holy Roman Imperial forces joined the
rose up again in Helmstedt School and
battle and conquered the members of the
especially in theology of Georgius Calixtus,
Schmalkaldic League, oppressing and exiling
causing the Syncretistic Controversy. Another
many German Lutherans as they enforced the
theological issue that arose was the Crypto-
terms of the Augsburg Interim. Religious
Kenotic Controversy.
freedom was secured for Lutherans through the
Peace of Passau in 1552 and under the Cuius Late orthodoxy was torn by influences from
regio, eius religio and Declaratio Ferdinandei rationalism, philosophy based on reason, and
clauses of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. Pietism, a revival movement in Lutheranism.
After a century of vitality, the Pietist
Religious disputes between the Crypto-
theologians Philipp Jakob Spener and August
Calvinists, Philippists, Sacramentarians,
Hermann Francke warned that orthodoxy had
Ubiquitarians, and Gnesio-Lutherans raged
degenerated into meaningless intellectualism
within Lutheranism during the middle of the
and Formalism, while orthodox theologians
16th century. This finally ended with the
found the emotional and subjective focuses of
resolution of the issues in the Formula of
Pietism to be vulnerable to Rationalist
Concord. Large numbers of politically and
propaganda.
religiously influential leaders met together,
debated, and resolved these topics on the basis The last famous orthodox Lutheran theologian
of Scripture, resulting in the Formula, which before the rationalist Aufklärung, or
over 8,000 leaders signed. The Book of Concord Enlightenment, was David Hollatz. Late
replaced earlier, incomplete collections of orthodox theologian Valentin Ernst Löscher
doctrine, unifying all German Lutherans with took part in the controversy against Pietism.
identical doctrine and beginning the period of Medieval mystical traditions continued in works
Lutheran Orthodoxy. of Martin Moller, Johann Arndt, and Joachim
Lütkemann. Pietism became a rival of orthodoxy
Lutheran orthodoxy
but adopted some orthodox devotional
The historical period of Lutheran Orthodoxy is literature; for example, Arndt's, Scriver's and
divided into three sections: Early Orthodoxy Prätorius' which were combined Pietistic
(1580–1600), High Orthodoxy (1600–1685), and literature.
Late Orthodoxy (1685–1730). Lutheran
Rationalism
scholasticism developed gradually especially for
the purpose of arguing with the Jesuits, and it
409
Rationalist philosophers from France and known as the Erweckung, or Awakening. In

England had an enormous impact during the 1806, Napoleon's invasion of Germany
18th century, along with the German promoted Rationalism and angered German
Rationalists Christian Wolff, Gottfried Leibniz, Lutherans, stirring up a desire among the
and Immanuel Kant. Their work led to an people to preserve Luther's theology from the
increase in rationalist beliefs, "at the expense of Rationalist threat. Those associated with this
faith in God and agreement with the Bible". Awakening held that reason was insufficient
and pointed out the importance of emotional
In 1709, Valentin Ernst Löscher warned that this
religious experience.
new Rationalist view of the world
fundamentally changed society by drawing into Small groups sprang up, often in universities,
question every aspect of theology. Instead of which devoted themselves to Bible study,
considering the authority of divine revelation, reading devotional writings, and revival
he explained, Rationalists relied solely on their meetings. Although the beginning of this
personal understanding when searching for Awakening tended heavily toward Romanticism,
truth. patriotism, and experience, the emphasis of the
Awakening shifted around 1830 to restoring the
Johann Melchior Goeze (1717–1786), pastor of
traditional liturgy, doctrine, and confessions of
St. Catherine's Church, Hamburg, wrote
the Lutheran church in the Neo-Lutheran
apologetical works against Rationalists,
movement.
including a theological and historical defence
against the historical criticism of the Bible. This Awakening swept through all of
Scandinavia except for Iceland. It developed
Dissenting Lutheran pastors were often
from both German Neo-Lutheranism and
reprimanded by the government bureaucracy
Pietism. Danish pastor and philosopher Nikolaj
overseeing them, for example, when they tried
Frederik Severin Grundtvig reshaped church life
to correct Rationalist influences in the parish
throughout Denmark through a reform
school. As a result of the impact of a local form
movement beginning in 1830. He also wrote
of rationalism, termed Neology, by the latter
about 1,500 hymns, including God's Word Is
half of the 18th century, genuine piety was
Our Great Heritage.
found almost solely in small Pietist conventicles.
However, some of the laity preserved Lutheran In Norway, Hans Nielsen Hauge, a lay street
orthodoxy from both Pietism and rationalism preacher, emphasized spiritual discipline and
through reusing old catechisms, hymnbooks, sparked the Haugean movement. In Norway,
postils, and devotional writings, including those the Awakening drove the growth of foreign
written by Johann Gerhard, Heinrich Müller, missions to non-Christians to a new height,
and Christian Scriver. which has never been reached since. In Sweden,
Lars Levi Læstadius began the Laestadian
Revivals
movement that emphasized moral reform. In
Representing the continuation of the Finnish Finland, a farmer, Paavo Ruotsalainen, began
Awakening to the present, youth are confirmed the Finnish Awakening when he took to
at the site of Paavo Ruotsalainen's homestead. preaching about repentance and prayer.
A layman, Luther scholar Johann Georg Hamann In 1817, Frederick William III of Prussia ordered
(1730–88), became famous for countering the Lutheran and Reformed churches in his
Rationalism and striving to advance a revival territory to unite, forming the Evangelical
410
Church of the Prussian Union. The unification of though previously an adherent of rationalism
the two branches of German Protestantism and German idealism, made Erlangen a magnet
sparked the Schism of the Old Lutherans. Many for revival oriented theologians. Termed the
Lutherans, called "Old Lutherans", chose to Erlangen School of theology, they developed a
leave the state churches despite imprisonment new version of the Incarnation, which they felt
and military force. Some formed independent emphasized the humanity of Jesus better than
church bodies, or "free churches", at home the ecumenical creeds. As theologians, they
while others left for the United States, Canada, used both modern historical critical and
and Australia. A similar legislated merger in Hegelian philosophical methods instead of
Silesia prompted thousands to join the Old attempting to revive the orthodoxy of the 17th
Lutheran movement. The dispute over century.
ecumenism overshadowed other controversies
Friedrich Julius Stahl led the High Church
within German Lutheranism.
Lutherans. Though raised a Jew, he was
Despite political meddling in church life, local baptized as a Christian at the age of 19 through
and national leaders sought to restore and the influence of the Lutheran school he
renew Christianity. Neo-Lutheran Johann attended. As the leader of a neofeudal Prussian
Konrad Wilhelm Löhe and Old Lutheran political party, he campaigned for the divine
freechurch leader Friedrich August Brünn both right of kings, the power of the nobility, and
sent young men overseas to serve as pastors to episcopal polity for the church. Along with
German Americans, while the Inner Mission Kliefoth and Vilmar, he promoted agreement
focused on renewing the situation home. with Roman Catholicism with regard to the
Johann Gottfried Herder, superintendent at authority of the institutional church, ex opere
Weimar and part of the Inner Mission operato effectiveness of the sacraments, and
movement, joined with the Romantic the divine authority of clergy. Unlike Roman
movement with his quest to preserve human Catholics, however, they also urged complete
emotion and experience from Rationalism. agreement with the Book of Concord.
Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg, though raised The Neo-Lutheran movement managed to slow
Reformed, became convinced of the truth of secularism and counter atheistic Marxism, but it
historic Lutheranism as a young man. He led the did not fully succeed in Europe. It partly
Neo-Lutheran Repristination School of theology, succeeded in continuing the Pietist movement's
which advocated a return to the orthodox drive to right social wrongs and focus on
theologians of the 17th century and opposed individual conversion. The Neo-Lutheran call to
modern Bible scholarship. As editor of the renewal failed to achieve widespread popular
periodical Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, he acceptance because it both began and
developed it into a major support of Neo- continued with a lofty, idealistic Romanticism
Lutheran revival and used it to attack all forms that did not connect with an increasingly
of theological liberalism and rationalism. industrialized and secularized Europe. At best,
Although he received a large amount of slander the work of local leaders resulted in specific
and ridicule during his forty years at the head of areas with vibrant spiritual renewal, but people
revival, he never gave up his positions. in Lutheran areas overall continued to become
increasingly distant from church life. By 1969,
The theological faculty at the University of
Manfried Kober complained that “unbelief is
Erlangen in Bavaria became another force for
reform. There, professor Adolf von Harless,
411
rampant” even within German Lutheran 30% believed that the Bible was the Word of
parishes. God and was to be taken literally word for
word. 40% held that the Bible was the Word of
Doctrine
God, but was not literally true word for word or
were unsure if it was literally true word for
word. 23% said the Bible was written by men
Bible and not the Word of God. 7% did not know,
Luther's translation of the Bible, from 1534 were not sure, or had other positions.
Traditionally, Lutherans hold the Bible of the Inspiration

Old and New Testaments to be the only divinely Although many Lutherans today hold less
inspired book, the only source of divinely specific views of inspiration, historically,
revealed knowledge, and the only norm for Lutherans affirm that the Bible does not merely
Christian teaching. Scripture alone is the formal contain the Word of God, but every word of it
principle of the faith, the final authority for all is, because of plenary, verbal inspiration, the
matters of faith and morals because of its direct, immediate word of God. The Apology of
inspiration, authority, clarity, efficacy, and the Augsburg Confession identifies Holy
sufficiency. Scripture with the Word of God and calls the
The authority of the Scriptures has been Holy Spirit the author of the Bible. Because of
challenged during the history of Lutheranism. this, Lutherans confess in the Formula of
Martin Luther taught that the Bible was the Concord, "we receive and embrace with our
written Word of God, and the only reliable whole heart the prophetic and apostolic
guide for faith and practice. He held that every Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as
passage of Scripture has one straightforward the pure, clear fountain of Israel." The
meaning, the literal sense as interpreted by apocryphal books were not written by the
other Scripture. These teachings were accepted prophets, by inspiration; they contain errors
during the orthodox Lutheranism of the 17th never included in the Judean Canon that Jesus
century. During the 18th century, Rationalism used, and therefore are not a part of Holy
advocated reason rather than the authority of Scripture. The prophetic and apostolic
the Bible as the final source of knowledge, but Scriptures are authentic as written by the
most of the laity did not accept this Rationalist prophets and apostles. A correct translation of
position.[50] In the 19th century, a confessional their writings is God's Word because it has the
revival reemphasized the authority of the Bible same meaning as the original Hebrew and
and agreement with the Lutheran Confessions. Greek. A mistranslation is not God's word, and
no human authority can invest it with divine
Today, Lutherans disagree about the inspiration authority.
and authority of the Bible. Theological
conservatives use the historical-grammatical Divine authority
method of Biblical interpretation, while Historically, Lutherans maintain that Holy
theological liberals use the higher critical Scripture, the Word of God, carries the full
method. The 2008 U.S. Religious Landscape authority of God. For confessional Lutherans,
Survey conducted by the Pew Research Center every single statement of the Bible calls for
surveyed 1,926 adults in the United States that instant and unqualified acceptance. For
self-identified as Lutheran. The study found that Lutherans who are more aligned with mainline
412
Protestantism, a basic claim is made that the Pope, new revelations, or present-day
canonical Scriptures of the Old and New development of doctrine.
Testaments are the inspired Word of God and
Law and Gospel
the authoritative source and norm of its
proclamation, faith, and life. This allows for Law and Grace, by Lucas Cranach. The left side
historical-critical methods for interpretation. shows humans' condemnation under God's law,
while the right side presents God's grace in
Clarity
Christ.
Historically, Lutherans understand the Bible to
Lutherans understand the Bible as containing
present all doctrines and commands of the
two distinct types of content, termed Law and
Christian faith clearly. God's Word is freely
Gospel (or Law and Promises). Properly
accessible to every reader or hearer of ordinary
distinguishing between Law and Gospel
intelligence, without requiring any special
prevents the obscuring of the Gospel teaching
education. Of course, one must understand the
of justification by grace through faith alone.
language God's Word is presented in, and not
be so preoccupied by contrary thoughts so as to Lutheran confessions
prevent understanding. As a result of this, no
one needs to wait for any clergy, pope, scholar, The Book of Concord, published in 1580,
or ecumenical council to explain the real contains ten documents which some Lutherans
meaning of any part of the Bible. believe are faithful and authoritative
explanations of Holy Scripture. Besides the
Efficacy three Ecumenical Creeds, which date to Roman
times, the Book of Concord contains seven
Lutherans confess that Scripture is united with
credal documents articulating Lutheran
the power of the Holy Spirit and with it, not
theology in the Reformation era.
only demands, but also creates the acceptance
of its teaching. This teaching produces faith and The doctrinal positions of Lutheran churches
obedience. Holy Scripture is not a dead letter, are not uniform because the Book of Concord
but rather, the power of the Holy Spirit is does not hold the same position in all Lutheran
inherent in it. Scripture does not compel a mere churches. For example, the state churches in
intellectual assent to its doctrine, resting on Scandinavia consider only the Augsburg
logical argumentation, but rather it creates the Confession as a "summary of the faith" in
living agreement of faith. As the Smalcald addition to the three ecumenical Creeds.
Articles affirm, "in those things which concern Lutheran pastors, congregations, and church
the spoken, outward Word, we must firmly hold bodies in Germany and the Americas usually
that God grants His Spirit or grace to no one, agree to teach in harmony with the entire
except through or with the preceding outward Lutheran Confessions. Some Lutheran church
Word." bodies require this pledge to be unconditional
because they believe the confessions correctly
Sufficiency
state what the Bible teaches. Others allow their
Lutherans are confident that the Bible contains congregations to do so "insofar as" the
everything that one needs to know in order to Confessions are in agreement with the Bible.
obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.There
are no deficiencies in Scripture that need to be
filled with by tradition, pronouncements of the
413
The Methodist movement is a group of

historically related denominations of Protestant
Christianity which derive their inspiration from
the life and teachings of John Wesley. George
Whitefield and John's brother Charles Wesley
were also significant leaders in the movement.
It originated as a revival within the 18th-century
Church of England and became a separate
Church following Wesley's death. Due to
vigorous missionary activity, the movement
spread throughout the British Empire, the
United States, and beyond, today claiming
approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.
Methodism is characterised by its emphasis on

helping the poor and the average person, its
very systematic approach to building the
person, and the "church" and its missionary
spirit. These ideals are put into practice by the
establishment of hospitals, universities,
orphanages, soup kitchens, and schools to
follow Jesus' command to spread the Good
News and serve all people. The Methodist
movement is also known for its rich musical
tradition. Charles Wesley was instrumental in
writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist
Church, and many other eminent hymn writers
come from the Methodist tradition.
Methodists are convinced that building loving

relationships with others through social service
is a means of working towards the inclusiveness
of God's love. They teach that Christ died for all
of humanity, not just for a specific group, and
thus everyone is entitled to God's grace.
Theologically, this view is known as
Arminianism, which denies that God has pre-
ordained an elect number of people to eternal
bliss whilst others perished eternally.
Methodism has a wide variety of forms of
Chapter Nine
worship, ranging from high church to low
Methodist church in liturgical usage. John Wesley himself
greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition,
and the American Methodist worship in The
414
Book of Offices was based on the 1662 Book of the Church of England, preaching in the open
Common Prayer. air and establishing Methodist societies
wherever they went. These societies were
Early Methodists were drawn from all levels of
divided into groups called classes — intimate
society, including the aristocracy,[a] but the
meetings where individuals were encouraged to
Methodist preachers took the message to
confess their sins to one another and to build
labourers and criminals who tended to be left
each other up. They also took part in love feasts
outside organized religion at that time. In
which allowed for the sharing of testimony, a
Britain the Methodist Church had a major
key feature of early Methodists. Three
impact in the early decades of the making of the
teachings they saw as the foundation of
working class (1760–1820). In the United States
Christian faith were:
it became the religion of many slaves who later
formed "black churches" in the Methodist People are all, by nature, "dead in sin," and,
tradition. consequently, "children of wrath."
John Wesley They are "justified by faith alone."
George Whitefield Faith produces inward and outward holiness.
The Methodist revival originated in Epworth, Methodist preachers were notorious for their
Lincolnshire, England. It began with a group of enthusiastic sermons and often accused of
men, including John Wesley (1703–1791) and fanaticism. In those days, many members of
his younger brother Charles (1707–1788), as a England's established church feared that new
movement within the Church of England in the doctrines promulgated by the Methodists, such
18th century. The Wesley brothers founded the as the necessity of a new birth for salvation, of
Holy Club while they were at Oxford, where justification by faith, and of the constant and
John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln sustained action of the Holy Spirit upon the
College. The Holy Club met weekly and they believer's soul, would produce ill effects upon
systematically set about living a holy life. They weak minds. Theophilus Evans, an early critic of
were accustomed to receiving communion the movement, even wrote that it was "the
every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from natural Tendency of their Behaviour, in Voice
most forms of amusement and luxury and and Gesture and horrid Expressions, to make
frequently visited the sick and the poor, as well People mad." In one of his prints, William
as prisoners. The fellowship were branded as Hogarth likewise attacked Methodists as
"Methodist" by their fellow students because of "enthusiasts" full of "Credulity, Superstition and
the way they used "rule" and "method" to go Fanaticism." But the Methodist movement
about their religious affairs. Wesley took the thrived among the working class despite the
attempted mockery and turned it into a title of attacks—mostly verbal, but sometimes violent
honour. —against it.
Initially the Methodists merely sought reform, John Wesley came under the influence of the
by way of a return to the gospel, within the Moravian Church and of the Dutch theologian
Church of England, but the movement spread Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609). Arminius (the
with revival and soon a significant number of Latinized form of the name Jakob Harmaens)
Anglican clergy became affiliated with the denied that God had pre-ordained an elect
movement in the mid-18th century. The early number of people to eternal bliss whilst others
movement acted against perceived apathy in perished eternally.[b] Conversely, George
415
Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, Methodism entered a more lasting Wesleyan
Countess of Huntingdon were notable for being and Arminian phase of development.
Calvinistic Methodists. Whitefield, who had
Further information: History of Methodism in
been one of the Wesley brothers' fellow
the United States
students at Oxford, became well known for his
unorthodox ministry of itinerant open-air Theology and liturgy
preaching and inspired Wesley to likewise
preach to those excluded from the Anglican Wesleyanism
Church. Differences in theology put serious Part of a series on
strains on the relationship between Whitefield
and Wesley, with Wesley becoming quite Arminianism
hostile toward Whitefield in what had been James Arminius
previously very close relations. Whitefield
consistently begged Wesley not to let these Jacobus Arminius
differences sever their friendship and, in time
Background
their friendship was restored, though this was
seen by many of Whitefield's followers to be a Protestantism
doctrinal compromise. As a final testimony of
Reformation
their friendship, John Wesley's sermon on
Whitefield's death is full of praise and affection. Five Articles of Remonstrance
As his societies multiplied, and elements of an Calvinist–Arminian debate
ecclesiastical system were, one after another,
Armianism in the Anglican Church
adopted, the breach between Wesley and the
Church of England gradually widened. In 1784, People
Wesley responded to the shortage of priests in
the American colonies due to the American Jacobus Arminius
Revolutionary War by ordaining preachers for Simon Episcopius
America with power to administer the
sacraments. This was a major reason for Hugo Grotius
Methodism's final split from the Church of
The Remonstrants
England after Wesley's death. This split created
a separate, eventually worldwide, series of Synod of Dort participants
church denominations. The influence of
John Wesley
Whitefield and Lady Huntingdon on the Church
of England was a factor in the founding of the Doctrine
Free Church of England in 1844.
Total depravity
Through vigorous missionary activity
Conditional election
Methodism spread throughout the British
Empire and, mostly through Whitefield's Unlimited atonement
preaching during what historians call the First
Great Awakening, in colonial America. After Prevenient grace
Whitefield's death in 1770, however, American Conditional preservation
416
Arminianism portal and Holy Communion. Without defining the

mode or method (i.e. the "how"), Methodists
Most Methodists identify with the Arminian
believe that they receive "the body and blood
conception of free will, through God's
of Christ, that we may be for the world the body
prevenient grace, as opposed to the theological
of Christ, redeemed by his blood" in Holy
determinism of absolute predestination. This
Communion. Methodism also affirms that there
distinguishes Methodism from the Calvinist
are many other Means of Grace which often
tradition prevalent in Reformed churches. In
function in a sacramental manner, but most
strongly Reformed areas such as Wales,
Methodists do not recognize them as being
however, Calvinistic Methodists remain, also
Dominical sacraments.
called the Presbyterian Church of Wales. The
Calvinist Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion Methodists, stemming from John Wesley's own
was also strongly associated with the Methodist practices of theological reflection, make use of
revival. tradition, drawing primarily from the teachings
of the Church fathers, as a source of authority.
John Wesley is studied by Methodist ministerial
Though not infallible like holy Scripture,
students and trainee local preachers for his
tradition may serve as a lens through which
interpretation of Church practice and doctrine.
Scripture is interpreted (see also Prima scriptura
One popular expression of Methodist doctrine
and the Wesleyan Quadrilateral). Theological
is in the hymns of Charles Wesley. Since
discourse for Methodists almost always makes
enthusiastic congregational singing was a part
use of Scripture read inside the great
of the early Evangelical movement, Wesleyan
theological tradition of Christendom.
theology took root and spread through this
channel. It is a historical position of the church that any
disciplined theological work calls for the careful
Methodism affirms the traditional Christian
use of reason. By reason, it is said, one reads
belief in the triune Godhead: Father, Son, and
and is able to interpret Scripture coherently and
Holy Spirit, as well as the orthodox
consistently. By reason one determines
understanding of the consubstantial humanity
whether one's Christian witness is clear. By
and divinity of Jesus. Methodists also affirm the
reason one asks questions of faith and seeks to
Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed.[17] In
understand God's action and will. Methodism
devotional terms, these confessions are said to
insists that personal salvation always implies
embrace the biblical witness to God's activity in
Christian mission and service to the world.
creation, encompass God's gracious self-
Scriptural holiness entails more than personal
involvement in the dramas of history, and
piety; love of God is always linked with love of
anticipate the consummation of God's reign.
neighbours and a passion for justice and
Sacramental theology within Methodism tends renewal in the life of the world.
to follow the historical interpretations and
In liturgical matters, most Methodist worship is
liturgies of Anglicanism. This stems from the
modeled after the Book of Common Prayer
origin of much Methodist theology and practice
used by the Church of England. A unique
within the teachings of John and Charles
feature of the American Methodist Church is
Wesley, both of whom were priests of the
the observance of the season of Kingdomtide,
Church of England. As affirmed by the Articles
which encompasses the last 13 weeks before
of Religion, Methodists recognize two
Advent, thus dividing the long season after
Sacraments as being ordained of Christ: Baptism
Pentecost into two discrete segments. During
417
Kingdomtide, Methodist liturgy emphasizes Although Methodism is declining in Great

charitable work and alleviating the suffering of Britain and North America, it is growing in other
the poor. places; at a rapid pace in, for example, South
Korea. In these new places, it often takes
A second distinctive liturgical feature of
shapes that diverge from its roots. For example,
Methodism is the use of Covenant services.
the Arminian heritage is ignored or simply
Although practice varies between different
unknown, and an exclusive, neo-Calvinist
national churches, most Methodist churches
emphasis is played up. Many such
annually follow the call of John Wesley for a
denominations highlight Methodism's
renewal of their covenant with God. It is
traditional emphasis upon holiness.
common, at least in British Methodism, for each
congregation to normally hold an annual As of 2005, an estimated 75 million people
Covenant Service on the first convenient worldwide belong to the Methodist community,
Sunday of the year, and Wesley's Covenant however the number has gone into steady
Prayer is still used, with minor modification, in decline in the West, especially in North
the order of service. It is a striking and sobering America, where an increasing number of people
piece of liturgical writing, as the following are leaving the mainline churches to join
excerpts illustrate: theologically conservative denominations.
Christ has many services to be done. Some are Almost all Methodist denominations are
easy, others are difficult. Some bring honour, members of a consultative body called the
others bring reproach. Some are suitable to our World Methodist Council, which is
natural inclinations and temporal interests, headquartered at Lake Junaluska, North
others are contrary to both... Yet the power to Carolina, in the United States.
do all these things is given to us in Christ, who
I look on all the world as my parish; thus far I
strengthens us. ...I am no longer my own but
mean, that, in whatever part of it I am, I judge it
yours. Put me to what you will, rank me with
meet, right, and my bounden duty, to declare
whom you will; put me to doing, put me to
unto all that are willing to hear, the glad tidings
suffering; let me be employed for you or laid
of salvation.
aside for you, exalted for you or brought low for
you; let me be full, let me be empty, let me —John Wesley, Journal (11 June 1739)
have all things, let me have nothing; I freely and
wholeheartedly yield all things to your pleasure Europe
and disposal. Great Britain
—Wesley Covenant Prayer
Contemporary Methodism
World Methodist Council at Lake Junaluska, Methodist Central Hall Westminster, erected to
North Carolina – a consultive body linking most mark the centenary of John Wesley's death.
Methodist groups of the world. The
headquarters contains a museum of Methodism The original body founded as a result of
and a small park – the Susannah Wesley Herb Wesley's work was later known as the Wesleyan
Garden Methodist Church. Schisms within the original
Church, and independent revivals, led to the
formation of a number of separate
418
denominations calling themselves "Methodist". the Church retains the 18th century spelling
The largest of these were the Primitive "connexion" for many purposes). The
Methodist church, deriving from a revival at Connexion is divided into Districts in the charge
Mow Cop in Staffordshire, the Bible Christians of the Chair (who may be male or female).
and the Methodist New Connexion. The original Methodist districts often correspond
church became known as the Wesleyan approximately, in geographical terms, to
Methodist Church to distinguish it from these counties – as do Church of England dioceses.
bodies. In 1907, a union of smaller groups with The districts are divided into circuits governed
the Methodist New Connexion and Bible by the Circuit Meeting and led and
Christian Church brought about the British administrated principally by a superintendent
"United Methodist Church", then the three minister. Ministers are appointed to Circuits
major streams of British Methodism united in rather than to individual churches (though
1932 to form the current Methodist Church of some large inner-city churches, known as
Great Britain. The Wesleyan Reform Union and "Central Halls", are designated as circuits in
the Independent Methodist Connexion still themselves – Westminster Central Hall,
remain separate. The Primitive Methodist opposite Westminster Abbey in central London
Church had branches in the USA which still is the best known). Most circuits have fewer
continue. ministers than churches, and the majority of
services are led by lay local preachers, or by
British Methodists, in particular the Primitive
supernumerary ministers (ministers who have
Methodists, took a leading role in the
retired, called supernumerary because they are
temperance movement of the 19th and early
not counted for official purposes in the
20th centuries. Methodists saw alcoholic
numbers of ministers for the circuit in which
beverages, and alcoholism, as the root of many
they are listed). The superintendent and other
social ills and tried to persuade people to
ministers are assisted in the leadership and
abstain from these. Temperance appealed
administration of the Circuit by Circuit
strongly to the Methodist doctrines of
Stewards, lay people who may have particular
sanctification and perfection. To this day,
skills who collectively with the ministers form
alcohol remains banned in Methodist premises,
what is normally known as the Circuit
however, the choice to consume alcohol is now
Leadership Team.
a personal decision for any member.
The Methodist Council also helps to run a
Traditionally, Methodism was particularly
number of schools, including two leading Public
prominent in Cornwall and (in its Calvinistic
Schools in East Anglia: Culford School and The
form) in Wales, both regions noted for their
Leys. It helps to promote an all round education
non-conformism and distrust of the Church of
with a strong Christian ethos.
England. It was also very strong in the old mill
towns of Yorkshire and Lancashire, where the Other Methodist denominations in Britain
Methodists stressed that the working classes include: The Salvation Army, founded by
were equal to the upper classes in the eyes of Methodist minister William Booth in 1865; the
God. Free Methodist Church, a holiness church; and
the Church of the Nazarene.
British Methodism does not have bishops;
however, it has always been characterized by a Ireland
strong central organization, the Connexion,
Methodist Church in Ireland
which holds an annual Conference (note that
419
The Irish Methodist Church operates across perspective of reconciliation between those
both Northern Ireland and the Republic of branches of the Church.
Ireland on an all-Ireland basis. As of 2011 it is
Hungary
the fourth largest denomination in Northern
Ireland, with Methodists accounting for 3% of The first Methodist missions in Hungary were
the population. established in 1898 in the German-speaking
Bácska region (since 1918 part of the Serbian
Donegall Square East Methodist Church, Belfast
province of Vojvodina) and in 1905 in Budapest.
Eric Gallagher was the President of the Church The church in Hungary split in 1974-5 over the
in the 1970s, becoming a well-known figure in question of interference by the communist
Irish politics. He was one of the group of state.
Protestant churchmen who met with
Today, the Hungarian Methodist Church has 40
Provisional IRA officers in Feakle, County Clare
congregations in 11 districts. The seceding
to try to broker peace. The meeting was
Hungarian Evangelical Fellowship also considers
unsuccessful due to a Garda raid on the hotel.
itself a Methodist church. It has 8 full
France congregations and several mission groups, and
runs a range of charitable organizations: hostels
In France, the Methodist movement was
and soup kitchens for the homeless, a non-
founded in the 1820s by Charles Cook near
denominational theological college, a dozen
Nîmes and Montpellier, for example in the
schools of various kinds, and four old people's
village of Congénies in Languedoc with the most
homes. The Fellowship was granted official
important chapel of department built in 1869,
church status by the state in 1981. Both
where there had been a Quaker community
Methodist churches lost official church status
since the 18th century. Several sections of the
under discriminatory legislation passed in 2011,
Methodist Church joined the Reformed Church
limiting the number of recognized churches to
of France in 1938. The Methodist Church exists
14. However, the list of recognized churches
today in France under various names. The best-
was lengthened to 32 at the end of February
known is the "UEEM" (l'Union de l'Eglise
2012. This gave recognition to the Hungarian
Evangélique Méthodiste de France), the Union
Methodist Church and to two other Methodist-
of Evangelical Methodist Churches of France. It
derived denominations – the Salvation Army,
is the fruit of a fusion in 2005 between the
which was banned in Hungary in 1949 but
Methodist Church of France and the Union of
returned in 1990, and currently has four
Methodist Churches (in France). The UEEM is a
congregations, and the Church of the Nazarene,
part of the world organization, the United
which entered Hungary in 1996 – but not to the
Methodist Church. The Reverend Emmanuel
Hungarian Evangelical Fellowship. The
Briglia.[29] founded in 1998 an independent
legislation has been strongly criticized by the
conservative, high-church Anglican/Methodist
Venice Commission of the Council of Europe as
mission in South-East France named the
discriminatory.
Mission Méthodiste Episcopale du Var. and
commonly named "Mission anglicane The Hungarian Methodist Church, the Salvation
méthodiste du Christ-Roi" (Anglican Methodist Army, and the Church of the Nazarene have
mission of Christ the King). This small formed an association mainly for publishing
community seeks to retain the original link purposes. The Hungarian Evangelical Fellowship
between Methodism and Anglicanism in a also has a publishing arm.
420
Chapter Ten
Pentacost
Pentecostalism or Classical Pentecostalism is a

renewal movement within Christianity that
places special emphasis on a direct personal
experience of God through the baptism with the
Holy Spirit. The term Pentecostal is derived
from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish
Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event
commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit
upon the followers of Jesus Christ, as described
in the second chapter of the Book of Acts.
Like other forms of evangelical Protestantism,

Pentecostalism adheres to the inerrancy of
scripture and the necessity of accepting Christ
as personal lord and savior. It is distinguished by
belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an
experience separate from conversion that
enables a Christian to live a Holy Spirit–filled
and empowered life. This empowerment
includes the use of spiritual gifts such as
speaking in tongues and divine healing—two
other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism.
Because of their commitment to biblical
authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous,
Pentecostals tend to see their movement as
reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and
teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age
of the early church. For this reason, some
Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or full
gospel to describe their movement.
These early 20th century Pentecostals were

radical adherents of the Holiness movement,
421
and were energized by revivalism and Pentecostalism is an evangelical faith,

expectation for the imminent Second Coming of emphasizing the reliability of the Bible and the
Christ. Believing that they were living in the end need for the transformation of an individual's
times, these evangelicals expected God to life through faith in Jesus. Like other
spiritually renew the Christian Church thereby evangelicals, Pentecostals generally adhere to
bringing to pass the restoration of spiritual gifts the Bible's divine inspiration and inerrancy—the
and the evangelization of the world. In 1900, belief that the Bible, in the original languages in
Charles Parham, an American evangelist and which it was written, is infallible. Pentecostals
faith healer, began teaching that speaking in emphasize the teaching of the "full gospel" or
tongues was the Bible evidence of Spirit "foursquare gospel". The term foursquare
baptism. The three-year-long Azusa Street refers to the four fundamental beliefs of
Revival in Los Angeles, California, resulted in the Pentecostalism: Jesus saves according to John
spread of Pentecostalism throughout the 3:16; baptizes with the Holy Spirit according to
United States and the rest of the world as Acts 2:4; heals bodily according to James 5:15;
visitors carried the Pentecostal experience back and is coming again to receive those who are
to their home churches or felt called to the saved according to 1 Thessalonians 4:16–17.
mission field. While virtually all Pentecostal
Salvation
denominations trace their origins to Azusa
Street, the movement has experienced a variety Christian soteriology
of divisions and controversies. An early dispute
centered around challenges to the doctrine of The central belief of Pentecostalism is that
the Trinity. As a result, the Pentecostal through the death, burial, and resurrection of
Movement is divided between trinitarian and Jesus Christ, sins can be forgiven and humanity
non-trinitarian branches. Comprising over 700 reconciled with God.[6] This is the Gospel or
denominations and a large number of "good news". The fundamental requirement of
independent churches, there is no central Pentecostalism is that one be born again.[7] The
authority governing Pentecostalism; however, new birth is received by the grace of God
many denominations are affiliated with the through faith in Christ and acceptance of him as
Pentecostal World Fellowship. personal Lord and Savior.[8] In being born
again, the believer is regenerated, justified,
There are over 279 million Pentecostals adopted into the family of God, and the Holy
worldwide, and the movement is growing in Spirit's work of sanctification is initiated.[9]
many parts of the world, especially the global
South. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has Pentecostal soteriology is generally Arminian
increasingly gained acceptance from other rather than Calvinist.[10] The security of the
Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs believer is a doctrine held within
concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts Pentecostalism; nevertheless, this security is
have been embraced by non-Pentecostal conditional upon continual faith and
Christians in Protestant and Catholic churches repentance. Pentecostals believe in both a
through the Charismatic Movement. Together, literal heaven and hell, the former for those
Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity who have accepted God's gift of salvation and
numbers over 500 million adherents. the latter for those who have rejected it.
For most Pentecostals, there is no other

requirement to receive salvation. Baptism with
Beliefs the Holy Spirit and speaking in tongues are not
422
generally required, though Pentecostal converts Spirit's "filling", "falling upon", "coming upon",
are usually encouraged to seek these or being "poured out upon" believers is called
experiences. A notable exception is Oneness the baptism with the Holy Spirit. Pentecostals
Pentecostalism, most adherents of which define it as a definite experience occurring after
believe both water baptism and Spirit baptism salvation whereby the Holy Spirit comes upon
are integral components of salvation. For a the believer to anoint and empower him or her
more detailed explanation of Oneness for special service. It has also been described as
Pentecostal beliefs, see below in the Statistics "a baptism into the love of God".
and denominations section of this article.
The main purpose of the experience is to grant
Baptism with the Holy Spirit power for Christian service. Other purposes
include power for spiritual warfare (the
Second work of grace
Christian struggles against spiritual enemies and
To avoid confusion when studying Pentecostal thus requires spiritual power), power for
beliefs, it should be noted that Pentecostals overflow (the believer's experience of the
identify three distinct uses of the word presence and power of God in his or her life
"baptism" in the New Testament: flows out into the lives of others), and power
for ability (to follow divine direction, to face
Baptism into the body of Christ: This refers to persecution, to exercise spiritual gifts for the
salvation. Every believer in Christ is made a part edification of the church, etc.).
of his body, the Church, through baptism. The
Holy Spirit is the agent, and the body of Christ is Pentecostals believe that the baptism with the
the medium. Holy Spirit is available to all Christians.
Repentance from sin and being born again are
Water baptism: Symbolic of dying to the world fundamental requirements to receive it. There
and living in Christ, water baptism is an outward must also be in the believer a deep conviction
symbol of that which has already been of needing more of God in his or her life, and a
accomplished by the Holy Spirit, namely measure of consecration by which the believer
baptism into the body of Christ. yields himself or herself to the will of God.
Baptism with the Holy Spirit: This is an Citing instances in the Book of Acts where
empowering experience distinct from baptism believers were Spirit baptized before they were
into the body of Christ. In this baptism, Christ is baptized with water, most Pentecostals believe
the agent and the Holy Spirit is the medium. a Christian need not have been baptized in
water to receive Spirit baptism. However,
While the figure of Jesus Christ and his Pentecostals do believe that the biblical pattern
redemptive work are at the center of is "repentance, regeneration, water baptism,
Pentecostal theology, that redemptive work is and then the baptism with the Holy Ghost".
believed to provide for a fullness of the Holy There are Pentecostal believers who have
Spirit of which believers in Christ may take claimed to receive their baptism with the Holy
advantage. The majority of Pentecostals believe Spirit while being water baptized.
that at the moment a person is born again, the
new believer has the presence (indwelling) of It is received by having faith in God's promise to
the Holy Spirit. While the Spirit dwells in every fill the believer and in yielding the entire being
Christian, Pentecostals believe that all to Christ. Certain conditions, if present in a
Christians should seek to be filled with him. The believer's life, could cause delay in receiving
Spirit baptism, such as "weak faith, unholy
423
living, imperfect consecration, and egocentric believing in divine healing: 1) it is reported in

motives". In the absence of these, Pentecostals the Bible, 2) Jesus' healing ministry is included
teach that seekers should maintain a persistent in his atonement (thus divine healing is part of
faith in the knowledge that God will fulfill his salvation), 3) "the whole gospel is for the whole
promise. For Pentecostals, there is no person"—spirit, soul, and body, 4) sickness is a
prescribed manner in which a believer will be consequence of the Fall of Man and salvation is
filled with the Spirit. It could be expected or ultimately the restoration of the fallen world. In
unexpected, during public or private prayer. the words of Pentecostal scholar Vernon L.
Purdy, "Because sin leads to human suffering, it
Pentecostals expect certain results following
was only natural for the Early Church to
baptism with the Holy Spirit. Some of these are
understand the ministry of Christ as the
immediate while others are enduring or
alleviation of human suffering, since he was
permanent. Some Pentecostal denominations
God's answer to sin ... The restoration of
teach that speaking in tongues is an immediate
fellowship with God is the most important
or initial physical evidence that one has
thing, but this restoration not only results in
received the experience. However, not all
spiritual healing but many times in physical
Pentecostals share this doctrinal position. It is
healing as well."
most prominent among white Pentecostal
denominations in the United States; elsewhere, For Pentecostals, spiritual and physical healing
beliefs are more varied. Some teach that any of serves as a reminder and testimony to Christ's
the gifts of the Spirit can be evidence of having future return when his people will be
received Spirit baptism. Other immediate completely delivered from all the consequences
evidences include giving God praise, having joy, of the fall. However, not everyone receives
and desiring to testify about Jesus. Enduring or healing when they pray. It is God in his
permanent results in the believer's life include sovereign wisdom who either grants or
Christ glorified and revealed in a greater way, a withholds healing. Common reasons that are
"deeper passion for souls", greater power to given in answer to the question why are all not
witness to nonbelievers, a more effective prayer healed include: God teaches through suffering,
life, greater love for and insight into the Bible, healing is not always immediate, lack of faith on
and the manifestation of the gifts of the Spirit. the part of the person needing healing, and
personal sin in one's life (however, this does not
While the baptism with the Holy Spirit is a
mean that all illness is caused by personal sin).
definite experience in a believer's life,
Regarding healing and prayer Purdy states:
Pentecostals view it as just the beginning of
living a Spirit-filled life. Pentecostal teaching On the other hand, it appears from Scripture
stresses the importance of continually being that when we are sick we should be prayed for,
filled with the Spirit. There is only one baptism and as we shall see later in this chapter, it
with the Spirit, but there should be many appears that God's normal will is to heal.
infillings with the Spirit throughout the Instead of expecting that it is not God's will to
believer's life. heal us, we should pray with faith, trusting that
God cares for us and that the provision He has
Divine healing
made in Christ for our healing is sufficient. If He
Pentecostalism is a holistic faith, and the belief does not heal us, we will continue to trust Him.
that Jesus is Healer is one quarter of the full The victory many times will be procured in faith
gospel. Pentecostals cite four major reasons for (see Heb. 10:35-36; 1 John 5:4-5).
424
Pentecostals believe that prayer is central in Pentecostal HIV patients were encouraged to
receiving healing. Pentecostals look to stop taking their medicines and parents were
scriptures such as James 5:13–16 for direction told to stop giving medicine to their children,
regarding healing prayer. One can pray for one's trends that placed lives at risk.
own healing (verse 13) and for the healing of
Christian eschatology
others (verse 16); no special gift or clerical
status is necessary. Verses 14–16 supply the The last element of the fourfold gospel is that
framework for congregational healing prayer. Jesus is the "Soon Coming King". For
The sick person expresses his or her faith by Pentecostals, "every moment is eschatological"
calling for the elders of the church who pray since at any time Christ may return.[45] This
over and anoint the sick with olive oil.[41] The "personal and imminent" Second Coming is for
oil is a symbol of the Holy Spirit. Pentecostals the motivation for practical
Christian living including: personal holiness,
Besides prayer, there are other ways in which
meeting together for worship, faithful Christian
Pentecostals believe healing can be received.
service, and evangelism (both personal and
One way is based on Mark 16:17–18 and
worldwide).[46] Many, if not the majority, of
involves believers laying hands on the sick. This
Pentecostals are premillennial
is done in imitation of Jesus who often healed in
dispensationalists believing in a pretribulation
this manner.[42] Another method that is found
rapture.
in some Pentecostal churches is based on the
account in Acts 19:11–12 where people were Spiritual gifts
healed when given handkerchiefs or aprons
worn by the Apostle Paul. This practice is Pentecostals are continuationalists, meaning
described by Duffield and Van Cleave in they believe that all of the spiritual gifts,
Foundations of Pentecostal Theology: including the miraculous or "sign gifts", found in
1 Corinthians 12:4-11, 12:27-31, Romans 12:3-8,
Many Churches have followed a similar pattern and Ephesians 4:7-16 continue to operate
and have given out small pieces of cloth over within the Church in the present time.[48]
which prayer has been made, and sometimes Pentecostals place the gifts of the Spirit in
they have been anointed with oil. Some most context with the fruit of the Spirit.[49] The fruit
remarkable miracles have been reported from of the Spirit is the result of the new birth and
the use of this method. It is understood that the continuing to abide in Christ. It is by the fruit
prayer cloth has no virtue in itself, but provides exhibited that spiritual character is assessed.
an act of faith by which one's attention is Spiritual gifts are received as a result of the
directed to the Lord, who is the Great Physician. baptism with the Holy Spirit. As gifts freely
[42] given by the Holy Spirit, they cannot be earned
or merited, and they are not appropriate
During the initial decades of the movement,
criteria with which to evaluate one's spiritual
Pentecostals thought it was sinful to take
life or maturity.[50] Pentecostals see in the
medicine or receive care from doctors.[43] Over
biblical writings of Paul an emphasis on having
time, Pentecostals moderated their views
both character and power, exercising the gifts in
concerning medicine and doctor visits;
love.
however, a minority of Pentecostal churches
continue to rely exclusively on prayer and divine Just as fruit should be evident in the life of
healing. For example, doctors in the United every Christian, Pentecostals believe that every
Kingdom reported that a minority of Spirit-filled believer is given some capacity for
425
the manifestation of the Spirit.[51] It is vocal ones. Pentecostals believe that prophecy
important to note that the exercise of a gift is a is the vocal gift of preference, a view derived
manifestation of the Spirit, not of the gifted from 1 Corinthians 14. Some teach that the gift
person, and though the gifts operate through of tongues is equal to the gift of prophecy when
people, they are primarily gifts given to the tongues are interpreted.[55] Prophetic and
Church.[50] They are valuable only when they glossolalic utterances are not to replace the
minister spiritual profit and edification to the preaching of the Word of God [56] nor to be
body of Christ. Pentecostal writers point out considered as equal to or superseding the
that the lists of spiritual gifts in the New written Word of God
Testament do not seem to be exhaustive. It is
Word of wisdom and word of knowledge
generally believed that there are as many gifts
as there are useful ministries and functions in Pentecostals understand the word of wisdom
the Church.[51] A spiritual gift is often exercised and the word of knowledge to be supernatural
in partnership with another gift. For example, in revelations of wisdom and knowledge by the
a Pentecostal church service, the gift of tongues Holy Spirit. The word of wisdom is defined as a
might be exercised followed by the operation of revelation of the Holy Spirit that applies
the gift of interpretation. scriptural wisdom to a specific situation that a
Christian community faces.[58] The word of
According to Pentecostals, all manifestations of
knowledge is often defined as the ability of one
the Spirit are to be judged by the church. This is
person to know what God is currently doing or
made possible, in part, by the gift of discerning
intends to do in the life of another person.[59]
of spirits, which is the capacity for discerning
the source of a spiritual manifestation— Prophecy
whether from the Holy Spirit, an evil spirit, or
from the human spirit.[52] While Pentecostals Pentecostals agree with the Protestant principle
believe in the current operation of all the of sola Scriptura. The Bible is the "all sufficient
spiritual gifts within the church, their teaching rule for faith and practice"; it is "fixed, finished,
on some of these gifts has generated more and objective revelation".[60] Alongside this
controversy and interest than others. There are high regard for the authority of scripture is a
different ways in which the gifts have been belief that the gift of prophecy continues to
grouped. W.R. Jones[53] suggests three operate within the Church. Pentecostal
categories, illumination (Word of Wisdom, word theologians Duffield and van Cleave described
of knowledge, discerning of spirits), action the gift of prophecy in the following manner:
(Faith, working of miracles and gifts of healings) "Normally, in the operation of the gift of
and communication (Prophecy, tongues and prophecy, the Spirit heavily anoints the believer
interpretation of tongues). Duffield and Van to speak forth to the body not premeditated
Cleave use two categories: the vocal and the words, but words the Spirit supplies
power gifts. spontaneously in order to uplift and encourage,
incite to faithful obedience and service, and to
Vocal gifts bring comfort and consolation."[52]
The gifts of prophecy, tongues, interpretation of Any Spirit-filled Christian, according to
tongues, and words of wisdom and knowledge Pentecostal theology, has the potential, as with
are called the vocal gifts.[54] Pentecostals look all the gifts, to prophesy. Sometimes, prophecy
to 1 Corinthians 14 for instructions on the can overlap with preaching "where great
proper use of the spiritual gifts, especially the unpremeditated truth or application is provided
426
by the Spirit, or where special revelation is spiritual gift.[64][65] All Spirit-filled believers,
given beforehand in prayer and is empowered according to initial evidence proponents, will
in the delivery". speak in tongues when baptized in the Spirit
and, thereafter, will be able to express prayer
While a prophetic utterance at times might
and praise to God in an unknown tongue. This
foretell future events, this is not the primary
type of tongue speaking forms an important
purpose of Pentecostal prophecy and is never
part of many Pentecostals' personal daily
to be used for personal guidance. For
devotions. When used in this way, it is referred
Pentecostals, prophetic utterances are fallible,
to as a "prayer language" as the believer is
i.e. subject to error.[56] Pentecostals teach that
speaking unknown languages not for the
believers must discern whether the utterance
purpose of communicating with others but for
has edifying value for themselves and the local
"communication between the soul and God".
church.[62] Because prophecies are subject to
[66] Its purpose is for the spiritual edification of
the judgement and discernment of other
the individual. Pentecostals believe the private
Christians, most Pentecostals teach that
use of tongues in prayer (i.e. "prayer in the
prophetic utterances should never be spoken in
Spirit") "promotes a deepening of the prayer
the first person (e.g. "I, the Lord") but always in
life and the spiritual development of the
the third person (e.g. "Thus saith the Lord" or
personality". From Romans 8:26-27,
"The Lord would have...").
Pentecostals believe that the Spirit intercedes
Tongues and interpretation for believers through tongues; in other words,
when a believer prays in an unknown tongue,
A Pentecostal believer in a spiritual experience the Holy Spirit is supernaturally directing the
may vocalize fluent, unintelligible utterances believer's prayer.
(glossolalia) or articulate a natural language
previously unknown to them (xenoglossy). Besides acting as a prayer language, tongues
Commonly termed "speaking in tongues", this also function as the gift of tongues. Not all
vocal phenomenon is believed by Pentecostals Spirit-filled believers possess the gift of tongues.
to include an endless variety of languages. Its purpose is for gifted persons to publicly
According to Pentecostal theology, the "speak with God in praise, to pray or sing in the
language spoken (1) may be an unlearned Spirit, or to speak forth in the congregation".
human language, such as the Bible claims [68] There is a division among Pentecostals on
happened on the Day of Pentecost, or (2) it the relationship between the gifts of tongues
might be of heavenly (angelic) origin. In the first and prophecy.[69] One school of thought
case, tongues could work as a sign by which believes that the gift of tongues is always
witness is given to the unsaved. In the second directed from man to God, in which case it is
case, tongues are used for praise and prayer always prayer or praise spoken to God but in
when the mind is superseded and "the speaker the hearing of the entire congregation for
in tongues speaks to God, speaks mysteries, and encouragement and consolation. Another
... no one understands him".[64] school of thought believes that the gift of
tongues can be prophetic, in which case the
Within Pentecostalism, there is a belief that believer delivers a "message in tongues"—a
speaking in tongues serves two functions. prophetic utterance given under the influence
Tongues as the initial evidence of the baptism of the Holy Spirit—to a congregation.
with the Holy Spirit and in individual prayer
serves a different purpose than tongues as a
427
Whether prophetic or not, however, The gifts of power are distinct from the vocal
Pentecostals are agreed that all public gifts in that they do not involve utterance.
utterances in an unknown tongue must be Included in this category are the gift of faith,
interpreted in the language of the gathered gifts of healing, and the gift of miracles.[72] The
Christians.[56] This is accomplished by the gift gift of faith (sometimes called "special" faith) is
of interpretation, and this gift can be exercised different from "saving faith" and normal
by the same individual who first delivered the Christian faith in its degree and application.[73]
message (if he or she possesses the gift of This type of faith is a manifestation of the Spirit
interpretation) or by another individual who granted only to certain individuals "in times of
possesses the required gift. If a person with the special crisis or opportunity" and endues them
gift of tongues is not sure that a person with the with "a divine certainty ... that triumphs over
gift of interpretation is present and is unable to everything". It is sometimes called the "faith of
interpret the utterance him or herself, then the miracles" and is fundamental to the operation
person should not speak.[56] Pentecostals of the other two power gifts.
teach that those with the gift of tongues should
Worship
pray for the gift of interpretation.[68]
Pentecostals do not require that an Hillsong Church, a Pentecostal mega church in
interpretation be a literal word-for-word Sydney, Australia, is well known for its
translation of a glossolalic utterance. Rather, as contemporary worship music.
the word "interpretation" implies, Pentecostals
expect only an accurate explanation of the Traditional Pentecostal worship has been
utterance's meaning.[70] described as a "gestalt made up of prayer,
singing, sermon, the operation of the gifts of
Besides the gift of tongues, Pentecostals may the Spirit, altar intercession, offering,
also use glossolalia as a form of praise and announcements, testimonies, musical specials,
worship in corporate settings. Pentecostals in a Scripture reading, and occasionally the Lord's
church service may pray aloud in tongues while supper".[75] Russell P. Spittler identified five
others pray simultaneously in the common values that govern Pentecostal spirituality.[76]
language of the gathered Christians.[71] This The first was individual experience, which
use of glossolalia is seen as an acceptable form emphasizes the Holy Spirit's personal work in
of prayer and therefore requires no the life of the believer. Second was orality, a
interpretation. Congregations may also feature that might explain Pentecostalism's
corporately sing in tongues, a phenomenon success in evangelizing nonliterate cultures. The
known as singing in the Spirit. third was spontaneity; members of Pentecostal
congregations are expected to follow the
Speaking in tongues is not universal among
leading of the Holy Spirit, sometimes resulting
Pentecostal Christians. In 2006, a 10-country
in unpredictable services. The fourth value
survey by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public
governing Pentecostal spirituality was
Life found that 49 percent of Pentecostals in the
"otherworldliness" or asceticism, which was
United States, 50 percent in Brazil, 41 percent in
partly informed by Pentecostal eschatology. The
South Africa, and 54 percent in India said they
final and fifth value was a commitment to
"never" speak or pray in tongues.[15]
biblical authority, and many of the distinctive
Power gifts practices of Pentecostals are derived from a
literal reading of scripture.[76]
428
Spontaneity is a characteristic element of practice is "dancing in the Spirit". This is when a

Pentecostal worship. This was especially true in person leaves their seat "spontaneously
the movement's earlier history, when anyone 'dancing' with eyes closed without bumping into
could initiate a song, chorus, or spiritual gift. nearby persons or objects". It is explained as
[77] Even as Pentecostalism has become more the worshipper becoming "so enraptured with
organized and formal, with more control God's presence that the Spirit takes control of
exerted over services,[78] the concept of physical motions as well as the spiritual and
spontaneity has retained an important place emotional being".[84] Pentecostals derive
within the movement and continues to inform biblical precedent for dancing in worship from 2
stereotypical imagery, such as the derogatory Samuel 6, where David danced before the Lord.
"holy roller". The phrase "Quench not the [76] A similar occurrence is often called
Spirit", derived from 1 Thessalonians 5:19, is "running the aisles". The "Jericho march"
used commonly and captures the thought (inspired by Book of Joshua 6:1-27) is a
behind Pentecostal spontaneity. celebratory practice occurring at times of high
enthusiasm. Members of a congregation began
Prayer plays an important role in Pentecostal
to spontaneously leave their seats and walk in
worship. Collective oral prayer, whether
the aisles inviting other members as they go.
glossolalic or in the vernacular or a mix of both,
Eventually, a full column is formed around the
is common. While praying, individuals may lay
perimeter of the meeting space as worshipers
hands on a person in need of prayer, or they
march with singing and loud shouts of praise
may raise their hands in response to biblical
and jubilation. In some Pentecostal churches,
commands (1 Timothy 2:8). The raising of hands
these spontaneous expressions are primarily
(which itself is a revival of the ancient orans
found in revival meetings or special prayer
posture) is an example of some Pentecostal
meetings, being rare or non-existent in the
worship practices that have been widely
main services.
adopted by the larger Christian world.
Pentecostal musical and liturgical practice have Ordinance (Christian)
also played an influential role in shaping
Like other Christian churches, Pentecostals
contemporary worship trends, with Pentecostal
believe that certain rituals or ceremonies were
churches such as Hillsong Church being the
instituted as a pattern and command by Jesus in
leading producers of congregational music.
the New Testament. Pentecostals commonly
Pentecostals worshiping in Slovakia call these ceremonies ordinances. Many
Christians call these sacraments, but this term is
Several spontaneous practices have become
not generally used by Pentecostals and certain
characteristic of Pentecostal worship. Being
other Protestants as they do not see ordinances
"slain in the Spirit" or "falling under the power"
as imparting grace.[88] Instead the term
is a form of prostration in which a person falls
sacerdotal ordinance is used to denote the
backwards, as if fainting, while being prayed
distinctive belief that grace is received directly
over.[84][85] It is at times accompanied by
from God by the congregant with the officiant
glossolalic prayer; at other times, the person is
serving only to facilitate rather than acting as a
silent.[76] It is believed by Pentecostals to be
conduit or vicar.
caused by "an overwhelming experience of the
presence of God",[86] and Pentecostals The ordinance of water baptism is an outward
sometimes receive the baptism in the Holy symbol of an inner conversion that has already
Spirit in this posture.[76] Another spontaneous taken place. Therefore, most Pentecostal
429
groups practice believer's baptism by

immersion. The majority of Pentecostals do not
view baptism as essential for salvation, and
likewise, most Pentecostals are Trinitarian and
use the traditional Trinitarian baptismal
formula. However, Oneness Pentecostals view
baptism as an essential and necessary part of
the salvation experience and, as non-
Trinitarians, reject the use of the traditional
baptismal formula. For more information on
Oneness Pentecostal baptismal beliefs, see the
following section on Statistics and
denominations.
Chapter Eleven
The ordinance of Holy Communion, or the Presbyteran
Lord's Supper, is seen as a direct command
given by Jesus at the Last Supper, to be done in
remembrance of him. Pentecostal Presbyterianism is a branch of Reformed
denominations reject the use of wine as part of Protestantism which traces its origins to the
communion, using grape juice instead.[89] Foot British Isles. Presbyterian churches derive their
washing is also held as an ordinance by some name from the presbyterian form of church
Pentecostals.[90] It is considered an "ordinance government, which is government by
of humility" because Jesus showed humility representative assemblies of elders. Many
when washing his disciples' feet in John 13:14– Reformed churches are organized this way, but
17.[88] Other Pentecostals do not consider it an the word "Presbyterian," when capitalized, is
ordinance; however, they may still recognize often applied uniquely to the churches which
spiritual value in the practice. trace their roots to the Scottish and English
churches that bore that name and English
political groups that formed during the Civil
War.[2] Presbyterian theology typically
emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the
authority of the Scriptures, and the necessity of
grace through faith in Christ. Presbyterian
church government was ensured in Scotland by
the Acts of Union in 1707[3] which created the
kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most
Presbyterians found in England can trace a
Scottish connection, and the Presbyterian
denomination was also taken to North America
mostly by Scots and Scots-Irish immigrants. The
Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to
the theology of Calvin and his immediate
successors, although there is a range of
theological views within contemporary
Presbyterianism.
430
Local congregations of churches which use Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the
presbyterian polity are governed by sessions creed of the Scottish Kingdom. In December
made up of representatives of the congregation 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published,
(elders); a conciliar approach which is found at outlining important doctrinal issues but also
other levels of decision-making (presbytery, establishing regulations for church government,
synod and general assembly). including the creation of ten ecclesiastical
districts with appointed superintendents which
The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the European
later became known as presbyteries.
Reformation of the 16th century, with the
example of John Calvin's Geneva being In time, the Scots Confession would be
particularly influential. Most Reformed supplanted by the Westminster Confession of
churches who trace their history back to Faith, and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms,
Scotland are either presbyterian or which were formulated by the Westminster
congregationalist in government. In the Assembly between 1643 and 1649.
twentieth century, some Presbyterians played
Characteristics
an important role in the Ecumenical Movement,
including the World Council of Churches. Many
Presbyterian denominations have found ways of
working together with other Reformed Presbyterians distinguish themselves from
denominations and Christians of other other denominations by doctrine, institutional
traditions, especially in the World Communion organization (or "church order") and worship;
of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian often using a "Book of Order" to regulate
churches have entered into unions with other common practice and order. The origins of the
churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Presbyterian churches were in Calvinism. Many
Anglicans, and Methodists. branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of
previous splits from larger groups. Some of the
splits have been due to doctrinal controversy,
while some have been caused by disagreement
John Knox
concerning the degree to which those ordained
Presbyterian history is part of the history of to church office should be required to agree
Christianity, but the beginning of with the Westminster Confession of Faith,
Presbyterianism as a distinct movement which historically serves as an important
occurred during the 16th-century Protestant confessional document - second only to the
Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted Bible, yet directing particularities in the
the reformers, the Church split and different standardization and translation of the Bible - in
theological movements bore different Presbyterian churches.
denominations. Presbyterianism was especially
Presbyterians place great importance upon
influenced by the French/Swiss theologian, John
education and lifelong learning. Continuous
Calvin, who is credited with the development of
study of the scriptures, theological writings, and
Reformed theology and the work of John Knox,
understanding and interpretation of church
a Scotsman who studied with Calvin in Geneva,
doctrine are embodied in several statements of
Switzerland and brought his teachings back to
faith and catechisms formally adopted by
Scotland. The Presbyterian church traces its
various branches of the church, often referred
ancestry back primarily to England and
to as 'subordinate standards'. It is generally
Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of
considered that the point of such learning is to
431
enable one to put one's faith into practice; This congregation / presbytery / synod / general
some Presbyterians generally exhibit their faith assembly schema is based on the historical
in action as well as words, by generosity, structure of the larger Presbyterian churches,
hospitality, and the constant pursuit of social such as the Church of Scotland or the
justice and reform, as well as proclaiming the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.); some bodies, such
gospel of Christ. as the Presbyterian Church in America and the
Presbyterian Church in Ireland, skip one of the
Governance
steps between congregation and General
Presbyterian church governance Assembly, and usually the step skipped is the
Synod. The Church of Scotland has now
Presbyterian government is by councils (known abolished the Synod.
as courts) of elders. Teaching and ruling elders
are ordained and convene in the lowest council Presbyterian governance is practised by
known as a session or consistory responsible for Presbyterian denominations and also by many
the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local other Reformed churches
congregation. Teaching elders (pastors) have
Doctrine
responsibility for teaching, worship, and
performing sacraments. Pastors are called by Reformed theology
individual congregations. A congregation issues
Presbyterian Cross
a call for the pastor's service, but this call must
be ratified by the local presbytery. Presbyterianism is historically a confessional
tradition. This has two implications. The obvious
Ruling elders are usually laymen (and laywomen
one is that confessional churches express their
in some denominations) who are elected by the
faith in the form of "confessions of faith," which
congregation and ordained to serve with the
have some level of authoritative status.
teaching elders, assuming responsibility for
However this is based on a more subtle point: In
nurture and leadership of the congregation.
confessional churches, theology is not solely an
Often, especially in larger congregations, the
individual matter. While individuals are
elders delegate the practicalities of buildings,
encouraged to understand Scripture, and may
finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in
challenge the current institutional
the congregation to a distinct group of officers
understanding, theology is carried out by the
(sometimes called deacons, which are ordained
community as a whole. It is this community
in some denominations). This group may
understanding of theology that is expressed in
variously be known as a 'Deacon Board', 'Board
confessions.[6]
of Deacons' 'Diaconate', or 'Deacons' Court'.
These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to However, there has arisen a spectrum of
the full congregation. approaches to confessionalism. The manner of
subscription, or the degree to which the official
Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which
standards establish the actual doctrine of the
have area responsibilities. These are composed
church, turns out to be a practical matter. That
of teaching elders and ruling elders from each
is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in
of the constituent congregations. The
the courts of the church largely determine what
presbytery sends representatives to a broader
the church means, representing the whole, by
regional or national assembly, generally known
its adherence to the doctrinal standard.
as the General Assembly, although an
intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists.
432
Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the denomination. It is confessional in format, yet
Westminster Confession of Faith as the like the Westminster Confession, draws
doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are attention back to original Bible text.
required to subscribe, in contrast to the Larger
Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism
and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for
and the Westminster Confessions formed the
use in instruction. Many Presbyterian
Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland.
denominations, especially in North America,
have adopted all of the Westminster Standards Worship and Sacraments
as their standard of doctrine which is
subordinate to the Bible. These documents are Worship
Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation. The Presbyterian worship
Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the
Westminster Confession of Faith in its original Presbyterian Denominations who trace their
form, while admitting the historical period in heritage to the British Isles usually organise
which it was written should be understood their church services inspired by the principles
when it is read. in the Directory of Public Worship, developed
by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s. This
The Westminster Confession is "The principal directory documented Reformed worship
subordinate standard of the Church of practices and theology adopted and developed
Scotland" but "with due regard to liberty of over the preceding century by British Puritans,
opinion in points which do not enter into the initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox. It
substance of the Faith" (V). This formulation was enacted as law by the Scottish Parliament,
represents many years of struggle over the and became one of the foundational documents
extent to which the confession reflects the of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere.
Word of God and the struggle of conscience of
those who came to believe it did not fully do so Historically, the driving principle in the
(e.g., William Robertson Smith). Some development of the standards of Presbyterian
Presbyterian Churches, such as the Free Church worship is the Regulative principle of worship,
of Scotland, have no such "conscience clause". which specifies that (in worship), what is not
commanded is forbidden.
The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) has adopted
the Book of Confessions, which reflects the Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian
inclusion of other Reformed confessions in churches modified these prescriptions by
addition to the Westminster Standards. These introducing hymnnody, instrumental
other documents include ancient creedal accompaniment and ceremonial vestments in
statements (the Nicene Creed, the Apostles' worship. However, there is not one fixed
Creed), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the "Presbyterian" worship style. Although there
Scots Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, the are set services for the "Lord's Day", one can
Second Helvetic Confession), and 20th century find a service to be evangelical and even
documents (The Theological Declaration of revivalist in tone (especially in some
Barmen, Confession of 1967 and A Brief conservative denominations), or strongly
Statement of Faith). liturgical, approximating the practices of
Lutheranism or Anglicanism (especially where
The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed Scottish tradition is esteemed),[clarification
the confessional document Living Faith (1984) needed] or semi-formal, allowing for a balance
and retains it as a subordinate standard of the
433
of hymns, preaching, and congregational Unlike many denominations that baptize infants
participation (favored by probably most on the basis of baptismal regeneration,
American Presbyterians. Most Presbyterian Presbyterians, along with their Continental
churches follow the traditional liturgical year Reformed counterparts, baptize infants on the
and observe the traditional holidays, holy belief that as Hebrew infants were circumcised
seasons, such as Advent, Christmas, Ash in order to show that they were part of the
Wednesday, Holy Week, Easter, Pentecost, etc. covenant community, infants of believing
They also make use of the appropriate seasonal parents are likewise to be baptized.
liturgical colors, etc. Many, incorporate ancient
Architecture
liturgical prayers and responses into the
communion services and follow a daily,
seasonal, and festival lectionary. Other
Presbyterians, however, such as the Reformed Early Presbyterians were careful to distinguish
Presbyterians, would practice a capella between the "church," which referred the
exclusive psalmody, as well as eschew the members, and the "meeting house," which was
celebration of holy days. the building in which the church met.[8] Until
the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians
Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging ever referred to their buildings as "churches."
church movements in Protestant and Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses
evangelical churches, in which some (now called churches) are buildings to support
Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving the worship of God. The decor in some
away from the traditional black Geneva gown to instances was austere so as not to detract from
such vestments as the alb and chasuble, but worship. Early Presbyterian meeting-houses
also cassock and surplice (typically a full length were extremely plain. No stained glass, no
Old English style surplice which resembles the elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be
Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old found in the meeting-house. The pulpit, often
Gallican Rite), which some, particularly those raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase,
identifying, with the Liturgical Renewal was the centerpiece of the building.
Movement, hold to be more ancient and
representative of a more ecumenical past. In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to
occur. Prosperous congregations built imposing
Sacraments churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian in
Chicago, Madison Avenue Presbyterian and
Presbyterians traditionally have held the
Fifth Avenue Presbyterian in New York City,
Worship position that there are only two
Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pittsburgh,
sacraments:
PA, East Liberty Presbyterian Church in
Baptism, in which they would baptize infants,as Pittsburgh, PA, First Presbyterian in Dallas,
well as unbaptized adults by the Aspersion House of Hope Presbyterian Church in Saint
(sprinkling) or Affusion (pouring) method, Paul, Minnesota and many others.
rather than the Immersion method.
Usually a Presbyterian church will not have
The Lord's Supper (also known as Communion), statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more
in which they would believe that Christ is typical of a Roman Catholic church. Instead, one
present in the bread and wine through the Holy will find a "communion table," usually on the
Spirit, as opposed to being locally present. same level as the congregation. There may be a
rail between the communion table and the
434
"Chancel" behind it, which may contain a more doctrines. After a period of religious convulsion
decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir and political conflict culminating in a victory for
stalls, lectern and clergy area. The altar is called the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the
the communion table and the altar area (what authority of the Church of Rome was abolished
Catholics refer to as the sanctuary) is called the in favour of Reformation by the legislation of
Chancel by Presbyterians. This is related to the the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560.
doctrinal stance they take regarding The Church was eventually organised by
communion, in which they reject the Roman Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to
Catholic and Episcopal idea that Jesus is re- become the national Church of Scotland. King
sacrificed during each mass. In a Presbyterian James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland
(Reformed Church) one will not usually find a towards an episcopal form of government, and
Crucifix hanging behind the Chancel, instead in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William
there will be an altar cross, either on the Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted
communion table or on a table in the chancel. to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book
By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the of Common Prayer. What resulted was an
resurrection, Presbyterians emphasize the armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the
resurrection and that Christ is not continually Solemn League and Covenant. The Covenanters
dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity. would serve as the government of Scotland for
However, one may find stained glass windows nearly a decade, and would also send military
that depict the life of Christ and the crucifixion, support to the Parlimentarians during the
behind a chancel. Presbyterian church buildings English Civil War. Following the restoration of
are often decorated with a cross that has a the monarchy in 1660, Charles II, despite the
circle around the center, or Celtic cross. This not initial support that he received from the
only emphasized the resurrection, but also Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of
acknowledges historical aspects of government on the church.
Presbyterianism. A baptismal font will be
The Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the Acts of
located either at the entrance or near the
Union 1707 between Scotland and England
chancel area. Presbyterian architecture
guaranteed the Church of Scotland's form of
generally makes significant use of symbolism.
government. However, legislation by the United
Regions Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to
splits in the Church. In 1733, a group of
France
ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland
There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in to form the Associate Presbytery, another
central Paris The Scots Kirk, Paris which is group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief
English-speaking, and is attended by many Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the
nationalities. It maintains close links with the formation of the Free Church of Scotland.
Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as Further splits took place, especially over
with the Reformed Church of France. theological issues, but most Presbyterians in
Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of the
Scotland established Church of Scotland and the United
John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent Free Church of Scotland.
time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland
to Scotland and urged his countrymen to today are the Church of Scotland, the Free
reform the Church in line with Calvinist
435
Church of Scotland, the United Free Church of Church of Scotland eventually joined what
Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland became the Presbyterian Church of England in
(Continuing), the Free Presbyterian Church of 1876. Some, that is Crown Court (Covent
Scotland, the Associated Presbyterian Church Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney,
(Associated Presbyterian Churches), and the London) and Swallow Street (London), did not
Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland. join the English denomination, which is why
there are Church of Scotland congregations in
Within Scotland the term kirk is usually used to
England such as those at Crown Court, and St
refer to a local Presbyterian church. Informally
Columba's, Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in
the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of
London. There is also a congregation in the
Scotland.
heart of London's financial district called
England London City Presbyterian Church that is also
affiliated with Free Church of Scotland.
Main article: English Presbyterianism
In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England
In England, Presbyterianism was established in (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church
secret in 1592. Thomas Cartwright is thought to in England and Wales to form the United
be the first Presbyterian in England. Reformed Church (URC). Among the
Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge congregations the PCofE brought to the URC
University condemning the episcopal hierarchy were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold
of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian
of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney
emigration abroad. In 1647, by an act of the Meeting House URC) - these are among the sole
Long Parliament under the control of Puritans, survivors today of the English Presbyterian
the Church of England permitted churches of the 17th century. The URC also has
Presbyterianism. The re-establishment of the a presence in Scotland, mostly of former
monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Congregationalist Churches. Two former
Episcopal church government in England (and in Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's,
Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St
church in England continued in non-conformity, Columba's, Oxford (founded as a chaplaincy by
outside of the established church. In 1719 a the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908
major split, the Salter's Hall controversy, and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929),
occurred; with the majority siding with continue as congregations of the URC and
nontrinitarian views. Thomas Bradbury university chaplaincies of the Church of
published several sermons bearing on the Scotland.
controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the
reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who In recent years a number of smaller
subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity.". denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of
By the 18th century many English Presbyterian church government have organised in England,
congregations had become Unitarian in including the International Presbyterian Church
doctrine. planted by evangelical theologian Francis
Schaeffer of L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s, and
A number of new Presbyterian Churches were the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England
founded by Scottish immigrants to England in and Wales founded in the North of England in
the 19th century and later. Following the the late 1980s.
'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the
436
Wales
In Wales Presbyterianism is represented by the

Presbyterian Church of Wales, which was
originally composed largely of Calvinistic
Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology
rather than the Arminianism of the Wesleyan
Methodists. They broke off from the Church of
England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers.
They were originally known as the Calvinist
Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it
became alternatively known as the Presbyterian
Church of Wales.
Ireland
Presbyterianism is the largest Protestant

denomination in Northern Ireland and the Chapter Twelve
second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Unitarian
Anglican Church of Ireland),[citation needed]
and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers
to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to
emigrate by James VI of Scotland, later James I
of England. An estimated 100,000 Scottish
Presbyterians moved to the northern counties Unitarianism is a theological movement, named
of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the for its understanding of God as one person, in
Boyne in 1690.[citation needed] The Presbytery direct contrast to Trinitarianism, which defines
of Ulster was formed in 1642 separately from God as three persons coexisting
the established Anglican Church. Presbyterians, consubstantially as one being.[1] Unitarians
along with Roman Catholics in Ulster and the maintain that Jesus was a prophet, and in some
rest of Ireland, suffered under the sense the "son" of God, but not God himself.[2]
discriminatory Penal Laws until they were Unitarianism is also known for the rejection of
revoked in the early 19th century. several conventional Christian doctrines besides
Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the the Trinity,[3] including the soteriological
Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Free doctrines of original sin and predestination,[4]
Presbyterian Church of Ulster, the Non- [5] and, in more recent history, biblical
subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland, the inerrancy.[6] In J. Gordon Melton's
Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and Encyclopedia of American Religions it is
the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. classified among "the 'liberal' family of
churches".[7]
Italy
The Unitarian movement, although not called
"Unitarian" initially, began almost
simultaneously in Poland-Lithuania and
Transylvania in the mid-sixteenth century.
Among the adherents were a significant
437
number of Italians.[8][9] In England the first [16] In the past, the vast majority of members
Unitarian Church was established in 1774 on of Unitarian churches were Unitarians also in
Essex Street, London, where today's British theology. Over time, however, some Unitarians
Unitarian headquarters are still located.[10] The and Unitarian Universalists moved away from
first official acceptance of the Unitarian faith on the traditional Christian roots of Unitarianism.
the part of a congregation in America was by [17] For example, in the 1890s the American
King's Chapel in Boston, from where James Unitarian Association began to allow non-
Freeman began teaching Unitarian doctrine in Christian and non-theistic churches and
1784, and was appointed rector and revised the individuals to be part of their fellowship.[18] As
Prayer Book according to Unitarian doctrines in a result, people who held no Unitarian belief
1786. began to be called "Unitarians" because they
were members of churches that belonged to
Terminology
the American Unitarian Association. After
several decades, the non-theistic members
outnumbered the theological Unitarians.[19] A
"Unitarianism" is a proper noun and follows the similar, though proportionally much smaller,
same English usage as other theologies that phenomenon has taken place in the Unitarian
have developed within a religious movement churches in the United Kingdom, Canada, and
(Calvinism, Anabaptism, Adventism, other countries, which remain more theistically
Wesleyanism, Lutheranism, etc.).[12] The term based. Unitarian theology, therefore, is
existed shortly before it became the name of a distinguishable from the belief system of
religious movement, and thus occasionally it is modern Unitarian and Unitarian Universalist
used as a common noun that would describe churches and fellowships. This article includes
any understanding of Jesus Christ that denies information about Unitarianism as a theology
the Trinity or which believes that God is only and about the development of theologically
one person. In that case it would be a Unitarian churches. For a more specific
nontrinitarian belief system not necessarily discussion of Unitarianism as it evolved into a
associated with the Unitarian religious pluralistic liberal religious movement, see
movement. For example, the Unitarian Unitarian Universalism (and its national groups
movement has never accepted the Godhood of the Unitarian Universalist Association in the
Jesus, and therefore does not include those United States, the Canadian Unitarian Council in
nontrinitarian belief systems that do—such as Canada, the General Assembly of Unitarian and
Oneness Pentecostalism, United Pentecostal Free Christian Churches in the United Kingdom,
Church International and the True Jesus Church and the International Council of Unitarians and
—and which maintain that Jesus is God as a Universalists).
single person. Although these groups are
unitarians in the common sense, they are not in Recently some religious groups have adopted
the proper sense. To avoid confusion, this the 19th Century term "biblical unitarianism" to
article is about Unitarianism as a religious distinguish their theology from Unitarianism.
movement (proper noun). For the generic form [20] Since it has no direct relation to the
of unitarianism (the Christology Unitarian movement, it is discussed only briefly.
The term Unitarian is sometimes applied today History of Unitarianism

to those who belong to a Unitarian church but
Unitarianism, both as a theology and as a
who do not hold a Unitarian theological belief.
denominational family of churches, was defined
438
and developed in five countries: Poland, doctrine in 1566). The term "Unitarian" first
Transylvania, England, Wales and America. appeared as unitaria religio in a document of
Although there were common beliefs among the Diet of Lécfalva, Transylvania on 25 October
Unitarians in each of these regions, they initially 1600, though it was not widely used in
grew independently from each other. Only later Transylvania until 1638, when the formal
did they influence one another and accumulate recepta Unitaria Religio was published.
more similarities.
The word Unitarian had been circulating in
The Ecclesia minor or Minor Reformed Church private letters in England, in reference to
of Poland, better known today as the Polish imported copies of such publications as the
Brethren, was born as the result of a Library of the Polish Brethren who are called
controversy that started on January 22, 1556, Unitarians (1665), Henry Hedworth was the first
when Piotr of Goniądz (Peter Gonesius), a Polish to use the word "Unitarian" in print in English
student, spoke out against the doctrine of the (1673), and the word first appears in a title in
Trinity during the general synod of the Stephen Nye's A brief history of the Unitarians,
Reformed (Calvinist) churches of Poland held in called also Socinians (1687). The movement
the village of Secemin.[22] After nine years of gained popularity in England in the wake of the
debate, in 1565, the anti-Trinitarians were Enlightenment and began to become a formal
excluded from the existing synod of the Polish denomination in 1774 when Theophilus Lindsey
Reformed Church (henceforth the Ecclesia organised meetings with Joseph Priestley,
maior) and they began to hold their own synods founding the first avowedly Unitarian
as the Ecclesia minor. Though frequently called congregation in the country, at Essex Street
"Arians" by those on the outside, the views of Church in London.
Fausto Sozzini became the standard in the
The first official acceptance of the Unitarian
church, and these doctrines were quite
faith on the part of a congregation in America
removed from Arianism. So important was
was by King's Chapel in Boston, which settled
Sozzini to the formulation of their beliefs that
James Freeman (1759–1835) in 1782, and
those outside Poland usually referred to them
revised the Prayer Book into a mild Unitarian
as Socinians. The Polish Brethren were
liturgy in 1785. In 1800, Joseph Stevens
disbanded in 1658 by the Sejm (Polish
Buckminster became minister of the Brattle
Parliament). They were ordered to convert to
Street Church in Boston, where his brilliant
Roman Catholicism or leave Poland. Most of
sermons, literary activities, and academic
them went to Transylvania or Holland, where
attention to the German "New Criticism" helped
they embraced the name "Unitarian." Sozzini's
shape the subsequent growth of Unitarianism in
grandson Andrzej Wiszowaty Sr. in 1665-1668
New England. Unitarian Henry Ware (1764–
published Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum quos
1845) was appointed as the Hollis professor of
Unitarios vocant (Library of the Polish Brethren
divinity at Harvard College, in 1805. Harvard
who are called Unitarians 4 vols. 1665–69).
Divinity school then shifted from its
The Unitarian Church in Transylvania was first conservative roots to teach Unitarian theology.
recognized by the Edict of Torda, issued by the See: Harvard & Unitarianism. Buckminster's
Transylvanian Diet under Prince John II close associate William Ellery Channing (1780–
Sigismund Zápolya (January 1568),[23] and was 1842) was settled over the Federal Street
first led by Ferenc Dávid (a former Calvinist Church in Boston, 1803; and in a few years he
bishop, who had begun preaching the new became the leader of the Unitarian movement.
439
A theological battle with the Congregational but accepted the virgin birth.[28] This was
Churches resulted in the formation of the continued by Marcellus of Ancyra and his pupil
American Unitarian Association at Boston in Photinus in the 4th century AD.[29][30] In the
1825. Radical Reformation and Anabaptist
movements of the 16th century this resurfaced
Christology
with Sozzini's uncle, Lelio Sozzini. Having
Unitarians believe that main-line Christianity influenced the Polish Brethren to a formal
does not adhere to strict monotheism but that declaration of this belief in the Racovian
they do by maintaining that Jesus was a great Catechism, Fausto Sozzini involuntarily ended
man and a prophet of God, perhaps even a up giving his name to this Christological
supernatural being, but not God himself.[2] position,[31] which continued with English
They believe Jesus did not claim to be God, and Unitarians such as John Biddle's Twofold
that his teachings did not suggest the existence Catechism (1654).
of a triune God. Unitarians believe in the moral
In the early days of Unitarianism, the stories of
authority but not necessarily the divinity of
the virgin birth were accepted by most, but
Jesus. Their theology is thus opposed to the
there were a number of Unitarians who
trinitarian theology of other Christian
questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible
denominations.
(such as Symon Budny, Jacob Paleologus,
Unitarian Christology can be divided according Thomas Belsham, and Richard Wright), and this
to whether Jesus is believed to have had a pre- made them question the virgin birth story.
human existence. Both forms maintain that God Beginning in England and America in the 1830s,
is one being and one "person"—the one Jesus and manifesting itself primarily in
called "Father"—and that Jesus is the (or a) Son Transcendentalist Unitarianism, which emerged
of God, but generally not God himself.[24] from the German liberal theology associated
primarily with Friedrich Schleiermacher, the
"Socinian" Christology psilanthropist view increased in popularity.[36]
The Christology commonly called "Socinian" Its proponents took an intellectual and
(after Fausto Sozzini, one of the founders of humanistic approach to religion. They
Unitarian theology), refers to the belief that embraced evolutionary concepts, asserted the
Jesus Christ began his life when he was born as "inherent goodness of man", and abandoned
a human. In other words, the teaching that the doctrine of biblical infallibility, rejecting
Jesus pre-existed his human body is rejected. most of the miraculous events in the Bible
There are various views ranging from the belief (including the virgin birth). Notable examples
that Jesus was simply a human (psilanthropism) are James Martineau, Theodore Parker, Ralph
who, because of his greatness, was adopted by Waldo Emerson and Frederick Henry Hedge.
God as his Son (adoptionism) to the belief that Famous American Unitarian William Ellery
Jesus literally became the Son of God when he Channing was a believer in the virgin birth until
was conceived by the Holy Spirit (see Virgin later in his life, after he had begun his
birth of Jesus). association with the Transcendentalists.
This Christology existed in some form or The denial of the virgin birth is also sometimes
another prior to Sozzini. Theodotus of ascribed to the Ebionites; however, Origen
Byzantium,[25] Artemon[26] and Paul of (Contra Celsum v.61) and Eusebius (HE iii.27)
Samosata[27] denied the pre-existence of Christ both indicate that some Ebionites did accept
440
the virgin birth.[40] The Chambers Biographical One God and the oneness or unity of God.
Dictionary (1897) incorrectly ascribes denial of
The life and teachings of Jesus Christ constitute
the virgin birth to Ferenc Dávid, leader of the
the exemplar model for living one's own life.
Transylvanian Unitarians.
Reason, rational thought, science, and
"Arian" Christology
philosophy coexist with faith in God.
The Christology commonly called "Arian" holds
Humans have the ability to exercise free will in a
that Jesus, before his human life, existed as the
responsible, constructive and ethical manner
Logos, a being created by God, who dwelt with
with the assistance of religion.
God in heaven. There are many varieties of this
form of Unitarianism, ranging from the belief Human nature in its present condition is neither
that the Son was a divine spirit of the same inherently corrupt nor depraved (see original
nature as God before coming to earth, to the Sin), but capable of both good and evil, as God
belief that he was an angel or other lesser spirit intended.
creature of a wholly different nature from God.
[citation needed] Not all of these views No religion can claim an absolute monopoly on
necessarily were held by Arius, the namesake of the Holy Spirit or theological truth.
this Christology. It is still Nontrinitarian, because Though the authors of the Bible were inspired
according to this belief system, Jesus has always by God, they were humans and therefore
been beneath God, though higher than humans. subject to human error.
Arian Christology was not a majority view
among Unitarians in Poland, Transylvania or Traditional doctrines that (they believe) malign
England. It was only with the advent of God's character or veil the true nature and
American Unitarianism that it gained a foothold mission of Jesus Christ, such as the doctrines of
in the Unitarian movement. predestination, eternal damnation, and the
vicarious sacrifice or satisfaction theory of the
Proponents attempt to associate this Atonement are rejected.
Christology with early church figures such as
Justin Martyr, Lucian of Antioch, Eusebius of Unitarians have liberal views of God, Jesus, the
Caesarea, Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia, world and purpose of life as revealed through
Asterius the Sophist, Eunomius, and Ulfilas, as reason, scholarship, science, philosophy,
well as Felix, Bishop of Urgell. Michael Servetus scripture and other prophets and religions. They
did not deny the pre-existence of Christ.[41] believe that reason and belief are
[unreliable source?] Isaac Newton had Arian complementary and that religion and science
beliefs as well. Famous 19th century Arian can co-exist and guide them in their
Unitarians include Andrews Norton[45] and Dr. understanding of nature and God. They also do
William Ellery Channing (in his earlier years). not enforce belief in creeds or dogmatic
[46] formulas. Although there is flexibility in the
nuances of belief or basic truths for the
Other beliefs individual Unitarian Christian, general principles
Though there is no specific authority on of faith have been recognized as a way to bind
convictions of Unitarian belief aside from the group in some commonality. Adherents
rejection of the Trinity, the following beliefs are generally accept religious pluralism and find
generally accepted: value in all teachings, but remain committed to
their core belief in Christ's teachings.[citation
441
needed] Unitarians generally value a secular This section relates to Unitarian churches and
society in which government is kept separate organizations today which are still specifically
from religious affairs. Most contemporary Christian within or outside Unitarian-
Unitarian Christians believe that one's personal Universalism, which embraces non-Christian
moral convictions guide one's political activities, religions.
and that a secular society is the most viable,
Hungarian and Transylvanian Unitarian
just and fair.
Churches
Unitarian Christians reject the doctrine of some
The largest Unitarian denomination worldwide
Christian denominations that God chooses to
today is also the oldest surviving Unitarian
redeem or save only those certain individuals
denomination (since 1565, first use of the term
that accept the creeds of, or affiliate with, a
"Unitarian" 1600);[57] the Unitarian Church of
specific church or religion, from a common ruin
Transylvania (in Romania, which is union with
or corruption of the mass of humanity. They
the Unitarian Church in Hungary). The church in
believe that righteous acts are necessary for
Romania and Hungary still looks to the
redemption in addition to faith.[citation
statement of faith, the Summa Universae
needed]
Theologiae Christianae secundum Unitarios
In 1938, The Christian leader attributed "the (1787), though today assent to this is not
religion of Jesus, not a religion about Jesus" to required. The modern Unitarian Church in
Unitarians,[54] though the phrase was used Hungary (25,000 members) and the
earlier by Congregationalist Rollin Lynde Hartt in Transylvanian Unitarian Church (75,000
1924.[55] and earlier still by US President members) are affiliated with the ICUU and claim
Thomas Jefferson. continuity with the historical Unitarian Christian
tradition established by Ferenc Dávid in 1565 in
Worship
Transylvania under John II Sigismund Zápolya.
The Unitarian churches in Hungary and
Transylvania are structured and organized along
Worship within the Unitarian tradition a church hierarchy that includes the election by
accommodates a wide range of understandings the synod of a national bishop who serves as
of God, while the focus of the service may be superintendent of the Church. Many Hungarian
simply the celebration of life itself. Each Unitarians embrace the principles of rationalist
Unitarian congregation is at liberty to devise its Unitarianism.[58] Unitarian high schools exist
own form of worship, though commonly, only in Transylvania (Romania), including the
Unitarians will light their chalice (symbol of John Sigismund Unitarian Academy in Cluj-
faith), have a story for all ages; and include Napoca (Kolozsvár), and the Berde Mózes
sermons, prayers, hymns and songs. Some will Unitárius Gimnázium in Cristuru Secuiesc
allow attendees to publicly share their recent (Székelykeresztúr); both teach Rationalist
joys or concerns. Unitarianism.
Modern Christian Unitarian organizations UCEC (USA)
The Unitarian Christian Emerging Church (UCEC)

History of Unitarianism is a grass roots effort to re-establish Christian
Unitarian churches. The church, and its related
ministries developed due to the lack of actual
442
Unitarian churches that profess Christian "full member" groups in the United States,
theology. The church takes a post-modern Australia & New Zealand, United Kingdom,
approach to nontrinitarian Christianity while Canada, Brazil, Czech Republic, Finland,
keeping the classical concepts of unitarianism Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, India, Nigeria,
alive. This religious body ordains candidates for Pakistan, Philippines, Romania, South Africa, Sri
ministry, affirms faith based ministries, and Lanka.
endorses home congregations and meet-up
The ICUU includes small "Associate groups",
groups. The UCEC is a progressive church of
including Congregazione Italiana Cristiano
emerging theology that remains inclusive,
Unitariana, Turin (founded in 2004)[60] and the
transparent, and open for all to witness. This
Bét Dávid Unitarian Association, Oslo (founded
independent USA-based organization has
2005).
attracted the attention of numerous adherents
from other countries, and is in fellowship with AUC (USA)
other Unitarian faith-based organizations
around the world. Founded in 2012 as the UCEC The American Unitarian Conference (AUC) was
it has roots dating back to 1968 and most formed in 2000 and stands between UUA and
recently in 2009 when a constitutional ICUU in attachment to the Christian element of
reorganization occurred. The ministry branch of modern Unitarianism. The American Unitarian
the church (Unitarian Christian Ministries) Conference is open to non-Christian Unitarians
coordinates all outreach, faith, and social —being particularly popular with non-Christian
initiatives. The church is organized and theists and deists.[62] The AUC has four
structured as the Unitarian Christian Emerging congregations in the United States.
Church and Ministries for all lawful & rightful UCMI (USA)
purposes.[citation needed]
Unitarian Christian Ministries International was
UUCF (USA) a Unitarian ministry incorporated in South
The Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship Carolina, USA until its dissolution in 2013.[63] It
(UUCF, founded 1945) predates the was a faith body that is revitalizing classical
consolidation of the American Unitarian Unitarian Christianity on a global scale.
Association (AUA) and Universalist Church of Partnerships had been formed in Africa, India,
America (UCA) into the Unitarian Universalist Australia, and Europe.
Association (UUA) in 1961. UUCF continues as a UCA (UK)
subgroup of UUA serving the Christian
members. The Unitarian Christian Association (UCA, UK)
was founded 1991 by Rev. Lancelot Garrard
ICUU (international) (1904–93)[64] and others to promote
Other Unitarian Christian groups are affiliated specifically Christian ideas within the General
with the International Council of Unitarians and Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian
Universalists (ICUU), founded in 1995. The ICUU Churches (GAUFCC). Just as the UUCF and ICUU
tends to contain a majority membership who maintain formal links with UUA in America, so
express specifically Unitarian Christian beliefs, the UCA does with the GAUFCC in the UK.
rather than the religious pluralism of the UUA, The majority of Unitarian Christian publications
but nevertheless remain liberal, open-minded are sponsored by an organization and published
and inclusive communities.[59] The ICUU has specifically for their membership. They
443
generally do not serve as a tool for missionary Rev Faure continued as minister until 1897
work or encouraging conversions. when he was succeeded by Rev Ramsden
Balmforth, from England. He conducted a
Australia
thriving ministry to 1937 and brought the Free
The Sydney Unitarian Church, was founded Protestant Church into the international
1850, under a Reverend Stanley and was a Unitarian Movement in 1921. Ministers who
vigorous denomination during the 19th followed Balmforth were William and Wilma
Century. The modern church has properties in Constable (1937 to 1941), Donald Livingstone
Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne, and smaller (1941 to 1949), Magnus Ratter (1949 to 1960
congregations elsewhere in Australia and New and 1971 to 1976), Victor Carpenter (1962 to
Zealand. 1967), Eugene Widrick (1968 to 1971), Leon Fay
(1977 to 1979), Robert Steyn (1979 to 1997).
Further information: Australian and New
Zealand Unitarian Universalist Association The Cape Town church isn't exclusively Christian
since formal members and friends in the
South Africa congregation maintain their own personal
The Unitarian movement in South Africa was beliefs. There is no specific dogma or creed that
founded in 1867 by the Reverend Dawid Faure, members must follow. They consider
member of a well-known Cape family. He Unitarianism as a way of life with spiritual
encountered advanced liberal religious thought dimensions. The church is in the central city but
while completing his studies at the University of has congregations in the suburbs as well. The
Leiden in Holland for the ministry of the Dutch website for the Unitarian Community of Cape
Reformed Church in Cape Town. On his return Town is at [1] . There are also independent
to South Africa he preached a probationary fellowships in Durban and Johannesburg. The
sermon in the Groote Kerk, Cape Town. This led national website is at [2] .
to a public appeal to him to found a community
based upon what was called the 'new theology'.
The 'new theology' as preached by Dawid Faure This section may stray from the topic of the
was grounded in what he described as "the very article. Please help improve this section or
essence of religion" – Love of God and love of discuss this issue on the talk page.
neighbour.
Italy
Responding to popular appeal Dawid Faure
Biblical Unitarian Movement
gathered a congregation of people who felt the
need for a church unfettered by traditional In the mainstream of the Protestant
dogmas, open to the advances of modern Reformation there is the Biblical Unitarian
knowledge and receptive to new spiritual Movement.[66] Today, biblical Unitarianism (or
insights. From 1867 to 1890 the fledgling "Biblical Unitarianism" or "biblical
church, known as the Free Protestant Church, unitarianism")[67] identifies the Christian belief
rented premises in a commercial building in that the Bible teaches God is a singular person
Cape Town, and in 1890 a warehouse in the city —the Father—and that Jesus is a distinct being,
was purchased and converted into the present his son. A few denominations use this term to
church. describe themselves, clarifying the distinction
between them and those churches[68] which,
from the late 19th century, evolved into
444
modern British Unitarianism and, primarily in can find on the official site of the CCI,[70][71] it
the United States, Unitarian Universalism. is clear that the doctrinal position of this
Christian confession of faith is therefore akin to
In Italy the Biblical Unitarian Movement
the so-called Biblical Unitarian movement [72]
powered by the ideas of Sozzini and others[66]
[73][74] and on the other hand, far from that of
is represented today by the churches associated
Unitarian Universalist Association who,
with the Christian Church in Italy.[69] This
although they have the same origin in 1500 AD,
Movement in Italy claims a strong Christian and
through the centuries, have suffered the
biblical soul. From the analysis of documents
influence of many non-biblical ideas (cf.
that you can find on the official site of the CCI,
Universalism).
[70][71] it is clear that the doctrinal position of
this Christian confession of faith is therefore The Christian Church in Italy believes that God is
akin to the so-called Biblical Unitarian only One Person[76] in direct contrast with the
movement [72][73][74] and on the other hand, doctrine of the Trinity which defines God as
far from that of Unitarian Universalist Three coexisting Persons in one Substance
Association who, although they have the same (Essence), merged into one being.[77] So CCI
origin in 1500 AD, through the centuries have adheres to strict monotheism by believing that
suffered the influence of many non-biblical Jesus was a perfect and holy man,[78] virginally
ideas (cf. Universalism). The Christian Church in begotten in Mary, the promised Christ, the Son
Italy has significant similarities with the Biblical of God and that, as the glorified man, now is at
Unitarian movement, although it maintains a the right hand of God praying for the whole
cautious position on some doctrinal points. Church.[79][80] The movement the Christian
Wilbur wrote about the Unitarian Movement: Church in Italy was inspired from, rejects other
"The religious movement whose history we are doctrines taught for centuries,[81] including the
endeavoring to trace...became fully developed soteriological doctrines of original sin and
in thought and polity in only four countries, one predestination.[82][83] The CCI for its
after another, namely Poland, Transylvania, peculiarity has no common trait with other
England and America. But in each of these it religious movements which exalt Jesus as the
showed, along with certain individual only true God, as for example the Oneness
characteristics, a general spirit, a common point Pentecostalism, the United Pentecostal Church
of view, and a doctrinal pattern that tempt one International and the True Jesus Church.
to regard them as all outgrowths of a single
movement which passed from one to another;
for nothing could be more natural than to
presume that these common features implied a
common ancestry. Yet such is not the fact, for in
each of these four lands the movement, instead
of having originated elsewhere, and been
translated only after attaining mature growth,
appears to have sprung independently and
directly from its own native roots, and to have
been influenced by other and similar
movements only after it had already developed
an independent life and character of its own.".
[75] From the analysis of documents that you
445
Module Nine the works and

teachings of Emanuel
Swedenborg
Chapter one-Apocalypse Explained.
Chapter Two- Arcana Coelestia
Chapter Three- Earths in the Universe
Chapter Four- Charity
Chapter Five- Divine Love
Chapter Six- Divine Wisdom
Chapter Seven-Doctrine of Faith
Chapter Eight- Doctrine of Life
Chapter Nine- Doctrine of the Lord
446
Chapter Ten- The Invitation of the New Church sees write in a book, and send to the churches
which are in Asia; unto Ephesus, and Smyrna,
and Pergamum, and Thyatira, and Sardis, and
Chapter One Philadelphia, and Laodicea. 12. And I turned to
see the voice which spake with me. And having
Apocalypse explained turned, I saw seven golden lampstands, 13. And
in the midst of the seven lampstands one like
1. unto the Son of man, clothed with a garment
down to the foot, and girt about at the paps
APOCALYPSE. CHAPTER 1. 1. The Revelation of
with a golden girdle. 14. And His head and hairs
Jesus Christ which God gave Him to show unto
white as white wool, as snow: and His eyes as a
His servants the things which must quickly come
flame of fire. 15. And His feet like unto
to pass, and signified, sending by His angel, unto
burnished brass, as if glowing in a furnace; and
His servant John. 2. Who bare witness to the
His voice as the voice of many waters. 16. And
Word of God, and to the testimony of Jesus
having in His right hand seven stars; and out of
Christ, whatsoever things he saw. 3. Blessed is
His mouth a sharp two-edged sword going
he that readeth, and they that hear, the words
forth; and His face as the sun shineth in his
of the prophecy, and keep the things which are
power. 17. And when I saw Him I fell at His feet
written therein; for the time is near. 4. John to
as dead. And He laid His right hand upon me,
the seven churches which are in Asia: Grace to
saying unto me, Fear not; I am the First and the
you, and peace, from Him who is, and who was,
Last; 18. And the Living One; and I became
and who is to come; and from the seven spirits
dead; and behold I am alive unto the ages of the
which are in sight of His throne; 5. And from
ages, Amen: and I have the keys of hell and of
Jesus Christ, the faithful witness, the Firstborn
death. 19. Write the things which thou sawest,
from the dead, and the Prince of the kings of
and the things which are, and the things which
the earth. Unto Him that loveth us, and
are to be hereafter. 20. The mystery of the
washeth us from our sins in His blood; 6. And
seven stars which thou sawest in My right hand,
hath made us kings and priests unto God and
and the seven golden lampstands: The seven
His Father: to Him be the glory and the might
stars are the angels of the seven churches; and
unto the ages of the ages. Amen. 7. Behold, He
the seven lampstands which thou sawest are
that cometh with the clouds; and every eye
the seven churches. Many have expounded this
shall see Him, and they who pierced Him; and
prophetical book called Revelation, but none of
all the tribes of the earth shall lament over Him.
them understood the internal or spiritual sense
Even so; Amen. 8. I am the Alpha and the
of the Word. They have therefore applied the
Omega, Beginning and End, saith the Lord, who
particular things in the book to the successive
is, and who was, and who is to come, the
states of the church, which they have learned
Almighty. 9. I, John, who also am your brother
from histories; many things, moreover, they
and partaker in the affliction and in the
have applied to civil affairs. For this reason
kingdom and patient expectation of Jesus
those expositions are for the most part
Christ, was in the isle that is called Patmos, 1-1
conjectures, which can never appear in such
for the Word of God, and for the testimony of
light that they can be affirmed as truths. As
Jesus Christ. 10. I was in the spirit on the Lord's
soon, therefore, as they are read, they are put
Day; and I heard behind me a great voice, as of
aside as speculations. The expositions of
a trumpet, 11. Saying, I am the Alpha and the
Revelation now extant are of this character,
Omega, the First and the Last; and what thou
447
because, as has been said, their authors had no readeth, and they that hear, the words of the
knowledge of the internal or spiritual sense of prophecy, and keep the things which are
the Word. Yet, in fact, all things recorded in written therein; for the time is near. 1. "The
Revelation are written in a style similar to that revelation of Jesus Christ," signifies predictions
of the Old Testament prophecies, and to the from the Lord respecting the last times of the
style, in general in which everything in the church (n. 5); "which God gave Him to show
Word is written. The Word in the letter is unto His servants," signifies for those who are in
natural, but in its bosom it is spiritual; and being truths from good (n. 6); "the things which must
such, it contains within it a sense that is not at quickly come to pass," signifies which will
all apparent in the letter. How the one sense certainly be (n. 7); "and signified, sending by His
differs from the other may be seen from what is angel, unto His servant John," signifies which
said and shown in the small work on the White are revealed out of heaven to those who are in
Horse and in the appendix there from the the good of love (n. 8, 9); 2. "who bare witness
Arcana Coelestia. to the Word of God, and to the testimony of
Jesus Christ," signifies to those who in heart
acknowledge Divine truth, and the Divine of the
2. Lord in His Human (n. 10); "whatsoever things
he saw," signifies having their understanding
From this it is evident that Revelation, equally enlightened (n. 11); 3. "Blessed," signifies those
with the Old Testament prophecies, can in no in whom is heaven (n. 12); "is he that readeth"
wise be understood, nor can anything therein signifies that they have perception (n. 13); "and
be understood, unless the spiritual sense be they that hear the words of the prophecy,"
known, and furthermore unless there be signifies that they live according to the doctrine
revelation from heaven, where the whole Word of heaven (n. 14); "and keep the things which
is understood according to that sense. That this are written therein," signifies from the delight
is so the exposition itself that follows will of the love of truth (n. 15); "for the time is
establish. near," signifies such an interior state (n. 16).
3. 5.
In the following exposition many passages are Verse 1. The revelation of Jesus Christ, signifies
cited from the Arcana Coelestia; be it known, predictions from the Lord respecting the last
therefore, that they are from that work. times of the church. This is evident from the
signification of "revelation," as being
predictions; and since these are from the Lord
4. alone, it is said, "the revelation of Jesus Christ."
EXPOSITION Verses 1-3. The revelation of Jesus The revelation, or predictions, are respecting
Christ which God gave Him to show unto His the last times of the church, since those times
servants the things which must quickly come to are especially treated of. It may be supposed
pass, and signified, sending by His angel, unto that in Revelation the successive states of the
His servant John, who bare witness to the Word church from beginning to end are treated of;
of God, and to the testimony of Jesus Christ, these, however, are not there treated of, but
whatsoever things he saw. Blessed is he that only the state of heaven and of the church near
the end, when the Last Judgment takes place,
448
thus the last times. The successive states of the casts from him, yea, holds it in aversion. By
church were foretold by the Lord Himself in good is here meant the good of love to the Lord
Matthew 24, 25; and also in Mark 13; yet what and the good of love towards the neighbor; for
is there given is written in the Divine prophetic this good is the only spiritual good, and with
style, that is, by means of correspondences; this truths of faith are in accord.
consequently it is of such a character that it can
only be revealed and made evident by the
internal or spiritual sense. (It has therefore 7.
been granted me from the Lord to unfold these
things in the Arcana Coelestia, at the beginning Things which must quickly come to pass,
of chapters 26 to 40 of Genesis; which signifies which will certainly be. This is evident
explanations may be seen in their order, in the from the signification of "things which must
following places: n. 3353-3356, 3486-3489, come to pass," as being things that must needs
3650-3655, 3751-3757, 3897-3901, 4056-4060, be; and from the signification of "quickly," as
4229-4231, 4332-4335, 4422-4424, 4635-4638, meaning what is certain and full (Arcana
4661-4664, 4807-4810, 4954-4959, 5063-5071.) Coelestia, n. 5284, 6783). Those who look at all
things in the Word according to the sense of the
letter do not know otherwise than that
"quickly" signifies quickly; thus here, that the
6.
things predicted in Revelation were to occur
Which God gave Him, to show unto His quickly; from which they are led to wonder that
servants, signifies for those who are in truths nevertheless so long a time has elapsed before
from good. This is evident from the signification the Last Judgment took place. But those who
of "gave Him to show the revelation," as being know the internal sense of the Word, do not
to declare predictions, that is to say, predictions understand "quickly," but certainly. They see
for those; and from the signification of "His that "quickly" means certainly, because quickly
servants," as being, who are in truths from involves time, and time is proper to nature; thus
good. Such are meant by servants of God, quickly is a natural, not a spiritual expression;
because those who hearken to and obey God and in the Word, all natural expressions signify
are called, in the Word, servants of God. the spiritual things that correspond to them; for
Hearkening and obedience take place with the Word in its bosom is spiritual, while in the
those who are in truths from good, but not with letter it is natural. Thence it is that "quickly"
those who are in truths alone, or in truths signifies what is certain. (That time is proper to
without good; for these have truths in the nature, and, in the spiritual world, corresponds
memory only, and not in the life; whereas those to state of life, may be seen in the work on
who are in truths from good have truths in the Heaven and Hell, in the chapter on Time in
life, and those who have truths in the life do Heaven, n. 162-169.)
them from the heart, that is, from love. Be it
known, that no truth ever enters into the life of
man unless the man be in good, for good is of 8.
love, and love makes the whole man; man
therefore receives into his life all truths that are And signified, sending by His angel, to His
in accord. This may be abundantly seen from servant John, signifies which are revealed out of
the fact, that whatever a man loves he heaven to those who are in the good of love.
appropriates to himself; and everything else he This is evident from the signification of
449
"signified," as being the things in the sense of nothing whatever from the angels' proprium
the letter that contain and thus signify those [selfhood, or what is their own]. (But this may
that are in the internal sense; for it is said, "the be better understood from what is said and
revelation which God gave to show, and shown in Heaven and Hell, n. 2-12, 254.) The
signified;" and by the things that He signified things revealed out of heaven are said to be for
are meant those that are in the sense of the those who are in the good of love, because it is
letter, because all these signify, while the things said, "sending by His angel to His servant John,"
that are signified are those that are contained in and by "John" those who are in the good of love
the internal sense. For all things in the Word are are represented and meant. For by the twelve
significative of spiritual things, which are in the apostles are represented and signified all in the
internal sense. This is also evident from the church who are in truths from good;
signification of "sending by His angel," as consequently, all truths from good, from which
meaning, which are revealed out of heaven; for is the church; and by each of the apostles in
"to send" is to reveal, and "by an angel" is out particular something special; thus by "Peter"
of heaven. "To send" is to reveal, because faith; by "James" charity; and by "John" the
everything that is sent out of heaven is good of charity or the good of love. Because
revelation; for that which is there is what is John represented this good, the revelation was
revealed; and this is the spiritual which relates made to him; for revelation out of heaven, such
to the church and its state; but with man this is as this, can be made only to those who are in
changed into the natural, such as is expressed in the good of charity or of love. Others, indeed,
the sense of the letter in Revelation and can hear the things that are from heaven, but
elsewhere in the Word. That which comes out they cannot perceive them. Only those who are
of heaven can be presented to man in no other in the good of love have spiritual perception.
way; for the spiritual falls into its corresponding This is because they receive heavenly things not
natural when it descends out of the spiritual only with the hearing, but also with the love;
world into the natural. This is why the prophetic and to receive with the love is to receive fully,
Word in the sense of the letter is such as it is, since the things so received are loved;
and being such, is in its bosom spiritual and is moreover, those who thus receive, see these
Divine. By "angel" is meant "out of heaven," things in their understanding, where the
because that which an angel speaks is out of sensation of their internal sight is. That this is so
heaven; for when an angel communicates to has been proven to me by much experience. It
man such things as pertain to heaven and the might also be elucidated by much rational
church, he does not speak as man speaks with argument; but the subject cannot just now be
man, who brings forth out of his memory what amplified so far. It is here only necessary to say,
another has told him; but that which an angel that all names mentioned in the Word signify
speaks flows in continuously, not into his not persons but things; that "John," for
memory, but immediately into his instance, signifies such as are in the good of
understanding, and from that into words. From love, thus in the abstract the good of love itself.
this it is that all things that the angels spoke to (That all names in the Word signify things may
the prophets are Divine, and nothing at all from be seen in the Arcana Coelestia, n. 768, 1888,
the angels. Whether it be said, that these 4310, 4442, 10329. That the names of persons
revelations are out of heaven, or are from the and places in the Word cannot enter heaven,
Lord, it is the same; because the Divine of the but that they are changed into the things that
Lord with the angels constitutes heaven, and they signify, n. 1876, 5225, 6516, 10216, 10282,
450
10432. How exquisite the internal sense of the give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of the
Word is, even where mere names are heavens (Matt. 16:18-19). It appears from the
mentioned, illustrated by examples, n. 1224, letter, as if that power was given to Peter, when
1264, 1888. That the twelve disciples of the in fact no power was given to Peter; but it was
Lord represented, and thence signified, all so said to him because "Peter" signified truth
things of faith and love in the complex, in like from good, which is from the Lord; and truth
manner as the twelve tribes of Israel, n. 2129, from good, which is from the Lord, has all
3354, 3488, 3858, 6397. That "Peter," "James," power, thus the Lord has all power from good
and "John" represented, and thence signified, through truth. (That this is so may be seen
faith, charity, and the good of charity, in their illustrated in the small work on The Last
order, see preface to Genesis 18, and 22, and n. Judgment, n. 57.) A second arcanum that may
3934, 8581, 10087.) be seen, when it is known that "Peter" signifies
faith, is, why the Lord said to him, that: Before
the cock crowed, he would deny Him thrice;
9. which also came to pass (Matt. 26:34 seq.). By
these words is signified, that in the last time of
When one knows that all names in the Word the church there would be no faith in the Lord,
signify things, and that the names of the twelve because no charity; for "cock-crowing," as well
sons of Jacob, or of the twelve tribes, signify all as "twilight," signifies the last time of the
truths and goods of the church in the complex; church (n. 10134); and "three" or "thrice,"
and in like manner, the names of the twelve signifies what is complete to the end (n. 2788,
disciples of the Lord; and that "Peter," "James," 4495, 5159, 9198, 10127. That the end of the
and "John" signify faith, charity, and the good of church is when there is no faith, because no
charity; he can see many arcana in the Word; as charity, see in the small work on The Last
for example, why: The Lord gave the name Judgment n. 33-39, seq.). [3] A third arcanum
Peter to Simon, and to James and John the that may be seen is what is signified by the
name Boanerges, which means sons of thunder following words concerning Peter and John:
(Mark 3:16-17). For "Peter," like Petra [rock], Jesus saith to Peter, Simon, son of Jonas, lovest
signifies the Lord as to truth from good, or faith thou Me? He saith unto Him, Yea, Lord, thou
from charity; and "sons of thunder" signify knowest that I love Thee. He saith unto him,
those who from affection, which is of love, Feed My lambs. He saith to him again a second
receive the truths of heaven. (That "rock" time, Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou Me? He
signifies the Lord in respect to truth from good, saith unto Him, Yea, Lord, thou knowest that I
or faith from charity, see Arcana Coelestia, n. love Thee. He saith unto him, Tend My sheep.
8581, 10580; in like manner the "stone of He saith unto him the third time, Simon, son of
Israel," n. 6426; and that "thunders" signify Jonas, lovest thou Me? Peter was grieved
Divine truths from heaven, n. 7573, 8914; and because He said unto him the third time, Lovest
"lightning" the splendors thereof, n. 8813; thou Me? And he saith unto Him, Lord, thou
whence thunders were also called "voices," n. knowest all things; thou knowest that I love
7573, 8914.) [2] I will here mention some Thee. Jesus saith unto him, Feed My sheep.
arcana that may be seen by those who are Verily, verily, I say unto thee, when thou wast
aware that "Peter" signifies faith, and "John" younger, thou girdest thyself, and walkedst
the good of charity. First, why the Lord said to whither thou wouldest; but when thou shall be
Peter: I also say unto thee, Thou art Peter, and old, thou shalt stretch forth thy hands, and
upon this rock will I build My church; and I will
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another shall gird thee, and bear thee whither gird thee and lead thee whither thou wouldest
thou wouldest not. And when He had thus not," signifies that in the last period of the
spoken, He saith unto him, Follow Me. Peter, church they would no longer imbibe truths from
turning about, seeth the disciple whom Jesus the good of charity, thus would not know them
loved, following, and he saith, Lord, What shall in any other way than as declared by another;
this one [do]? Jesus saith unto him, If I will that and thus would be in a servile state; for a servile
he tarry till I come, what is that to thee? Follow state ensues when good does not lead. (That
thou Me (John 21:15-22). What these things "garments" signify truths, see Arcana Coelestia,
signify no one can know unless he knows the n. 1073, 2576, 5319, 5954, 9212, 9216, 9952,
internal sense, and knows that "Peter" signifies 10536; and that therefore to "gird oneself"
faith, and "John" the good of charity, thus that denotes to imbibe and perceive truths, n. 9952.
"Peter" signifies those in the church who are in That to "walk" is to act and live; to act from
faith, and "John" those who are in the good of freedom is to act from love or affection, since
charity. That Jesus said to Peter three times, what a man loves that he does freely, n. 2870,
"Loves thou me?" and that Peter said three 3158, 8987, 8990, 9585, 9591. That every
times. "Thou knowest that I love Thee," and church begins from charity, but that in process
that Jesus then said, "Feed My lambs," and of time it turns aside to faith, and at length to
"Feed My sheep," signifies that those who are faith alone, n. 1834, 1835, 2231, 4683, 8094.)
in faith from love, ought to instruct those who Since, in the last period of the church, faith
are in the good of love to the Lord, and in the becomes such that it rejects the good of charity,
good of charity towards the neighbor; for those saying that faith alone constitutes the church
who are in faith from love are also in truths, and and is saving, and not the good of life which is
those who from this are in truths, instruct charity, Jesus said to Peter, by whom such faith
concerning good, and lead to good; for all is here meant, "Follow Me; and Peter, turning
spiritual good that a man has, is gained and about, seeth the disciple whom Jesus loved,
implanted by truths. (That "lambs" signify those following; and he saith, Lord, what shall this one
who are in the good of innocence and of love to [do]?" By this is signified that faith, in the last
the Lord, may be seen in Arcana Coelestia, n. period of the church, would turn itself away
3994, 10132; that "sheep" signify those who are from the Lord; for it is said of Peter, by whom
in the good of charity towards the neighbor, n. such faith is signified, that "turning about, he
4169, 4809; and that "to feed" is to instruct, n. saw;" also that he said of the disciple whom
5201, 6078.) [4] Faith, as it was to be in the first Jesus loved, or of John, by whom is signified the
period of the church and as it was to be in the good of charity, "what shall this one [do]?" that
last, is then described by the Lord. The first is, that he is not anything. But Jesus said to him,
period of the church is meant by "when thou "If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to
wast younger," and its last by "when thou shalt thee? Follow thou Me." By this is signified that
be old." That when Peter "was younger he the good of charity will follow the Lord, and will
girded himself and walked whither he would," acknowledge Him, even to the last period of the
signifies that in the first period of the church old church, and the first of the new. (That the
men would imbibe truths from the good of last period of the old church is called "the
charity and would act from freedom; for to act consummation of the age," and the beginning
from freedom is to act from the affection of of the new church "the coming of the Lord," see
truth from good. "When thou shalt be old thou Arcana Coelestia, n. 4535, 10622.) A fourth
shalt stretch forth thy hands, and another shall arcanum that may be seen is, why the Lord
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loved John above the rest of the disciples, and

consequently why John lay on the breast or in
the bosom of the Lord (John 13:23; 21:20);
namely, because the good of love was what the
Lord saw when He beheld John, who
represented and signified that good; since it is
that good that constitutes heaven and the
church (see the work on Heaven and Hell, n. 13-
19). A fifth arcanum is manifest when it is
known that John represented the good of love,
namely, what is signified by the words of the
Lord from the cross to the mother Mary and to
John: When Jesus therefore seeth His mother,
and the disciple standing by whom He loved, He
saith unto His mother, Woman, behold thy son.
Then He saith to the disciple, Behold thy
mother. And from that hour the disciple took
her unto his own home (John 19:26, 27). By
"mother" and by "woman" is here meant the
church, and by "John" the good of charity; and
by the things here said, that the church will be
where the good of charity is. (That by "woman,"
in the Word, is meant the church, may be seen
in Arcana Coelestia, n. 252-253, 749, 770, 3160,
6014, 7337, 8994; that the like is signified by
"mother," n. 289, 2691, 2717, 3703, 4257, 5581,
8897, 10490. That to "take her unto his own
home" is that these should dwell together, is
evident.) From this it can now be seen how
great arcana lie concealed in the Word, which
are laid open to those only who know its
internal or spiritual sense. Apart from that
sense it cannot be known, moreover, what is
signified when it is said: That the apostles shall
sit upon twelve thrones, and shall judge the
twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:28; Luke 22:30).
By "apostles" here are meant not apostles, but Chapter Two
all truths from good, which are from the Lord; Arcana Coelestia
thus by these words is signified that the Lord
alone will judge all from truths that are from
1.
good, thus that everyone will be judged
according to those truths. From the mere letter of the Word of the Old
Testament no one would ever discern the fact
that this part of the Word contains deep secrets
453
of heaven, and that everything within it both in its own way bear reference to Him, is not
general and in particular bears reference to the Divine.
Lord, to His heaven, to the church, to religious
belief, and to all things connected therewith;
for from the letter or sense of the letter all that 3.
anyone can see is that-to speak generally-
everything therein has reference merely to the Without such a Life, the Word as to the letter is
external rites and ordinances of the Jewish dead. The case in this respect is the same as it is
Church. Yet the truth is that everywhere in that with man, who-as is known in the Christian
Word there are internal things which never world-is both internal and external. When
appear at all in the external things except a very separated from the internal man, the external
few which the Lord revealed and explained to man is the body, and is therefore dead; for it is
the Apostles; such as that the sacrifices signify the internal man that is alive and that causes
the Lord; that the land of Canaan and Jerusalem the external man to be so, the internal man
signify heaven-on which account they are called being the soul. So is it with the Word, which, in
the Heavenly Canaan and Jerusalem-and that respect to the letter alone, is like the body
Paradise has a similar signification. without the soul.
2. 4.
The Christian world however is as yet While the mind cleaves to the literal sense
profoundly unaware of the fact that all things in alone, no one can possibly see that such things
the Word both in general and in particular, nay, are contained within it. Thus in these first
the very smallest particulars down to the most chapters of Genesis, nothing is discoverable
minute iota, signify and enfold within them from the sense of the letter other than that the
spiritual and heavenly things, and therefore the creation of the world is treated of, and the
Old Testament is but little cared for. Yet that garden of Eden which is called Paradise, and
the Word is really of this character might be Adam as the first created man. Who supposes
known from the single consideration that being anything else? But it will be sufficiently
the Lord's and from the Lord it must of established in the following pages that these
necessity contain within it such things as belong matters contain arcana which have never yet
to heaven, to the church, and to religious belief, been revealed; and in fact that the first chapter
and that unless it did so it could not be called of Genesis in the internal sense treats in general
the Lord's Word, nor could it be said to have of the new creation of man, or of his
any life in it. For whence comes its life except regeneration, and specifically of the Most
from those things that belong to life, that is to Ancient Church; and this in such a manner that
say, except from the fact that everything in it there is not the least expression which does not
both in general and in particular bears represent, signify, and enfold within it these
reference to the Lord, who is the very Life itself; things.
so that anything which does not inwardly
regard Him is not alive; and it may be truly said
that any expression in the Word that does not 5.
enfold Him within it, that is, which does not in
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That this is really the case no one can possibly God said, Let the earth bring forth the tender
know except from the Lord. It may therefore be herb, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree
stated in advance that of the Lord's Divine bearing fruit after its kind, whose seed is in
mercy it has been granted me now for some itself, upon the earth; and it was so. 12. And the
years to be constantly and uninterruptedly in earth brought forth the tender herb, the herb
company with spirits and angels, hearing them yielding seed after its kind, and the tree bearing
speak and in turn speaking with them. In this fruit, whose seed was in itself, after its kind; and
way it has been given me to hear and see God saw that it was good. 13. And the evening
wonderful things in the other life which have and the morning were the third day. 14. And
never before come to the knowledge of any God said, Let there be luminaries in the expanse
man, nor into his idea. I have been instructed in of the heavens, to distinguish between the day
regard to the different kinds of spirits; the state and the night; and let them be for signs, and for
of souls after death; hell, or the lamentable seasons, and for days, and for years. 15. And let
state of the unfaithful; heaven, or the blessed them be for luminaries in the expanse of the
state of the faithful; and especially in regard to heavens, to give light upon the earth; and it was
the doctrine of faith which is acknowledged in so. 16. And God made two great luminaries, the
the universal heaven; on which subjects, of the greater luminary to rule by day, and the lesser
Lord's Divine mercy, more will be said in the luminary to rule by night; and the stars. 17. And
following pages. CHAPTER 1 5-1 1. In the God set them in the expanse of the heavens, to
beginning God created the heavens and the give light upon the earth; 18. And to rule in the
earth. 2. And the earth was a void and day, and in the night, and to distinguish
emptiness, and thick darkness was upon the between the light and the darkness; and God
faces of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved saw that it was good. 19. And the evening and
upon the faces of the waters. 3. And God said, the morning were the fourth day. 20. And God
Let there be light, and there was light. 4. And said, Let the waters cause to creep forth the
God saw the light that it was good; and God creeping thing, the living soul; and let fowl fly
distinguished between the light and the above the earth upon the faces of the expanse
darkness. 5. And God called the light day, and of the heavens. 21. And God created great
the darkness He called night. And the evening whales, and every living soul that creepeth,
and the morning were the first day. 6. And God which the waters caused to creep forth after
said, Let there be an expanse in the midst of the their kinds, and every winged fowl after its kind;
waters, and let it distinguish between the and God saw that it was good. 22. And God
waters in the waters. 7. And God made the blessed them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply,
expanse, and made a distinction between the and fill the waters in the seas, and the fowl shall
waters which were under the expanse, and the be multiplied in the earth. 23. And the evening
waters which were above the expanse; and it and the morning were the fifth day. 24. And
was so. 8. And God called the expanse heaven. God said, Let the earth bring forth the living
And the evening and the morning were the soul after its kind; the beast, and the thing
second day. 9. And God said, Let the waters moving itself, and the wild animal of the earth,
under the heaven be gathered together in one after its kind; and it was so. 25. And God made
place, and let the dry [land] appear; and it was the wild animal of the earth after its kind, and
so. 10. And God called the dry [land] earth, and the beast after its kind, and everything that
the gathering together of the waters called He creepeth on the ground after its kind; and God
seas; and God saw that it was good. 11. And saw that it was good. 26. And God said, Let us
455
make man in our image, after our likeness; and The second state is when a distinction is made
let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, between those things which are of the Lord,
and over the fowl of the heavens, and over the and those which are proper to man. The things
beast, and over all the earth, and over every which are of the Lord are called in the word
creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. "remains" and here are especially knowledges
27. And God created man in His own image, in of faith, which have been learned from infancy,
the image of God created He him; male and and which are stored up, and are not
female created He them. 28. And God blessed manifested until the man comes into this state.
them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and At the present day this state seldom exists
multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it; without temptation, misfortune, or sorrow, by
and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and which the things of the body and the world,
over the fowl of the heavens, and over every that is, such as are proper to man, are brought
living thing that creepeth upon the earth. 29. into quiescence, and as it were die. Thus the
And God said, Behold, I give you every herb things which belong to the external man are
bearing seed which is upon the faces of all the separated from those which belong to the
earth, and every tree in which is fruit; the tree internal man. In the internal man are the
yielding seed, to you it shall be for food. 30. And remains, stored up by the Lord unto this time,
to every wild animal of the earth, and to every and for this use.
fowl of the heavens, and to everything that
creepeth upon the earth wherein is a living soul,
every green herb for food; and it was so. 31. 9.
And God saw everything that He had made, and
behold it was very good. And the evening and The third state is that of repentance, in which
the morning were the sixth day. the man, from his internal man, speaks piously
and devoutly, and brings forth goods, like works
of charity, but which nevertheless are
inanimate, because he thinks they are from
6.
himself. These goods are called the "tender
THE CONTENTS. The six days, or periods, which grass" and also the "herb yielding seed" and
are so many successive states of the afterwards the "tree bearing fruit."
regeneration of man, are in general as follows.
10.
7.
The fourth state is when the man becomes
The first state is that which precedes, including affected with love, and illuminated by faith. He
both the state from infancy, and that indeed previously discoursed piously, and
immediately before regeneration. This is called brought forth goods, but he did so in
a "void" "emptiness" and "thick darkness." And consequence of the temptation and straitness
the first motion, which is the Lord's mercy, is under which he labored, and not from faith and
"the Spirit of God moving upon the faces of the charity; wherefore faith and charity are now
waters." enkindled in his internal man, and are called
two "luminaries."
8.
456
11. earth. He also commanded His disciples so to

call Him, saying, "Ye call Me Lord, and ye say
The fifth state is when the man discourses from
well, for I am" (John 13:13). And after His
faith, and thereby confirms himself in truth and
resurrection His disciples called Him "the Lord."
good: the things then produced by him are
animate, and are called the "fish of the sea" and
the "birds of the heavens."
15.
In the universal heaven they know no other

12. Father than the Lord, because He and the
Father are one, as He Himself has said: I am the
The sixth state is when, from faith, and thence
way, the truth, and the life. Philip saith, Show us
from love, he speaks what is true, and does
the Father; Jesus saith to him, Am I so long time
what is good: the things which he then brings
with you, and hast thou not known Me, Philip?
forth are called the "living soul" and the
He that hath seen Me hath seen the Father;
"beast." And as he then begins to act at once
how sayest thou then, Show us the Father?
and together from both faith and love, he
Believest thou not that I am in the Father, and
becomes a spiritual man, who is called an
the Father in Me? Believe Me that I am in the
"image." His spiritual life is delighted and
Father and the Father in Me (John 14:6, 8-11).
sustained by such things as belong to the
knowledges of faith, and to works of charity,
which are called his "food;" and his natural life
16.
is delighted and sustained by those which
belong to the body and the senses; whence a Verse 1. In the beginning God created the
combat arises, until love gains the dominion, heavens [coelum] and the earth. The most
and he becomes a celestial man. ancient time is called "the beginning." By the
prophets it is in various places called the "days
of old" [antiquitatis] and also the "days of
13. eternity." The "beginning" also involves the first
period when man is being regenerated, for he is
Those who are being regenerated do not all
then born anew, and receives life. Regeneration
arrive at this state. The greatest part, at this
itself is therefore called a "new creation" of
day, attain only the first state; some only the
man. The expressions to "create" to "form" to
second; others the third, fourth, or fifth; few
"make" in almost all parts of the prophetic
the sixth; and scarcely anyone the seventh.
writings signify to regenerate, yet with a
difference in the signification. As in Isaiah:
Everyone that is called by My name, I have
14. created him for My glory, I have formed him,
THE INTERNAL SENSE. In the following work, by yea, I have made him (Isa. 43:7). And therefore
the name Lord is meant the Savior of the world, the Lord is called the "Redeemer" the "Former
Jesus Christ, and Him only; and He is called "the from the womb" the "Maker" and also the
Lord" without the addition of other names. "Creator;" as in the same Prophet: I am Jehovah
Throughout the universal heaven He it is who is your Holy One, the Creator of Israel, your King
acknowledged and adored as Lord, because He (Isa. 43:15). In David: The people that is created
has all sovereign power in the heavens and on shall praise Jah (Ps. 102:18). Again: Thou
457
sendest forth Thy spirit, they are created, and maketh the depths of the sea a way for the
Thou renewest the faces of the ground (Ps. ransomed to pass over? Therefore the
104:30). That "heaven" signifies the internal redeemed of Jehovah shall return (Isa. 51:9-11).
man; and "earth" the external man before Such a man also, when seen from heaven,
regeneration, may be seen from what follows. appears like a black mass, destitute of vitality.
The same expressions likewise in general
involve the vastation of man, frequently spoken
17. of by the Prophets, which precedes
regeneration; for before man can know what is
Verse 2. And the earth was a void and true, and be affected with what is good, there
emptiness, and darkness was upon the faces of must be a removal of such things as hinder and
the deep [abyssi]; and the Spirit of God was resist their admission; thus the old man must
brooding upon the faces of the waters. Before needs die, before the new man can be
his regeneration, man is called the "earth void conceived.
and empty" and also the "ground" wherein
nothing of good and truth has been sown;
"void" denotes where there is nothing of good,
19.
and "empty" where there is nothing of truth.
Hence comes "thick darkness" that is, stupidity, By the "Spirit of God" is meant the Lord's
and an ignorance of all things belonging to faith mercy, which is said to "move" or "brood" as a
in the Lord, and consequently of all things hen broods over her eggs. The things over
belonging to spiritual and heavenly life. Such a which it moves are such as the Lord has hidden
man is thus described by the Lord through and treasured up in man, which in the Word
Jeremiah: My people is stupid, they have not throughout are called remains or a remnant,
known Me; they are foolish sons, and are not consisting of the knowledges of the true and of
intelligent; they are wise to do evil, but to do the good, which never come into light or day,
good they have no knowledge. I beheld the until external things are vastated. These
earth, and lo a void and emptiness, and the knowledges are here called "the faces of the
heavens, and they had no light (Jer. 4:22-23). waters."
18. 20.
The "faces of the deep" are the cupidities of the Verse 3. And God said, Let there be light, and
unregenerate man, and the falsities thence there was light. The first state is when the man
originating, of which he wholly consists, and in begins to know that the good and the true are
which he is totally immersed. In this state, something higher. Men who are altogether
having no light, he is like a "deep" or something external do not even know what good and truth
obscure and confused. Such persons are also are; for they fancy all things to be good that
called "deeps" and "depths of the sea" in many belong to the love of self and the love of the
parts of the Word, which are "dried up" or world; and all things to be true that favor these
"wasted" before man is regenerated. As in loves; not being aware that such goods are
Isaiah: Awake as in the ancient days, in the evils, and such truths falsities. But when man is
generations of old. Art not thou it that drieth up conceived anew, he then begins for the first
the sea, the waters of the great deep, that time to know that his goods are not goods, and
458
also, as he comes more into the light, that the no faith; "morning" is every subsequent state,
Lord is, and that He is good and truth itself. That being one of light, or of truth and of the
men ought to know that the Lord is, He Himself knowledges of faith, "Evening" in a general
teaches in John: Except ye believe that I am, ye sense, signifies all things that are of man's own;
shall die in your sins (John 8:24). Also, that the but "morning" whatever is of the Lord, as is said
Lord is good itself, or life, and truth itself, or through David: The spirit of Jehovah spake in
light, and consequently that there is neither me, and His word was on my tongue; the God of
good nor truth except from the Lord, is thus Israel said, the Rock of Israel spake to me. He is
declared: In the beginning was the Word, and as the light of the morning, when the sun
the Word was with God, and God was the ariseth, even a morning without clouds, when
Word. All things were made by Him, and from brightness, from rain, the tender herb
without Him was not anything made that was springeth out of the earth (2 Sam. 23:2-4). As it
made. In Him was life, and the life was the light is "evening" when there is no faith, and
of men. And the light shineth in darkness. He "morning" when there is faith, therefore the
was the true light, which lighteth every man coming of the Lord into the world is called
that cometh into the world (John 1:1, 3-4, 9). "morning;" and the time when He comes,
because then there is no faith, is called
"evening" as in Daniel: The Holy One said unto
21. me, Even unto evening when it becomes
morning, two thousand and three hundred
Verses 4, 5. And God saw the light,that it was (Dan. 8:14, 26). In like manner "morning" is
good, and God distinguished between the light used in the Word to denote every coming of the
and the darkness. And God called the light day, Lord, consequently it is an expression of new
and the dark He called night. Light is called creation.
"good" because it is from the Lord, who is good
itself, The "darkness" means all those things
which, before man is conceived and born anew,
23.
have appeared like light, because evil has
appeared like good, and the false like the true; Nothing is more common in the Word than for
yet they are darkness, consisting merely of the "day" to be used to denote time itself. As in
things proper to man himself, which still Isaiah: The day of Jehovah is at hand. Behold,
remain. Whatsoever is of the Lord is compared the day of Jehovah cometh. I will shake the
to "day" because it is of the light; and heavens, and the earth shall be shaken out of
whatsoever is man's own is compared to her place: in the day of the wrath of My anger.
"night" because it is of darkness. These Her time is near to come, and her days shall not
comparisons frequently occur in the Word. be prolonged (Isa. 13:6, 9, 13, 22). And in the
same Prophet: Her antiquity is of ancient days.
And it shall come to pass in that day that Tyre
22. shall be forgotten seventy years, according to
the days of one king (Isa. 23:7, 15). As "day" is
Verse 5. And the evening and the morning were used to denote time, it is also used to denote
the first day. What is meant by "evening" and the state of that time, as in Jeremiah: Woe unto
what by "morning" can now be discerned. us, for the day is gone down, for the shadows of
"Evening" means every preceding state, the evening are stretched out (Jer. 6:4). And
because it is a state of shade, or of falsity and of again: If ye shall make vain My covenant of the
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day, and My covenant of the night, so that expanse, and the waters which were above the
there be not day and night in their season (Jer. expanse, and it was so. And God called the
23:20, also 25). And again: Renew our days, as expanse heaven (Gen. 1:7-8). [3] The next thing
of old (Lam. 5:21). therefore that man observes in the course of
regeneration is that he begins to know that
there is an internal man, or that the things
24. which are in the internal man are goods and
truths, which are of the Lord alone. Now as the
Verse 6. And God said, Let there be an expanse external man, when being regenerated, is of
in the midst of the waters, and let it distinguish such a nature that he still supposes the goods
between the waters in the waters. After the that he does to be done of himself, and the
spirit of God, or the Lord's mercy, has brought truths that he speaks to be spoken of himself,
forth into day the knowledges of the true and of and whereas, being such, he is led by them of
the good, and has given the first light, that the the Lord, as by things of his own, to do what is
Lord is, that He is good itself, and truth itself, good and to speak what is true, therefore
and that there is no good and truth but from mention is first made of a distinction of the
Him, He then makes a distinction between the waters under the expanse, and afterwards of
internal man and the external, consequently those above the expanse. It is also an arcanum
between the knowledges [cognitiones] that are of heaven, that man, by things of his own, as
in the internal man, and the memory- well by the fallacies of the senses as by
knowledges [scientifica] that belong to the cupidities, is led and bent by the Lord to things
external man. 24-1 The internal man is called an that are true and good, and thus that every
"expanse;" the knowledges [cognitiones] which movement and moment of regeneration, both
are in the internal man are called "the waters in general and in particular, proceeds from
above the expanse;" and the memory- evening to morning, thus from the external man
knowledges of the external man are called "the to the internal, or from "earth" to "heaven."
waters beneath the expanse." Man, before he Therefore the expanse, or internal man, is now
is being regenerated, does not even know that called "heaven."
any internal man exists, much less is he
acquainted with its nature and quality. He
supposes the internal and the external man to
25.
be not distinct from each other. For, being
immersed in bodily and worldly things, he has To "spread out the earth and stretch out the
also immersed in them the things that belong to heavens" is a common form of speaking with
his internal man, and has made of things that the Prophets, when treating of the regeneration
are distinct a confused and obscure unit. of man. As in Isaiah: Thus saith Jehovah thy
Therefore it is first said, "Let there be an Redeemer, and He that formed thee from the
expanse in the midst of the waters" and then, womb; I am Jehovah that maketh all things, that
"Let it distinguish between the waters in the stretcheth forth the heavens alone, that
waters;" but not, Let it distinguish between the spreadeth abroad the earth by Myself (Isa.
waters which are "under" the expanse and the 44:24). And again, where the advent of the Lord
waters which are "above" the expanse, as is is openly spoken of: A bruised reed shall He not
afterwards said in the next verses: And God break, and the smoking flax shall He not
made the expanse, and made a distinction quench; He shall bring forth judgment unto
between the waters which were under the truth (Isa. 42:3); that is, He does not break
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fallacies, nor quench cupidities, but bends them Verse 10. And God called the dry [land] earth,
to what is true and good; and therefore it and the gathering together of the waters called
follows, Jehovah God createth the heavens, and the seas; and God saw that it was good. It is a
stretcheth them out; He spreadeth out the very common thing in the Word for "waters" to
earth, and the productions thereof; He giveth signify knowledges [cognitiones et scientifica],
breath unto the people upon it, and spirit to and consequently for "seas" to signify a
them that walk therein (Isa. 42:5). Not to collection of knowledges. As in Isaiah: The earth
mention other passages to the same purport. shall be full of the knowledge [scientia] of
Jehovah, as the waters cover the sea (Isa. 11:9).
And in the same Prophet, where a lack of
26. knowledges [cognitionum et scientificorum] is
treated of: The waters shall fail from the sea,
Verse 8. And the evening and the morning were and the river shall be dried up and become
the second day. The meaning of "evening" of utterly dry, and the streams shall recede (Isa.
"morning" and of "day" was shown above at 19:5-6). In Haggai, speaking of a new church: I
verse 5. will shake the heavens and the earth, and the
sea and the dry [land]; and I will shake all
nations; and the desire of all nations shall come;
27. and I will fill this house with glory (Hag. 2:6-7).
Verse 9. And God said, Let the waters under the And concerning man in the process of
heaven be gathered together to one place, and regeneration, in Zechariah: There shall be one
let the dry [land] appear; and it was so. When it day, it is known to Jehovah; not day, nor night;
is known that there is both an internal and an but it shall come to pass that at evening time it
external man, and that truths and goods flow in shall be light; and it shall be in that day that
from, or through, the internal man to the living waters shall go out from Jerusalem, part
external, from the Lord, although it does not so of them toward the eastern sea, and part of
appear, then those truths and goods, or the them toward the hinder sea (Zech. 14:7-
knowledges of the true and the good in the 8).David also, describing a vastated man who is
regenerating man, are stored up in his memory, to be regenerated and who will worship the
and are classed among its knowledges Lord: Jehovah despiseth not His prisoners; let
[scientifica]; for whatsoever is insinuated into the heavens and the earth praise Him, the seas
the memory of the external man, whether it be and everything that creepeth therein (Ps. 69:33-
natural, or spiritual, or celestial, abides there as 34). That the "earth" signifies a recipient,
memory-knowledge [scientificum], and is appears from Zechariah: Jehovah stretcheth
brought forth thence by the Lord. These forth the heavens, and layeth the foundation of
knowledges are the "waters gathered together the earth, and formeth the spirit of man in the
into one place" and are called "seas" but the midst of him (Zech. 12:1).
external man himself is called the "dry [land]"
and presently "earth" as in what follows.
29.
Verses 11, 12. And God said, Let the earth bring
28. forth the tender herb, the herb yielding seed,
and the fruit tree bearing fruit after its kind,
whose seed is in itself, upon the earth; and it
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was so. And the earth brought forth the tender person is also called "heaven" because heaven
herb, the herb yielding seed after its kind, and is in him; and likewise the "kingdom of God"
the tree bearing fruit, whose seed was in itself, because the kingdom of God is in him as the
after its kind; and God saw that it was good. Lord Himself teaches in Luke: Being demanded
When the "earth" or man, has been thus of the Pharisees when the kingdom of God
prepared to receive celestial seeds from the should come, He answered them, and said, The
Lord, and to produce something of what is good kingdom of God cometh not with observation;
and true, then the Lord first causes some tender neither shall they say, Lo here! or, Lo there! For
thing to spring forth, which is called the "tender behold, the kingdom of God is within you (Luke
herb;" then something more useful, which again 17:20-21). This is the third successive stage of
bears seed in itself, and is called the "herb the regeneration of man, being his state of
yielding seed;" and at length something good repentance, and in like manner proceeding
which becomes fruitful, and is called the "tree from shade to light, or from evening to
bearing fruit, whose seed is in itself" each morning; wherefore it is said (verse 13), "and
according to its own kind. The man who is being the evening and the morning were the third
regenerated is at first of such a quality that he day."
supposes the good which he does, and the truth
which he speaks, to be from himself, when in
reality all good and all truth are from the Lord, 30.
so that whosoever supposes them to be from
himself has not as yet the life of true faith, Verses 14-17. And God said, Let there be
which nevertheless he may afterwards receive; luminaries in the expanse of the heavens, to
for he cannot as yet believe that they are from distinguish between the day and the night; and
the Lord, because he is only in a state of let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for
preparation for the reception of the life of faith. days, and for years; and let them be for
This state is here represented by things luminaries in the expanse of the heavens, to
inanimate, and the succeeding one of the life of give light upon the earth; and it was so. And
faith, by animate things. The Lord is He who God made two great luminaries, the greater
sows, the "seed" is His Word, and the "earth" is luminary to rule by day, and the lesser luminary
man, as He himself has deigned to declare to rule by night; and the stars. And God set
(Matt. 13:19-24, 37-39; Mark 4:14-21; Luke them in the expanse of the heavens, to give
8:11-16). To the same purport He gives this light upon the earth. What is meant by "great
description: So is the kingdom of God, as a man luminaries" cannot be clearly understood unless
when he casteth seed into the earth, and it is first known what is the essence of faith, and
sleepeth and riseth night and day, and the seed also what is its progress with those who are
groweth and riseth up, he knoweth not how; for being created anew. The very essence and life
the earth bringeth forth fruit of herself, first the of faith is the Lord alone, for he who does not
blade, then the ear, after that the full corn in believe in the Lord cannot have life, as He
the ear (Mark 4:26-28). By the "kingdom of himself has declared in John: He that believeth
God" in the universal sense, is meant the on the Son hath eternal life, but he that
universal heaven; in a sense less universal, the believeth not on the Son shall not see life, but
true church of the Lord; and in a particular the wrath of God shall abide upon him (John
sense, everyone who is of true faith, or who is 3:36). The progression of faith with those who
regenerate by a life of faith. Wherefore such a are being created anew is as follows. At first
they have no life, for it is only in the good and
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the true that there is life, and none in the evil

and the false; afterwards they receive life from
the Lord by faith, first by faith of the memory,
which is a faith of mere knowledge [fides
scientifica]; next by faith in the understanding,
which is an intellectual faith; lastly by faith in
the heart, which is the faith of love, or saving
faith. The first two kinds of faith are
represented from verse 3 to verse 13, by things Chapter three
inanimate, but faith vivified by love is Earths in the Universe
represented from verse 20 to verse 25, by
animate things. For this reason love, and faith
thence derived, are now here first treated of,
and are called "luminaries;" love being "the
greater luminary which rules by day;" faith
derived from love "the lesser luminary which 1.
rules by night;" and as these two luminaries Since, from the Divine mercy of the Lord, the
ought to make a one, it is said of them, in the interiors, which are of my spirit, have been
singular number, "Let there be luminaries" [sit opened to me, and thereby it has been granted
luminaria], and not in the plural [sint luminaria]. me to speak with spirits and angels, not only
Love and faith in the internal man are like heat with those who are near our earth, but also
and light in the external corporeal man, for with those who are near other earths; because I
which reason the former are represented by the had a desire to know whether there are other
latter. It is on this account that luminaries are earths, and what their nature is, and the quality
said to be "set in the expanse of heaven" or in of their inhabitants, therefore it has been
the internal man; a great luminary in its will, granted me by the Lord to speak and converse
and a lesser one in its understanding; but they with spirits and angels who are from other
appear in the will and the understanding only as earths, with some for a day, with some for a
does the light of the sun in its recipient objects. week, and with some for months; and to be
It is the Lord's mercy alone that affects the will instructed by them concerning the earths, from
with love, and the understanding with truth or which and near which they were; and
faith. concerning the lives, customs, and worship of
the inhabitants thereof, and of various other
things worthy to be related: and because in this
manner it has been granted me to know these
things, it is permitted to describe them from
what has been heard and seen. It is to be
known that all spirits and angels are from the
human race; 1-1 and that they are near their
own earths; 1-2 and that they know what is
there; and that by them man may be instructed,
if his interiors are so far opened that he can
speak and converse with them; for man in his
essence is a spirit, 1-3 and he is together with
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spirits as to his interiors; 1-4 wherefore he as being within the boundaries of this solar
whose interiors are opened by the Lord, may system, are earths, may be manifestly known
speak with them as man with man; 1-5 which from this, that they are bodies of earthy matter,
has been granted me now for twelve years because they reflect the light of the sun, and
daily. FROM THE ARCANA COELESTIA; WHERE when seen through optical glasses, they appear,
THESE AND THE FOLLOWING NOTES ARE not as stars glittering by reason of their flame,
EXPLAINED AND SHOWN. but as earths variegated from darker portions.
The same may further appear from this, that
they, in like manner as our earth, are conveyed
2. by a progressive motion round the sun, in the
way of the zodiac, whence they have their
That there are many earths, and men upon years, and seasons of the year, as spring,
them, and spirits and angels thence, is well summer, autumn, and winter; and in like
known in the other life, for it is there granted to manner, as our earth, revolve about their own
every one who desires it from a love of truth, axis, whence they have their days, and times of
and thence of use, to speak with the spirits of the day, as morning, noon, evening and night.
other earths, and thereby to be confirmed Moreover some of them have moons, which are
concerning a plurality of worlds, and to be called satellites, and which revolve round their
informed that the human race is not from one globes at stated times, as the moon does round
earth only, but from innumerable earths; and our earth. Also the planet Saturn has besides a
moreover to be informed what is their genius, large luminous belt, because it is very far
manner of life, and their Divine worship. distant from the sun, which belt supplies that
earth with much light, although reflected. Who
that knows these things and from reason thinks
3. about them can say that these are empty
I have occasionally spoken on this subject with bodies?
the spirits of our earth, and it was said that any
man of keen understanding may conclude from
many things that he knows that there are many 4.
earths, and that there are men there; for it may Moreover, when I have spoken with spirits, I
be concluded from reason that such great have said that men may believe that in the
masses as the planets are, some of which universe there are more earths than one, from
exceed this earth in magnitude, are not empty , this, that the starry heaven is so immense, and
gasses, and created only to be conveyed in their the stars therein are so innumerable, each of
revolutions round the sun, and to shine with which in its place, or in its world, is a sun, and
their scanty light for one earth, but that their like our sun, in various magnitude. Whoever
use must needs be more excellent than that. He duly considers, concludes that so immense a
who believes, as every one ought to believe, whole must needs be a means to an end, which
that the Divine created the universe for no is the ultimate of creation, which end is the
other end than that the human race may exist, kingdom of heaven, wherein the Divine may
and thence heaven, for the human race is the dwell with angels and men; for the visible
seminary of heaven, must needs believe also, universe, or the heaven resplendent with stars
that wherever there is an earth, there are men. so innumerable, which are so many suns, is only
That the planets which are visible to our eyes, a means for the existence of earths, and of men
464
upon them, of whom may be formed a heavenly adore the Divine not as invisible, but as visible,
kingdom. From these things a rational man also for this reason, because when the Divine
must needs be led to conceive, that so immense appears to them, He appears in the human
a means, adapted to so great an end, was not form, as He also formerly appeared to Abraham
constituted for a race of men and for a heaven and others on this earth; 7-1 and they who
thence derived from one earth only; for what adore the Divine under a human form, are all
would this be to the Divine, which is infinite, accepted by the Lord. 7-2 They say also, that no
and to which thousands, yea, ten thousands of one can rightly worship God, much less be
earths, all full of inhabitants, would be small joined to Him, unless He comprehends Him by
and scarce anything. some idea, and that God cannot be
comprehended except in the human form; and
if He be not so comprehended, the interior
5. sight, which is of the thought, concerning God,
is dissipated, as the sight of the eye when
Moreover, the angelic heaven is so immense, looking upon the boundless universe; and that
that it corresponds with all the particulars with in this case the thought cannot but sink into
man, myriads corresponding to every member, nature, and worship nature as God.
organ, and viscus, and to every affection of
each; and it has been given to know, that this
heaven, as to all its correspondences, can by no
8.
means exist, except from the inhabitants of very
many earths. 5-1 Then they were told that the Lord on our earth
assumed the Human, they mused awhile, and
presently said, that it was done for the salvation
6. of the human race.
There are spirits whose sole study is to acquire

to themselves knowledges, because they are
9.
delighted only with knowledges. Therefore
these spirits are permitted to wander about, THE EARTH OR PLANET MERCURY, ITS SPIRITS
and even to pass out of this solar system into AND INHABITANTS. That the whole heaven
others, and to procure for themselves resembles one man, which is therefore called
knowledges. They have declared that there are the Greatest Man, and that each and all things
earths inhabited by men, not only in this solar with man, both his exteriors and interiors,
system, but also out of it in the starry heaven, correspond to that man or heaven, is an
to an immense number. These spirits are from arcanum not yet known in the world; but that it
the planet Mercury. is so, has been abundantly shown. 9-1 To
constitute that Greatest Man, there is need of
spirits from many earths, those who come from
7. our earth into heaven not being sufficient for
this purpose, being respectively few; and it is
As to what in general concerns the Divine provided by the Lord, that whenever there is a
worship of the inhabitants of other earths, deficiency in any place as to the quality or
those of them who are not idolaters, all quantity of correspondence, Immediately those
acknowledge the Lord as the only God; for they are summoned from another earth who can fill
465
up the deficiency, that the proportion may be attended to the things and deeds done there.
preserved, and thus heaven be kept in due They said they had no delight in looking at
consistence. things material, corporeal, and terrestrial, but
only at things real. Hence it was confirmed, that
the spirits of that earth, in the Greatest Man,
10. have relation to the memory of things
abstracted from what is material and terrestrial.
It was also disclosed to me from heaven, in
what relation to the Greatest Man the spirits
from the planet Mercury stand, namely, that
12.
they have relation to the memory, but to the
memory of things abstracted from terrestrial It was told me, that such is the life of the
and merely material objects. Since how ever it inhabitants of that earth, namely, that they
has been granted to speak with them, and this have no concern about things terrestrial and
during many weeks, and to learn their nature corporeal, but only about the statutes, laws,
and quality, and to explore how the inhabitants and forms of government, of the nations
of that earth are particularly circumstanced, I therein; also about the things of heaven, which
will adduce the experiences themselves. are innumerable, And I was further informed,
that many of the men of that earth speak with
spirits, and that thence they have the
11. knowledges of spiritual things, and of the states
of life after death; and thence also their
Some spirits came to me, and it was declared contempt of things corporeal and terrestrial.
from heaven, that they were from the earth For they who know of a certainty, and believe in
which is nearest to the sun, and which in our the life after death, are concerned about
earth is called by the name of the planet heavenly things, as being eternal and happy,
Mercury. Immediately on their coming, they but not about worldly things, only so far as the
sought from my memory what I knew. Spirits necessities of life require. Because the
can do this most dexterously, for when they inhabitants of Mercury are such, therefore also
come to man, they see in his memory all things the spirits who are from thence are of a like
contained therein. 11-1 During their search for nature. 12-1
various things, and amongst others, for the
cities and places where I had been, I observed
that they did not wish to know anything of
13.
temples, palaces, houses, or streets, but only of
those things which I knew were transacted in With what eagerness they inquire into and
those places, also of whatever related to the imbibe the knowledges of things, such as
government therein, and to the genius and appertain to the memory elevated above the
manners of the inhabitants, and similar things: sensual things of the body, was made manifest
for such things cohere with places in man's to me from this, that when they looked into
memory; wherefore when the places are those things which I knew respecting heavenly
recalled, those things also are brought up. I things, they passed hastily through them all,
wondered that they were of such a nature; and continually saying that this and that were
wherefore I asked them, why they disregarded so and so. For when spirits come to man, they
the magnificence of the places, and only enter into all his memory, and excite thence
466
whatever suits themselves: yea, what I have appear manifest, that spirits have memory, and
often observed, they read the things contained that it is much more perfect than the memory
therein, as out of a book. 13-1 These spirits did of men; and further, that what they hear, see,
this with greater dexterity and expedition, and apperceive, they retain, and especially such
because they did not stop at such things as are things as delight them, as these spirits are
heavy and sluggish, and which confine and delighted with the knowledges of things. For
consequently retard the internal sight, as all whatever things cause delight, and affect the
terrestrial and corporeal things do, when love, these flow in as it were spontaneously,
regarded as ends, that is, when alone loved: but and remain; other things do not enter, but only
they looked into things themselves; for such touch the surface and pass by.
things, which are not clogged with things
terrestrial, carry the mind upwards, thus into a
broad field; whereas mere material things carry 15.
the mind downwards, and at the same time
limit and shut it up. Their eagerness to acquire When the spirits of Mercury come to other
knowledges, and to enrich the memory, was societies, they explore and collect from them
manifest also from the following experience. what they know, and then they depart; for such
Once while I was writing something concerning communication is granted amongst spirits and
things to come, and they were at a distance, so especially amongst angels, that when they are
that they could not look into those things from in a society, if they are accepted and loved, all
my memory, because I was not willing to read things which they know are communicated. 15-
them in their presence, they were very 1
indignant, and contrary to their usual behavior,
they were desirous to inveigh against me,
saying that I was one of the worst of men, and 16.
the like; and that they might give proof of their In consequence of their knowledges, the spirits
resentment, they caused a kind of contraction of Mercury are more proud than others;
attended with pain on the right side of my head wherefore they were told, that although they
even to the ear. But these things did not hurt knew innumerable things, yet there are infinite
me. Nevertheless, in consequence of having things which they do not know; and that if their
done evil, they removed themselves to a yet knowledges should increase to eternity, the
greater distance, but presently they stood still notice even of all general things would still be
again, desirous to know what I had written; unattainable. They were told likewise of their
such is their eager thirst after knowledges. pride and elation of mind, and that this is
unseemly; but they replied, that it is not pride,
but only a glorying by reason of the faculty of
14. their memory; thus they were able to excuse
The spirits of Mercury, above all other spirits, their faults.
possess the knowledges of things, as well
respecting this solar system, as respecting the
earths which are in the starry heavens; and 17.
what they have once acquired to themselves, They are averse to vocal speech, because it is
that they retain, and also recollect as often as material; wherefore when I conversed with
anything similar occurs. Hence also it may
467
them without intermediate spirits, I could only The spirits of Mercury differ altogether from the
do it by a species of active thought. Their spirits of our earth, for the spirits of our earth
memory, as consisting of things not of images do not care so much about realities, but about
purely material, supplies objects that are nearer worldly, corporeal, and terrestrial things, which
to the thought; for the thought, which is above are material; wherefore the spirits of Mercury
the imagination, requires for its objects things cannot be together with the spirits of our earth,
abstracted from material. But notwithstanding therefore wheresoever they happen to meet
this, the spirits of Mercury are little them, they flee away; for the spiritual spheres,
distinguished for their judgment, having no which are exhaled from each, are almost
delight in the exercise of that faculty, and the contrary. The spirits of Mercury have a common
deducing of conclusions from knowledges; for saying, that they do not wish to look at a
bare knowledges alone are delightful to them. sheath, but at things stripped of their sheath,
that is, at interior things.
18.
21.
They were asked whether they wished to make
any use of their knowledges; for it is not enough There appeared a whitish flame, burning briskly,
to be delighted with knowledges, because and this for nearly an hour. That Same signified
knowledges have respect to uses, and uses the approach of spirits of Mercury, who for
ought to be the ends of knowledges; from penetration, thought, and speech, were more
knowledges alone no use results to them, but to prompt than the former spirits. When they
others with whom they are disposed to were come, they instantly ran through the
communicate their knowledges; and that it is things contained in my memory, but I could not
very inexpedient for any one who wishes to be perceive what they observed by reason of their
wise, to rest satisfied with mere knowledges, promptitude. I heard them afterwards saying
these being only administering causes, intended that such is the case; in respect to what I had
to be subservient to the investigation of things seen in the heavens and in the world of spirits,
appertaining to life: but they replied, that they they said that they knew those things before. I
were delighted with knowledges, and that perceived that a multitude of spirits
knowledges to them are uses. consociated with them was behind, a little to
the left in the plane of the occiput.
19.
22.
Some of them are also unwilling to appear as
men, like the spirits of other earths, and would At another time I saw a multitude of such
rather appear as crystalline globes. The reason spirits, but at some distance from me, in front a
why they are desirous to appear so, although little to the right, and thence they discoursed
they do not so appear, is because the with me, but through intermediate spirits; for
knowledges of things immaterial are their speech was as quick as thought, which
represented in the other life by crystals. does not fall into human speech, but by means
of other spirits. And what surprised me, they
spoke in a volume*, and yet readily and rapidly.
20. Their speech was perceived as undulatory,
468
because of many together, and what is relation to the memory of things, which
remarkable, it was conveyed towards my left memory must be continually enriched. Hence it
eye, although they were to the right. The is granted them to wander about, and to
reason was, because the left eye corresponds to acquire to themselves knowledges in every
the knowledges of things abstracted from what place. During their sojourning in this manner, if
is material, consequently to such things as they meet with spirits who love material things,
appertain to intelligence: whereas the right eye that is, things corporeal and terrestrial, they
corresponds to such things as appertain to avoid them, and betake themselves where they
wisdom. 22-1 They likewise perceived and do not hear such things. Hence it may appear,
judged of what they heard with the same that their mind is elevated above things of
promptitude with which they discoursed, saying sense, and thus that they are in interior light.
of such a thing that it was so, and of such a This was also given me actually to perceive,
thing that it was not so; their judgment was as it whilst they were near me, and discoursed with
were instantaneous. me: I observed at such times, that I was
withdrawn from things of sense, insomuch that
the light of my eyes began to grow dull and
23. obscure.
There was a spirit from another earth, who

could speak dexterously with them, because he
25.
spoke promptly and quickly, but who affected
elegance in his discourse. They instantly The spirits of that earth go in companies and
decided on whatever he spoke, saying of this, phalanxes, and when assembled together, they
that it was too elegant; of that, that it was too form as it were a globe. Thus they are joined
polished: so that the sole thing they attended to together by the Lord, that they may act in unity,
was, whether they could hear anything from and that the knowledges of each may be
him which they had never known before, communicated with all, and the knowledges of
rejecting thus the things which caused all with each, as is the case in heaven. 25-1 That
obscurity, which are especially affectations of they wander through the universe to acquire
elegance of discourse and erudition; for these the knowledges of things, appeared to me also
bide real things, and instead thereof present from this, that once, when they appeared very
expressions, which are only material forms of far from me, they discoursed with me thence,
things; for the speaker keeps the attention fixed and said, that they were then gathered
herein, and is desirous that his expressions together, and journeying out of the sphere of
should be regarded more than the meaning of this world into the starry heaven, where they
them, whereby the ears are more affected than knew such spirits existed as had no concern
the mind. about terrestrial and corporeal things, but only
about things elevated above them, with whom
they wished to be. It was said, that they
24. themselves do not know whither they are
going, but that they are led from the Divine
The spirits of the earth Mercury do not abide auspices to those places where they may be
long in one place, or within companies of the instructed concerning such things as they do
spirits of one world, but wander through the not yet know, and which agree with the
universe. The reason is, because they have knowledges that they have already. It was also
469
said, that they do not know how to find the consequence thereof, such as are evil and
companions with whom they are joined unbelieving entertain doubt respecting the life
together, and that this also is done from the after death; also, that the part of man which is
Divine auspices. to live after death is not by them called spirit,
but soul; and that they dispute what soul is, and
where is its abode, and believe that the
26. material body, although dispersed to all the
winds, is to be joined again to it, in order that
Because of their thus journeying through the man may live as man; with many other things of
universe, and thereby being enabled to know a like nature. The spirits of Mercury, on hearing
more than others respecting the worlds and these things, asked, whether such men could
earths out of the sphere of our solar system, I become angels; and it was given to answer, that
have also spoken with them on this subject. those become angels who have lived in the
They said that in the universe there are very good of faith and charity, and that then they are
many earths inhabited by men; and that they no longer in external and material things, but in
wonder how any should suppose, whom they internal and spiritual; and then they come into
called men of little judgment, that the heaven that state, that they are in a light superior to
of the omnipotent God consisted only of spirits that in which the spirits from mercury are. That
and angels who come from one earth, when they might know that it was so, an angel was
these comparatively are so few that in respect allowed to discourse with them, who had come
to the omnipotence of God they are scarce into heaven from our earth, who had been such
anything, even if there should he myriads of when he lived in the world, concerning whom
worlds, and myriads of earths. They said, more will be said presently.
moreover, that they knew there were earths
existing in the universe to the number of some
hundred thousands and upwards; and yet what
28.
is this to the Divine, which is infinite?
Afterwards there was sent me by the spirits of
Mercury a long piece of paper, of an irregular
27. shape, consisting of several pieces pasted
together, which appeared as if printed with
The spirits of Mercury, who were with me types, as on this earth. I asked whether they
whilst I was writing and explaining the Word as had the art of printing amongst them; but they
to its internal sense, and who perceived what I said they had not, nevertheless they knew that
wrote: said that the things which I wrote were on our earth we had such printed papers. They
in a manner gross, and that almost all the did not wish to say more; but I perceived that
expressions appeared as material; but it was they thought that knowledges in our earth were
given to reply, that to the men of our earth upon paper, and not so much in man, thus
what was written seemed subtle and elevated, insinuating that the papers knew what man did
and many things incomprehensible. I added, not. But they were instructed how this really is.
that many on this earth do not know that it is After some time they returned, and sent me
the internal man which acts into the external, another paper, which appeared also printed like
and causes the external to live; and that they the former, but not so pasted together and
persuade themselves from the fallacies of the irregular, but neat and handsome. They said,
senses that the body has life, and that in that they were further informed, that in our
470
earth there are such papers, and books made of things abstracted from what is material,
them. therefore when any one discourses with them
concerning things terrestrial, corporeal, and
merely worldly, they are altogether unwilling to
29. hear him; and if they are forced to hear, they
transmute the things spoken of into other
From what has now been said, it appears things, and for the most part into things
manifest, that spirits retain in the memory what contrary, that they may avoid them.
they see and hear in the other life, and that
they are capable of being instructed alike as
when they were men in the world,
32.
consequently of being instructed in the things
of faith, and thereby of being perfected. The That I might know for certain, that such is their
more interior spirits and angels are, in the same genius, it was allowed to represent to them
proportion they receive instruction more meadows, fallow lands, gardens, woods, and
readily, and in a greater fullness, and retain it rivers; to represent such things is imaginatively
more perfectly: and inasmuch as this faculty to exhibit them before another, in which case,
abides forever, it is evident that they are in another world, they appear to the life; but
continually increasing in wisdom. With the they instantly transmuted them, obscuring the
spirits of Mercury there is a constant growth in meadows and fallow fields, and by
the science of things, but not in wisdom thence representations filling them with snakes. The
derived, because they love knowledges, which rivers they made black, so that the water no
are means, but not uses which are ends. longer appeared limpid. When I asked them
why they did so, they said that they did not
wish to think of such things, but of things real,
30. which are the knowledges of things abstracted
from what is terrestrial, especially of such
The genius of the spirits who are from the things as exist in the heavens.
planet Mercury, may still further appear from
the following account. It is to be known, that all
spirits and angels whatsoever, were once men
33.
for the human race is the seminary of heaven;
also that the spirits are altogether such, as to Afterwards I represented to them birds of
affections and inclinations, as they were during different sizes, both large and small, such as
their life in the world whilst men; for every exist on our earth; for in the other life such
one's life follows him. 30-1 This being the case, things may be represented to the life. When
the genius of the men of every earth may be they saw the birds represented, they at first
known from the genius of the spirits who are wished to change them, but afterwards they
thence. were delighted with them and were satisfied.
The reason was, because birds signify the
knowledges of things, and the perception of this
31. then flowed in also. 33-1 Thus they desisted
from transmuting them, and thereby from
Inasmuch as the spirits of Mercury in the averting the ideas of their memory. Afterwards
Greatest Man have relation to the memory of it was allowed to represent before them a most
471
pleasant garden full of lamps and lights; then distance, from which those spirits were sent,
they paused, and their attention was fixed, for made answer, that if they were to be punished
the reason that lamps with lights signify truths on that account, they must all he punished,
which shine from good. 33-2 Hence it was made since by reason of acquired habit they could not
manifest that their attention might be fixed in do otherwise. They said that when they speak
viewing things material, if only the signification with the men of their own earth, they also do
of those things in the spiritual sense was so, but this not with any intention of deceiving,
insinuated at the same time; for the things of but to inspire the desire of knowing; for when
the spiritual sense are not so abstracted from they suggest things opposite, and conceal
things material, since these are representatives things in a certain manner, then the desire of
of them. knowing is excited, and thereby from the
endeavor to search out those things, the
memory is perfected. I also spoke with them at
34. another time on the same subject, and because
I knew that they spoke with the men of their
Moreover I spoke with them concerning sheep earth, I asked them in what manner they
and lambs, but they were not willing to hear of instruct their inhabitants. They said that they do
such things, because they were perceived by not instruct them how the matter is, but still
them as things terrestrial. The reason was, they insinuate some perception thereof, that
because they did not understand what thus a desire of examining and knowing may be
innocence is, which lambs signify, as was cherished and grow; which desire would perish,
perceivable from this, that when I told them in case they answered everything. They added,
that lambs, represented in heaven, signify that they suggest things opposite also, for this
innocence, 34-1 they immediately said that reason, that the truth afterwards may better
they did not know what innocence was, but appear; for all truth is made manifest by
only knew it as to the name; and this was relation to its opposites.
because they are affected only with
knowledges, and not with uses, which are the
ends of knowledges, consequently they cannot
36.
know from internal perception what innocence
is. It is their custom not to declare to another what
they know, but still they desire to learn from all
others what is known to them. But with their
35. own society they communicate all things,
insomuch that what one knows all know, and
Some of the spirits of the earth Mercury came what all know each one there knows. 36-1
to me, being sent by others, to bear what I was
employed about. One of the spirits of our earth
said to them, that they might tell those who
37.
sent them not to speak anything but what was
true, and not, according to their usual practice, Because the spirits of Mercury abound in
suggest things opposite to those who knowledges, they are in a certain kind of pride;
questioned them; for if any of the spirits of our hence they imagine that they know so much,
earth were to do so, he would he punished. But that it is almost impossible to know more. Rut it
immediately the company which was at a was told them by the spirits of our earth, that
472
they do not know many, but few things, and was separated, and that they who were not in
that the things which they do not know are humiliation were remanded back towards their
respectively infinite, and that those things orb, the rest remaining where they were.
which they do not know, compared to the
things they know, are like the waters of the
largest ocean compared with the waters of a
very small fountain; and further, that the first
step to wisdom is to know, acknowledge, and
perceive that what is known is little and scarce
anything in comparison with what is unknown.
To convince them that this is the case, it was
granted, that a certain angelic spirit should
speak with them, and should tell them in
general what they knew, and what they did not
know, and that there were infinite things which
they did not know, also that to eternity they
could not even know the general things. He
spoke by angelic ideas much more readily than
they did, and because he discovered to them
what they knew, and what they did not know,
they were struck with amazement. Afterwards I
saw another angel speaking with them, who
appeared in some altitude to the right. He was
from our earth, and enumerated very many
things which they did not know. Afterwards he
spoke with them by changes of state, which
Chapter four
they said they did not understand. Then he told
them that every change of state contains Charity
infinite things, as did also every smallest part of
such change. When they heard these things,
inasmuch as they had been in pride on account
of their knowledges, they began to humble 1.
themselves. Their humiliation was represented I THE "FIRST" OF CHARITY IS TO LOOK TO THE
by the sinking downwards of their volume; for LORD AND SHUN EVILS BECAUSE THEY ARE
that company then appeared as a volume, in SINS; THIS IS DONE BY REPENTANCE. To be
front at a distance towards the left, in the plane expounded in this order: (1) In so far as anyone
of the region below the navel, but the volume does not shun evils because they are sins, he
appeared as it were hollowed in the middle, remains in them. (2) In so far as anyone does
and elevated on the sides; a reciprocal moving not recognize and know what are sins, he does
was also observed therein. They were likewise not see otherwise than that he is without sin.
told what that signified, that is, what they (3) In so far as anyone recognizes and knows
thought in their humiliation, and that they who what are sins, he can see them in himself,
appeared elevated on the sides were not as yet confess them before the Lord. and repent of
in any humiliation. And I saw that the volume them. (4) Before repentance, good is spurious
473
good. It is the same with charity, because good 2. In so far as anyone does not recognize and
is of charity. (5) Consequently the "first" of know what are sins, he does not see otherwise
charity is to look to the Lord and shun evils than that he is without sin. Because of the
because they are sins. Word, he knows that he is a sinner, in evils from
head to foot, yet he does not really know,
because he does not see any sin in himself.
2. Consequently he prays with a ringing voice as it
were, he confesses with a ringing voice as it
1. In so far as anyone does not look to the Lord were, and yet inmostly in himself he believes
and shun evils because they are sins, he that he is not a sinner. This belief is made
remains in them. Man is born into evils of every evident in the other life; for then he says, "I am
kind. His will, which is his proprium, 2-1 is pure, I am clean, I am guiltless"; nevertheless,
nothing but evil. Unless, therefore, a man is when he is examined, he is impure, unclean,
reformed and regenerated, he not only remains indeed even carrion. It is as if the skin were
just as he was born, but becomes even worse, outwardly clear and soft, [but] the inner parts
because he adds actual evils himself to those from the heart itself were diseased; or as if a
hereditarily acquired. A man remains such if he liquid were, on the surface, like water, but in its
does not shun evils as sins. Shunning them as depths putrid from stagnation.
sins is shunning them as diabolical and hellish,
and thus deadly, and because accordingly there
is eternal damnation in them. If a man so
4.
regards them, then he believes that there is a
hell and a heaven; he also believes that the Lord 3. In so far as anyone recognizes and knows
can remove evils, if he, too, as from himself, what are sins, he can see them in himself,
makes an effort to remove them. But the things confess them before the Lord, and repent of
which are shown on this subject in THE them. It is said that he can if he will, and he who
DOCTRINE OF LIFE FOR THE NEW JERUSALEM, believes in eternal life does will. But even so, he
nos. 108-113, may be seen, to which I will add ought to think not about the things he does, but
this: All evils are innately delightful, because about those he wants to do, which, when he
man is born into the love of self, and that love believes them allowable, he also does, or, if he
delights in all the things that are of his does not do them, it is on account of the world.
proprium, that is, the things that he wills and There is an internal effect and an external
thinks. Unless these inbred delights are effect, or internal and external deed. The
subdued, everyone remains in them until death; external effect or deed proceeds and has
and they are not subdued unless they are existence from the internal effect or deed, just
regarded as sweet poisons which kill, or as as action from effort. Effort in a man is will;
flowers beautiful in appearance but inwardly consequently, although he does not do a thing
toxic, that is, unless the delights of the evils are in body, yet if he makes it allowable, then the
regarded as being fatal, and this until they effort or will remains, and this, in spirit, is action
become undelightful. itself. Therefore, recognizing and knowing what
his sins are is recognizing and knowing his
thoughts, and in them what he makes
3. allowable, and then what he lusts after and
favours in his thought. For example, if a man
considers whether whoredom is a sin, and what
474
a serious sin it is, whether hatred and acts of taken away at death when he is let into his
revenge are sins, whether thefts and the like, interior things, and it becomes openly evil.
arrogance and pride, contempt also for others,
and avarice, are sins; he must then remove any
disguises he has cast over them, that is, any 7.
confirmations, and let him consult the Word,
and he will see. Every good that a man does to the neighbour is
of charity, or is charity. The quality of the
charity therefore may be recognized from the
three things preceding, namely: 1, To what
5.
extent he shuns evils as sins, 2, To what extent
Everyone sees that he who acknowledges that a he knows and recognizes what are sins; 3, And
sin is a sin [can see the sins in himself] but he to what extent he has seen them in himself,
who makes them allowable in thought, and, on confessed them, and repented. These are the
account of the world, not allowable in the body, indications to anyone of what quality is the
cannot see them. He is like a man turning a charity he has.
mirror upside down to see his face, or like one
who wants to see his face putting a piece of
linen gauze in front of it. 5-1 8.
5. Consequently the "first" of charity is to look

to the Lord and shun evils because they are sins.
6.
Every good which a man does to the neighbour
4. Before repentance, good is spurious good. It for the sake of the neighbour, or for the sake of
is the same with charity, because good is of truth and good, thus for the sake of what is in
charity. For there is evil inwardly with the man, accordance with the Word, or for the sake of
because it has not been opened, and therefore religion, thus for the sake of God, which
not healed; and genuine good cannot spring therefore is from a spiritual love or affection, is
from evil. The fountain is impure. The good called a good of charity, or a good work. This is
which springs from evil may, in its outward not good in so far as it derives [anything] from
form, appear good; but within it, is the man, the man, but is good in so far as it is from the
such as he is inwardly. All that the man does Lord 8-1 through the man. The Lord does good
thence is an image of him. Before the angels he to everyone, chiefly through others, but yet so
himself appears in his own image, indeed, that a man scarcely knows otherwise than that
outside himself; which I have seen a thousand it is from himself; and therefore He quite often
times. On this account the good which anyone moves the wicked to do good to others, but
does with the body may appear good before from an affection of the love of self and of the
those who see only the external; but within world. This good is indeed of the Lord or from
there lies hidden the will and intention, which the Lord, but the man is not on that account
may be that he wishes to be thought sincere rewarded. But a man is rewarded if he does
and good, so that he may impose on others for good, not from a merely natural love or
the sake of honour and gain. In a word, it is affection, but from a spiritual love or affection.
good that is either merit-seeking, or The reward is the heavenly delight of that love
hypocritical, or diabolical, which is in order to and affection, which awaits him in eternity; and
deceive, revenge, kill, etc.; but this good is this in so far as he does not do it from himself,
475
that is, in so far as he believes that all good is 12.

from the Lord, and does not place merit in it.
In conclusion, let some passages be brought
forward from the Word, for example from the
Lord's words to the Pharisees, about the
9.
internal man having to be purified. Passages in
That no one can from himself do good which is Isaiah 1. Some of the passages In THE DOCTRINE
good, but that in so far as a man shuns evils as OF LIFE FOR THE NEW JERUSALEM, nos. 28-31;
sins, he does goods not from himself but from also 50-52.
the Lord, may be seen in THE DOCTRINE OF LIFE
FOR THE NEW JERUSALEM, FROM THE
PRECEPTS OF THE DECALOGUE, nos. 9-17, and 13.
18-31.
II THE "SECOND" OF CHARITY IS TO DO GOODS
BECAUSE THEY ARE USES. To be expounded in
this order: (1) Doing no evil to the neighbour is
10.
of charity. (2) Wishing to do good to the
From these it is evident that before repentance neighbour is of charity. (3) A man may be doing
it is charity, the good of which is not from the good, which he believes to be of charity, and all
Lord but from the man; but after repentance it the while not be shunning evil; and yet every
is charity the good of which is not from the man evil is contrary to charity. (4) In proportion as a
but from the Lord. For the Lord cannot enter man does not wish to do evil to the neighbour,
with a man, and do any good from Himself he wishes to do good to him; but not the
through him, before the devil, that is, evil, is reverse. (5) Before the good a man does is the
cast out, but after he is cast out. The devil is good of charity, evil must first be put away,
cast out by repentance, and when he is cast out because it is contrary to charity; and this is done
the Lord enters and does good there through by looking to the Lord, and by repentance. (6)
the man, yet always in such a way that the man Such as the recognition of evil is, and its
does not perceive otherwise than that he is consequent putting away by repentance, such is
doing it from himself; though he knows the good which is of charity. (7) Hence it follows
nevertheless that it is from the Lord. that the "first" of charity is to look to the Lord
and shun evils as sins; and that the "second" of
charity is to do goods.
11.
From these things it is now evident that the 14.

"first" of charity is to shun evils as sins, which is
done by repentance. Who does not see that an Not wishing to do evil to the neighbour is of
impenitent man is wicked? And who does not charity. Everyone sees that charity does not do
see that a wicked man has not charity? And evil to the neighbour, because charity is love
who does not see that he who has not charity towards the neighbour, and he who loves
cannot do charity? Charity must be from charity someone is afraid of doing evil to him. There is
in the man. a conjunction of minds between them. It is
because of this that, when he does evil to him
to whom he is conjoined by love., it is perceived
476
in his mind as though he were doing evil to charity. But yet they are good only in so far as a
himself. Who can do evil to his children, wife, or man shuns evils as sins. If the man does these
friends? - For doing evil is contrary to the good good works before shunning evils as sins, they
of love. are external, even merit-seeking, because they
spring from an Impure fountain, and things
issuing from such a fountain are inwardly evil.
15. There is the man in them, and the world in
them.
Who does not see that anyone hating another,
acting against him with hostility and animosity,
burning with revenge, and desiring his death, is
18.
not loving the neighbour? that anyone who
would commit whoredom with someone else's That doing Christian good works is of charity is
wife, who would deflower virgins and abandon well known; and many people believe that good
them, or violate women, is not loving the cancels out evil, and that so there are not [any]
neighbour? that he who would plunder and evils with a man, or that they are not regarded;
upon one pretext or another steal his goods, but good does not cancel out evil unless the
who injures another person's reputation by man thinks about the evils with himself, and
slandering and so bearing false witness, is not repents of them.
loving the neighbour? Nor, indeed, he who
covets his house, his wife, or the many other
things that are his neighbour's? From which it Is 19.
evident that not wishing to do evil to the
neighbour is of charity. There are many who have so believed, and have
supposed that there was no evil with them.
When examined, they have confessed that they
were full of evils, and that unless they were
16.
kept in external things, they could not be saved.
Concerning this Paul writes thus, "Loving the
neighbour is fulfilling the law," in two places.
16-1 And elsewhere from the Word: 20.
3. A man may be doing good, which he believes

to be of charity, and all the while not be
17.
shunning evil; and yet every evil is contrary to
2. Wishing to do good to the neighbour is of charity. It is evident that to shun evil [and to do
charity. This is well known, for it is believed that Christian good] are two distinct things; for there
giving to the poor, succouring the needy, are people who do every good of charity from
assisting widows and orphans, benefiting piety and from thinking about eternal life, and
ministers, contributing to churches, hospitals, all the while they do not know that hating,
and various pious uses, is of charity ; again, that bearing revenge, committing whoredom,
feeding the hungry, giving drink to the thirsty, plundering and injuring, slandering, and so
sheltering the stranger, clothing the naked, bearing false witness, and many [other things,
visiting the sick, going to those bound in prison, are to be shunned]. There are judges who live
and many other things, are good works of piously, and yet do not count it a sin to make
477
their judgments on a basis of friendship, there is moral good, and there is spiritual good.
relationship, or with a view to honour and gain; Good, before a man shuns evils as sins, is civil
and even if they do know they are evils, they and moral good; but as a man shuns evils as
confirm themselves in the belief that they are sins, the good, both civil good and moral good,
not. So also do others. In a word, there are two becomes spiritual as well, but not before.
distinct things, shunning evils as sins, and doing
Christian good. He who shuns evils as sins does
Christian goods, but they who do good and do 24.
not shun evils as sins, do not do any Christian
good; for evil is contrary to charity, and is Lusting lies hidden within, and its delight is
therefore to be abolished first before the good outside. When, therefore, a man thinks from
which anyone does is accompanied with charity, lusting and its delight, either he confirms evil
that is, is of charity. No one is able to do good and believes it to be allowed, and so is in evil; or
and at the same time to do evil, or to will good he does not think about any evil with himself,
and also evil. and so believes himself to be sound.
21. 25.
Every good that in itself is good proceeds from It is true that a man ought to confess to being a
the interior will. From this will, evil is removed sinner, and that from the head to the sole of
by repentance. 21-1The evil into which a man is the foot there is no soundness in him. This he
born resides there also. Unless, therefore, he can say, and say from knowledge; but still he
repents, evil remains in the interior will, and the cannot inwardly believe it unless he knows it
good proceeds from the. exterior will, and so through investigation. Then he can say these
his condition is a perverted one. The interior things, and then he first discerns that there is
qualifies the exterior, and not the exterior the no soundness in him. In this and in no other
interior. The Lord says : "Cleanse first that way is the ulcer opened and healed. In any
which is within the cup and platter." 21-2 other way it is palliative curing.
22. 26.
Man has a twofold will, interior and exterior. Did not the Lord preach repentance; the
The interior will is purified by repentance; and disciples also; and John the Baptist? Isaiah says
then the exterior does good from the interior. that the first thing is to cease from evils, and
Exterior good does not remove the evil of that then one learns to do good. 26-1 Nor does
lusting, or evil's root. one know, before that, what is good, or of what
quality good is. Evil does not know what is
good; whereas good, from knowing what is
good, knows evil.
23.
4. In proportion as a man does not wish to do

evil to the neighbour, he wishes to do good to 27.
him; but not the reverse. There is civil good,
478
Before the good a man does is the good of 6. Such as the recognition of evil is, and its
charity, evil must first be put away, because it is consequent putting away by repentance, such is
contrary to charity; and this is done by the good which is of charity. According as a man
repentance. Since evil must first be known for knows what is more or less evil. According as he
the reason that it is to be put away, the knows the evils of faith and also the evils of life.
Decalogue was the "first" of the Word, and in And how he desists from them; And desists
the whole of Christendom is also the " first " of from them as he looks to the Lord and believes
the doctrine of the Church. All are initiated into in Him.
the Church through knowing evil, and, because
it is against God, not doing it.
34.
Examples can teach. Whether he is such

28.
inwardly; then the purer he is; then of better
Therefore this "first" was so holy, for the reason water is the fountain from which his good flows.
that no one is able to do Christian good before.
35.
29.
In a word, good to anyone is good in the same
That good follows, is clearly evident from this: A degree and of the same kind as evil to him is
judge says, I do not intend to pass judgment evil. The one cannot be separated from the
from evil, 29-1 for various reasons, but justly; other.
and he does good.
36.
30.
In so far as any one puts off the old man, he
A farmer says, I do not intend to do my work puts on the new.
except justly and faithfully; so he does good
work.
37.
In so far as anyone crucifies the flesh, he lives in

31.
the spirit.
So in a thousand other instances; when anyone
does not do evil he does good.
38.
No one can serve two masters at the same time.

32.
It can therefore be taken as a maxim, that to

shun evil as sin is to do good. 39.
33.
479
Recognition involves that what is true and what loved. (3) The quality of neighbour with a man is
is false has to be known. Putting away is of the in accordance with the quality of the good and
will. Both are of the life. truth with him; or such as the man is, such a
neighbour is he. (4) The degree of neighbour is
in accordance with the degree of good and
40. truth with the man; and hence one man is not
neighbour in the same degree as another. (5)
7. Hence it follows that the "first" of charity is to The good of the internal will is the neighbour to
look to the Lord and shun evils because they are be loved, and not the good of the external will,
sins; and that the "second" of charity is to do unless this makes one with it. (6) Truth is the
goods. An evil man, as well as a good one, can neighbour in so far as it proceeds from good
do good. He can help someone in need, can do and makes one with it as a form makes one with
him many good offices, from goodwill, kindness, its essence.
friendship, or compassion. But nevertheless
these things are not of charity with the one who
does them, but with the one to whom the
43.
charity is exercised. To outward appearance it is
charity. 1. A man is not a man from the form, but from
the good and truth with him, or what is the
same, from the will and understanding. That the
41. will and understanding are the man himself, not
the form, which may appear like a man in face
When anyone has shunned an evil as a sin and body, is well known. There are some who
several times, then there appears to him only are foolish and insane, and yet they appear to
the good that he is doing; and they [that is, the be men. There are some so natural that they
prior shunning of evil and the subsequent doing are like animals, except that they can speak.
of good] are with him together. But There are others who are rational, and others
nevertheless the one must be prior; and the who are spiritual. It may even be that the
one really is prior and interior. human form of the latter appears less beautiful,
yet they are men more than the former. Take
good and truth away from them, and there is a
42. human form without a man in it. They are like
III THE NEIGHBOUR TO BE LOVED IS, IN A paintings and sculptures, and like apes.
SPIRITUAL IDEA, GOOD AND TRUTH. It is said,
"in a spiritual idea", because it is in this that the
spiritual man is interiorly, and because the 44.
angels are in the same idea. This idea is It is said, "good and truth, that is, will and
dissociated from matter, from space and time, understanding," because good is of the will, and
and dissociated especially from person. truth is of the understanding; for the will is the
Arrangement into order: (1) A man is not a man receptacle of good, and the understanding is
from the form, but from the good and truth the receptacle of truth.
with him, or what is the same, from the will and
understanding. (2) It is therefore the good and
truth with a man that is the neighbour to be
45.
480
But yet it is only in their subject that good and

truth can be. A thing cannot be separated from
50.
its subject; and therefore man is the neighbour;
but in a spiritual idea it is good and truth, man 3. The quality of the neighbour with a man is in
being a man from these. accordance with the quality of the good [and
truth] with him; or such as a man is, such a
neighbour is he. The Lord's parable of the man
46. wounded by robbers, where it is said that the
one who helped him is neighbour, 50-1 teaches
2. It is therefore the good and truth with a man
that not every man is neighbour in the same
that is the neighbour to be loved. Put in front of
way as another.
you three or ten persons whom you may select
for some domestic matter. Do you select
otherwise than according to the good and truth
with them? It is from the latter that a man is a
man.
47.
If you are selecting someone for your household

staff out of ten persons, do you not inquire
about his will and understanding?
48.
The one of them you select is to you the

neighbour who is loved. In like manner, a devil-
man may, in face, look like an angel-man. Is it
not an angel-man that is to be loved, not a
devil-man? You do good to an angel-man on
account of the good and truth with him, but not
to a devil-man. Charity requires that the latter
should be punished if he does evil, and the
angel-man rewarded.
49.
If you have in view ten maidens for the purpose

of selecting one of them to be your wife, five of
whom are harlots and five chaste, do you not
select one of the chaste, in accordance with the
good in her that agrees with your own?
481
Chapter Five the organs by means of which senses and

motions exist. That it is also the life of the rest
Divine Love
of the viscera, will be seen in what follows. It is
not known what love is, for the further reason
that man's love is universal life. By universal life
is meant life that is in most minute particulars;
for of these the term universal is used, as the
1. term general is of parts. What is thus universal
is perceived simply is a one; and a one without
THE DIVINE LOVE I. IN THE WORLD IT IS LITTLE
a particular perception of the particulars is
C0MPREHENDED WHAT LOVE IS; AND YET IT IS
obscure, comparatively as it is with an intense
MAN'S VERY LIFE. That this is little
light that blinds the eye. Such also is the
comprehended is evident from the common
universal Divine in the most minute particulars
saying "What is love?" What it is, is not known
of the world; consequently this Divine is so
for the reason that love is not manifest to the
obscure to man as not to be manifest to the eye
understanding, and the understanding is the
when opened, but only to the eye, when closed;
receptacle of the light of heaven. What comes
for the whole of the world is a work of the
into that light is interiorly seen, for what a man
Divine love and the Divine wisdom; and wisdom
thinks, that he has knowledge of. For this
in its most minute particulars is, as was said
reason a man says that this or that is in the light
before, an intense Divine light that blinds.
of his understanding, also that he sees this to be
so; likewise he prays that he may be
enlightened and illumined by God. Moreover,
2.
there is spiritual light to which natural light
corresponds, and it is from this that one says, II. THE LORD ALONE IS LOVE ITSELF, BECAUSE
with reference to his understanding, that he LIFE ITSELF; WHILE MEN AND ANGELS ARE ONLY
sees. and a wise man prays to be enlightened RECIPIENTS. This has already been illustrated by
and to be illumined by God, that is, that he may many things, to which the following only are to
understand. Man, therefore, can form no idea be added. The Lord, because He is the God of
concerning love, for this reason, that although the universe, is uncreate and infinite, but men
the understanding, by means of the thought, and angels are created and finite. The uncreate
presents itself to be seen, love does not. And and infinite is the Very Divine in itself. Out of
yet love is the very soul or life of thought, and if this man cannot be formed, for in such case he
love be taken away thought grows cold and would be the Divine in itself; but he can be
dies, like a flower deprived of heat; for love formed out of things created and finite, in
enkindles, vivifies, and animates thought. Set which the Divine can be, and to which it can
your mind at work and consider whether you communicate its own life, and this by heat and
can think apart from some affection that is of light from itself as a sun, thus from its own
love; and you will find in your own case that it is Divine love; comparatively as it is with
impossible. From this it is plain that love is the germinations in the earth, which cannot be
life of the understanding and of thought formed from the very essence of the sun of the
therefrom; and what is the life of the world, but must needs be formed out of created
understanding and of thought therefrom is also things of which soil is composed, within which
the life of the whole man; for it is the life of all the sun can be by its heat and light, and to
the senses and of all motions, thus the life of which it can communicate its life. From this it is
482
plain that a man and an angel are not in comprehend this, because it is difficult for him
themselves life, but are only recipients of life. to remove space from the ideas of his thought;
From all this it also follows, that the conception but it can be comprehended by angels, in
of man from his father is not a conception of whose ideas there are no spaces. In this respect
life, but only of a first and purest form capable spiritual thought differs from natural thought.
of receiving life; to which, as a stamen or Since, therefore, love proceeding from the Lord
initiament, substances and matters, succeeding is a sun is the Lord Himself, and this love is life
one another, add themselves in the womb, in itself, it follows that the love itself which is life,
forms adapted to the reception of life in their is Man; thus that it contains in infinite form the
own order and their own degree, even to the things that are in man, one and all. These are
last, which is suited to the modes of the nature conclusions from what has been said about the
of the world. life of all things from the Lord, and about His
providence, omnipotence, omnipresence, and
omniscience.
3.
III. LIFE, WHICH IS THE DIVINE LOVE, IS IN A

4.
FORM. The Divine love, which is life itself, is not
simply love, but it is the proceeding Divine; and IV. THAT FORM IS A FORM OF USE IN ITS
the proceeding Divine is the Lord Himself. The WHOLE COMPLEX. That form is a form of use in
Lord is indeed in the sun which appears to its whole complex, since a form of love is a form
angels in the heavens, and from which proceed of use; for the subjects of love are uses,
love as heat and wisdom as light; yet outside of because love wills to do goods, and goods are
that sun, love with wisdom is also the Lord. The nothing else than uses; and since the Divine
distance is only in appearance; for the Divine is love infinitely transcends, its form is a form of
not in space, but is without distance, as was use in its whole complex. That it is actually the
said above. There is an appearance of distance Lord Himself who is with angels in the heavens
because the Divine love, such as it is in the Lord, and with men on earth and in those with whom
cannot be received by any angel for it would He is conjoined by love, and that He is in them
consume them; for in itself it is hotter than the although He is infinite and uncreate, while angel
fire in the sun of the world; for this reason it is and man are created and finite,-this cannot be
lessened gradually by infinite circumvolutions, comprehended by the natural man until by
until, tempered and accommodated it reaches enlightenment from the Lord he can be
the angels, who moreover, are veiled with a withdrawn from the natural idea respecting
thin cloud lest they should be injured by its space, and be brought thereby into light
intensity. This is the cause of the appearance as respecting spiritual essence, which, viewed in
of distance between the Lord as a sun, and itself, is the proceeding Divine itself adapted to
heaven where angels are; nevertheless, the every angel, as truly to the angel of the highest
Lord Himself is present in heaven, but in away heaven as to the angel in the lowest, and to
suited to reception. The Lord's presence is not every man, both the wise and the simple. For
like the presence of a man who occupies space, the Divine that proceeds from the Lord is Divine
but it is a presence apart from space; that is, He from first things even to ultimates. Ultimates
is in things greatest and least, so that in things are what are called "flesh and bone." That even
greatest He is Himself, and in things least is these were made Divine by the Lord, He taught
Himself. It is difficult, I know, for man to the disciples when He said that He hath flesh
483
and bones which a spirit doth not have (Luke even so that man is wholly unconscious that he
24:39); moreover, He entered through doors consists of so many myriads of parts with
that were shut, and became invisible; and this various and diverse functions. In illustration of
clearly proves that the ultimates of man in Him this subject it will be sufficient to survey with
were made Divine, and that from this there is the eye of reason the structure of the lungs and
correspondence with the ultimates of man. [2] of the trachea, and to consider their uses. [2] In
But how the Divine proceeding, which is the regard to the lungs.-Their most general use is
very and only life, can be in things created and respiration, which is effected by admitting air
finite, shall now be told. This life applies itself through the larynx, the trachea, the bronchia
not to man, but only to uses in man. Uses and their ramifications, into the vesicles of the
themselves, viewed in themselves, are spiritual; lobules, whereby the lungs alternately expand
while the forms of use, which are members, and contract. In doing this they induce
organs, and viscera, are natural. But yet these reciprocal motions in the whole organic body
are series of uses; to such an extent that there and in all its members; for the heart and lungs
cannot be a particle, or the least of any particle, are the two fountains of all the general motions
in any member, organ, or viscus, that is not a throughout the body, whereby the parts of the
use in form. The Divine life applies itself to the body, one and all, are led into their own
uses themselves in every series, and thereby activities and vital functions. They also
gives life to every form; from this man has the consociate the voluntary motor life, which is
life that is called his soul. With men this truth dependent upon the cerebrum, with the natural
seems beyond comprehension, but it is not so motor life, which is controlled by the
with angels; yet it does not so far transcend the cerebellum. It is also their use to give such
human understanding but that it may be seen disposition to all the viscera of the body, and
as through a lattice, by those who wish to see. It especially to its motors called muscles, that the
does not transcend my understanding, which is will may carry out its movements harmoniously,
an enlightened rational understanding. and without break in any part. Their use also is,
both to act concurrently with all the tones of
speech and of song, and also to produce them
5. as from a womb. Another use is, to receive
within themselves all the blood of the body
V. IN SUCH A FORM IS MAN INDIVIDUALLY. That from the right side of the heart, to purify it from
man is in such a form individually can be seen all that is viscid and unclean, and to cast out
by those only who survey all things that are in these impurities; also to supply it from the
man, not only with the eye of the anatomist but inhaled air with new elements that serve as
also with the eye of reason. He who surveys food, and to send it back as if made new into
them with the eye of reason will see that every the left chamber of the heart; thus their use
particular, and most particular thing therein, is consists in converting venous blood into
formed from use, and for use; and that each arterial. And so the lungs are of service to the
part and particle has a function in general; and blood as a place for the offices of straining,
that the common use, which is the common cleansing, refreshing and preparing it; also as a
good, looks to each minute particular as itself place for purifying the air. In addition to these
therein; and, on the other hand, the minute uses of the lungs, there are many others, both
particular looks to itself in the general. By this general and particular; and every pore and
means all things that are in the body, from the every little lobe therein is a partner in all the
head to the soles of the feet, are a one; and this
484
offices, that is, uses; some more closely and Moveover, from the bones that are in relation
some more, remotely. [3] In regard to the with the trachea, and at the same time from
trachea.-Its uses are, (1) To afford a channel for those belonging to the larynx and epiglottis,
the auras and breath of the lungs, to pass and which are not here enumerated, a mind
re-pass; and to accommodate itself to each and endowed with understanding, and cultivated by
every different mode of action of the lungs, the sciences, with anatomy only as a teacher
both in inspiration and expiration. (2) To and the eye as a guide, may be taught and may
examine and cleanse the air about to pass into know how Nature modulates sounds, and
the lungs, that nothing hurtful may enter; and determines their relations in articulation. There
to impregnate with vapors the air as it passes is nothing in acoustics, music or harmony,
out, thus attracting effete exhalations, and however profound and recondite, nor anything
expelling them; also in general to clear the in the vibrations and tremblings of a continuous
lungs of viscid phlegm by expectoration. (3) To body, nor in the modifications of a contiguous
serve as a pillar and support to the larynx and volume or atmosphere, however hidden and
the epiglottis; to adapt itself entirely to all their interior, which the spiritual has not here
commands and tremulous vibrations; to dispose brought forth out of Nature, from her
the walls of its canal so that the air may impinge innermost, gathered into one, and conferred
upon them, and to make tense its membrane, upon those two organs, and at the same time
so that when the air impinges, the membrane on the ear. 5-2 [4] There are like arcana in all
may tremble; and thus, in a rudimentary way, the other viscera, both of the head and of the
to excite sound which the larynx and the glottis body and still more in those that lie inwardly
may form, that is, may modulate, into singing or concealed and cannot be examined by any eye;
speech; also to moisten the larynx continually for the more interior a thing is, the more
with a vapory dew. (4) To aid and assist it's perfect it is. In a word, the preeminent life, or
neighbor, the esophagus, in its office of excellency of life, in every member, organ, and
swallowing. (5) To extend the alternate viscus, consists in this,-that whatever is proper
respiratory movements of the lungs to the to any is common to all; and thus in every
neighboring parts, and by means of these to particular thing there is an idea of the whole
parts more and more remote; namely, to the man. It is this arcanum that will now be stated
esophagus, and by this, in connection with the as a conclusion:-Man is the complex of all uses;
diaphragm, to the stomach, and so to the of all that are possible, both in the Spiritual
abdominal viscera; also to the ascending carotid world and in the natural world; and every use,
artery and the descending jugular vein, and to from the idea of the universe in it, is like a man,
the great sympathetic nerves,-the intercostal but such a man as the use is, that is, such is its
and the par vagum; thus establishing the motor function is in general. This is true of man
life of the body. (6) To insinuate into the because he is a recipient of life from the Lord;
neighboring parts, and through these into parts for life which is from the Lord is the complex of
highest and lowest, its own sonorous vibrations all things of uses to infinity; since the Lord alone
and those of the larynx; and to excite the is Man, in Himself having life, from whom is
arterial blood mounting to the head and the everything of life; and unless the form of use
brain, and the venous blood returning to the were infinite in the Lord, it could not possibly
head and the brain, and to exhilarate and exist as finite in any man.
animate them by a general modification; thus
establishing the sensual life of the body. 5-1
485
6. apart from uses appear together as a man-devil.

Traders, in the man-angel, are those that love
VI. IN SUCH A FORM IS MAN IN GENERAL. By
trading, and love wealth for the sake of trading,
man in the most general sense is meant the
and at the same time look to God; but traders,
whole human race; by man in a general sense
in the man-devil, are those that love wealth,
are meant the men of one kingdom taken
and love trading only for the sake of wealth.
together; in a sense less general those of a
With the latter there is avarice, which is the
single province in a kingdom; in a sense still less
root of all evils, but not with the former. For to
general those of a city; in a particular sense
love wealth alone, and not any use that may
those of a house; and in an individual sense
come of it, that is, to regard wealth in the first
every man. In the Lord's view, the whole human
place and trading as secondary, is to be
race is as one man; all in a kingdom are also as
avaricious. Such men are, useful to a kingdom,
one man; likewise, all in a province, all in a city,
but chiefly when they die, for then their wealth
and all in a house. It is not the men themselves
passes into the public use of those engaged in
that are thus seen together, but the uses with
trade; the benefit that then accrues from such
them. They that are good uses, that is, that
wealth is benefit to the kingdom, but not to the
perform uses from the Lord, when viewed
souls of those who gathered it.# In a word,
together, are seen as a man perfect in form and
accumulation of wealth by trading for the sake
beautiful; these are such as perform uses for
of wealth alone, is Jewish trading; but
the sake of the uses; that is, that love uses
accumulation of wealth by trading for the sake
because they are uses of the house, of the city,
of trading, is Dutch trading. Opulence is not
province, kingdom, or of the whole world. But
harmful to the latter, but it is to the former.
they that perform uses, not for the sake of uses,
[#AUTHOR'S NOTE:-] These indeed benefit the
but for the sake of themselves alone, or the
common wealth by accumulating wealth in it,
world alone, likewise appear before the Lord as
and enriching it; but they do not benefit their
one man, but as an imperfect and deformed
own souls.
man. From what has now been said, it can be
seen that the Lord has regard to men in the
world, to each according to his use, and to men
7.
in the mass according to uses united in the form
of a man. By uses are meant the uses of each VII. IN SUCH A FORM IS HEAVEN. It has been
one's function, which are the uses of his office, shown in the Arcana Coelestia that the whole
pursuit, and occupation. In the Lord's sight heaven is divided, as it were, into provinces,
these uses are good works themselves. according to the uses of all the members,
Whereas all in any kingdom appear before the organs and viscera of the human body; also that
Lord as one man according to their love of uses, it is known by angels in the heavens in what
it is plain that all the English appear before Him provinces the different societies are; for
as one man; likewise all the Dutch, all the instance, what societies are in the province of
Germans, all the Swedes and Danes, also the the eyes, of the ears, of the nostrils, of the
French, the Spaniards, the Poles, the Russians; mouth, and of the tongue; also what are in the
but each nation according to its uses. Those in province of the liver, of the pancreas, of the
the several kingdoms that love the uses of their spleen, of the kidneys, of the ureters, and what
offices because they are uses, appear together in the province of the generative organs. All
as a man-angel; and those that love the uses of societies that are in these provinces correspond
their offices for the sake of pleasures alone perfectly to the uses of the above-mentioned
486
members, organs, and viscera in man. It is from is full of uses; there is not in it a grain of dust,
this correspondence that the whole heaven nor a lump of such grains, that is not for use.
appears before the Lord as one man; in like The entire vegetable kingdom is full of uses; not
manner each province of heaven, and every a tree, plant, flower, or blade of grass can be
society of a province. It is also from this found that is not for use; yea, neither anything
correspondence that all angels and all spirits are in a tree, plant, flower, or blade of grass, that is
men in every respect like men in the world; and not for uses; each thing is the form of its own
for the reason that the Divine proceeding from use. The entire animal kingdom, too, is full of
the Lord, which is life and form, is Man, both in uses; not an animal, from the little worm to the
what is greatest and in what is least, as has lion, can be found, that is not for use, and that
often been said before. This correspondence, in is not also the form of its own use. The same is
general and in particular, has been treated of in true of all things that are above the earth, even
the Arcana Coelestia (in the following articles: n. to the sun. In a word, every point in creation
3021, 3624-3633, 3636-3643, 3741-3745, 3883- and in things created, is a use; yea, it is in an
3896, 4039-4055, 4218-4228, 4318-4331, 4403- ascending 8-1 series from use in firsts to use in
4421, 4523-4533, 4622-4633, 4652-4660, 4791- ultimates, thus from use to use continually;-a
4805, 4931-4953, 5050-5061, 5171-5189, 5377- manifest proof that the Creator and Former,
5396, 5552-5573, 5711-5727, 10030). In order who is the Lord, is the infinite sum of all uses; in
that hell, too, may be in that form, everyone His essence love, and in His form Man, in whom
there is compelled to works; but because they that sum is. Who that is willing to consider
that are in hell do their works not from the love these things with common intelligence can be
of use, but from the need of food and clothing, so unsound in his reason as to think that such
they appear indeed as a man, but as a man- things are works of the dead sun, and thus of
devil (concerning which see above). dead Nature?
8. 9.
VIII. ALL THINGS OF THE WORLD ALSO TEND TO IX. THERE ARE AS MANY AFFECTIONS AS THERE
SUCH A FORM. By all things of the world are ARE USES. There are many things that bear
meant animate things including those that walk witness that the Divine love is life itself, and
or crawl on the earth, those that fly in the that love therefrom with man is his life; but
heavens, and those that swim in the waters; among these proofs, this is especially clear,
also the things of the vegetable kingdom,-trees namely, that man's spirit is nothing but
and shrubs, flowers, plants, and grains. But the affection, consequently that man after death
atmosphere, waters, and matters of the earth becomes in affection, an angel of heaven if he
are only means for the generation and be an affection of good use, and a spirit of hell if
production of these. From the creation of the he be an affection of evil use. For this reason
universe, and finally of the earth, and of all the whole heaven is divided into societies
things that are in them, it can be seen more according to the genera and species of
fully than from anything else that the Divine affections; and likewise, in an opposite manner,
Love, which is life itself and is the Lord, is in the hell. From this it is that whether you speak of
form of forms of all uses, which form is Man. affections or of societies in the spiritual world, it
For from creation nothing is found on the earth is the same. By affections are meant the
that is not for use. The entire mineral kingdom continuations and derivations of love. Love may
487
be compared to a fountain, and affections to the angelic heaven, and from the animal and
the streams issuing from it. Love may also be vegetable kingdoms. In each of these there are
compared to the heart, and affections to the genera of affections or of uses, and species and
vessels leading out and continued from it; and it varieties, in untold numbers; for there can be
is well known that the vessels that convey blood no single thing the same as another, but it
from the heart resemble their heart in every varies; and this variety is everywhere
point, so as to be as it were extensions of it - distinguished into genera and species, and both
from this is the circulation of the blood from the of these into varieties; and the varieties in
heart through the arteries, and from the themselves are infinite, because they are from
arteries into the veins, and back to the heart. So the Infinite. That this is the case, anyone can
with affections; for these are derived and see from human faces, of which, from the day
continued from love, and produce uses in of creation, there has never been one so
forms, and in these proceed from the firsts of entirely like another as to be the same, nor can
the uses to their ultimates, and from these they there ever be; so in the human body, it is
return to the love from which they started: impossible for any least thing therein to be
from all which it is plain that affection is love in identical with any other. It is the same with
its essence; and that use is love in its form. [2] affections and their uses. That this is so, man is
The conclusion from this is, that the objects, so profoundly ignorant as to ask what affection
that is, the ends of affections, are uses, is, and what love is; consequently this can be
therefore also their subjects are uses, and that made clear only from heaven, where all are
the very forms in which affections exist are affections from the Divine love, which is life
effects which are effigies of the affections; in itself. In heaven the Divine love, which is life
which they proceed from the first end to the itself, is distinguished into two kingdoms; one in
last, and from the last end to the first, and by which love to the Lord reigns, and another
them they perform their works, offices, and wherein love for the neighbor reigns. In love to
exercises. From what has now been said, who the Lord uses as to their source are involved, in
cannot see that affection alone is not anything, love to the neighbor, uses as to their object.
but that it becomes something by being in use; The Divine love, which is life itself, is further
and that affection for use is nothing but an idea, distinguished into lesser realms, which may be
unless it be in form; and that affection for use in termed provinces; and these again into
form is nothing but a potency, the affection first societies, and these into families and houses.
becoming something when it is in act? This act Such in the heavens are distinctions of the
is the very use that is meant, which in its Divine love, into genera, and into species, and
essence is affection. Now, since affections are the species again into their divisions, which are
the essence of uses, and uses are the subjects meant by varieties. Affections, and likewise
of affections, it follows that there are as many uses, are thus distinguished, for the reason that
affections as there are uses. every angel is an affection, and is also a use. [2]
As all things in hell are in opposition to the
things that are in heaven, so it is with the love
10. there. Diabolical love, which is death itself, is
there also distinguished into two kingdoms; one
X. THERE ARE GENERA AND SPECIES OF in which love of self reigns, and another in
AFFECTIONS, AND VARIETIES OF SPECIES TO which love of the world reigns. In the love of
INFINITY; SO OF USES. This may be shown from self, evil uses as regards their source, which is
the human body, from the human race, from
488
self, are involved; and in love of the world evil

uses as regards their object are involved; these
uses because they are done from self, are also
done for the sake of self, for all love returns as
in a circle to the source from which it comes.
This diabolical love is further distinguished into
provinces, and these again into societies, and so
on. There are like distinctions of affections in
the human body, and parallel distinctions of
uses; since, as has been said above, all things of
man, correspond to all things of heaven. The
heart and lungs in man correspond to the two
kingdoms of heaven; the members, organs, and
viscera in man correspond to the provinces of
Chapter Six
heaven, and the tissues of the several Divine Wisdom
members, organs, and viscera correspond to
the societies of heaven. Since these things in
general and in particular are uses, and uses live
from the life which is love, their life can be
called nothing else than the affection of use. As
1.
it is in the human body and also in heaven, so is
it in the whole human race; since this, like THE DIVINE WISDOM I. IN THE HEAVENS THE
heaven, is as one man before the Lord, as has DIVINE WISDOM APPEARS BEFORE THE EYES OF
been said above. That the animate things of the THE ANGELS AS LIGHT. In the Lord there is love
earth, and also its plants, are in like manner and there is wisdom. Love in Him is being (esse),
distinguished into genera and species, and into and wisdom in Him is existence (existere);
their varieties, is well known. In the animal nevertheless, these are not two in Him but one;
kingdom there are two most general divisions, for wisdom is of love and love is of wisdom; and
in one are the beasts of the earth, and in the from this union, which is reciprocal, they
other the birds of heaven. And in the vegetable become one, and that one is the Divine love,
kingdom there are likewise two most general which appears in the heavens before the angels
divisions, in one are fruit-bearing trees, in the as a Sun. The reciprocal union of the Divine
other seed-bearing plants. From the distinctions wisdom and the Divine love is meant by these
in these it can be seen that there are genera words of the Lord: Philip, Believest thou not
and species of affections, and varieties in the that I am in the Father and the Father in Me?
species, to infinity; and in like manner of uses; Believe Me, that I am in the Father and the
since, as has been said before, natural Father in Me (John 14:10, 11); and by these
affections are the souls of animals, and the uses words: I and the Father are one (John 10:30).
of affections are the souls of vegetables. These two, which are one in the Lord, do,
indeed, proceed from Him as a Sun as two
distinct things, wisdom as light and love as heat;
but they proceed as distinct in appearance, for
in themselves they are not distinct, for the light
is of the heat and the heat is of the light, and in
489
every least point they are a one, as is true of every man coming into the world (John 1:9);
our sun; for whatever proceeds from the sun is Jesus said, I am the light of the world, he that
the sun in the least parts, and thus universally in followeth Me shall not walk in darkness, but
all. It is said, every point and least part, but this shall have the light of life (John 8:12); Jesus
does not mean a point or least part of space, for said, Yet a little while is the light with you; walk
that does not pertain to the Divine, for the while ye have the light, lest the darkness seize
Divine is spiritual and not natural. [[2]] Since you. While ye have the light believe on the light,
wisdom and love proceed from the Lord as a that ye may be the sons of the light. I have
sun in appearance as two distinct things, come a light into the world, that whosoever
wisdom under the form of light, and love under believeth on Me may not abide in darkness
the perception of heat, therefore they are (John 12:35, 36, 46); (And in many other
received by the angels as two distinct things, passages.) His Divine wisdom was also
some receiving more of the heat which is love, represented by His garments when He was
and some more of the light which is wisdom, transfigured, that: They appeared as light,
and in consequence the angels of all the glistening and white as snow, so as no fuller on
heavens are distinguished into two kingdoms. earth can whiten them (Mark 9:3; Matt. 17:2).
Those that have received more of the heat "Garments" signify in the Word the truths of
which is love than of the light which is wisdom, wisdom; and in consequence all angels in the
make one kingdom, and are called celestial heavens appear clothed in accordance with the
angels, and of such the highest heavens are truths of their knowledge, intelligence and
formed. But those that have received more of wisdom. [[4]] That light is an appearance of
the light which is wisdom than of the heat wisdom, and its correspondence, is evident in
which is love make the other kingdom, and are heaven but not in the world, for in heaven there
called spiritual angels, and of such the lower is no other light than spiritual light, which is the
heavens are formed. It is said that these have light of wisdom, and which illuminates all things
received more of the light which is wisdom than there that exist from the Divine love. With the
of the heat which is love, but this excess is an angels wisdom enables them to understand
apparent excess, for they are wise only so far as these things in their essence, and light enables
the love with them makes one with the wisdom; them to see these things in their form;
and consequently spiritual angels are not called therefore there is light in the heavens in an
wise but intelligent. Thus much respecting light equal degree with the wisdom with the angels.
in the Lord and from the Lord and in the angels. In the highest heavens the light is like flame and
[[3]] The Divine wisdom that appears in the glowing as if from the most highly burnished
heavens as light is not light in its essence, but it gold, because they are in wisdom. In the lower
clothes itself with light that it may appear heavens the light is bright and shining as if from
before the sight of the angels. In its essence the most highly polished silver, because they
wisdom is the Divine truth, and the light is its are in intelligence. In the lowest heavens the
appearance and correspondence. It is the same light is like the noon-day light of the world,
with the light of wisdom as with the heat of because they are in knowledge. The light of the
love, that has been spoken of above. As light higher heavens is bright, just like a star that
corresponds to wisdom, and the Lord is the glitters and shines brightly in itself in the night-
Divine wisdom, so in the Word, in many time; and the light is continual because the sun
passages, the Lord is called "the light," as in the there never sets. It is the same light as that
following: He was the true light, that lighteth which enlightens the understanding of those
490
men in the world who love to become wise; but OF LOVE, WHICH IS HIS WILL; AND HE ADJOINS
it does not appear to them, because they are TO THIS A RECEPTACLE OF WISDOM, WHICH IS
natural and not spiritual. It can appear, for it HIS UNDERSTANDING. As there are two things
has appeared to me, but before the eyes of my in the Lord, love and wisdom, and these two
spirit. It has also been granted me to perceive proceed from Him, and as man was created to
that in the light of the highest heaven I was in be a likeness and an image of the Lord, a.
wisdom, in the light of the second heaven in likeness through love, and an image through
intelligence, and in the light of the lowest wisdom, so two receptacles were created with
heaven in knowledge, while in merely natural man, one for love and the other for wisdom;
light I was in ignorance of spiritual things. [[5]] the receptacle of love is what is called the will,
That I might know in what light the learned in and the receptacle of wisdom is what is called
the world are at the present day, two ways the understanding. Man knows that he has
were seen by me; one was called the way of these two, but he does not know that they are
wisdom and the other the way of folly. At the joined together in the same way as they are in
end of the way of wisdom there was a palace in the Lord, with this difference that in the Lord
light, but at the end of the way of folly there they are life, but in man receptacles of life.
was something like a palace, but in shade. What the forms of these receptacles are cannot
About three hundred of the learned were there be explained because they are spiritual forms,
assembled, and they were permitted to choose and spiritual things transcend the
which way they would take, and two hundred apprehension. They are forms within forms,
and sixty were seen to enter the way of folly, ascending even to the third degree,
and only forty the way of wisdom. Those who innumerable, separate and yet harmonious, and
took the way of wisdom entered the palace that each particular is a receptacle of love and
was in light, where there were magnificent wisdom. Their origins are in the brains; where
things, and garments of fine linen were given they are the beginnings and heads of the fibers
them, and they became angels; while those through which their endeavors and forces flow
who went in the way of folly wished to enter down to all things of the body higher and lower,
that which appeared like a palace in the shade, and cause the senses to be present in the
and behold, it was a theatre of actors, and there sensories, the movements to be present in the
they put on stage garments and masks and moving parts and the functions of nutrition, of
talked nonsense and became fools. I was chyle-making, of blood-making, of separation,
afterwards told that such and so numerous at of purification, and of prolification to be present
the present day are the learned fools who are in in the other organs, thus their uses in each of
natural light as compared with the learned wise the particulars. This having been said it will be
who are in spiritual light; and that those have seen that: 1. These forms, which are the
spiritual light who love to understand whether receptacles of love and of wisdom, first exist
that which another says is true; while those with man when he has been conceived and is
have natural light who merely love to confirm being produced in the womb. 2. From these, by
what has been said by another. what is continuous with them, all things of the
body, from the head even to the soles of the
feet, are led forth and produced. 3. The
2. productions of these are effected according to
the laws of correspondence; and in
II. THE LORD CREATED WITH MAN AND consequence all things of the body, both
AFTERWARD FORMS WITH HIM A RECEPTACLE
491
internal and external, are correspondences. also to all the organized viscera serving various
[[2]] 1. These forms, which are the receptacles uses in the body. All these are mere tissues of
of love and of wisdom, first exist with man the fibers and nerves that go forth from both
when he has been conceived and is being brains and from the spinal marrow. And the
produced in the womb. This becomes evident blood vessels, from which tissues are also
by experience, and is confirmed by reason. By formed, are likewise from fibers that spring
experience:-from the first rudiments of from the same source. Anyone skilled in
embryos in the womb after conception, also anatomy can see that around about the
from the rudiments of chicks in the egg after cerebrum, also inwardly in it and in the
incubation. The very first forms are not visible cerebellum and in the spinal marrow, there are
to the eye, but only the first productions from little spheres like molecules, that are called the
these, which constitute the head. It is known cortical and cineritious substances and glands,
that the head is relatively larger in the and that all the fibers whatever that are in the
beginning; also that the web of all things in the brains, and all the nerves that are from them
body is produced from it. All this makes clear throughout the body, come out of these little
that these forms are the beginnings. By reason:- spheres or substances and go forth from them.
in that all creation is from the Lord as a sun, These are the initial forms from which are led
which is the Divine love and the Divine wisdom, forth and produced all things of the body, from
and the creation of man is from these. The the head to the soles of the feet. By reason:-in
formation of the embryo and of the infant man that fibers are not possible apart from origins,
in the womb is an image of creation, and is also that the organic parts of the body,
called generation, because it is effected by produced from fibers variously combined are
procreation. From this it follows that especially effects, and effects cannot live, feel, and be
the first forms with man are receptacles of love moved by themselves, but only from their
and wisdom, and that the creation of the other origins through what is continuous therefrom.
things that constitute the man is effected This may be illustrated by examples. The eye
through these; moreover, no effect exists from does not see from itself, but through what is
itself, but is from a cause prior to it that is called continuous from the understanding; the
the effecting cause; neither is this from itself, understanding sees through the eye and moves
but is from a cause that is called the end, in the eye, directs it to objects and fixes the gaze.
which is everything that follows in conatus and Neither does the ear hear from itself, but
in idea, in conatus in the Divine love, and in idea through what is continuous from the
in the Divine wisdom, for these are the end of understanding; the understanding hears
ends. This truth will be more fully established in through the ear; it also directs, incites, and
what follows. [2] [[3]] 2. From these, by what is turns it towards sounds. Neither does the
continuous, all things of the body, from the tongue speak from itself, but from the thought
head even to the soles of the feet, are led forth of the understanding; thought speaks through
and produced. This, too, becomes evident by the tongue and varies the tones and exalts their
experience, and is confirmed by reason. By measures at pleasure. The same is true of the
experience:-in that from these primitive forms muscles; these are not moved by themselves,
fibers are led forth to the sensory organs of the but the will together with the understanding
face, which are called the eyes, ears, nostrils moves them, and causes them to act at its beck.
and tongue, also to the motor organs All this makes clear that there is nothing in the
throughout the body, which are called muscles, body that feels and moves from itself; but only
492
from its origins, in which the understanding and the substantial takes the place of the natural.
will have their seat; and therefore these are the All things that are in such forms. [[5]] More
receptacles in man of love and wisdom; and respecting correspondence will be found in the
also these are the first forms, and the organs work on Heaven and Hell, n. 87-102, 103-115;
both of sense and motion are forms derived and respecting various correspondences in the
from these; for influx takes place according to Arcana Coelestia; on the correspondence of the
formation, and there is influx from these first face its expressions with the affections of the
forms into the latter, and not reversely; for mind, n. 1568, 2988, 2989, 3631, 4796, 4797,
influx from the former into the latter is spiritual 4800, 5165, 5168, 5695, 9306; on the
influx, while influx from the latter in the former correspondence of the body as to its gestures
is natural influx, which his all called physical actions with things intellectual and voluntary, n.
influx. [3] [[4]] 3. The productions of these are 2988, 3632, 4215; on the correspondence of the
effected according to the laws of sense in general, n. 4318-4330; on the
correspondence; and in consequence all things correspondence of the eyes and of their sight,
of the body, both internal and external, are n. 4403-4420; on the correspondence of the
correspondences. What correspondence is has nostrils and of smell, n. 4624-4634; on the
not hitherto been known in the world, for the correspondence of the ears and of hearing, n.
reason that it has not been known what the 4652-4660; on the correspondence of the
spiritual is, and that there is a correspondence tongue and of taste, n. 4791-4805; on the
between what is natural and what is spiritual. correspondence of the hands, arms, shoulders
When anything from the spiritual as the origin and feet, n. 4931-4953; on the correspondence
and cause becomes visible and perceptible of the loins and the members of generation, n.
before the senses, there is a correspondence 5050-5062; on the correspondence of the
between them. There is such a correspondence interior viscera of the body, particularly of the
between spiritual and natural things with man; stomach, of the thymus gland, of the reservoir
spiritual things are all things pertaining to his and ducts of the chyle, n. 5171-5189; on the
love and wisdom, consequently to his will and correspondence of the spleen, n. 9698; on the
understanding, and natural things are all things correspondence of the peritonaeum, the
pertaining to his body. Because these have kidneys, and the bladder, n. 5377-5396; on the
existed and perpetually exist, that is, subsist correspondence of the skin and the bones, n.
from spiritual things, they are correspondences; 5552-5573; on the correspondence of the
and therefore the two act as one, like end, ensiform cartilage, n. 9236; on the
cause, and effect. Thus the face acts as one with correspondence of the memory of abstract
the affections of the mind, the speech with the things, n. 6808; on the correspondence of the
thought, and the actions of all the members memory of material things, n. 7253; on the
with the will; and the same is true of other correspondence of heaven with man, n. 911,
things. It is a universal law of correspondences 1900, 1928, 2996, 2998, 3624, 3636-3643,
that the spiritual fits itself to use, which is its 3741-3745, 3884, 4041, 4279, 4523, 4524, 4625,
end, and actuates and modifies the use by 6013, 6057, 9279, 9632; that with the ancients,
means of heat and light, and clothes it by especially those of the East, the science of
provided means, until there results a form correspondences was the science of sciences,
subservient to the end; and in this form the but at the present day it is wholly forgotten, n.
spiritual acts as the end, use as cause, and 3021, 3419, 3472-3485, 4280, 4749, 4844, 4964,
natural as effect; although in the spiritual world 4965, 5702, 6004, 6692, 7097, 7729, 7779,
493
9391, 10252, 10407; that without a knowledge

of correspondences the Word is not
understood, n. 2870-2893, 2987-3003, 3213-
3227, 3472-3485, 8615, 10687; that all things
which appear in the heavens are
correspondences, n. 1521, 1532, 1619-1625,
1807, 1809, 1971, 1974, 1977, 1980, 1981, 2299
2601, 3213-3226, 3348, 3350, 3475, 3485, 3745,
9481, 9575, 9576, 9577; that all things in the
natural world and in its three kingdoms
correspond to all things in the spiritual world, n.
1632, 1881, 2758, 2890-2893, 2987-3003, 3213-
3227, 3483, 3624-3649, 4044, 4053, 4116, 4366,
4939, 5116, 5377, 5428, 5477, 8211, 9280. In
addition to these passages the correspondence
of the natural sense of the Word, which is the
sense of its letter, with the spiritual things of
love and wisdom that are in the heavens from
the Lord, and that constitute its internal sense,
is treated of in the Arcana Coelestia; and this
correspondence you will also find confirmed in
the Doctrine, of the New Jerusalem respecting
the Sacred Scripture, n. 5-26, and further, n. 27- Chapter Seven
69. To gain an idea of the correspondence of Doctrine of faith
the will and of the understanding, consult also
what has been said above ([Apocalypse
Explained,] n. 366, 367).
1.
FAITH IS AN INTERNAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF

TRUTH. At the present day the term Faith is
taken to mean the mere thought that the thing
is so because the church so teaches, and
because it is not evident to the understanding.
For we are told to believe and not to doubt, and
if we say that we do not comprehend, we are
told that this is just the reason for believing. So
that the faith of the present day is a faith in the
unknown, and may be called blind faith, and as
it is something that somebody has said, in
somebody else, it is a faith of hearsay. It will be
seen presently that this is not spiritual faith.
494
thinking from himself is by no means so easy.

The reason spiritual things can be
2.
comprehended is that in respect to the
Real faith is nothing else than an understanding a man may be uplifted into the
acknowledgment that the thing is so because it light of heaven, in which light none but spiritual
is true; for one who is in real faith thinks and things appear, and these are the truths of faith.
says, "This is true, and therefore I believe it." For the light of heaven is spiritual light.
For faith is of truth, and truth is of faith. If such
a person does not see the truth of a thing, he
says, "I do not know whether this is true, and 4.
therefore as yet I do not believe it. How can I
This then is the reason why those who are in
believe what I do not intellectually
the spiritual affection of truth possess an
comprehend? Perhaps it is false."
internal acknowledgment of truth. 4-1 As the
angels are in this affection, they discard the
dogma that the understanding must be kept in
3.
obedience to faith, and say, "What is this?
But a common remark is that no one can believing when you do not see whether the
comprehend spiritual or theological matters thing is true?" And if somebody says that still it
because they are supernatural. Spiritual truths is to be believed, they reply, "Do you consider
however can be comprehended just as well as yourself the Deity that I am bound to believe
natural ones; and even if they are not clearly you? or do you think me mad enough to believe
comprehended, still as soon as they are heard it a statement in which I do not see the truth?
is possible to perceive whether they are true or Cause me to see it." Thereupon the dogmatizer
not. This is especially the case with those whose betakes himself elsewhere. The wisdom of the
affection is excited by truths. I have been angels consists solely in this: that they see and
permitted to know this by much experience. I comprehend everything they think about.
have been permitted to speak with the
uneducated, with the dull-minded, and with the
utterly senseless, as also with persons who had 5.
been in falsities, and those who had been in
A spiritual idea (about which few know
evils, all born within the church, and who had
anything) inflows into those who are in the
heard somewhat about the Lord and about faith
affection of truth, and inwardly tells them that
and charity; and I have been permitted to tell
what they hear or read is true, or is not true. In
them certain secrets of wisdom, and they
this idea are those who read the Word in
comprehended everything and acknowledged
enlightenment from the Lord. To be in
it. At the time however they were in that light
enlightenment is nothing else than to be in the
of the understanding which every human being
perception, and in the consequent internal
possesses; and felt withal the pride of being
acknowledgment, that this or that is true. These
thought intelligent. All this happened in my
are they who are called "the taught of Jehovah"
interaction with spirits. Many others who were
(Isa. 54:13; John 6:45); and of whom it is said in
with me were hereby convinced that spiritual
Jeremiah: Behold, the days come that I will
things can be comprehended just as well as
make a new covenant: this shall be the
natural, that is, when they are heard or read.
covenant: I will put My law in their inward
But comprehension by the man himself when
495
parts, and upon their heart will I write it, and enormous falsities a blind faith can bring into
they shall teach no more every man his being.
companion, or every man his brother, saying,
Know [Cognoscite] Jehovah; for they shall all
know Me (Jer. 31:31, 33-34). 9.
Blind faith survived later with many of the

Reformed, because they had separated faith
6.
from charity, for they who separate these two
From all this it is evident that faith and truth are must needs be in ignorance of truth, and they
a one. For this reason the ancients (who from will give the name of faith to the mere thought
their affection for truths thought more about that the thing is so, quite apart from any
them than the men of our time) instead of internal acknowledgment. With these also,
saying Faith, were accustomed to say Truth. For ignorance is the safeguard of dogma, for so long
the same reason also truth and faith are one as ignorance bears sway, together with the
word in the Hebrew language, namely Amuna persuasion that theological matters transcend
or Amen. comprehension, they can speak without being
contradicted, and it can be believed that their
tenets are true, and that they themselves
7. understand them.
The reason the term "faith" is used by the Lord

in the Gospels and Revelation is that the Jews
10.
did not believe it to be true that He was the
Messiah foretold by the prophets; and where The Lord said to Thomas: Because thou hast
truth is not believed, there "faith" is spoken of. seen Me, thou hast believed: blessed are they
But still it is one thing to have faith and believe that do not see, and yet believe (John 20:29).
in the Lord, and another to have faith and This does not mean a faith separated from the
believe in someone else. The difference will be internal acknowledgment of truth; but that they
explained below. are blessed who do not like Thomas, see the
Lord with their eyes, and yet believe in His
existence, for this is seen in the light of truth
8. from the Word.
Faith separated from truth came in and took

possession of the church along with the papal
11.
dominion, because the chief safeguard of that
religion was ignorance of truth. For this reason As the internal acknowledgment of truth is
also they forbade the reading of the Word, for faith, and as faith and truth are a one (as was
otherwise they could not have been worshiped said above, n. 2, 4-6), it follows that an external
as deities, nor could their saints have been acknowledgment without an internal one is not
invoked, nor idolatry instituted to such an faith, and also that a persuasion of what is false
extent that dead bodies, bones, and sepulchers is not faith. An external acknowledgment
were regarded as holy, and made use of for without an internal one is a faith in what is
purposes of gain. From this it is evident what unknown, and a faith in what is unknown is
496
mere memory-knowledge [scientia], which if good, produces faith-which is the same thing as
confirmed becomes persuasion. They who are the acknowledgment of truth-and through this
in such knowledge and persuasion think a thing produces charity-which is the same thing as the
true because somebody has said so, or they working of love through faith.
think it is true from their having confirmed it;
and yet what is false can be confirmed just as
well as what is true, and sometimes better. To 14.
think a thing true from having confirmed it is to
think that something another says is true, and More clearly:-Good is nothing but Use, so that
then to confirm it without previous in its very origin charity is the affection of use;
examination. and as use loves the means, the affection of use
produces the affection of the means, and from
this the knowledge [cognitio] of them, and
through this progression the affection of use
12.
comes forth into manifest being [existit], and
If any one should think within himself, or say to becomes charity.
some one else, "Who is able to have the
internal acknowledgment of truth which is
faith? not I;" let me tell him how he may have 15.
it: Shun evils as sins, and come to the Lord, and
you will have as much of it as you desire. (That The progression of these things is precisely like
he who shuns evils as sins is in the Lord, see the that of all things of the will through the
Doctrine of Life for the New Jerusalem n. 18-31; understanding into bodily acts. The will brings
that such a one loves truth, and sees it, n. 32- forth nothing from itself apart from the
41; and that he has faith, n. 42-52) understanding, nor does the understanding
bring forth anything from itself apart from the
will. In order that anything may come forth into
manifest being, the two must act in
13.
conjunction. Or, what is the same: Affection,
THE INTERNAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF TRUTH, which belongs to the will, brings forth nothing
WHICH IS FAITH, EXISTS WITH NONE BUT THOSE from itself except by means of thought, which is
WHO ARE IN CHARITY. We have already said of the understanding (the converse also being
what faith is, and will now say what charity is. In true), for in order that anything may come forth
its origin or beginning, charity is the affection of into manifest being the two must act in
good, and as good loves truth, the affection of conjunction. For consider: If you take away from
good produces the affection of truth, and thought all affection belonging to some love,
through it the acknowledgment of truth which can you exercise thought? Or if from the
is faith. Through this succession, the affection of affection you take away all thought, are you
good 13-1 comes forth into manifest being, and then able to be affected by anything? Or, what
becomes charity. This is the progressive is much the same, if you take away affection
advance of charity from its origin which is the from thought, can you speak anything? Or if you
affection of good, through faith which is the take away thought or understanding from
acknowledgment of truth, to its final end in affection, can you do anything? It is the same
view, which is charity. The final end is the doing. with charity and faith.
And this shows how love, here the affection of
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16. 18.
All this may be illustrated by comparison with a Be it known that charity and faith make a one as
tree. The prime source of a tree is a seed, and in do the will and the understanding, for charity is
this there is an endeavor to bring forth fruit. of the will, and faith is of the understanding.
This endeavor, roused to activity by heat, brings And in the same way, that charity and faith
forth first a root, and then from that a stem or make a one as do affection and thought,
stalk with branches and leaves, and at last the because affection is of the will, and thought is
fruit; and in this way the endeavor to bear fruit of the understanding. And also that charity and
comes forth into manifest being. From this it is faith make a one as do good and truth, because
evident that the endeavor to bring forth fruit is good is of affection which belongs to the will,
constant through the whole progression until it and truth is of thought which belongs to the
attains manifest being, for if it ceased the understanding. In a word, charity and faith
capacity to vegetate would die at once. This is make a one as do essence and form, because
the application: The tree is man; in him the charity is the essence of faith, and faith is the
endeavor to bring forth the means is from his form of charity. This shows that faith without
will in his understanding; the stem or stalk with charity is like a form without an essence, which
branches and leaves, in him are the is not anything at all; and that charity without
instrumental means, and are called the truths of faith is like an essence without a form, which
faith; the fruits which in the tree are the likewise is not anything at all.
ultimate effects of the endeavor to bear fruit, in
man are uses and in these his will comes forth
into manifest being. From this it may be seen 19.
that the will to bring forth uses by means of the
understanding is constant through the whole Charity and faith in a man are related to each
progression, until it comes into manifest being. other precisely as are the motion of the heart
(Concerning the will and the understanding, and called systole and diastole, and that of the lungs
their conjunction, see the Doctrine of Life for called breathing. Moreover there is a full
the New Jerusalem, n. 43.) correspondence of these two with man's will
and understanding, and therefore with charity
and faith. For this reason the will and its
affection are meant in the Word by the "heart,"
17.
and the understanding and its thought by the
From what has now been said it is evident that "breath" [animam], and the "spirit" [spiritum],
charity, insofar as it is the affection of good or on which account to "give up the breath
of use, brings forth faith as a means through [animam]," or "yield up the spirit [spiritum],"
which it may come into manifest being; and means to cease to respire, or to expire. This
therefore that charity and faith, in working shows that there cannot be faith without
uses, act in conjunction; and also that faith does charity, nor charity without faith; faith without
not bring forth good or use from itself, but from charity being like breathing with the lungs in the
charity, for faith is charity in its mediate stage. It absence of a heart, which is impossible in any
is therefore a fallacy that faith brings forth good living being, but only in some artificial
as a tree does its fruit. The tree is not faith. The apparatus; and charity without faith being like a
tree is the man himself. heart without any lungs, which can afford no
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conscious life; and therefore charity performs difference between the two is described by the
uses by means of faith, just as the heart does its Lord in Matthew 5:42-47. Many say, "I love such
work by means of the lungs. So great is the a man because he loves me and does me good;"
likeness between the heart and charity, and but to love anyone for this only is not to love
between the lungs and faith, that in the spiritual him inwardly, unless he who so loves is himself
world every one is known in respect to the in good, and from it loves the good of the other.
quality of his faith by his mere breathing, and in In this case the man is in charity, but in the
respect to that of his charity by the way his other he is in a friendship which is not charity. A
heart beats. For angels and spirits live by a man who loves the neighbor from charity
heartbeat and breathing just as men do, and it conjoins himself with his good, and not with his
is for this reason that they, equally with men in person except insofar and for so long as he is in
this world, feel, think, act, and speak. good. Such a man is spiritual, and loves his
neighbor spiritually, whereas one who loves
another from mere friendship, conjoins himself
20. with his person, and at the same time with his
evil, and after death he cannot without difficulty
As charity is love toward the neighbor, we will be separated from the personality that is in evil,
say what the neighbor is. In the natural sense, but the former can. Charity effects this by
the neighbor is man both collectively and means of faith, which faith is the truth; and the
individually. Collectively, man is the church, our man who is in charity by means of the truth
country, and society; individually, he is our examines thoroughly and sees what ought to be
fellow-citizen, who in the Word is called loved, and in loving and conferring benefits he
"brother" and "companion." But in the spiritual regards the quality of the other's use.
sense the neighbor is good, and as use is good,
the neighbor in this sense is use. That use is the
spiritual neighbor must be acknowledged by
22.
everyone. For who loves a human being merely
as a person? We love him for that which he has Love to the Lord is Love properly so called, and
in him, and which gives him his character; thus love toward the neighbor is Charity. With man
from his quality, for this is the man. And this no love to the Lord is possible except in charity;
quality that we love is use, and is called good, it is in charity that the Lord conjoins Himself
so that this is the neighbor. And as, in its with a man. As, in its essence, faith is charity, it
bosom, the Word is spiritual, therefore in its follows that no one can have faith in the Lord
spiritual sense this is to "love the neighbor." unless he is in charity. There is conjunction from
charity through faith; through charity
conjunction of the Lord with man, and through
21. faith conjunction of man with the Lord. (That
the conjunction is reciprocal, see the Doctrine
But it is one thing to love the neighbor on of Life for the New Jerusalem, n. 102-107.)
account of the good or use he is to us, and
another to love him from the good or use we
may be to him. Even an evil man can do the
23.
first, but only a good man the second, for a
good man loves good from good, that is, he In brief: In proportion as anyone shuns evils as
loves use from the affection of use. The sins, and looks to the Lord, in the same
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proportion he is in charity, and therefore in the

same proportion he is in faith. (That in
26.
proportion as anyone shuns evils as sins and
looks to the Lord, in the same proportion he is But as every man not only regards uses for the
in charity, may be seen in the Doctrine of Life sake of life in this world, but also should regard
for the New Jerusalem, n. 67-73, and also n. 74- uses for the sake of his life in heaven (for into
91; and that in the same proportion he has this life he will come after his life here, and will
faith, n. 42-52. What charity properly live in it to eternity), therefore from childhood
understood is, n. 114.) everyone acquires knowledges [cognitiones] of
truth and good from the Word, or from the
doctrine of the church, or from preaching,
24. which knowledges are to be learned and
retained for the sake of that life; and these he
From all said thus far it is evident that saving
stores up in his natural memory in greater or
faith, which is the internal acknowledgment of
less abundance according to such affection of
truth, is impossible to all except those who are
knowing as may be inborn with him, and has in
in charity.
various ways been incited to an increase.
25.
27.
THE KNOWLEDGES [COGNITIONES] OF TRUTH
But all these knowledges [cognitiones],
AND OF GOOD ARE NOT MATTERS OF REAL
whatever may be their number and whatever
BELIEF [FIDEI] UNTIL THE MAN IS IN CHARITY,
their nature, are merely the storehouse of
BUT ARE THE STOREHOUSE OF MATERIAL OUT
material from which the faith of charity can be
OF WHICH THE FAITH OF CHARITY CAN BE
formed, and this faith cannot be formed except
FORMED. From his earliest childhood man has
in proportion as the man shuns evils as sins. If
the affection of knowing, which leads him to
he shuns evils as sins, then these knowledges
learn many things that will be of use to him, and
become those of a faith that has spiritual life
many that will be of no use. While he is growing
within it. But if he does not shun evils as sins,
into manhood he learns by application to some
then these knowledges are nothing but
business such things as belong to that business,
knowledges [cognitiones], and do not become
and this business then becomes his use, and he
those of a faith that has any spiritual life within
feels an affection for it. In this way commences
it.
the affection or love of use, and this brings forth
the affection of the means which teach him the
handling of the business which is his use. With
28.
everybody in the world there is this
progression, because everybody has some This storehouse of material is in the highest
business to which he advances from the use degree necessary, because faith cannot be
that is his end, by the means, to the actual use formed without it, for the knowledges
which is the effect. But inasmuch as this use [cognitiones] of truth and good enter into faith
together with the means that belong to it is for and make it, so that if there are no knowledges,
the sake of life in this world, the affection that is faith cannot come forth into being, for an
felt for it is natural affection only. entirely void and empty faith is impossible. If
500
the knowledges are scanty, the faith is evils. Inwardly, that is, in their spirit, they are in
consequently very small and meager; if they are no affection of truth, and consequently are in
abundant, the faith becomes proportionately no acknowledgment of it, and therefore after
rich and full. death, when they become spirits and are
instructed by angels, they are unwilling to
acknowledge truths, and consequently do not
29. receive them. For evil of life inwardly hates
truths, whereas good of life inwardly loves
Be it known however that it is them.
knowledges[cognitiones] of genuine truth and
good that constitute faith, and by no means
knowledges of what is false, for faith is truth (as
31.
before said, n. 5-11), and as falsity is the
opposite of truth, it destroys faith. Neither can Knowledges [cognitiones] of good and truth
charity come forth into being where there are that precede faith appear to some to be things
nothing but falsities, for (as before said, n. 18) of faith (or real belief), but still are not so. Their
charity and faith make a one just as good and thinking and saying that they believe is no proof
truth make a one. From all this it follows that an that they do so, and neither are such
absence of knowledges of genuine truth and knowledges things of faith, for they are matters
good involves an absence of faith, that a few of mere thought that the case is so, and not of
knowledges make some faith, and that many any internal recognition that they are truths;
knowledges make a faith which is clear and and the faith or belief that they are truths,
bright in proportion to their abundance. Such as while it is not known that they are so, is a kind
is the quality of a man's faith from charity, such of persuasion quite remote from inward
is the quality of his intelligence. recognition. But as soon as charity is being
implanted, these knowledges become things of
faith, but no further than as there is charity in
30. the faith. In the first state, before charity is felt,
faith appears to them as though it were in the
There are many who possess no internal first place, and charity in the second; but in the
acknowledgment of truth, and yet have the second state, when charity is felt, faith betakes
faith of charity. These are they who have had itself to the second place, and charity to the
regard to the Lord in their life, and from religion first. The first state is called Reformation, and
have avoided evils, but have been prevented the second Regeneration. In this latter state a
from thinking about truths by worldly cares and man grows in wisdom every day, and every day
by their businesses, as well as by a lack of truth good multiplies truths and causes them to bear
on the part of their teachers. But inwardly, that fruit. The man is then like a tree that bears fruit,
is, in their spirit, they still are in the and inserts seeds in the fruit, from which come
acknowledgment of truth, because they are in new trees, and at last a garden. He then
the affection of it, and therefore after death, becomes truly a man, and after death an angel,
when they become spirits and are instructed by in whom charity constitutes the life, and faith
angels, they acknowledge truths and receive the form, beautiful in accordance with the
them with joy. Very different is the case with quality of the faith; but his faith is then no
those who have had no regard to the Lord in longer called faith, but intelligence. From all this
their life, and have not from religion avoided it is evident that the whole sum and substance
501
of faith is from charity, and nothing of it from the knowledges of good, for the knowledge of
itself; and also that charity brings forth faith, good is in the understanding, and the affection
and not faith charity. The knowledges of truth of good in the will, and what is in the
that go before are like the store in a granary, understanding is called truth, and what is in the
which does not feed a man unless he is hungry will is called good.
and takes out the grain.
34.
32.
THE CHRISTIAN FAITH IN ITS UNIVERSAL IDEA
We will also say how faith is formed from OR FORM. 34-1 The Christian Faith in its
charity. Every man has a natural mind and a universal idea or form is this: The Lord from
spiritual mind: a natural mind for the world, and eternity, who is Jehovah, came into the world to
a spiritual mind for heaven. In respect to his subdue the hells, and to glorify His Human; and
understanding, man is in both minds, but not in without this no mortal could have been saved;
respect to his will, until he shuns and is averse and they are saved who believe in Him.
to evils as sins. When he does this his spiritual
mind is opened in respect to the will also; and
when it has been opened there inflows from it 35.
into the natural mind spiritual heat from
heaven (which heat in its essence is charity), It is said "in the universal idea or form" because
and gives life to the knowledges of truth and this is what is universal of the Faith, and what is
good in the natural mind, and out of them it universal of the Faith is that which must be in all
forms faith. The case here is just as it is with a things of it both in general and in particular. It is
tree, which does not receive any vegetative life a Universal of the Faith that God is One in
until heat inflows from the sun, and conjoins Person and in Essence, in whom is the Trinity,
itself with the light, as takes place in spring and that the Lord is that God. It is a Universal of
time. There is also a full parallelism between the Faith that no mortal could have been saved
the quickening of man with life and the growing unless the Lord had come into the world. It is a
of a tree, in this respect, that the latter is Universal of the Faith that He came into the
effected by the heat of this world, and the world in order to remove hell from man, and He
former by the heat of heaven. It is for this removed it by combats against it and by
reason also that man is so often likened by the victories over it; thus He subdued it, and
Lord to a tree. reduced it into order and under obedience to
Himself. It is also a Universal of the Faith that
He came into the world in order to glorify the
Human which He took upon Him in the world,
33.
that is, in order to unite it to the all-originating
From these few words it may be considered Divine [Divino a Quo]; thus to eternity does He
settled that the knowledges of truth and good hold in order and under obedience to Himself
are not really things of faith until the man is in hell subjugated by Himself. And inasmuch as
charity, but that they are the storehouse of neither of these mighty works could have been
material out of which the faith of charity can be accomplished except by means of temptations
formed. With a regenerate person the even to the uttermost of them, which was the
knowledges of truth become truths, and so do passion of the cross, He therefore underwent
502
this uttermost temptation. These are the the various things which it maintains. The Faith
Universals of the Christian Faith concerning the of the present day maintains that: i. God the
Lord. Father and God the Son are two; and both are
from eternity. ii. God the Son came into the
world by the will of the Father to make
36. satisfaction for mankind, who otherwise would
have perished in eternal death by the Divine
The Universal of the Christian Faith on the part justice, which they also call avenging justice. iii.
of man is that he believe in the Lord, for The Son made satisfaction by fulfilling the law,
through believing in Him there is effected and by the passion of the cross. iv. The Father
conjunction with Him, by which comes was moved to compassion by these deeds of
salvation. To believe in Him is to have the Son. v. The Son's merit is imputed to those
confidence that He will save, and as no one can who believe this. vi. This imputation takes place
have this confidence except one who lives in an instant; and therefore it may take place, if
aright, therefore this also is meant by believing not before, in life's last moments. vii. There is
in Him. some measure of temptation, and deliverance
thereupon through this belief. viii. Those
possessing this experience, in especial have
37. trust and confidence. ix. In especial they have
These two Universals of the Christian Faith have justification, the Father's full grace for the sake
already been treated of specifically; the first, of the Son, the remission of all their sins, and
which regards the Lord, in the Doctrine of the thereby salvation. x. The more learned maintain
New Jerusalem concerning the Lord; and the that in such there is an endeavor [conatus]
second, which regards man, in the Doctrine of toward good, which works in secret, and does
Life for the New Jerusalem. It is therefore not manifestly move the will. Others maintain a
unnecessary to discuss them further here. manifest working. Both classes hold that it is by
the Holy Spirit. xi. Of those who confirm
themselves in the belief that no one can of
himself do good that is really good and that is
38.
not tainted with self-merit, and that they are
THE FAITH OF THE PRESENT DAY IN ITS not under the yoke of the law, very many omit
UNIVERSAL IDEA OR FORM. The Faith of the to do what is good, giving no thought to the evil
present day in its universal idea or form is this: and the good of life, saying to themselves that a
God the Father sent His Son to make good work does not save, and neither does an
satisfaction for mankind, and for the sake of this evil one condemn, because faith alone effects
merit of the Son He is moved to compassion, all things. xii. All maintain that the
and saves those who believe this (or, according understanding must be kept in subjection to
to others, saves those who believe this, and at faith, calling that a matter of faith which is not
the same time do good works). understood.
39. 40.
But in order that the character of this Faith may We forbear to examine and weigh these points
be seen more clearly, I will adduce in their order severally in regard to their being truths, their
503
real character being very evident from what has "Say what you know about love and charity."
already been said, especially from what has "They are that faith." "Say what you know
been shown from the Word, and at the same about good works." "They are that faith." "Say
time rationally confirmed, in the Doctrine of the what you think about all the things commanded
New Jerusalem concerning the Lord, and in the in the Word." "They are in that faith." "There is
Doctrine of Life for the New Jerusalem. nothing then that you are to do?" "What is
there for me to do? I cannot of myself do good
that is really good." "Can you have faith of
41. yourself?" "I cannot." "How then is it possible
for you to have faith?" "That I do not inquire
Still, in order that it may be seen what is the into. I am to have faith." Finally the angel said,
character of faith separated from charity, and "Surely you know something more than this
what that of faith not separated from it, I will about salvation." He replied, "What more is
impart something which I heard from an angel there for me to know, seeing that salvation is
of heaven. He said that he had conversed with obtained through that faith alone?" Then the
many of the Reformed, and had heard what was angel said, "You answer like a fifer who sounds
the character of their faith, and he related his only one note: I hear of naught but faith. If that
conversation with one who was in faith is all you know, you know nothing. Depart, and
separated from charity, and with another who behold your associates." So he departed and
was in faith not separated, and what he had came upon his associates in a desert, where
heard from them. He said that he questioned there was no grass. He asked why that was so,
them, and they made answer. As what was said and was told that it was because there was
may elucidate the subject, I will here present nothing of the church in them.
the two conversations.
43.
42.
With the one who was in faith not separated
The angel said that with him who was in faith from charity, the angel spoke as follows:
separated from charity he spoke as follows: "Friend, who are you?" "I am a Reformed
"Friend, who are you?" "I am a Reformed Christian." "What is your doctrine and the
Christian." "What is your doctrine and the religion you have from it?" "Faith and charity."
religion you have from it?" "It is faith." "What is "These are two things?" "They cannot be
your faith?" "My faith is that 'God the Father separated." "What is faith?" "To believe what
sent the Son to make satisfaction for mankind, the Word teaches." "What is charity?" "To do
and that they are saved who believe this.'" what the Word teaches." "Have you only
"What more do you know about salvation?" believed these things, or have you also done
"Salvation is through that faith alone." "What them?" "I have also done them." The angel of
do you know about redemption?" "It was heaven then looked at him, and said, "My
effected by the passion of the cross, and the friend, come with me, and dwell with us."
Son's merit is imputed through that faith."
"What do you know about regeneration?" "It is
effected through that faith." "What do you
44.
know about repentance and the remission of
sins?" "They are effected through that faith."
504
THE NATURE OF FAITH THAT IS SEPARATED believe this and they shall be saved." Besides
FROM CHARITY. In order that it may be seen many other absurdities.
what the character of faith is when separated
from charity, I will present it in its nakedness, in
which it is as follows: God the Father, being 46.
angry with mankind, cast them away from Him,
and out of justice resolved to take vengeance by The reason why these absurdities have not
their eternal condemnation and He said to the been seen isI that they have induced a blind
Son, "Go down, fulfill the law, and take upon faith, and have thereby shut men's eyes, and
Thyself the condemnation destined for them, stopped up their ears. Shut men's eyes and stop
and then perchance I shall be moved to up their ears, that is, contrive that they do not
compassion." Wherefore He came down, and exercise thought from any understanding, and
fulfilled the law; and suffered Himself to be then say whatever you please to persons on
hanged on the cross, and cruelly put to death. whom some idea of eternal life has been
When this was done, He returned to the Father imprinted, and they will believe it; even if you
and said, "I have taken upon Myself the should say that God is capable of being angry
condemnation of mankind, therefore now be and of breathing vengeance; that God is
merciful;" thus interceding for them But He capable of inflicting eternal condemnation on
received for answer, "Toward them I cannot; any one; that God wills to be moved to mercy
but as I saw Thee upon the cross, and beheld through the blood of His Son; that He will
then Thy blood, I have been moved to impute and attribute this to man as merit and
compassion. Nevertheless I will not pardon as man's; and that He will save him by his
them, but I will impute unto them Thy merit, merely thinking so. Or again, that one God
but to none others than those who could bargain such things with another God of
acknowledge this. This shall be the faith by the one essence, and impose them upon Him;
which they can be saved." and other things of the same kind. But open
your eyes and unstop your ears, that is, think
about these things from understanding, and
you will see their incongruity with the real
45.
truth.
Such is that faith in its nakedness. Who that
possesses any enlightened reason does not see
in it absurdities that are contrary to the Divine 47.
essence itself? As for instance that God, who is
love itself, and mercy itself, could out of anger Shut men's eyes and stop up their ears, and
and its consequent revengefulness condemn contrive that they do not think from any
men and accurse them to hell. Or again, that He understanding, and can you not then lead them
wills to be moved to mercy by His Son's taking to believe that God has given all His authority to
upon Him their condemnation, and by the sight a man, to be as God upon earth? Can you not
of His suffering upon the cross, and of His lead them to believe that the dead are to be
blood. Who that possesses any enlightened addressed in prayer? that men are to bare the
reason does not see that the Deity could not say head and bend the knee before images of the
to another coequal Deity, "I do not pardon dead? and that their lifeless bodies, their bones,
them, but I impute to them Thy merit?" Or, and their graves, are holy and are to be
"Now let them live as they please; only let them venerated? But if you open your eyes and
505
unstop your ears, that is, think about these meant in the Word by "Babylon," and that
things from some understanding, will you not which springs from the conceit of self-
behold preposterous absurdities that human intelligence is meant in the Word by "Philistia."
reason must abhor? Who at the present day belong to Babylon is
known, but not who belong to Philistia. To
Philistia belong those who are in faith and not
48. in charity.
When these things and others like them are

received by a man whose understanding has
50.
been closed up by his religion, may not the
temple in which he performs his worship be That they belong to Philistia who are in faith
compared to a den or cavern underground, and not in charity, is evident from various things
where he does not know what the objects are said in the Word about the Philistines, when
of which he catches sight? And may not his understood in the spiritual sense, as well from
religion be compared to dwelling in a house their strife with the servants of Abraham and of
that has no windows? and the voice of his Isaac (recorded in Gen. 21 and 26), as from their
worship to sound, and not to speech? With such wars with the sons of Israel (recorded in the
a man an angel of heaven can hold no converse, book of Judges, and in the books of Samuel and
because the one does not understand the of Kings); for in the spiritual sense all the wars
language of the other. described in the Word involve and signify
spiritual wars. And as this religion, namely, faith
separated from charity, is continually desiring to
49. get into the church, the Philistines remained in
the land of Canaan, and often harried the sons
IN THE WORD THEY WHO ARE IN FAITH of Israel.
SEPARATED FROM CHARITY ARE REPRESENTED
BY THE PHILISTINES. In the Word all the names
of nations and peoples, and also those of
persons and places, signify the things of the
church. The church itself is signified by "Israel"
and "Judah," because it was instituted among
them; and various religious principles are
signified by the nations and peoples around
them, those accordant with the church by the
good nations, and those discordant with it by
the evil nations. There are two evil religious
principles into which every church in course of
time degenerates, one that adulterates its Chapter Eight
goods, and the other that falsifies its truths. Doctrine of life
That which adulterates the goods of the church
springs from the love of rule, and that which
falsifies the truths of the church springs from 1.
the conceit of self-intelligence. The religious ALL RELIGION IS OF THE LIFE, AND THE LIFE OF
principle that springs from the love of rule is RELIGION IS TO DO THAT WHICH IS GOOD.
506
Every man who has religion knows and Everyone who heareth these words of Mine,
acknowledges that he who leads a good life is and doeth them, shall be likened to a wise man
saved, and that he who leads an evil life is who built his house upon the rock; and
damned; for he knows and acknowledges that everyone that heareth these words of Mine,
the man who lives aright thinks aright, not only and doeth them not, shall be likened unto a
about God but also about his neighbor; but not foolish man who built his house upon the sand
so the man whose life is evil. The life of man is (verses 24, 26). Jesus said, Behold, the sower
his love, and that which he loves he not only went forth to sow; some seeds fell on the hard
likes to be doing, but also likes to be thinking. way, others fell upon the rocky places, others
The reason therefore why we say that the life is fell among the thorns, and others fell into good
to do that which is good is that doing what is ground; he that was sown upon the good
good acts as a one with thinking what is good, ground, this is he that heareth the Word, and
for if in a man these two things do not act as a attendeth to it, who thence beareth fruit, and
one, they are not of his life. The demonstration bringeth forth, some a hundredfold, some sixty,
of these matters shall now follow. and some thirty. When Jesus had said these
things, He cried, saying, He that hath ears to
hear, let him hear (Matt. 13:3-9, 23, 43). For the
2. Son of man shall come in the glory of His Father,
and then shall He render unto every one
That religion is of the life and that the life of according to his deeds (Matt. 16: 27). The
religion is to do that which is good is seen by kingdom of God shall be taken away from you,
everyone who reads the Word, and is and shall be given unto a nation bringing forth
acknowledged by him while he is reading it. The the fruits thereof (Matt. 21: 43). When the Son
Word contains the following declarations: of man shall come in His glory, then shall He sit
Whosoever shall break the least of these on the throne of His glory. And He shall say to
commandments, and shall teach men so, shall the sheep on His right hand, Come ye blessed,
be called the least in the kingdom of the inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the
heavens; but whosoever shall do and teach foundation of the world; for I was hungry, and
them, the same shall be called great in the ye gave Me meat; I was thirsty, and ye gave Me
kingdom of the heavens. For I say unto you that drink; I was a stranger, and ye took Me in;
except your righteousness shall exceed that of naked, and ye clothed Me, I was sick, and ye
the Scribes and Pharisees, ye shall not enter visited Me I was in prison, and ye came unto
into the kingdom of the heavens (Matt. 5:19- Me. Then shall the righteous answer, When saw
20). Every tree that bringeth not forth good we Thee so? And the king shall answer and say
fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fire. unto them, Verily I say unto you, Inasmuch as
Therefore by their fruits ye shall know them ye did it unto one of the least of these My
(Matt. 7:19-20). Not every one that saith unto brethren, ye did it unto Me. And the king shall
Me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of say the like things to the goats on the left, and
the heavens; but he that doeth the will of My because they have not done such things, He
Father who is in the heavens (verse 21). Many shall say, Depart from Me, ye cursed, into the
will say to Me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we eternal fire which is prepared for the devil and
not prophesied by Thy name, and in Thy name his angels (Matt. 25:31-41). Bring forth
done many mighty things? And then will I therefore fruits worthy of repentance even now
profess unto them, I never knew you, depart is the axe laid unto the root of the trees every
from Me ye that work iniquity (verses 22, 23).
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tree, therefore that bringeth not forth good disciples (verse 8). Ye are My friends if ye do the
fruit is hewn down and cast into the fire (Luke things which I command you; I have chosen
3:8, 9). Jesus said, Why call ye Me Lord, Lord, you, that ye should bear fruit, and your fruit
and do not the things which I say? Everyone should abide (verses 14, 16). The Lord said to
that cometh unto Me, and heareth My words, John, To the angel of the church in Ephesus
and doeth them, he is like a man building a write: I know thy works; I have this against thee,
house, and he laid a foundation upon the rock; that thou hast left thy first charity; repent, and
but he that heareth, and doeth not, is like a do the first works, or else I will move thy lamb
man that built a house upon the earth without a stand out of its place (Rev. 2:1, 2, 4, 5). To the
foundation (Luke 6:46-49). Jesus said, My angel of the church in Smyrna write: I know thy
mother and My brethren are these who hear works (verses 8, 9). To the angel of the church
the Word of God, and do it (Luke 8:21). Then in Pergamos write: I know thy works, repent
shall ye begin to stand, and to knock at the (verses 12, 16). To the angel of the church in
door, saying, Lord, open to us; and He shall Thyatira write: I know thy works and charity,
answer and say to you, I know you not whence and thy last works are more than the first
ye are; depart from Me, all ye workers of (verses 18, 19). To the angel of the church in
iniquity (Luke 13:25-27). This is the judgment: Sardis write: I know thy works, that thou hast a
that the light is come into the world, and men name that thou livest, but art dead; I have not
loved the darkness rather than the light, for found thy works perfect before God; repent
their works were evil; for every one that doeth (Rev. 3:1-3). To the angel of the church in
evil hateth the light, lest his works should be Philadelphia write: I know thy works (verses 7,
reproved. But he that doeth the truth cometh 8). To the angel of the church of the Laodiceans
to the light, that his works may be made write: I know thy works; repent (verses 14, 15,
manifest, that they have been wrought in God 19). I heard a voice from heaven saying, Write,
(John 3:19-21). And shall come forth; they that Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord from
have done good, unto the resurrection [of life; henceforth; yea, saith the Spirit, that they may
and they that have done evil, unto the rest from their labors, for their works follow
resurrection] of judgment (John 5:29). We know with them (Rev. 14:13). Another book was
that God heareth not sinners; but if any man be opened, which is the book of life, and the dead
a worshiper of God, and do His will, him He were judged out of the things which were
heareth (John 9:31). If ye know these things, written in the books, all according to their
blessed are ye if ye do them (John 13:17). He works (Rev. 20:12, 13). Behold, I come quickly,
that hath My commandments, and keepeth and My reward is with Me, to give to everyone
them, he it is that loveth Me and I will love him, according to his work (Rev. 22:12). In like
and will manifest Myself unto him and we will manner in the Old Testament: Recompense
come unto him, and make our abode with him. them according to their work, and according to
He that loveth Me not keepeth not My words the deed of their hands (Jer. 25:14). Jehovah,
(John 14:21-24). Jesus said, I am the true vine, whose eyes are open upon all the ways of the
and My Father is the vine-dresser; every branch sons of men, to give everyone according to his
in Me that beareth not fruit, He taketh away ways, and according to the fruit of his works
and every branch that beareth fruit, He (Jer. 32:19). I will visit according to his ways,
cleanseth it, that it may bear more fruit (John and will reward him his works (Hos. 4:9).
15:1, 2). Herein is My Father glorified, that ye Jehovah, according to our ways, according to
bear much fruit, and ye shall be made My our works doth He to us (Zech. 1:6). And in
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many places it is said that the statutes, salvation, ascended into heaven, and sitteth at
commandments, and laws were to be done: Ye the right hand of the Father Almighty, whence
shall observe My statutes, and My judgments, He will come to judge the quick and the dead;
which if a man do, he shall live by them (Lev. and then they that have done good will enter
18:5). Ye shall observe all My statutes, and My into life eternal, and they that have done evil
judgments, that ye may do them (Lev. 19:37; into everlasting fire.
20:8; 22:31). The blessings, if they did the
commandments; and the curses if they did
them not (Lev. 26:4-46). The sons of Israel were 4.
commanded to make for themselves a fringe on
the borders of their garments, that they might In the Christian Churches, however, there are
remember all the commandments of Jehovah, many who teach that faith alone saves, and not
to do them (Num. 15:38, 39). So in a thousand any good of life, or good work, and they add
other places. That works are what make a man that evil of life or evil work does not condemn
of the church, and that he is saved according to those who have been justified by faith alone,
them, is also taught by the Lord in the parables, because such are in God and in grace.
many of which imply that those who do what is Wonderful to say, however, although they
good are accepted, and that those who do what teach such things, they nevertheless
is evil are rejected. As in the parable Of the acknowledge (in consequence of a perception
husbandmen in the vineyard (Matt. 21:33-44); from heaven common to all) that those who
Of the fig-tree that did not yield fruit (Luke lead a good life are saved, and that those who
13:6-9); Of the talents, and the pounds, with live an evil one are damned. That they do
which they were to trade (Matt. 25:14-31; Luke acknowledge this is evident from the
19:13-25); Of the Samaritan who bound up the Exhortation which not only in England but also
wounds of him that was wounded by robbers in Germany, Sweden, and Denmark is read in
(Luke 10:30-37); Of the rich man and Lazarus the places of worship before the people coming
(Luke 16:19-31); Of the ten virgins (Matt. 25:1- to the Holy Supper. As is well known, it is in
12). these kingdoms that those are found who teach
that faith alone.
3.
5.
That every one who has religion knows and
acknowledges that whoever leads a good life is The Exhortation read in England before the
saved, and that whoever leads an evil one is people who approach the Sacrament of the
damned, is owing to the conjunction of heaven Supper, is as follows: The way and means to be
with the man who knows from the Word that received as worthy partakers of that Holy Table
there is a God, that there is a heaven and a hell, is, first, to examine your lives and conversations
and that there is a life after death. Such is the by the rule of God's commandments; and
source of this general perception. Therefore in whereinsoever ye shall perceive yourselves to
the doctrine of the Athanasian Creed respecting have offended, either by will, word, or deed,
the Trinity, which has been universally received there to bewail your own sinfulness, and to
in the Christian world, the following declaration, confess yourselves to Almighty God, with full
at the end of it, has also been universally purpose of amendment of life; and if ye shall
received: Jesus Christ, who suffered for our perceive your offenses to be such as are not
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only against God, but also against your were then thinking of faith as being the sole
neighbors, then ye shall reconcile yourselves means of salvation, and of the good of life as
unto them, being ready to make restitution and being a moral accessory for the public good.
satisfaction, according to the uttermost of your Nevertheless it was incontestably proved to
powers, for all injuries and wrongs done by you them that with them too there was that
to any other, and being likewise ready to forgive common perception that he who leads a good
others that have offended you, as ye would life is saved, and that he who leads an evil one
have forgiveness of your offenses at God's is damned; and that they possess this
hand; for otherwise the receiving of the Holy perception when they are not in what is their
Communion doth nothing else but increase Own.
your damnation. Therefore if any of you be a
blasphemer of God, a hinderer or slanderer of
His Word, an adulterer, or be in malice or envy, 8.
or in any other grievous crime, repent you of
your sins, or else come not to that Holy Table; The reason why all religion is of the life, is that
lest after the taking of that Holy Sacrament the after death everyone is his own life, for the life
devil enter into you as he entered into Judas, stays the same as it had been in this world, and
and fill you full of all iniquities, and bring you to undergoes no change. For an evil life cannot be
destruction both of body and soul. converted into a good one, nor a good life into
an evil one, because they are opposites, and
conversion into what is opposite is extinction.
And, being opposites, a good life is called Life,
6.
and an evil one Death. This is why religion is of
[In this paragraph Swedenborg presents a life, and why its life is to do what is good. (That
translation into Latin of the foregoing after death a man is such as had been his life in
Exhortation.] this world may be seen in the work on Heaven
and Hell, n. 470-484).
7.
9.
I have been permitted to ask some of the
English clerk who had professed and preached NO ONE CAN FROM HIMSELF DO WHAT IS
faith alone (this was done in the spiritual GOOD THAT IS REALLY GOOD. That hitherto
world), whether while they were reading in scarcely anyone knows whether the good done
church this Exhortation--which faith is not even by him is from self or from God, is because the
mentioned--they believed it to be true; for church has sundered faith from charity, and
example, that if people do evil things, and do good is of charity. A man gives to the poor;
not repent, the devil will enter into them as he relieves the needy; endows places of worship
did into Judas, and destroy them both body and and hospitals; has regard for the church, his
soul. They said that in the state in which they country, and his fellow citizen; is diligent in his
were when reading the Exhortation they had no attendance at a place of worship, where he
other knowledge or thought than that this was listens and prays devoutly; reads the Word and
religion itself; but that while composing and books of piety; and thinks about salvation; and
elaborating their discourses or sermons they yet is not aware whether he is doing these
had a different thought about it, because they things from himself, or from God. He may be
510
doing the very same things from God, or he may But before this is done something shall be said
be doing them from self. If he does them from about goods.
God they are good, if from self they are not
good. In fact there are goods of this kind done
from self which are eminently evil, such as 12.
hypocritical goods, the purpose of which is
deception and fraud. There are civic good, moral good, and spiritual
good. Civic good is that which a man does from
the civic law: by means of and according to this
good is the man a citizen in the natural world.
10.
Moral good is that which a man does from the
Goods from God, and goods from self, may be law of reason: by means of and according to
compared to gold. Gold that is gold from the this good is he a man. Spiritual good is that
inmost, called pure gold, is good gold. Gold which a man does from spiritual law: by means
alloyed with silver is also gold, but is good of and according to this good is he a citizen in
according to the amount of the alloy. Less good the spiritual world. These goods succeed one
still is gold that is alloyed with copper. But a another in the following order: spiritual good is
gold made by art, and resembling gold only the highest, moral good is intermediate, and
from its color, is not good at all, for there is no civic good is last.
substance of gold in it. There is also what is
gilded, such as gilded silver, copper, iron, tin,
lead, and also gilded wood and gilded stone, 13.
which on the surface may appear like gold; but
not being such, they are valued either according A man who possesses spiritual good is also a
to the workmanship, the value of the gilded moral man and a civic man; but a man who
material, or that of the gold which can be does not possess spiritual good may appear to
scraped off. In goodness these differ from real be a moral man and a civic man, yet is not so.
gold as a garment differs from a man. Moreover The reason why a man who possesses spiritual
rotten wood, dross, or even ordure, may be good is also a moral man and a civic man, is that
overlaid with gold; and such is the gold to which spiritual good has the essence of good within it,
pharisaic good may be likened. and moral and civic good have this essence
from spiritual good. The essence of good can be
from no other source than Him who is good
itself. Think the matter over from every point of
11.
view, and try to find out from what it is that
From science a man knows whether gold is good is good, and you will see that it is so from
good in substance, is alloyed and falsified, or is its inmost being [esse], and that that is good
merely overlaid; but he does not know from which has within it the esse of good;
science whether the good he does is good in consequently that that is good which is from
itself. This only does he know: that good from good itself, thus from God; and therefore that
God is good, and that good from man is not good which is not from God, but from man, is
good? Therefore, as it concerns his salvation for not good.
him to know whether the good he does is from
God, or is not from God, this must be revealed.
14.
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From what has been said in the Doctrine of the lead the will, but the will leads the
Holy Scripture (n. 27-28, 38), it may be seen understanding. The understanding merely
that what is highest, what is intermediate, and teaches and shows the way, as has been said in
what is last, make a one, like end, cause, and the Doctrine of the Holy Scripture (n. 115). And
effect; and that because they make a one, the so long as the will is not in heaven together
end itself is called the first end, the cause the with the understanding, the man is not spiritual,
intermediate end, and the effect the last end. and consequently is not rational; for when he is
From this it must be evident that in the case of left to his will or love, he throws off the rational
a man who possesses spiritual good, what is things of his understanding respecting God,
moral in him is intermediate spiritual, and what heaven, and eternal life, and adopts in their
is civic is ultimate spiritual. And for this reason it stead such things as are in agreement with his
has been said that a man who possesses will's love, and these he calls rational. But these
spiritual good is also a moral man and a civic matters shall be elucidated in the treatises on
man; and that a man who does not possess Angelic Wisdom.
spiritual good is neither a moral man nor a civic
man, although he may appear to be so both to
himself and to others. 16.
In the following pages, those who do what is

good from themselves will be called natural
15.
men, because with them the moral and the civic
That a man who is not spiritual can yet think is in its essence natural; and those who do what
rationally and speak from that thought, like a is good from the Lord will be called spiritual
spiritual man, is because man's understanding men, because with them the moral and the civic
can be uplifted into the light of heaven, which is is in its essence spiritual.
truth, and can see from it; but his will cannot be
in the same way uplifted into the heat of
heaven, which is love, so as to act from that 17.
heat. It is for this reason that truth and love do
not make a one in a man unless he is spiritual. That no one can from himself do any good that
And it is for this reason also that man can is really good, is taught by the Lord in John: A
speak; and it is this which makes the difference man can receive nothing except it be given him
between a man and a beast. It is by means of from heaven (John 3:27). He that abideth in me,
this capacity of the understanding to be uplifted and I in him, the same beareth much fruit; for
into heaven when as yet the will is not so without me ye can do nothing (John 15:5). "He
uplifted, that it is possible for a man to be that abideth in me, and I in him, the same
reformed and to become spiritual; but he does beareth much fruit," means that all good is from
not begin to be reformed and become spiritual the Lord; "fruit" means what is good. "Without
until his will also is uplifted. It is from this Me ye can do nothing," means that no man can
superior endowment of the understanding over from himself do anything. Those who believe in
the will, that a man, of whatever character he the Lord, and from Him do what is good, are
may be, even if evil, is able to think and called Sons of light (John 12:36; Luke 16:8);
therefore to speak rationally, as if he were Sons of the bride chamber (Mark 2:19); Sons of
spiritual. That still in spite of this he is not the resurrection (Luke 20:36); Sons of God (Luke
rational, is because the understanding does not 20:36; John 1:12); Born of God (John 1:13); It is
512
said that they shall see God (Matt. 5:8); That the
Lord will make His abode with them (John
14:23); That they have the faith of God (Mark
11:22); That their works are done from God
(John 3:21). These things are all summed up in
the following words: As many as received Him,
to them gave He power [potestas] to be sons of
God, to them that believe in His name; who
were born, not of bloods, nor of the will of the
flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God (John
1:12-13). To "believe in the name of the Son of
God," is to believe the Word and to live
according to it; "the will of the flesh," is what is
proper to man's will, which in itself is evil; "the
will of man," is what is proper to his
understanding, which in itself is falsity from evil;
those "born of" these, are those who will and
act, and also think and speak, from what is
proper to themselves; those "born of God," are
those who do all this from the Lord. In short:
that which is from man is not good; but that
which is good is from the Lord.
18.
IN PROPORTION AS A MAN SHUNS EVILS AS

SINS, IN THE SAME PROPORTION HE DOES
GOODS, NOT FROM HIMSELF BUT FROM THE
LORD. Who does not or may not know that evils
stand in the way of the Lord's entrance to a
man? For evil is hell, and the Lord is heaven,
and hell and heaven are opposites. In
proportion therefore as a man is in the one, in
the same proportion he cannot be in the other.
For the one acts against the other and destroys
it.
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church why the Lord is called the Word. It is

because "the Word" signifies Divine truth or
Divine wisdom, and the Lord is Divine truth
itself or Divine wisdom itself. And this is why He
is called the Light, of which also it is said that it
Chapter Nine came into the world. As the Divine wisdom and
Doctrine of the Lord the Divine love make a one, 1-1 and in the Lord
had been a one from eternity, it is said, "In Him
was life, and the life was the light of men."
"Life" is Divine love; and "light" is Divine
wisdom. It is this one that is meant by, "In the
beginning the Word was with God, and God was
Doctrine of the Lord the Word." "With God," is in God; for wisdom is
in love, and love in wisdom. So in another place
in John: And now, O Father, glorify Thou Me
1. with Thine own Self, with the glory which I had
UNIVERSAL HOLY SCRIPTURE TREATS OF THE with Thee before the world was (John 17:5).
LORD: THE LORD IS THE WORD. We read in "With Thine own Self," is in thyself, and
John: In the beginning was the Word, and the therefore it is said, "and God was the Word;"
Word was with God, and God was the Word. and elsewhere, that the Lord is in the Father,
The same was in the beginning with God. All and the Father in Him; and that He and the
things were made by Him, and without Him was Father are one. As therefore the Word is the
not anything made that was made. In Him was Divine wisdom of the Divine love, it follows that
life, and the life was the light of men. And the it is Jehovah Himself, thus the Lord by whom all
light shineth in the darkness, and the darkness things were made that are made; for all things
comprehended it not (John 1:1-5). The Word have been created from Divine love by means
was made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we of Divine wisdom.
beheld His glory, the glory as of the Only-
begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth
(John 1:14). The light is come into the world and 2.
men loved the darkness rather than the light, That the Word here specifically meant is the
because their deeds were evil (John 3:19). same Word that was manifested by means of
While ye have the light, believe in the light, that Moses, the prophets, and the evangelists, is
ye may be sons of light. I am come a light into very evident from the fact that the Word is the
the world, that whosoever believeth in me Divine truth itself from which angels have all
should not abide in the darkness (John 12:36, their wisdom, and men all their spiritual
46). From these passages it is evident that the intelligence. For this same Word that is among
Lord is God from eternity, and that this God is men in this world is also among the angels in
the selfsame Lord who was born in the world; the heavens, but in this world among men it is
for it is said that the Word was with God, and natural, whereas in the heavens it is spiritual.
God was the Word, and also that without Him And as the Word is the Divine truth, it is also
was not anything made that was made; and it is the Divine proceeding; 2-1 and this is not only
added that the Word was made flesh, and they from the Lord, but is also the Lord Himself; and
beheld Him. It is but little understood in the being the Lord Himself, it follows that each and
514
all things of the Word have been written dominance of the hells; which was effected by
concerning Him alone. From Isaiah to Malachi means of combats (that is, temptations)
there is nothing that is not either concerning admitted into his maternal human, and the
the Lord, or, in the opposite sense, against Him. attendant continual victories; for unless the
Hitherto no one has ever seen this to be so, and hells had been subjugated no man could have
yet everyone can see it, provided he is aware of been saved. iii. The Lord came into the world in
it, and thinks of it while he is reading, especially order to glorify His Human, that is, unite it to
if he knows that the Word contains not only a the Divine which was in Him from conception.
natural but also a spiritual sense, and that in iv. The Lord came into the world in order to set
this sense the names of persons and places up a new church which should acknowledge
signify something of the Lord, and, derivatively, Him as the Redeemer and Savior, and be
something of heaven and the church from Him, redeemed and saved through love to Him and
or else something opposite to them. As all faith in Him. v. He at the same time reduced
things of the Word both in general and in heaven into order, so that it made a one with
particular treat of the Lord and as the Word, the church. vi. The passion of the cross was the
being the Divine truth, is the Lord, it is evident last combat or temptation, by means of which
why it is said, "And the Word was made flesh, He completely conquered the hells and fully
and dwelt among us, and we beheld His glory;" glorified His Human. In the following small work
and also why it is said, "While ye have the light, on The Holy Scripture it will be seen that the
believe in the light, that ye may be sons of light: Word treats of no other subjects than these.
I am come a light into the world, that
whosoever believeth in Me should not abide in
the darkness." The "light" is the Divine truth, 4.
thus the Word. This is why, even at this day,
every one who, while reading the Word, In confirmation of this, I shall in this first
approaches the Lord alone, and prays to Him, is chapter merely adduce passages from the Word
enlightened in the Word. which contain the expressions "that day," "in
that day," and "in that time;" in which, by "day,"
and "time," is meant the Lord's advent. In
Isaiah: It shall come to pass in the futurity of
3.
days that the mountain of the house of Jehovah
Briefly stated, the subjects concerning the Lord shall be established in the top of the mountains.
that are treated of in all the Prophets of the Old Jehovah alone shall be exalted in that day. The
Testament, from Isaiah to Malachi, both in day of Jehovah of Armiea shall be upon
general and in particular, are these: I. The Lord everyone that is proud and lofty. In that day a
came into the world in the fullness of times, man shall cast away his idols of silver and of
which was when He was no longer known by gold (Isa. 2:2, 11-12, 20). In that day the Lord
the Jews, and when, consequently, there was Jehovih will take away their ornament (Isa.
nothing of the church left; and unless He had 3:18). In that day shall the branch of Jehovah be
then come into the world and revealed Himself, beautiful and glorious (Isa. 4:2). In that day it
mankind would have perished in eternal death. shall roar against him, and he shall look unto
As He Himself says in John: "Except ye believe the land, and behold darkness and distress, and
that I am, ye shall die in your sins" (8:24). ii. The the light shall be darkened in the ruins (Isa.
Lord came into the world to execute a Last 5:30). It shall come to pass in that day that
Judgment, and thereby to subdue the existing Jehovah shall hiss for the fly that is in the
515
uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt. In that day that He may deliver us (25:9). In that day shall
the Lord shall shave in the crossings of the river. this song be sung in the land of Judah, We have
In that day He shall vivify. In that day every a strong city (26:1)? In that day Jehovah shall
place shall be for briers and thorns (7:18, 20, 21, visit with His sword. In that day ye shall answer
23). What will ye do in the day of visitation, to it, a vineyard of unmixed wine (27:1, 2, 12,
which shall come? In that day Israel shall stay and 13). In that day shall Jehovah of Armies be
upon Jehovah, the Holy One of Israel, in truth for a crown of ornament, and for a diadem
(10:3, 20). It shall come to pass in that day, that (28:5). In that day shall the deaf hear the words
the Root of Jesse, which standeth for an ensign of the book, and the eyes of the blind shall see
of the peoples, shall the nations seek, and His out of darkness (29:18). There shall be streams
rest shall be glory. Chiefly in that day shall the of waters in the day of the great slaughter,
Lord seek again the remnant of His people when the towers shall fall; and the light of the
(11:10, 11). In that day thou shalt say, I will moon shall be as the light of the sun, in the day
confess unto Thee, O Jehovah. In that day shall that Jehovah shall bind up the hurt of His
ye say, Confess ye to Jehovah, call upon His people (30:25, 26). In that day they shall cast
name (12:1, 4). The day of Jehovah is at hand, away every man his idols of silver and of gold
as a laying waste from Shaddai shall it come. (31:7). The day of Jehovah's vengeance, the
Behold, the day of Jehovah cometh, cruel, and year of His recompenses (34:8). These two
of indignation, and of wrath, and of anger. I will things shall come to thee in one day, the loss of
move the heaven, and the earth shall be shaken children and widowhood (47:9). My people shall
out of her place, in the day of the wrath of His know my name, and in that day that I am He
anger. His time is near, and it cometh, and the that doth speak; behold it is I (52:6). Jehovah
days shall not be prolonged (13:6, 9, 13, 22). It hath anointed me to proclaim the acceptable
shall come to pass in that day, that the glory of year of Jehovah, and the day of vengeance of
Jacob shall be made thin. In that day shall a man our God, to comfort all that mourn (61:1, 2).
look unto his Maker, and his eyes to the Holy The day of vengeance is in my heart, and the
One of Israel? In that day shall the cities of year of my redeemed come (63:4). In Jeremiah:
refuge be as the forsaken places of the forest In those days ye shall say no more, the ark of
(17:4, 7, 9). In that day there shall be five cities the covenant of Jehovah. In that time they shall
in the land of Egypt that speak with the lip of call Jerusalem the throne of Jehovah. In those
Canaan. In that day there shall be an altar to days the house of Judah shall walk to the house
Jehovah in the midst of Egypt. In that day there of Israel (Jer. 3:16-18). In that day the heart of
shall be a path from Egypt to Assyria, and Israel the king shall perish, and the heart of the
shall be in the midst of the land (19:18, 19, 23, princes, and the priests shall be amazed, and
24). The inhabitant of the island shall say in that the prophets (Jer. 4:9). Behold the days come in
day, Behold our expectation (20:6). A day of which the land shall become a waste (Jer. 7:32,
tumult, and of treading down, and of perplexity, 34). They shall fall among them that fall, in the
from the Lord Jehovih of Armies (22:5). In that day of their visitation (Jer. 8:12). Behold the
day shall Jehovah visit upon the army of the days come that I will visit all that is circumcised
height, and upon the kings of the earth? Alter a with what is uncircumcised (Jer. 9:25). In the
multitude of days shall they be visited; then time of their visitation they shall perish (Jer.
shall the moon blush, and the sun be ashamed 10:15). There shall be no remains to them, I will
(24:21, 22, 23). It shall be said 4-1 in that day, bring evil upon them in the year of their
Lo, this is our God, for whom we have waited, visitation (Jer. 11:23). Behold, the days come in
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which it shall no more be said (Jer. 16:14). I will time, the iniquity of Israel shall be sought for,
look upon them in the nape, and not the faces, and there shall be none. Woe unto them, for
in the day of their destruction (Jer. 18:17). their day is come, the time of their visitation
Behold, the days come in which I will give this (Jer. 50:4, 20, 27, and 31). They are vanity, a
place for a waste (Jer. 19:6). Behold, the days work of errors, in the time of their visitation
come that I will raise unto David a righteous they shall perish (Jer. 51:18). In Ezekiel: An end
offshoot, who shall reign as king. In those days is come, the end is come, the morning cometh
Judah shall be saved, and Israel shall dwell upon thee; the time is come, the day of tumult
safely. Therefore, behold, the days come that is near. Behold the day, behold it cometh, the
they shall no more say . . . I will bring evil upon morning hath gone forth, the rod hath
them in the year of their visitation. In the end of blossomed, violence hath budded. The day is
days ye shall understand intelligence (Jer. 23:5- come, the time is come upon all the multitude
7, 12, 20). Behold, the days come in which I will thereof. Their silver and gold shall not deliver
turn again. Alas! For that day is great, and none them in the day of the anger of Jehovah (Ezek.
shall be like it. It shall come to pass in that day 7:6, 7, 10, 12, 19). They said of the prophet, the
that I will break the yoke, and burst the bonds vision that he seeth shall come to pass after
(Jer. 30:3, 7-8). There shall be a day that the many days; he prophesied for times that are far
watchman upon Mount Ephraim shall cry, Arise off (Ezek. 12:27). They shall not stand in the war
ye, and let us ascend Zion, unto Jehovah our in the day of the anger of Jehovah (Ezek. 13:5).
God. Behold, the days come that I will make a Thou, O deadly wounded wicked one, the
new covenant. Behold, the days come that the prince of Israel, whose day is done, in the time
city shall be built to Jehovah (Jer. 31:6, 31, 38). of the iniquity of the end (Ezek. 21:25). A city
The days come that I will establish the good that shredded blood in the midst of her, that
word. In those days and at that time, will I make her time may come; and thou hast caused thy
a righteous offshoot unto David? In those days days to draw near, so that thou art come to thy
shall Judah be saved (Jer. 33:14-16)? I will bring years (Ezek. 22:3-4). Shall it not be in the day
words against this city for evil in that day. But I when I take from them their strength? In that
will deliver thee in that day (Jer. 39:16-17). That day he that escaped shall come unto thee to the
day is to the Lord Jehovih of Armies a day of instructing of thine ears. In that day shall thy
vengeance, that He will take vengeance of His mouth be opened together with him that is
enemies. The day of destruction has come upon escaped (Ezek. 24:25-27). In that day will I cause
them, the time of their visitation (Jer. 46:10, a horn to grow unto the house of Israel (Ezek.
21). Because of the day that cometh to lay 29:21)? Howl ye, Woe worth the day! for the
waste (Jer. 47:4). I will bring upon him the year day of Jehovah is near, the day of Jehovah is
of visitation. Yet I will bring again his captivity in near, a day of cloud, it shall be the time of the
the end of days (Jer. 48:44, 47). I will bring nations. In that day shall messengers go forth
destruction upon them in the time of their from Me (Ezek. 30:2-3, 9). In the day in which
visitation. Her young men shall fall in the thou shalt go down into hell (Ezek. 31:15). I will
streets, and all the men of war shall be cut off in search for My flock in the day that he shall be in
that day. In the end of days I will bring again the midst of his flock; and I will deliver them out
their captivity (Jer. 49:8, 26, 39). In those days, of all places whither they have been scattered,
and in that time, the sons of Israel and the sons in the day of cloud and of thick darkness (Ezek.
of Judah shall come together, and shall seek 34:11-12). In the day that I cleanse you from all
Jehovah their God. In those days, and in that your iniquities (Ezek. 36:33). Prophesy and say,
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In that day when My people Israel shall sit Israel. Great shall be the day of Jezreel (Hos.
securely, shalt thou not know it? In the futurity 1:4-5, 11). In that day thou shalt call Me, my
of days I will lead thee to My land. In that day, Husband. In that day I will make a covenant for
even the day when Gog shall come upon the them. In that day I will hear (Hos. 2:16, 18, 21).
land. In My zeal, in the fire of Mine indignation, The sons of Israel shall return, and seek Jehovah
if not in this day, there shall be a great their God, and David their king, in the end of
earthquake upon the land of Israel (Ezek. 38:14, days (Hos. 3:5). Come, and let us return unto
16, 18-19). Behold, it cometh, this day of which Jehovah; after two days He will revive us; in the
I have spoken. It shall come to pass in that day third day He will raise us up, and we shall live
that I will give unto Gog a place for burial in the before him (Hos. 6:1-2). The days of visitation
land of Israel, so that the house of Israel shall are come; the days of retribution are come
know that I am Jehovah their God, from that (Hos. 9:7). In Joel: Alas for the day, for the day
day and forward (Ezek. 39:8, 11, 22). In Daniel: of Jehovah is at hand, and as a laying waste
God in the heavens hath revealed secrets, what from Shaddai shall it come (Joel 1:15). The day
shall be in the futurity of days (Dan. 2:28). The of Jehovah cometh, nigh is the day of darkness
time came that the saints possessed the and of thick darkness, a day of cloud and of
kingdom (Dan. 7:22). Attend, for at the time of obscurity. The day of Jehovah is great and very
the end shall be the vision. And he said, Behold, terrible; and who can endure it? (Joel 2:1, 2,
I will make thee know what shall be in the last 11). Upon the servants, and upon the
end of the anger, for at the time appointed shall handmaids in those days will I pour out My
the end be. The vision of the evening and the spirit. The sun shall be turned into darkness,
morning is truth; shut thou up the vision, for it and the moon into blood, before the great and
shall be for many days (Dan. 8:17, 19, 26). I am terrible day of Jehovah is come (Joel 2:29, 31).
come to make thee understand what shall befall Behold, in those days, and in that time, which I
thy people in the end of days; for the vision is will bring back, I will gather all nations. The day
yet for days (Dan. 10:14). The intelligent shall of Jehovah is near. It shall come to pass in that
be proved to purge and cleanse them, even to day that the mountains shall drop new wine
the time of the end, because it is yet for the (Joel 3:1-2, 14, 18). In Obadiah: Shall I not in
time appointed (Dan. 11:35). At that time shall that day destroy the wise men out of Edom?
Michael rise up, the great prince who standeth Neither shouldest thou have rejoiced over them
for the sons of thy people; and there shall be a in the day of their destruction, in the day of
time of trouble, such as never was since there their distress. For the day of Jehovah is near
was a nation. At that time thy people shall be upon all the nations (Obad. 8, 12, 15). In Amos:
delivered, everyone that shall be found written He that is courageous in his heart shall flee
in the book (Dan. 12:1). Thou, O Daniel, shut up away naked in that day (Amos 2:16). In the day
the words, and seal the book, even to the time that I shall visit the transgressions of Israel upon
of the end. But from the time that the continual him (Amos 3:14). Woe unto you that desire the
[burnt-offering] shall be taken away, and the day of Jehovah! What to you is the day of
abomination that maketh waste be set up, Jehovah? it is one of darkness, and not of light.
there shall be a thousand two hundred and Shall not the day of Jehovah be darkness, and
ninety days. Thou shall arise into thy lot at the not light? even thick darkness, and no
end of the days (Dan. 12:4, 11, 13). In Hosea: I brightness in it? (Amos 5:18, 20.) The songs of
will make an end of the kingdom of the house the temple shall be howlings in that day. In that
of Israel. In that day I will break the bow of day I will cause the sun to go down at noon; and
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I will darken the earth in the day of light. In that I gather you; for I will make you a name, and a
day shall the beautiful virgins and the young praise (Zeph. 3:8, 11, 16, 19-20). In Zechariah:
men faint for thirst (Amos 8:3, 9, 13). In that Many nations shall cleave to Jehovah in that day
day I will raise up the tent of David that is fallen. (Zech. 2:11). I will remove the iniquity of that
Behold, the days come that the mountains shall land in one day. In that day shall ye cry every
drop new wine (Amos 9:11, 13). In Micah: In man to his companion under the vine and under
that day shall one lament, We be utterly laid the fig tree (Zech. 3:9-10). In those days ten
waste (Micah 2:4). In the end of days the men shall take hold of the skirt of a man that is
mountain of the house of Jehovah shall be a Jew (Zech. 8:23). Jehovah their God shall serve
established at the head of the mountains. In them in that day, as the flock of His people
that day will I gather her that halteth (Micah (Zech. 9:16). My covenant was broken in that
4:1, 6). In that day I will cut off thy horses and day (Zech. 11:11). In that day will I make
thy chariots (Micah 5:10). The day of thy Jerusalem a stone of burden for all peoples. In
watchmen, and thy visitation, cometh. The day that day I will smite every horse with
is at hand for building thy walls. In that day he astonishment. In that day will I make the
shall come even to thee (Micah 7:4, 11-12). In leaders of Judah like a furnace of fire among the
Habakkuk: The vision is yet for an appointed wood. In that day shall Jehovah defend the
time, and at the end it shall speak; though it inhabitants of Jerusalem. In that day I will seek
tarry, wait for it, because it will surely come, it to destroy all nations. In that day shall there be
will not delay (Hab. 2:3). O Jehovah do Thy work a great mourning in Jerusalem (Zech. 12:3-4, 6,
in the midst of the years; in the midst of the 8, 9, 11). In that day there shall be a fountain
years make known God cometh (Hab. 3:2, 3). In opened to the house of David, and to the
Zephaniah: The day of Jehovah is at hand. In the inhabitants of Jerusalem. It shall come to pass
day of Jehovah's sacrifice I will visit upon the in that day I will cut off the names of the idols in
princes, and upon the king's sons. In that day the land. In that day the prophets shall be
there shall be the voice of a cry. At that time I ashamed (Zech. 13:1-4). Behold, the day of
will search Jerusalem with lamps. The great day Jehovah cometh. His feet shall stand in that day
of Jehovah is near. That day is a day of wrath, a upon the Mount of Olives. In that day there
day of trouble and distress, a day of wasteness shall not be light and brightness; but it shall be
and desolation, a day of darkness and thick one day which shall be known unto Jehovah;
darkness, a day of cloud and overclouding, a not day, nor night, at evening time there shall
day of the trumpet and of sounding. In the day be light. In that day living waters shall go out
of Jehovah's wrath the whole land shall be from Jerusalem. In that day there shall be one
devoured, and He shall make a speedy end of all Jehovah, and His name one. In that day there
them that dwell in the land (Zeph. 1:7-8, 10, 12, shall be a great tumult from Jehovah. In that
14-16, 18). Before the day of Jehovah's anger day shall there be upon the bells of the horses,
has come upon us. It may be ye shall be hid in Holiness unto Jehovah. In that day there shall
the day of Jehovah's anger (Zeph. 2:2-3). Wait be no more a Canaanite in the house of Jehovah
ye upon Me until the day that I rise up to the (Zech. 14:1, 4, 6-9, 13, 20-21). In Malachi: Who
prey, for it is My judgment. In that day shalt may abide the day of His coming, and who shall
thou not be ashamed for all thy works. In that stand when He appeareth? They shall be Mine
day it shall be said to Jerusalem, Fear thou not. in the day wherein I do make a peculiar
At that time I will deal with thine oppressors. At treasure. Behold, the day cometh that shall
that time will I bring you in, and at that time will burn as an oven. Behold, I send you Elijah the
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prophet before the coming of the great and also is the new understanding and the new will.
terrible day of Jehovah (Mal. 3:2, 17; 4:1, 5). In Afterwards the man is led by the Lord through
David: In His days shall the righteous flourish, the above light and through the above heat,
and abundance of peace, and He shall have and from natural becomes spiritual.
dominion from sea to sea, and from the river
unto the ends of the earth (Ps. 72:7-8, besides
other places). 3.
There is a still higher or more interior light and

heat, which is called celestial. This is inserted
and instilled into the former spiritual. The
angels of the third heaven who are called
celestial, are in this light and heat.
Chapter Ten
4.
The invitation to the New Church
This insertion may be explained by a
Invitation to the New Church comparison; namely, by the grafting and
inoculation of trees; where the grafted slips
receive [the sap] interiorly in themselves,
according to their form, etc.
1.
That in Christ Jesus Man is God, and God Man,

appears evidently from the Lord's words to His 5.
Father: All Thine are Mine, and all Mine are
Thine (John 17:10). From the expression "all It is to be clearly shown that without the Lord's
Mine are Thine," it is evident that the Man is Advent, no man could have been regenerated,
God; and from the expression, "all Thine are and hence saved; and that this is meant by "the
Mine," that God is Man. Lamb taking away the sins of the world." This
may be evident from the state of the spiritual
world before the Lord's Coming; which was
such that not a single truth of faith, nor any
2.
good of charity, could pass from the Lord to
During man's regeneration, the light of heaven man. (This is to be illustrated by the influx of
is instilled into natural light, and at the same truth and good into evil spirits, into the back
time the heat of heaven; these two constitute, part of their heads, etc.)
as it were, the new soul, through which man is
formed by the Lord. This light and heat are
instilled through the higher mind, which is 6.
called the spiritual mind. By virtue of this
instilling, or insertion, man becomes a new Miracles close the internal man, and deprive
creature, and becomes more enlightened and man of all that free will, through which and in
more intelligent in matters of the church, and which man is regenerated. Free will really
consequently in the reading of the Word. This belongs to the internal man; and when this is
closed up, the man becomes external and
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natural; and such a man does not see any That a man who has altogether confirmed
spiritual truth. Miracles also are like veils and himself in the faith and doctrine of the present
bars lest anything might enter. This bar, or this church, makes no account of repentance, of the
obstruction, however, is gradually broken, and law of the Decalogue, and of works and charity.
[then] all truths become dispersed. For he can say, "I cannot do goods from myself;
they are contained in faith, whence they come
forth of their own accord; I can only know
7. them," and so forth. This is the source of the
naturalism which prevails at the present time.
It is said by the church at this day, following
Paul, that faith enters through the hearing of
the Word; and some add to this, through a
10.
certain meditation from the Word. This,
however, is to be understood thus, that truths By the "fulness of time" is signified
ought to be drawn from the Word, and that consummation and desolation; because "time"
man ought to live according to them. In this signifies the state of the church (see Rev. 10:6,
case, the man approaches the Lord, who is the and Ezek. 30:3). The same also is signified by
Word, and the Truth, and receives faith; for "Time, times, and half a time" (see Rev. 12:14;
each and all truths are from the Word, which is Dan. 7:25; 12:7). The times in the world are
spiritual light. Thus faith is acquired; because spring, summer, autumn; the fullness of these
faith belongs to truth, and truth belongs to times is winter. The times as to light are
faith; and nothing ought to be believed except morning, noon, evening; and their fullness is the
the truth. night, etc., etc. This is meant by the Lord's
coming in "the fullness of the time," or of
"times"; that is, when there is no longer any
8. truth of faith, and good of charity left.
(Concerning "the fullness of the time," see Rom.
That there are numberless evils interiorly in 11:12, 25; Gal. 4:4; and especially, Eph. 1:9, 10;
man; yea, that there are numberless evils in Gen. 15:16.)
every lust. Every lust of which man becomes
conscious, is a mass and a heap of many things.
These things the man does not see, but only the
11.
one mass. When, therefore, the man by
repentance removes this, the Lord, who sees That the Lord's love is present with those who
the interior and inmost things of man, removes are in faith in Him. This may be clearly seen
them. Unless, therefore, a man approaches the from this circumstance, that place cannot be
Lord, he labors in vain to render himself free predicated of love, nor of faith; for both are
from sin. The case herein is as with those things spiritual. That the Lord Himself is present
which were written in a Relation concerning appears from this consideration, that spiritual
turtles [see True Christian Religion 462]. love also is not confined to place. It was not in
my own case, whenever I was in the spiritual
idea. In a word, presence in the spiritual world
9. is according to love. Wherefore, [the Lord] is
omnipresent; He does not move about; He is in
place, but not through place; He is thus in space
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and in what is extended, but not through space, 14.

and through what is extended.
The human mind is of three degrees, which are
the celestial, spiritual, and natural. In the first
degree is the soul, in the second, is the spirit or
12.
the mind, and in the third, is the body. It is the
The desolation of the truth of the church may same thing, whether we say that a man's mind
be compared with consummations on the is of three degrees, or whether we say that the
earth; heat, namely, and all the above [times or man himself is. For that of the body which is in
seasons] are consummated by winter, and then principles thus where its first is, is called mind.
spring [comes]; and light on earth is The remaining parts are derived thence, and are
consummated by the night, when the morning continuations. What is the mind, if it is only to
comes. Wherefore, the Lord in Revelation said the head, except something that is separated or
to those under the altar (Rev. 6:9-11). [See divorced, in which the mind does not exist
quotation.] A number of passages are to be through continuation? Let autopsy settle this:
quoted from Revelation, showing that the The origins of the fibers are the glands of the
church has been laid waste, even to its ultimate. so-called cortical substance; thence proceed the
fibers; and after they are bundled together into
nerves, they descend and pass through the
13. whole body, weaving it together and
constructing it. The celestial degree, in which is
That at the present day nothing is known the soul, that is, the inmost man, is a semblance
concerning the union of soul and body, is of love; the spiritual degree, in which is the
proved by the hypotheses of the learned mind, that is, the spirit, which is the mediate
concerning the soul; especially by that of man, is a semblance of wisdom from love; and
Descartes and others, [who maintain] that the the third degree, in which is the body, which is
soul is a substance separated from the body, in the ultimate man, is the containant of both;
some place or other; when yet the soul is the without this third degree, the two higher
inmost man; consequently, is the man from the degrees would not subsist. These things can be
head to the foot. Thence it is, according to the further demonstrated from the three heavens,
ancients, that the soul is in the whole, and in the celestial, spiritual, and natural-where such
every part thereof; and that in whatever part men are. Wherefore the angels of the higher
the soul does not dwell inmostly, there man has heavens are invisible to the angels of the lower
no life. From this union it is, that all things of heavens, if the latter approach the former from
the soul belong to the body, and all things of their own heavens.
the body belong to the soul; as the Lord said
concerning His Father, that all His things are the
Father's, and that all things of the Father are His 15.
(John 17:10). Thence it is that the Lord is God,
even as to the flesh (Rom. 9:5; Col. 2:9); and Thence it may be seen in light that as a tree
that [He said], "the Father is in Me," and "I am exists from its seed, so also the body exists
in the Father" [John 14:10, 11]. Thus they are through the soul. Hence also it is that the tree
one. derives its quality from the seed. From this,
however, it follows that inasmuch as the soul of
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Christ was from the Divine essence, His body

also must be derived thence.
18.
Bring an example, where someone preaches

16. devoutly on the above subjects from the Word;
and when orthodoxy is brought to bear upon
All theologians, when preaching, know nothing
his preaching, you will see that what I saw and
of the falsities of their religion. For they preach
declared, is true. (The example will illustrate
that God is one; that the Saviour ought to be
this. . . .) Thus they affirm, and then deny, if
adored; that man, therefore, ought to believe in
orthodoxy is in the internal man, and the
the Word and in preachings; that he ought to
subjects that are preached are in the external
exercise charity, and practise repentance, so as
man. In this case that which then remains in the
to desist from evils. While preaching thus, they
external man is regarded as of no account and
remember nothing concerning three Gods,
becomes like froth. It is swept away, like an
concerning their mystical faith, concerning
earthquake, or like a ship broken below by
impotence in spiritual matters, and concerning
water.
all the remaining dogmas. But let them know,
that the falsities which they have imbibed in the
schools, are clinging to them interiorly; and
19.
other things are merely in the mouth; and that
after death they come into the interior things of An example, also, may be brought from genuine
the spirit; wherefore, these falsities ought by all orthodoxy on the subject of faith, charity, and
means to be rooted out. Then also the things free will. From this example will appear plainly
that are merely in the mouth, are as the beard the absurdity of [false orthodoxy].
on the chin, which afterwards, as is usually the
case, is cut off, and he becomes beardless.
20.
17. That the spiritual things of heaven flow into the

whole man, and that [natural things] flow in
When orthodoxy enters and explains all those through the world, is confirmed in light thus:
things which priests preach from the Word that spiritual and natural things flow in
concerning faith that we ought to believe in conjointly, but that the evil man inverts the
God, concerning charity towards the neighbor, two. That which is within he places outwardly in
conversion, repentance, and the life of piety his mind; and that which is outmost he places
and spiritual life, they fall as it were into a within; so that the world is above heaven, that
bucket; then they are overthrown, as when one is, heaven below the world. But the devout and
destroys a dwelling or a house, even so that good man receives both in the order in which
nothing but ruins remain. The preachers say they flow in; the spiritual things which flow in
that these things are not true, unless you through heaven, he places in the mind above,
believe thus. What does charity, repentance, and the natural things which flow in through
etc., effect? The very Word then falls, and so the world, he places below. This man stands on
forth. It is as if someone undermines a wall, by his feet erect; but the former is, as it were,
digging ditches under it. All things are inverted.
overthrown.
523
to die, but yet he cannot." That which

"remains" is the faculty of being able to
21.
understand the truth, and of being able to will
The whole of theology at the present day is good. This is "the root that remains."
nothing but the Divine omnipotence. It is said:
(1) That God gives faith where and to whom He
pleases. (2) That He remits sins. (3) That He 23.
regenerates. (4) That He sanctifies. (5) That He
The students of modern orthodoxy object, that
imputes and saves. (6) That He will raise the
faith, charity, good works, repentance,
dead bodies from the graves; that He will cause
remission of sins, etc., cannot be given with a
the skeletons to be alive, and will put into them
man, before he has received the Holy Spirit.
their former souls. (7) That He will destroy the
But, as has been shown, the Holy Spirit is the
world, with the sun, the stars, the planets, the
Divine which proceeds from the Lord; and the
earths, and will create it anew. (8) Since
Lord is perpetually present with every man, the
omnipotence is everything, and since it
evil as well as the good. Without His presence,
constitutes the order which is God, and which is
no one can live; and the Lord constantly acts,
from God, in the whole world, it follows that
urges, and strives to be received; wherefore,
the man of the church can imagine whatever he
the presence of the Holy Spirit is perpetual. For
pleases; that he can raise himself beyond the
the sake of confirmation, this was proved in the
ethers, that is, above reason; and that,
spiritual world, in the case of a certain devil, by
wherever he pleases, he can go counter to
the removal from him of the Lord's presence.
reason, and say that "reason is to be held under
And the devil lay dead, exactly like a corpse.
obedience to our faith. For is not God
Thousands from among the spirits and the
omnipotent? And who can, and who dares to
clergy saw this, and were thunderstruck. From
reason in opposition to His omnipotence?" Such
the Lord's perpetual presence, man has the
are all things of faith at this day.
faculty of thinking, understanding, and willing.
These faculties are solely from the influx of life
from the Lord. Both Melancthon and Luther
22.
were present, and they could not open their
That man cannot discover a single Divine truth, lips.
except by approaching the Lord immediately, is
due to this, that the Lord alone is the Word, and
that He is the Light and the Truth itself; and 24.
man does not become spiritual except from the
The only cause why the Reformation was
Lord alone, but remains natural; and the natural
effected, was that the Word which lay buried,
man, in spiritual things, sees everything in
might be restored to the world. For many
inverted order; that this is so, is known from
centuries it had been in the world, but at last it
Paul. This is the reason why not a single truth
was entombed by the Roman Catholics, and not
has remained in the church, so that now is the
a single truth of the church could then be laid
consummation, the desolation, the decision,
open from it. The Lord thus could not become
and the fullness [of time]. But still because the
known, but the Pope was worshipped as God, in
Lord is not dead, therefore, according to Daniel,
the Lord's place. But after the Word had been
there still remains "a root in the earth"; while,
drawn forth out of its tomb, the Lord could be
according to Revelation, "man indeed is willing
524
made known, truth could be derived from it, atheist can swear that there is no God; and that
and conjunction with heaven could be given. the existence of God is a mere vain imagination
For this purpose the Lord raised up of the common people; wherefore, at heart he
simultaneously so many men who contended. scoffs at the doctors of the church.
He raised up Sweden, Denmark, Holland,
England that they might receive; and lest [the
Word] should be blotted out in Germany 28.
through the Pope, He raised up Gustavus
Adolphus, who stood for the Reformation, and It is known in the church, that the church is the
rose up against [the Pope]. Body of Christ; but how this is has not been
known hitherto. Hence it is that the whole
heaven is as one man before the Lord; and this
man is distinguished into societies, each of
25.
which has reference to one member, or organ
Unless the present little work is added to the and viscus in man. In this man or body, the Lord
preceding work, the church cannot be healed. is the soul or life. For the Lord inspires men; and
For it would be a mere palliative cure; a wound when He is present, He is present through the
in which the corrupt matter remains, and which heavens, as the soul is present through its body.
vitiates the neighboring parts. Orthodoxy is this The same is the case with the church on earth;
corrupt matter itself, and the doctrine of the for this is the external man. Wherefore,
New Church indeed brings a healing, but only everyone through death is gathered to his own
exteriorly. in that body, etc.
26. 29.
The origins of all errors in the church have been The things which are stated in the sequel are
this: that they have believed that man lives not miracles, but they are testimonies that I
from himself, or from his own life, and that life have been introduced by the Lord into the
has been created in him; when yet man is only spiritual world for the sake of the ends
an organ of life, and is kept in the middle which . . . The causes why no miracles are done
between heaven and hell, and thus in at the present time . . . (Further, from the Lord's
equilibrium or free will. words in Matt. 24.) Concerning the miracles of
Anthony of Padua, and of most of those who
are worshipped as saints; of whose miracles the
27. monasteries are full. Of the miracles of Paris,
concerning which there are two volumes in
No one is able to see the desolation of truth in quarto.
the church, before truths from the Word come
into light. What heretic, indeed, knows
otherwise than that all that he has are truths?
30.
Everyone can swear to his own. He is in
deceptive light arising from confirmations. In That the Lord would come in the fullness of
such a light is the natural man, when the time and judge, is meant by His words in
spiritual man illumines it. Yea the naturalistic Matthew: When the Son of man shall come in
525
His glory, and all the holy angels with Him, He and the dead, according to the Apostles' Creed
shall sit on the throne of His glory; and there (Augsburg Confession, p. 10).
shall be gathered before Him all nations; and He
shall separate them one from another, as the
shepherd separateth the sheep from the he- 32.
goats (Matt. 25:31-32). This coming of the Lord
is meant by the following words concerning That the Lord will not come to judgment, to
Jesus Christ, in the Apostles' Creed: He destroy heaven and earth, appears from many
ascended into the heavens, He sitteth at the passages in the Word, where His coming is
right hand of God the Father Almighty; from treated of; as for instance where it is said in
thence He shall come to judge the living and the Luke: When the Son of man cometh, shall He
dead. And also by these words concerning the find faith on the earth? (Luke 18:8). Besides
Lord Jesus Christ in the Nicene Creed: He many more passages which are quoted in True
ascended into the heavens, and sitteth on the Christian Religion (n. 765); further, that He will
right hand of the Father; and He shall come not come to destroy the visible heaven and the
again in glory to judge the living and the dead; habitable earth (ibid., n. 768 seq.); but to
of whose kingdom there shall be no end. separate the evil from the good (ibid., n. 772
seq.); and many more passages besides. The
same also is declared in the Credal Faith which
is inserted in every Book of Psalms in the whole
31.
Christian world, where the Apostles' Creed only
And also in the Athanasian Creed: He ascended is set forth. The same is introduced thence into
into the heavens; He sitteth at the right hand of the Psalms. By the "living," in the above places,
God the Father Almighty; from whence He shall are meant those who are in charity and faith,
come to judge the living and the dead. . . . And and who by the Lord are called "sheep"; but by
they shall give account for their own deeds. And the "dead" are meant those who are not in
they that have done good shall enter into charity and faith, and who by the Lord are
eternal life; and they that have done evil into called "he-goats." (Add here Rev. 11:18; and
eternal fire. (Formula Concordiae [Leipsic, 20:12.)
1756], pp. 1, 2, 4.) Besides, the articles of
Schmalkalden teach the same thing as the
Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian 33.
creeds, namely: Jesus Christ ascended into the
heavens, He sitteth on the right hand of God, Title:- THE CONSUMMATION OF THE AGE, AND
He shall come to judge the living and the dead. THE ABOMINATION OF THE DESOLATION THEN.
Luther in his Lesser Catechism (p. 371) teaches There is to be adduced what the Lord says, (1)
the same thing (Augsburg Confession, pp. 10, Concerning the "abomination of the
14); and our Catechism [the one used in desolation"; (2) What He says [of vastation]; (3)
Sweden] teaches the same (p. 303). From the What the Lord says concerning the "affliction";
Augsburg Confession we quote in like manner: (4) That "no flesh can be saved"; (5) Concerning
He ascended into the heavens, that He might sit the "darkening of the sun and moon"; (6) The
on the right hand of the Father, and reign things which are declared in Revelation: Behold,
forever, and rule over all creatures. The same I am He that liveth, and was dead; and behold I
Christ will openly come again to judge the living am He that liveth unto the ages of the ages
(Rev. 1:18; also 2:8; and 5:6). And again, what
526
the Lord said in John: The night cometh when The keys of the kingdom of the heavens were
no man can work (John 9:4). In that night there given to Peter, because he represented the Lord
shall be two men in one bed (Luke 17:34). as to the Divine Truth; and this is what is meant
Further, what the Lord said in John (21:18), by "a rock," throughout the whole of the Sacred
concerning Peter; also, what Paul said Scripture. On this account [it is said], "On this
concerning the last times (1 Tim. 4:1-3; 2 Tim. rock," that is, on this Divine Truth, "I will build
3:1-7; 4:3, 4). There shall be explained what the My church," namely, on this that the Lord is
Lord says (Matt. 24:27), that this took place on "THE SON OF THE LIVING GOD." It shall be
the day of the Last Judgment; also, what He shown from the Word, that such is the
says (Matt. 24:30-31). That this actually has signification of a "rock." (The "rock" is spoken of
taken place, see True Christian Religion, n. 791. in the Word [in the following passages]: Exod.
17:6; 33:21, 22; Num. 20:8-11; Deut. 8:15; 32:4-
37; 1 Sam. 2:2; 2 Sam. 22:2, 3, 32, 47; 23:3; Ps.
34. 18:2, 31, 46; 28:1; 31:2, 3; 40:2; 42:9; 62:2, 7;
78:16, 20, 35; 89:26; 92:15; 94:22; 95:1; 105:41;
The Lord's Coming is according to order in this Isa. 2:10; 22:16; 42:11; 51:1; 1 Cor. 10:4.) The
respect, that the spring does not come until "fissures of the rock" mean falsified truths (Rev.
after the winter; nor the morning, until after the 6:15, 16; Isa. 21:19; Jer. 16:16; Song of Sol. 2:14;
night; that the travailing woman has comfort Isa. 48:21; Jer. 23:29; 49:16; Obad. verse 3;
and joy, only after pain; that states of comfort besides in the Evangelists). In this wise also
are after temptations; and that there is genuine some of the Fathers explained this passage (see
life after undergoing death; even as the Lord Formula Concordiae, p. 345).
says, "Unless the grain . . . die," etc. (John
12:24). The Lord exhibited the type of this
order, when He suffered Himself to be crucified
36.
and to die, and when afterwards He rose again;
this type signifies the state of the church. . . . When the Son alone became Man, and not the
The above also is involved in the image which whole Trinity, was not then the Divine Essence
appeared to Nebuchadnezzar, where the Stone which is a one and an indivisible trine,
at last became a great Rock; it is further separated, that is, disunited or divided?
involved in the four beasts that came out of the
sea; and in what is related there concerning
that fearful nation (which is to be explained). It 37.
is likewise involved in the four ages known to
the ancients, the golden, silver, brazen, and iron That the whole of the Lord's Prayer, from
ages; further, in the ages through which every beginning to end, has respect to this time; that
man passes, from infancy to old age; then is the is, to the time when God, the Father will be
end of the life of the body, and then comes the worshipped in the Human Form. This appears
life of the spirit, which is the life of all those when this prayer is rightly explained.
who have lived well. The same also is involved
in the heaven which has first to pass away (Rev.
21:1, 2). The case with the church is the same. 38.
That the churches after the times of the

Apostles fell away into so many heresies, and
35.
527
that at the present day there are none other is the crown of all the churches, and which will
than false churches, is because they have not endure forever. Being in the spiritual world,
approached the Lord, when yet the Lord is the seeing the wonderful things of heaven, and the
Word, and the very Light which enlighteneth miserable things of hell; and being there in the
the whole world. And yet for them it is as very light of the Lord in which are the angels,
impossible to see one single genuine truth from surpasses all miracles. Evidences that I am
the Word, except what is encompassed with there, may be seen in abundance in my books.
and steeped in falsities, and coheres with
falsities, as it is to sail to the Pleiades, or to dig
out the gold which is in the center of the earth. 40.
Wherefore, in order that true Christian religion
might be manifested, it was absolutely The sole cause why the church has immersed
necessary that someone should be introduced itself into so many falsities, that not a single
into the spiritual world, and derive from the truth has remained in it, and why it is like a ship
mouth of the Lord genuine truths out of the that has suffered shipwreck, of which the top of
Word. The Lord cannot enlighten anyone with the mast only protrudes, is this: that hitherto
His light, unless He is approached immediately, they have not approached the Lord
and acknowledged as the God of heaven. immediately; and so long as the Lord is not
approached immediately, not a single truth can
appear in its own light. The reason of this is,
that the Lord is the Word, that is, the all of
39.
Divine truth in the Word, and that He alone is
That miracles are not done at this day, is on the Light which enlighteneth all, as He Himself
account of the reasons which are stated in True teaches; and further, that every truth of the
Christian Religion (n. 501); wherefore, the Lord Word shines from no other source, than from
said that they would seduce (Matt. 24:24). the Lord alone. This light is what is meant by
Again, what is more common with the Roman the spiritual; when, therefore, this light is not
Catholics than filling the tombs of the saints, present, there is nothing spiritual in man's
and the walls of monasteries with miracles? understanding, but what is merely natural; and
How many plates of gold and silver are there all things which contain the spiritual, the
not in the tomb of Anthony of Padua? How natural man sees only invertedly; he sees falsity
many are there not where the three wise men instead of the truth. On reading the Word,
are said to be buried? And how many are there therefore, he bends all things towards his own
not at Prague? And in other places? What else falsities, and thus falsifies truths; and he takes
than illusions can be derived thence? The fact delight in them. For the natural human mind is
that I converse in the spiritual world with angels in such things as belong to the world and to
and spirits, that I have described the states of self; it is delighted solely by such things;
heaven and hell, and the life after death; and wherefore, unless in the above things there is
further, the fact that there has been disclosed spiritual light, the natural man transfers them to
to me the spiritual sense of the Word - besides those things which belong to the world and to
many other things - is worth more than all these self, and he puts these in the first place. He thus
miracles. Such communication, as far as I know, not only shuns spiritual things, and hides them
has not been granted by the Lord to anyone away, but he also scoffs at them. Faith is
before. These are evidences that this has been spiritual from no other source, that is, it cannot
granted for the sake of the New Church, which be called spiritual, except from the truths which
528
it contains, and thus by virtue of light from the Human of God the Father. The other kind
Lord. Unless faith is from this source, it is belongs to the knowledges of those things that
natural faith which does not conjoin, and which proceed from Him; and the things that proceed
is not saving. from Him, are Himself; as, for instance, those
things which He teaches concerning charity,
freedom, will, repentance, regeneration, the
41. sacraments, and very many other things. These
things also make up the idea of the Lord,
That in the spiritual world no one knows because they are from Him.
another from his name only, but from the idea
of his quality. This idea causes that the other
becomes present and is known. Thus, and not
otherwise, parents are known by their children;
children by their parents; and relations,
connections by marriage, and friends, by their
relations, connections, and friends. In like
manner the learned are known from their
writings, and from the reputation of their
learning; great men and rulers by the fame of
their deeds; in like manner kings, emperors, and
popes. All are known by these things alone. It
was granted to me to converse with such; but
with others it is not possible. A spirit himself
also is nothing else than his own quality; on this
account everyone in that world drops his
baptismal name, and the name of his family,
and is named according to his quality. Hence it
is that "name" in the Word does not signify
name, but quality. As the Lord says in
Revelation: Thou hast a few names in Sardis
(Rev. 3:4); and again: I know thee by name
(Exod. 33:7). Besides, a thousand other places,
where "name" is mentioned. From all this, then,
it appears, that no one has the Lord present
with himself, unless he knows His quality. This
quality the truths of the Word make manifest;
for, as many truths as there are in the Word,
there are just so many mirrors and ideas of the
Lord; for He is the Word itself and He is the
Truth itself, as He Himself says. Qualities are of
two kinds: one kind belongs to the knowledge
concerning the Lord Himself, that He is the God
of heaven and earth, the Son of God the Father,
One with the Father, that all things of the
Father are in Him, in a word, that He is the
529
530
Esoteric healing (Alice Bailey)
Faith healing
Gem healing
Gift of Healing
Gifts of healing
Prayer healing
Pythagorean sound healing
Quantum healing
Reiki
Six Healing Sounds
Spiritist healing
Therapeutic touch
Vibrational healing
Word of faith healing
Module Ten: Chapter

Esoteric/Mystic/Spiritual Energy Medicine
Healing
Energy medicine, energy therapy, energy
Esoteric healing refers to numerous types of healing, or spiritual healing a branch of
alternative therapy which aim to heal disease complementary and alternative medicine, holds
and disability, using esoteric means, either the belief that a healer can channel healing
through faith and human will, or by using energy into the person seeking help by different
pseudoscientific processes. methods: hands-on, hands-off, and distant (or
absent) where the patient and healer are in
Healing different locations. There are various schools of
energy healing. It is known as biofield energy
healing, spiritual healing, contact healing,
Absent healing distant healing, therapeutic touch, Reiki or
Qigong.[3] Spiritual healing is largely non-
Chi healing
denominational: practitioners do not see
Crystal healing traditional religious faith as a prerequiste for
531
effecting a cure. Faith healing, by contrast, illegal or dangerous and are marketed with false
takes place within a religious context.[8] or unproven claims.[23][28] Several of these
[verification needed] devices have been banned.[29][30] In terms of
spiritual and energetic healings there is
Early reviews of the scientific literature on
gathering evidence of serious harm, even death.
energy healing were equivocal and
[31] Various commentary points to an
recommended further research,[9][10] but
impairment in 'critical thinking',[31] which at its
more recent reviews have concluded that there
height may lead to involvement in a cult
is no evidence supporting clinical efficacy.[11]
without conscious awareness and a need for
[12][13][14][15][16] The theoretical basis of
intervention and professional psychological
healing has been criticised,[17][18][19][20]
support to achieve recovery to avoid mental ill
research and reviews supportive of energy
health.[32]
medicine have been criticised for containing
methodological flaws and selection bias[21][22] Classification
and positive therapeutic results have been
dismissed as the result of known psychological
mechanisms.[21][22] The term "energy medicine" has been in
general use since the founding of the non-profit
Edzard Ernst, lately Professor of
International Society for the Study of Subtle
Complementary and Alternative Medicine at
Energies and Energy Medicine in the 1980s.
the University of Exeter, has warned that
Guides are available for practitioners[33] and
"healing continues to be promoted despite the
other books aim to provide a theoretical basis
absence of biological plausibility or convincing
and evidence for the practice.[34][verification
clinical evidence ... that these methods work
needed] Energy medicine often proposes that
therapeutically and plenty to demonstrate that
imbalances in the body's "energy field" result in
they do not."[13] Some claims of those
illness, and that by re-balancing the body's
purveying "energy medicine" devices are known
energy-field health can be restored.[35] Some
to be fraudulent[23] and their marketing
modalities point to healings or treatments
practices have drawn law-enforcement action in
ridding the body of negatives energies or
the U.S.
blockages in 'mind' and a subsequent illness or
here is a history of association or exploitation of episode of ill health after a treatment as a
scientific inventions by individuals claiming that 'release' or letting go of a 'contraction' in the
newly discovered science could help people to body-mind. Usually, a modality would
heal: In the 19th century, electricity and recommend further treatments to heal
magnetism were in the "borderlands" of science completely unless ill health is persistent or
and electrical quackery was rife.[24] These severe, at which point most therapies would
concepts continue to inspire writers in the New advise the client to access conventional
Age movement.[25] In the early 20th century medicine.
health claims for radio-active materials put lives
The US-based National Center for
at risk,[26] and recently, quantum mechanics
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
and grand unification theory have provided
(NCCAM) distinguishes between health care
similar opportunities for commercial
involving scientifically observable energy, which
exploitation.[27] To this day, thousands of
it calls "Veritable Energy Medicine", and health
devices claiming to heal via putative or veritable
care methods which invoke physically
energy are used worldwide. Many of them are
532
undetectable or unverifiable "energies", which a number of human ailments ranging from

it calls "Putative Energy Medicine":[35] muscular tightness to cancer; however
according to the American Cancer Society,
Types of "Veritable Energy Medicine" include
"available scientific evidence does not support
magnet therapy, colorpuncture and light
claims that polarity therapy is effective in
therapy. Mainstream medicine involving
treating cancer or any other disease".[40]
electromagnetic radiation (radiation therapy, or
magnetic resonance imaging) is not considered Beliefs
"energy medicine" in the terms of
complementary medicine. Cymatic therapy uses
sound waves. Energy healing relies on the belief that a healer
can channel healing energy into the person
Types of "Putative Energy Medicine" include
seeking help by different methods: hands-on,[1]
Biofield energy healing therapies where the
hands-off,[1] and distant[1][2] (or absent)
hands are used to direct or modulate "energies"
where the patient and healer are in different
which are believed to effect healing in the
locations. The Brockhampton Guide to Spiritual
patient;[36][verification needed] this includes
Healing describes contact healing in terms of
spiritual healing and psychic healing,
"transfer of ... healing energy" and distant
Therapeutic touch, Healing Touch, Esoteric
healing based on visualising the patient in
healing, Magnetic healing (now a historical term
perfect health.[2] Practitioners say that this
not to be confused with Magnet therapy),
"healing energy" is sometimes perceived by the
Qigong healing, Reiki, Pranic healing, Crystal
therapist as a feeling of heat.[1]
healing, distant healing, intercessionary prayer,
etc.[37][verification needed][38] Acupuncture There are various schools of energy healing. It is
and Ayurvedic medicine also come within this known as biofield energy healing,[3][4] spiritual
category. Concepts such as Qi (Chi), Prana, healing,[5] contact healing, distant healing,
Mana, Pneuma, Vital fluid, Odic force, Orgone, therapeutic touch,[6] Reiki,[7] Qigong, etc.[3]
etc. are amongst the many terms which have
been used to describe these putative energy Spiritual healing is largely non-denominational;
fields,[37] but are not necessarily used to refer traditional religious faith is not seen as a
to energy medicine. Yoga, for instance, has prerequisite for effecting a cure. Faith healing,
historically been believed to modify the body's by contrast, takes place within a religious
subtle energy pathways — the Prana — within context.[8] The Buddha is often quoted
the body, but Yoga includes actions such as throughout energetic modalities, yet he did not
stretching and deep breathing that, it is practise "hands on or off" healing
believed, cause the energy to be manipulated Energy healing techniques such as Therapeutic
rather than the "healing at a distance" touch have found recognition in the nursing
characteristic of energy medicine. profession. In 2005-2006, the North American
Polarity therapy Nursing Diagnosis Association approved the
diagnosis of "energy field disturbance" in
Polarity therapy is a kind of energy patients, reflective of what has been variously
medicine[39] based on the notion that a called a "postmodern" or "anti-scientific"
person's health is subject to positive and approach to nursing care. This approach has
negative charges in their electromagnetic field. been strongly criticised.
[40] It has been promoted as capable of curing
533
Believers in these techniques have proposed Ernst, published a primer on complementary

quantum mystical invocations of non-locality to therapies in cancer care in which he explained
try to explain distant healing.[18] They have that though "about half of these trials
also proposed that healers act as a channel suggested that healing is effective" he
passing on a kind of bioelectromagnetism which cautioned that the evidence was "highly
shares similarities to vitalistic pseudosciences conflicting" and that "methodological
such as orgone or qi.[19][20] Drew Leder shortcomings prevented firm conclusions." He
remarked in a paper in the Journal of concluded that "as long as it is not used as an
Alternative and Complementary Medicine that alternative to effective therapies, spiritual
such ideas were attempts to "make sense of, healing should be virtually devoid of risks."[10]
interpret, and explore 'psi' and distant healing." A 2001 randomized clinical trial by the same
and that "such physics-based models are not group found no statistically significant
presented as explanatory but rather as difference on chronic pain between distance
suggestive."[44] Beverly Rubik, in an article in healers and "simulated healers".[11] A 2003
the same journal,[45] justified her belief with review by Ernst updating previous work
references to biophysical systems theory, concluded that more recent research had
bioelectromagnetics, and chaos theory that shifted the weight of evidence "against the
provide her with a "...scientific foundation for notion that distant healing is more than a
the biofield..." Writing in the Journal of placebo" and that "distant healing can be
Bodywork and Movement Therapies, James associated with adverse effects."[12]
Oschman[46] introduced the concept of healer-
Contact healing
sourced electromagnetic fields which change in
frequency. Oschman believes that "healing A selective review of only positive results
energy" derives from electromagnetic published in 1995 recommended on the basis of
frequencies generated by a medical device or personal testimony and anecdote that healing
projected from the hands of the healer. as a concept be incorporated into health care
programs.[38] A 2001 randomized clinical trial
Physicists and skeptics roundly criticize these
randomly assigned 120 patients with chronic
explanations as pseudophysics — a branch of
pain to either healers or "simulated healers",
pseudoscience which explains magical thinking
but could not demonstrate efficacy for either
by using irrelevant jargon from modern physics
distance or face-to-face healing.[11] A Cochrane
to exploit scientific illiteracy and to impress the
collaboration systematic review[16] of the use
unsophisticated.[17] Indeed, even enthusiastic
of touch therapies published in 2008 analysed
supporters of energy healing point out that
the results of 24 trials and concluded that the
"there are only very tenuous theoretical
attempted review suffered from "a major
foundations underlying healing."[38]
limitation: the small number of studies and
Scientific investigations insufficient data. As a result of inadequate data,
the effects of touch therapies cannot be clearly
Distant healing
declared." A systematic review in 2008
A systematic review of 23 trials of distant concluded that the evidence for a specific effect
healing published in 2000 did not draw of spiritual healing on relieving neuropathic or
definitive conclusions because of the neuralgic pain was not convincing,[14] and in
"methodologic limitations of several studies".[9] their 2008 book Trick or Treatment Simon Singh
In 2001 the lead author of that study, Edzard and Edzard Ernst concluded that "spiritual
534
healing is biologically implausible and its effects to inform the public about the ill effects of
rely on a placebo response. At best it may offer therapies that advertise miraculous claims."[21]
comfort; at worst it can result in charlatans
There are primarily two explanations for
taking money from patients with serious
anecdotes of cures or improvements, relieving
conditions who require urgent conventional
any need to appeal to the supernatural.[47] The
medicine."
first is post hoc ergo propter hoc, meaning that
Evidence base a genuine improvement or spontaneous
remission may have been experienced
Alternative medicine researcher Edzard Ernst
coincidental with but independent from
has argued that although an initial review of
anything the healer or patient did or said. These
pre-1999 distant healing trials[9] had
patients would have improved just as well even
highlighted 57% of trials as showing positive
had they done nothing. The second is the
results,[10] later reviews of non-randomised
placebo effect, through which a person may
and randomised clinical trials conducted
experience genuine pain relief and other
between 2000 and 2002[12] led to the
symptomatic alleviation. In this case, the
conclusion that "the majority of the rigorous
patient genuinely has been helped by the
trials do not support the hypothesis that distant
healer, not through any mysterious or
healing has specific therapeutic effects". Ernst
numinous function, but by the power of their
described the evidence base for healing
own belief that they would be healed.[48][49]
practices to be "increasingly negative".[13]
In both cases the patient may experience a real
Ernst also warned that many of the reviews
reduction in symptoms, though in neither case
were under suspicion for fabricated data, lack
has anything miraculous or inexplicable
of transparency and scientific misconduct. He
occurred. Both cases, however, are strictly
concluded that "Spiritual healing continues to
limited to the body's natural abilities.
be promoted despite the absence of biological
plausibility or convincing clinical evidence ... Positive findings from research studies may also
that these methods work therapeutically and be explained by such psychological
plenty to demonstrate that they do not."[13] mechanisms, or as a result of experimenter
bias, "methodological flaws"[21] or publication
Alternative explanations for positive results
bias, and positive reviews of the scientific
literature may show selection bias, in that they
omit key studies that do not agree with the
There are many, primarily psychological, author's position.[21][22] All of these factors
explanations for positive outcomes after energy must be considered when evaluating claims.
therapy such as the placebo effect or cognitive
dissonance. A 2009 review found that the
"small successes" reported for two therapies
collectively marketed as "energy psychology"
(Emotional Freedom Techniques and Tapas
Acupressure Technique) "are potentially
attributable to well-known cognitive and
behavioral techniques that are included with
the energy manipulation." The report concluded
that "Psychologists and researchers should be
wary of using such techniques, and make efforts
535
moved to the United States in 1907, where she

spent most of her life as a writer and teacher.
Her works, written between 1919 and 1949,

describe a wide-ranging system of esoteric
thought covering such topics as how spirituality
relates to the solar system, meditation, healing,
spiritual psychology, the destiny of nations, and
prescriptions for society in general. She
described the majority of her work as having
been telepathically dictated to her by a Master
of Wisdom, initially referred to only as "the
Tibetan" or by the initials "D.K.", later identified
as Djwhal Khul.[2]
Her writings were of the same nature as those

of Madame Blavatsky and are known as the
Ageless Wisdom Teachings. Though Bailey's
writings differ from the orthodox Theosophy of
Madame Blavatsky, they have much in common
with it. She wrote about religious themes,
including Christianity, though her writings are
fundamentally different from many aspects of
Christianity and of other orthodox religions. Her
vision of a unified society includes a global
"spirit of religion" different from traditional
religious forms and including the concept of the
Age of Aquarius.
Her philosophy is still applied by organizations

she founded, such as the Arcane School, World
Goodwill, Triangles, and the worldwide network
of Full Moon Meditation Groups.
Chapter Two
Alice Bailey Alice Bailey was born to a wealthy aristocratic
British family and, as a member of the Anglican
Church, received a thorough Christian
education. She described a lonely and "over-
Alice Ann Bailey (June 16, 1880 – December 15, sheltered" childhood and was unhappy despite
1949), was a writer and theosophist in what she the luxury of her physical circumstances.[5] Of
termed "Ageless Wisdom". This included occult her early life she wrote that she was appalled at
teachings, "esoteric" psychology and healing, the influences of the Victorian era, especially
astrological and other philosophic and religious the wide gulf between the comforts of the
themes. Alice Bailey was born as Alice LaTrobe upper classes and the struggles of the laboring
Bateman, in Manchester, England.[1] She classes, that those problems were caused at
least in part by the unfairness of the "theology
536
of the past", and that in turn those issues led to With the Theosophical Society
what she called the "present world war",
In 1915 Bailey discovered the Theosophical
referring to the years between 1914 and 1945.
Society and the work of Helena Petrovna
[6]
Blavatsky[17] The Theosophical Society states
In her autobiography she related that as a child that Bailey became involved in 1917.[18]
she was unhappy and did not find life worth Theosophist Joy Mills states that in 1918 she
living; because of this, she attempted suicide became a member of the Esoteric Section of the
three times: the first at the age of five, the society.[19] Theosophist Bruce F. Campbell
second at age 11, and the third at an notes, "She quickly rose to a position of
unspecified time before age 15. She wrote that influence in the American Section of the Adyar
after her third attempt she lost interest in the society, moving to its headquarters at Krotona
idea but that she "always understood the in Hollywood. She became editor of its
impulse."[7] magazine, The Messenger, and member of the
committee responsible for Krotona."[20]
At age 15, on June 30, 1895, Bailey was visited
by a stranger, "...a tall man, dressed in Bailey claimed to recognize Koot Hoomi, the
European clothes and wearing a turban" who master who had visited her in her childhood,
told her she needed to develop self-control to from a portrait she saw in the Shrine Room of
prepare for certain work planned for her to do. the Theosophical Society.[21][22] Bailey wrote
[8] She supposed this individual was Jesus, but much about those she called the "Masters of
later she identified him as Master Koot Hoomi. the Ancient Wisdom", which she believed to be
[9] a brotherhood of enlightened sages working
under the guidance of "Maitreya." In part, she
India, evangelical work, and first marriage[edit]
stated her writings were an effort to clarify the
At age 22 Bailey did evangelical work in nature of these Masters and their work.[23]
connection with the YMCA and the British
"The Tibetan", split from Theosophy, and
Army.[10] This took her to India where, in 1907,
second marriage[edit]
she met her future husband, Walter Evans.
Together they moved to America where Evans Bailey wrote that, in 1919, she was contacted
became an Episcopalian priest.[11] The by a Master known as The Tibetan (later
marriage did not last. She stated that her associated with the initials D.K. and eventually
husband mistreated her and, in one of his fits of the name Djwhal Khul). Bailey stated that after
temper, threw her down the stairs.[12] Bailey initial resistance, she was eventually persuaded
pushed for and received a divorce. She left with to write down the communications from this
their three children after formal separation in source. She wrote for 30 years, from 1919 to
1915. Then followed a difficult period in which 1949.[2] The result was 24 published books on
she worked as a factory hand to support herself ancient wisdom, philosophy, religion,
and the children. contemporary events, science, psychology,
nations, astrology, and healing. Also in 1919,
Bailey's break was not only with her Christian
32nd degree Freemason Foster Bailey (1888–
husband but with Christianity in general. In her
1977), who was to be her second husband,
autobiography she wrote that "a rabid,
became National Secretary of the Theosophical
orthodox Christian worker [had] become a well-
Society.[24][25] They married in 1921.[26]
known occult teacher."
537
The Theosophist published the first few The Lucis Trust website and Alice Bailey's
chapters of her first work, Initiation, Human and autobiography state that, with Foster Bailey,
Solar, but then stopped for reasons Bailey called she created the "World Goodwill" organization
"theosophical jealousy and reactionary to promote what she called "Love in Action".
attitude."[27] Bailey "objected to the 'neo- [34][35] The stated purposes of World Goodwill,
Theosophy' of Annie Besant" and worked with according to its sponsoring organization, the
Foster Bailey to gain more power in the Lucis Trust, are "to help mobilise the energy of
American Section.[27] According to Theosophist goodwill; to cooperate in the work of
Josephine Maria Davies Ransom, she became preparation for the reappearance of the Christ;
part of a progressive "Back to Blavatsky to educate public opinion on the causes of the
movement, led mainly by Mr. and Mrs. Foster major world problems and to help create the
Bailey".[28] She outlined her vision for the thoughtform of solution."[36]
Esoteric Section of the Theosophical Society and
About 100 of Alice Bailey's public talks and
announced ideals of tolerance and
private talks to her more advanced Arcane
brotherhood.[29][30] However, her efforts to
School students are available online.[37] Bailey
influence the society failed, and she and her
continued to work up to the time of her death
husband were dismissed from their positions.
in 1949.[2][38] Foster Bailey took over as head
[31]
of Lucis Trust[citation needed] until his death in
According to historian of religion Olav Hammer, 1977. His second wife Mary Bailey ran the
Bailey's early writings of communications with Arcane School[citation needed] and, after his
the Tibetan were well received within the death, became president of the Lucis Trust.[39]
society, but society president Annie Besant Mary Bailey authored a book titled A Learning
questioned Bailey's claims of communications Experience describing her 33 years of work with
with "the Tibetan" and allowed the Baileys to the Arcane School and accounts of the early
be expelled from the organization.[9] According years of Alice Bailey's work with "the
to Bailey, she had come to see the society as Tibetan."[40]
authoritarian and involved with "lower psychic
phenomena."[8] In her writings, however, she
continued to acknowledge the importance of Writing
Madame Blavatsky's works and saw her own
task as the continuation and further
development of Blavatsky's teachings.[32] Comparison with Theosophy[
The Arcane School and the Lucis Trust Part of a series on
Lucis Trust Theosophy
According to the Lucis Trust website, the Baileys Katie Walking Labyrinth
founded a quarterly magazine of esoteric
philosophy titled The Beacon in 1922.[33] Theosophy
In 1923, with the help of Foster Bailey, Alice Western Theosophy

Bailey founded the Arcane School (part of Lucis Theosophical Society
Trust), which gave (and still gives) a series of
correspondence courses based on her writings.
538
Theosophists are divided on their assessment of Jon Klimo, in Investigations on Receiving

Alice Bailey's writings. For instance, the noted Information from Paranormal Sources, writes,
contemporary Theosophical writer Geoffrey "As with Blavatsky/Theosophical material, and
Hodson wrote a highly favorable review of one more recent contemporary channeled material
her books, saying, "Once more Alice Bailey has from other sources, we find in the Bailey work
placed occult students in her debt."[41] Olav the same occult cosmological hierarchy:
Hammer writes, "Her first book, Initiation physical, etheric, astral, mental, causal, and
Human and Solar, was at first favorably received higher inhabited levels of existence."[45] Olav
by her fellow theosophists. Soon, however, her Hammer, in the book Claiming Knowledge:
claims to be recipient of ageless wisdom from Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to
the Masters met with opposition."[42] The the New Age, highlights Bailey's Theosophical
conflict is understandable since her works similarities as well as noting what he thinks are
contain some criticisms of Theosophy, and at some differences between them: "To a large
the time of the break she voiced her criticism of extent, Bailey's teachings are a restatement and
what she saw as dogmatic structures within the amplification of theosophy of the Secret
society, while questioning the pledges of loyalty Doctrine. Bailey inherited from Blavatsky and
to Theosophical leaders that were required. Leadbeater a predilection for profuse details
"During the annual convention of 1920 in and complex classificatory schemes. ... Her
Chicago, there was a power struggle between books have also introduced shifts in emphasis
forces loyal to Besant and the Esoteric Section as well as new doctrinal elements."[46]
and others who believed that the ES had
In contrast to the above, some Theosophical
become too powerful. Below the surface was a
critics have contended that there are major
hidden controversy regarding Alice's work with
differences between Bailey's ideas and the
the Tibetan."[11] For a more recent example of
Theosophy of Blavatsky, such as Bailey's
Bailey/Theosophy division, see Theosophy in
embrace of some mystical Christian terms and
Scandinavia.
concepts and her acceptance of C.W.
Campbell writes that Bailey's books are a Leadbeater.[47][48]
reworking of major Theosophical themes, with
Nicholas Weeks, writing for the Theosophical
some distinctive emphases, and that they
magazine Fohat in 1997, felt Bailey's assertion
present a comprehensive system of esoteric
that "... her teachings are grounded in and do
science and occult philosophy, cognizant of
not oppose in any fundamental way Theosophy
contemporary social and political
as lived and taught by HPB and her Gurus" was
developments.[43] Steven J. Sutcliffe points out
false. Her books are in fact "rooted in the
that both Bailey and Blavatsky's work evoke a
pseudo-theosophy pioneered by C. W.
picture of Tibet as the spiritual home of the
Leadbeater." He stated Bailey accepted
Masters and that Bailey claimed a more-or-less
Leadbeater's "fantasy" of the return of Christ
direct lineage to Blavatsky. He describes Bailey
and disparaged Bailey's Great Invocation, a
as a 'post-Theosophical' theorist, reporting that
prayer supposed to "induce Christ and his
Bailey received instruction from "former
Masters to leave their hidden ashrams [and]
personal pupils of Blavatsky" and notes that her
enter into major cities" to lead the Aquarian
third book (A Treatise on Cosmic Fire) not only
Age. This contrasts with the Theosophy of
reproduces Blavatsky's apocryphal Stanzas of
Blavatsky, he says, which emphasizes reliance
Dzyan but is dedicated to Blavatsky, as well.[44]
539
on "the Christos principle within each person". prepare and work for conditions in the world in
[48] which Christ can move freely among men, in
bodily Presence; He need not then remain in His
The Blavatskian theosophists
present retreat in Central Asia."
Some critics and often followers of the so-called
Another principle of Theosophy, the Law of
Blavatskian theosophy on Atma-Vidya refer to
Attraction was discussed in esoteric writings by
the following quotes. The theosophical Master
Blavatsky,[55] Annie Besant,[56] William Quan
K.H. was given by H. P. Blavatsky to say: "the
Judge,[57] and others;[58][59] and was also
Salvation Army by hypnotizing people and
discussed in the writings of Alice Bailey,
making them psychically drunk with excitement,
including a whole chapter in one of her books.
is Black Magic".[49] And H. P. Blavatsky stated
The term has been embraced, in a simplified
in contrast with Alice A. Bailey's promotion of a
form, by the contemporary New Age movement
Great Invocation arrival of a Maitreya Saviour in
and was popularized in the 2006 film The
the flesh that "(a) "the coming of Christ," means
Secret.
the presence of CHRISTOS in a regenerated
world, and not at all the actual coming in body The Seven Rays of energy
of "Christ" Jesus; (b) this Christ is to be sought
Underlying her writings is the idea that all is
neither in the wilderness nor "in the inner
energy and that spirit, matter, and the psychic
chambers," nor in the sanctuary of any temple
forces intermediate between them are forms of
or church built by man; for Christ—the true
energy.[63] This energy is life itself.[64] From
esoteric SAVIOUR—is no man, but the DIVINE
one essential energy, divinity, proceed seven
PRINCIPLE in every human being."[50] This can
rays that underlie and shape the evolution of
be compared with Alice A. Bailey's The
human life and the entire phenomenal world.
Externalization of the Hierarchy, p. 590.
[65] On a cosmic level, these seven rays of
H. P. Blavatsky also said in a letter to the energy are the creative forces of planets and
honourable Abbé Roca: "In carnalizing the stars. On a microcosmic level, they are the
central figure of the New Testament, in creative forces conditioning the physical,
imposing the dogma of the Word made flesh, psychic, and spiritual constitution of man.
the Latin Church sets up a doctrine diametrically (Jurriaance, p. 73–152)
opposed to the tenets of Buddhist and Hindu
In Esoteric Psychology I, the first book of A
Esotericism and the Greek Gnosis. Therefore,
Treatise on the Seven Rays, Bailey writes that
there will always be an abyss between the East
the "one Life sought expansion" resulting in
and the West, as long as neither of these
seven aeons, or emanations, manifesting in the
dogmas yields." And further on she said, that a
expression of life, becoming the "seven Rishis of
"true Theosophists will never accept either a
all the ancient scriptures."
Christ made Flesh, according to the Roman
dogma, or an anthropomorphic God, still less a She enumerates these seven as:
“Shepherd” in the person of a Pope".[51] Alice
A. Bailey wrote: "We have fought over the The Lord of Power or Will
historical Christ, and thus fighting, have lost The Lord of Love-Wisdom
sight of His message of love to all beings.
Fanatics quarrel over His words, and fail to The Lord of Active Intelligence
remember that He was 'the Word made The Lord of Harmony, Beauty and Art
flesh.'"[52] Alice A. Bailey wrote: "They will
540
The Lord of Concrete Knowledge and Science foundation for a more Soul-oriented approach
to astrology and to the Life it seeks to symbolize
The Lord of Devotion and Idealism
and interpret."[75]
The Lord of Ceremonial Order or Magic
Esoteric astrologers typically base their work on
Although described as "Lords" and "persons", Bailey's five-volume series, Treatise on the
Bailey states that these "great forces" are not to Seven Rays. The third book in the series,
be understood in terms of human personality. Esoteric Astrology,[76] is considered to be the
She cautions that any description of such things foundation for esoteric astrologers world
must be couched in terms of our particular wide."[77]
planet, such that humanity can understand it,
Esoteric astrology's system of planetary
but that these "pure Being[s] ... have purposes
rulerships differs from that of conventional
and activities in which our Earth plays only a
astrology, involves planets not conventionally
minor part."[66]
used, and replaces the house system with a
In Bailey's concept the rays and all things system of crosses with highly individualized
manifest in centers of energy and their meanings and multiple levels of interpretation.
relationships.[68] All rays and centers are Esoteric astrology incorporates elements of
focuses of some type of evolving life or esotericism related to astrology and theory of
consciousness. (Jurriaance, p. 35–52) This Seven Rays.
includes everything from atoms to centers or
chakras in the human constitution, and upwards
through the human aura to groups of humans
as centers, and cities and nations as centers.
(Jurriaance, pp. 79–90 ) Humanity as a whole is
conceived as a center of energy as are the
masters of wisdom of which she writes.[69]
Likewise, planet Earth as a whole, with all its
subsidiary centers of life, is viewed as a center
of life within the large life or divinity of our solar
system.
The concept of the seven rays can also be found

in Theosophical works.[70] Campbell writes that
Bailey, "...was the first to develop the idea of
the seven rays, although it can be found in germ
in earlier Theosophical writings."[47] The seven
rays also appear in Hindu religious philosophy.
Esoteric astrology
Esoteric astrology is based on Alice Bailey's

"Ageless Wisdom" teachings, which she said
were relayed by her Tibetan Ascended Master,
Djwhal Khul.[73][74] "The Tibetan Master, Chapter Three
Djwhal Khul, has provided a significant Faith Healing
541
Faith healing is healing purportedly through healing was elected instead of medical care for
spiritual means. Believers assert that the serious injuries or illnesses." When parents use
healing of a person can be brought about by faith healing in the place of medical care, many
religious faith through prayer and/or rituals children have died that otherwise would have
that, according to adherents, stimulate a divine been expected to live. [4] Similar results are
presence and power toward correcting disease found in adults.
and disability. Belief in divine intervention in
Faith Healing claims have been made by many
illness or healing is related to religious belief. In
religions and the sick have visited their shrines
common usage, faith healing refers to notably
in hopes of recovery.
overt and ritualistic practices of communal
prayer and gestures (such as laying on of hands) I have visited Lourdes in France and Fatima in
that are claimed to solicit divine intervention in Portugal, healing shrines of the Christian Virgin
initiating spiritual and literal healing. Mary. I have also visited Epidaurus in Greece
and Pergamum in Turkey, healing shrines of the
Claims that prayer, divine intervention, or the
pagan god Asklepios. the miraculous healings
ministrations of an individual healer can cure
recorded in both places were remarkably the
illness have been popular throughout history.[2]
same. There are, for example, many crutches
Miraculous recoveries have been attributed to
hanging in the grotto of Lourdes, mute witness
many techniques commonly lumped together
to those who arrived lame and left whole. There
as "faith healing". It can involve prayer, a visit to
are, however, not prosthetic limbs among
a religious shrine, or simply a strong belief in a
them, no witnesses to paraplegics whose lost
supreme being.[3]
limbs were restored.
The term is best known in connection with
—John Dominic Crossan [6]
Christianity. Some people interpret the Bible,
especially the New Testament, as teaching Christianity
belief in, and practice of, faith healing. There
have been claims that faith can cure blindness, Overview
deafness, cancer, AIDS, developmental One use of the term faith healing is in reference
disorders, anemia, arthritis, corns, defective to the belief of some Christians that God heals
speech, multiple sclerosis, skin rashes, total people through the power of the Holy Spirit,
body paralysis, and various injuries.[3] often involving the laying on of hands. It is also
Unlike faith healing, advocates of spiritual called supernatural healing, divine healing, and
healing make no attempt to seek divine miracle healing, among other things. In the Old
intervention, instead believing in divine energy. Testament, Jehovah-Rapha, translated "I am the
The increased interest in alternative medicine Lord your Physician" or "I am the Lord who
at the end of the twentieth century has given heals you", is one of the seven redemptive
rise to a parallel interest among sociologists in names for Jehovah God.[7] Healing in the Bible
the relationship of religion to health. is often associated with the ministry of specific
individuals including Elijah, Jesus and Paul.[1]
The American Cancer Society states "available
scientific evidence does not support claims that Christian physician Reginald B. Cherry views
faith healing can actually cure physical faith healing as a pathway of healing in which
ailments." "Death, disability, and other God uses both the natural and the supernatural
unwanted outcomes have occurred when faith to heal.[8][9] Being healed has been described
542
as a privilege of accepting Christ's redemption Parts of the four gospels in the New Testament
on the cross.[10]p:p.32 Pentecostal writer say that Jesus cured physical ailments well
Wilfred Graves, Jr. views the healing of the body outside the capacity of first-century medicine.
as a physical expression of salvation.[11] Most dramatic perhaps is the case of "a woman
Matthew 8:17 says, "This [Christ's ministry of who had had a discharge of blood for twelve
healing] was to fulfill what was spoken through years, and who had suffered much under many
the prophet Isaiah, 53:5 (NKJV): 'He took up our physicians, and had spent all that she had, and
infirmities and carried our diseases.'" "Faith" in was not better but rather grew worse."[Mk
this context is based on biblical uses of the 5:26-27] After healing her, Jesus tells her,
term. Faith has been called "the very nature of "Daughter, your faith has made you well. Go in
God."[12] A classic definition of faith appears in peace! Be cured from your illness."[Mk 5:34] At
the New Testament: "Faith is the substance of least two other times Jesus credited the
things hoped for, the evidence of things not sufferer's faith as the means of being healed:
seen ..." (Hebrews 11:1) Charisma writer Larry Mark 10:52 and Luke 19:10.
Keefauver considers it important to distinguish
Jesus endorsed the use of the medical
between the faith aspect in seeking a cure and
assistance of the time (medicines of oil and
the divine source of the healing.[citation
wine) when he praised the Good Samaritan for
needed] Exodus 15:26 points to God as the
acting as a physician, telling his disciples to go
source: "I am the Lord that heals you." "The
and do the same thing that the Samaritan did in
truth is that God is the God who heals. Faith is
the story.[14]
trusting the God who heals. Faith is a radical,
absolute surrender to the God who heals. Faith The healing in the gospels is referred to as a
is not holding on for your healing but holding on "sign"[Jn 6:2] to prove Jesus' divinity and to
to the God who can do the impossible."[13] foster belief in him as the Christ.[Jn 4:48]
However, when asked for other types of
Some Christian writers believe it extremely rare
miracles, Jesus refused some[Mt 12:38] but
that God provides a supernatural intervention
granted others[Lk 9:38–43] in consideration of
that actually reverses the natural laws
the motive of the request. Some theologians'
governing the human body.[13] Keefauver
understanding is that Jesus healed all who were
cautions against allowing enthusiasm for faith
present every single time.[10]:p.61 Sometimes
healing to stir up false hopes "so that a sufferer
he determines whether they had faith that he
stakes all his or her faith on belief in miraculous
would heal them.[10]
healing at this level. We cannot build a water-
tight theology promising physical healing, Jesus told his followers to heal the sick and
surely, for the most 'miracle-ridden' Christian stated that signs such as healing are evidence of
will die in the end, yielding to the natural faith. Jesus also told his followers to "cure sick
processes of senescence."[13] Those who people, raise up dead persons, make lepers
actively lay hands on others and pray with them clean, expel demons. You received free, give
to be healed are usually aware that healing may free."[Mt 10:8] [10:8][Mk 16:17-18]
not always follow immediately. Proponents of
faith healing say it may come later, but that it Jesus sternly ordered many who received
may not come at all. healing from him: "Do not tell anyone!"[15]
Jesus did not approve of anyone asking for a
New Testament sign just for the spectacle of it, describing such
543
as coming from a "wicked and adulterous At the beginning of the 20th century, the new
generation."[Mt 12:38-39] Pentecostal movement drew participants from
the Holiness movement and other movements
The apostle Paul believed healing is one of the
in America that already believed in divine
special gifts of the Holy Spirit,[1 Cor 12:9] and
healing. By the 1930s, several faith healers
that the possibility exists that certain persons
drew large crowds and established worldwide
may possess this gift to an extraordinarily high
followings.
degree.
The first Pentecostals in the modern sense
In the New Testament Epistle of James,[5:14]
appeared in Topeka, Kansas, in a Bible school
the faithful are told that to be healed, those
conducted by Charles Fox Parham, a holiness
who are sick should call upon the elders of the
teacher and former Methodist pastor.
church to pray over [them] and anoint [them]
Pentecostalism achieved worldwide attention in
with oil in the name of the Lord.
1906 through the Azusa Street Revival in Los
The New Testament says that during Jesus' Angeles led by William Joseph Seymour.[17]
ministry and after his Resurrection, the apostles
During the Azusa Street meetings, according to
healed the sick and cast out demons, made
witnesses who wrote about them, blind,
lame men walk, raised the dead and did many
crippled or other sick people would be healed.
other miraculous things.
Some of the participants would eventually
Research minister extensively in this area. For example,
John G. Lake was present during the years of
A study of beliefs about miraculous healing the Azusa Street revival. Lake had earned huge
among the more religiously committed has sums of money in the insurance business at the
indicated that there are significant differences turn of the century but gave away his
in belief about miraculous healing even among possessions with the exception of food for his
people within the same denomination children while he and his wife fasted on a trip to
(Anglican). Researchers found that positive Africa to do missionary work. Certain people he
belief in faith healing was mainly a had never met before gave him money and keys
characteristic of conservative Christians, most to a place to stay which were required to enter
especially those with charismatic experience. South Africa at the dock. His writings tell of
Belief about miraculous healing was seen as a numerous healing miracles he and others
subset of belief about health and well-being in performed as over 500 churches were planted
general. Older people had less belief in in South Africa. Lake returned to the U.S. and
miraculous healing or the sovereignty of God set up healing rooms in Spokane, Washington.
over illness, while those with experience of
higher education had more inclusive beliefs Smith Wigglesworth was also a well-known
about miraculous healing and saw human input figure in the early part of the 20th century. A
as less important in the healing process. The former English plumber turned evangelist who
study further showed that people with degrees lived simply and read nothing but the Bible
or post-graduate qualifications can and do from the time his wife taught him to read,
believe in the possibility of miraculous healing. Wigglesworth traveled around the world
No significant gender differences were noted. preaching about Jesus and performing faith
[1] healings. Wigglesworth claimed to raise several
people from the dead in Jesus' name in his
Pentecostalism/Charismatic movement[edit] meetings.p:67
544
During the 1920s and 1930s, Aimee Semple worthy or holy, while others do not deserve it.
McPherson was a controversial faith healer of [24]
growing popularity during the Great
The Catholic Church has a special Congregation
Depression. Subsequently, William Branham has
dedicated to the careful investigation of the
been credited as being the founder of the post-
validity of alleged miracles attributed to
World War II healing revivals.[19] By the late
prospective saints. Since Catholic Christians
1940s, Oral Roberts was well known, and he
believe the lives of canonized saints in the
continued with faith healing until the 1980s. A
Church will reflect Christ's, they have come to
friend of Roberts was Kathryn Kuhlman,
actually expect healing miracles. While the
another popular faith healer, who gained fame
popular conception of a miracle can be wide-
in the 1950s and had a television program on
ranging, the Catholic Church has a specific
CBS. Also in this era, Jack Coe[20] and A. A.
definition for the kind of miracle formally
Allen[21] were faith healers who traveled with
recognized in a canonization process.[25]
large tents for large open-air crusades.
Among the best-known accounts by Catholics of
Oral Roberts's successful use of television as a
faith healings are those attributed to the
medium to gain a wider audience led others to
miraculous intercession of the apparition of the
follow suit. His former pilot, Kenneth Copeland,
Blessed Virgin Mary known as Our Lady of
started a healing ministry. Pat Robertson, Benny
Lourdes at the grotto of Lourdes in France and
Hinn, and Peter Popoff became well-known
the remissions of life-threatening disease
televangelists who claimed to heal the sick.[22]
claimed by those who have applied for aid to
Richard Rossi is known for advertising his
Saint Jude, who is known as the "patron saint of
healing clinics through secular television and
lost causes".[26][27]
radio. Kuhlman influenced Benny Hinn, who
adopted some of her techniques and wrote a The Catholic Church has given official
book about her. recognition to 67 miracles and 7,000 otherwise
inexplicable medical cures since the Blessed
Catholicis
Virgin Mary first appeared in Lourdes in
Intercession of saints February 1858. These cures are subjected to
intense medical scrutiny and are only
Faith healing is reported by Catholics as the
recognized as authentic spiritual cures after a
result of intercessory prayer to a saint or to a
commission of doctors and scientists, called the
person with the gift of healing. According to
Lourdes Medical Bureau, has ruled out any
U.S. Catholic magazine, "Even in this skeptical,
physical mechanism for the patient's recovery.
postmodern, scientific age—miracles really are
possible." Three-fourths of American Catholics Christian Science
say they pray for miracles.[24]
Christian Science claims that healing is possible
According to Notre Dame theology professor through an understanding of the underlying,
John Cavadini, when healing is granted, "The spiritual perfection of God's creation. The world
miracle is not primarily for the person healed, as humanly perceived is believed to be a
but for all people, as a sign of God's work in the distortion of spiritual reality. Christian Scientists
ultimate healing called 'salvation,' or a sign of believe that healing through prayer is possible
the kingdom that is coming." Some might view insofar as it succeeds in correcting the
their own healing as a sign they are particularly distortion. Christian Scientists believe that
prayer does not change the spiritual creation
545
but gives a clearer view of it, and the result wonders are wrought in the metaphysical
appears in the human scene as healing: the healing of physical disease; but these signs are
human picture adjusts to coincide more nearly only to demonstrate its divine origin, to attest
with the divine reality.[30] Prayer works the reality of the higher mission of the Christ-
through love: the recognition of God's creation power to take away the sins of the world."[33]
as spiritual, intact, and inherently lovable.[31] Christian Science teaches that disease is mental,
a mortal fear, a mistaken belief or conviction of
Christian Scientists believe that in the New
the necessity and power of ill-health – an
Testament, Jesus is implying the existence of an
ignorance of God's power and goodness. The
underlying spiritual harmony that can be
chapter on "Prayer" in Science and Health with
demonstrated through faith in its existence.
Key to the Scriptures, gives a full account of
They look to Luke 8:22-25 where Jesus calmed a
healing through prayer, while the testimonies at
storm through prayer and implied that his
the end of the book are written by people who
disciples could have done so also if they had
believe they have been healed through spiritual
sufficient faith; and to Luke 8:49-50 where Jesus
understanding gained from reading the book.
stated that a young girl who had apparently
Christian Scientists claim no monopoly on the
died could be well again if faith was shown.
application of God's healing power through
Christian Scientists believe that prayer works prayer, and welcome it wherever it occurs.
through love – in its Christian sense of unselfed,
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
unlimited and unconditional awareness of the
inherent worth of another – and that this is the With claims of being the true and restored
way Jesus Christ healed. Their aim is "to Church of Jesus Christ, The Church of Jesus
reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost Christ of Latter-day Saints has had a long history
element of healing" [32] which, they believe, of faith healings. Many members of the LDS
was lost after the early centuries of Christianity. Church have told their stories of healing within
They cite such Bible texts as Mark 16:17-18; the LDS publication, the Ensign. The church
Matthew 10:8 in support of their contention believes healings come most often as a result of
that Christian faith demands demonstration in priesthood blessings given by the laying on of
healing. This is a faith in the omnipotence of hands; however, prayer often accompanied
God, which according to the Christian Science with fasting is also thought to cause healings.
interpretation of the Bible such as Luke 17:5-6, Healing is always attributed to be God's power.
logically rules out any other power. The Latter-day Saints believe that the Priesthood of
Christian Science view, citing Matthew 21:22; God, held by prophets (such as Moses) and
Matthew 7:7-11, is that Jesus taught that we worthy disciples of the Savior, was restored via
should claim good as being present, here and heavenly messengers to the first prophet of this
now, and that this will result in healing. dispensation, Joseph Smith.[38]
Christian Scientists point to Jesus' teaching in
According to LDS doctrine, even though
John 14:12 that his followers would do "greater
members may have the restored priesthood
works" than he did, and that a person who lived
authority to heal in the name of Jesus Christ, all
in conformity with his teachings would not be
efforts should be made to seek the appropriate
subject even to death (John 8:51).
medical help. Brigham Young stated this
An important point in Christian Science is that effectively, while also noting that the ultimate
effectual prayer and the moral regeneration of outcome is still dependent on the will of God.
one's life go hand-in-hand: that "signs and [39]
546
If we are sick, and ask the Lord to heal us, and other religions. According to the 20th-century
to do all for us that is necessary to be done, Spiritualist author Lloyd Kenyon Jones, "This
according to my understanding of the Gospel of does not mean that sickness is unreal. It is real
salvation, I might as well ask the Lord to cause enough from the mortal viewpoint. The spirit
my wheat and corn to grow, without my feels the pain, senses the discomfiture of the
plowing the ground and casting in the seed. It flesh-body, even though the spirit is not ill."[40]
appears consistent to me to apply every remedy Spiritualism does not promote "mental" cures
that comes within the range of my knowledge, of the type advocated by New Thought;[citation
and to ask my Father in Heaven, in the name of needed] however, help from the "spirit world"
Jesus Christ, to sanctify that application to the (including advice given by the spirits of
healing of my body. deceased physicians) is sought and may be seen
as central to the healing process. As with
But suppose we were traveling in the
practitioners of New Thought, Spiritualists may
mountains, ... and one or two were taken sick,
combine faith healing with conventional
without anything in the world in the shape of
medical therapies. As Jones explained it, "We
healing medicine within our reach, what should
are not taught to put the burden on our minds.
we do? According to my faith, ask the Lord
We do not 'will away' illness. But – we do not
Almighty to … heal the sick. This is our privilege,
fear illness. [...] When we ask the spirit-world to
when so situated that we cannot get anything
relieve us of a bodily ill, we have gone as far as
to help ourselves. Then the Lord and his
our own understanding and diligence permit.
servants can do all. But it is my duty to do,
[...] We have faith, and confidence, and belief.
when I have it in my power.
[...] If medicine at times will assist, we take it –
We lay hands on the sick and wish them to be not as a habit, but as a little push over the hill. If
healed, and pray the Lord to heal them, but we we need medical attention, we secure it."
cannot always say that he will.
United States law
Many LDS members believe that healing is one
of the signs of the true church of Christ, as
Christ told his disciples to heal the sick as one of The 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and
their duties (Matt 10:8 KJV); however, they also Treatment Act (CAPTA) required states to grant
believe that healing is not just restricted to the religious exemptions to child neglect and abuse
true church. It is believed that faith in Jesus laws in order to receive federal money.[41] The
Christ is the most important thing in a faith CAPTA amendments of 1996 42 U.S.C. § 5106i
healing; however, it is also believed that even state:
the devil has some ability to heal and work
(a) In General.--Nothing in this Act shall be
other miracles (Matt 7:21–23 KJV, Rev. 16:14
construed--
KJV).
"(1) as establishing a Federal requirement that a
Spiritualism
parent or legal guardian provide a child any
Spiritualism is a system of belief which holds as medical service or treatment against the
a tenet the belief that contact is possible religious beliefs of the parent or legal guardian;
between the living and the spirits of the dead. and "(2) to require that a State find, or to
For this reason, death, as an outcome of prohibit a State from finding, abuse or neglect
disease, may not seem as frightening to in cases in which a parent or legal guardian
Spiritualists as it does to those who practice relies solely or partially upon spiritual means
547
rather than medical treatment, in accordance [44][45] claims of reproducible effects are
with the religious beliefs of the parent or legal nevertheless subject to scientific investigation.
guardian.
A study in the British Medical Journal (Rose,
"(b) State Requirement.--Notwithstanding 1954) investigated spiritual healing, therapeutic
subsection (a), a State shall, at a minimum, have touch and faith healing. In a hundred cases that
in place authority under State law to permit the were investigated, no single case revealed that
child protective services system of the State to the healer's intervention alone resulted in any
pursue any legal remedies, including the improvement or cure of a measurable organic
authority to initiate legal proceedings in a court disability.[46]
of competent jurisdiction, to provide medical
A Cochrane review of intercessory prayer[47]
care or treatment for a child when such care or
found conflicting evidence for claims of a
treatment is necessary to prevent or remedy
positive effect, but there was a conclusion that
serious harm to the child, or to prevent the
"evidence presented so far is interesting
withholding of medically indicated treatment
enough to justify further study." A recent study
from children with life threatening conditions.
not included in the review found that
Except with respect to the withholding of
intercessory prayer had no effect on
medically indicated treatments from disabled
complication-free recovery from heart surgery,
infants with life threatening conditions, case by
but curiously the group certain of receiving
case determinations concerning the exercise of
intercessory prayer experienced higher rates of
the authority of this subsection shall be within
complications.[48] (See also Studies on
the sole discretion of the State.
intercessory prayer)
Thirty-one states have child-abuse religious
A group at Johns Hopkins published a study in
exemptions. These are Alabama, Alaska,
2011 reporting no significant effects on pain,
California, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Georgia,
mood, health perceptions, illness intrusiveness,
Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky,
or self-efficacy, but a small improvement in
Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota,
reported energy in a double-blind study to test
Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New
the efficacy of spiritual exercise in chronically ill
Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Ohio,
adults.[49]
Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Vermont,
Virginia, and Wyoming.[42] Criticism
Reckless Homicide Convictions
Parents have been convicted of child abuse and According to the American Cancer Society:
felony reckless negligent homicide and found
responsible for killing their children when they ... available scientific evidence does not support
withheld lifesaving medical care and chose only claims that faith healing can actually cure
prayers.[43] physical ailments... One review published in
1998 looked at 172 cases of deaths among
Scientific investigations children treated by faith healing instead of
conventional methods. These researchers
estimated that if conventional treatment had
While faith in the supernatural is not in itself been given, the survival rate for most of these
usually considered to be the purview of science, children would have been more than 90
548
percent, with the remainder of the children also There have been case studies of claims made.
having a good chance of survival. A more recent Following a Kathryn Kuhlman 1967 fellowship in
study found that more than 200 children had Philadelphia, Dr. William A. Nolen conducted a
died of treatable illnesses in the United States case study of 23 people who claimed to have
over the past thirty years because their parents been cured during her services.[55][56][57][58]
relied on spiritual healing rather than Nolen's long-term follow-ups concluded there
conventional medical treatment. were no cures in those cases.[59][60]
Furthermore, "one woman who was said to
have been cured of spinal cancer threw away
In addition, at least one study has suggested her brace and ran across the stage at Kuhlman's
that adult Christian Scientists, who generally command; her spine collapsed the next day,
use prayer rather than medical care, have a according to Nolen, and she died four months
higher death rate than other people of the later."[61] In 1976, Kuhlman died in Tulsa,
same age.[3] Oklahoma, following open-heart surgery.[62]
There are also some cases of fraud (faking the

condition) or ineffective healing (believing the
The American Medical Association considers condition has been healed immediately after
that prayer as therapy should not be a the "healing" and later finding out it has not).
medically reimbursable or deductible expense. These are discussed in following sections.
[50]
Negative impact on public health
Skeptics of faith healing offer primarily two
explanations for anecdotes of cures or Reliance on faith healing to the exclusion of
improvements, relieving any need to appeal to other forms of treatment can have a public
the supernatural.[51][52] The first is post hoc health impact when it reduces or eliminates
ergo propter hoc, meaning that a genuine access to modern medical techniques.[63][64]
improvement or spontaneous remission may [65] This is evident in both higher mortality
have been experienced coincidental with but rates for children[4] and in reduced life
independent from anything the faith healer or expectancy for adults.[5] Critics have also made
patient did or said. These patients would have note of serious injury that has resulted from
improved just as well even had they done falsely labelled "healings", where patients
nothing. The second is the placebo effect, erroneously consider themselves cured and
through which a person may experience cease or withdraw from treatment.[66][67] For
genuine pain relief and other symptomatic example, at least six people have died after
alleviation. In this case, the patient genuinely faith healing by their church and being told they
has been helped by the faith healer or faith- had been healed of HIV and could stop taking
based remedy, not through any mysterious or their medications.[68] It is the stated position of
numinous function, but by the power of their the AMA that "prayer as therapy should not
own belief that they would be healed.[53][54] delay access to traditional medical care."[50]
In both cases the patient may experience a real
Christian theological criticism of faith healing
reduction in symptoms, though in neither case
has anything miraculous or inexplicable Christian theological criticism of faith healing
occurred. Both cases, however, are strictly broadly falls into two distinct levels of
limited to the body's natural abilities. disagreement.
549
The first is widely termed the "open-but- power of God today to heal the sick, particularly
cautious" view of the miraculous in the church in response to prayer (see e.g. James 5:14,15),
today. This term is deliberately used by Robert ought to be acknowledged and insisted on."[72]
L. Saucy in the book Are Miraculous Gifts for
Fraud
Today?.[69] Don Carson is another example of a
Christian teacher who has put forward what has Skeptics of faith healers point to fraudulent
been described as an "open-but-cautious" view. practices either in the healings themselves
[70] In dealing with the claims of Warfield, (such as plants in the audience with fake
particularly "Warfield's insistence that miracles illnesses), or concurrent with the healing work
ceased,"[71] Carson asserts, "But this argument supposedly taking place and claim that faith
stands up only if such miraculous gifts are healing is a quack practice in which the
theologically tied exclusively to a role of "healers" use well known non-supernatural
attestation; and that is demonstrably not illusions to exploit credulous people in order to
so."[71] However, while affirming that he does obtain their gratitude, confidence and money.
not expect healing to happen today, Carson is [22] James Randi's The Faith Healers
critical of aspects of the faith healing investigates Christian evangelists such as Peter
movement, "Another issue is that of immense Popoff, who claimed to heal sick people and to
abuses in healing practises.... The most give personal details about their lives, but was
common form of abuse is the view that since all receiving radio transmissions from his wife,
illness is directly or indirectly attributable to the Elizabeth, who was off-stage reading
devil and his works, and since Christ by his cross information that she and her aides had
has defeated the devil, and by his Spirit has gathered from earlier conversations with
given us the power to overcome him, healing is members of the audience.[22] The book also
the inheritance right of all true Christians who questioned how faith healers use funds that
call upon the Lord with genuine faith." were sent to them for specific purposes.[73]
Physicist Robert L. Park[53] and doctor and
The second level of theological disagreement
consumer advocate Stephen Barrett[66] have
with Christian faith healing goes further.
called into question the ethicality of some
Commonly referred to as cessationism, its
exorbitant fees.
adherents either claim that faith healing will not
happen today at all, or may happen today, but it There have also been legal controversies. For
would be unusual. Richard Gaffin argues for a example, in 1955 at a Jack Coe revival service in
form of cessationism in an essay alongside Miami, Florida, Coe told the parents of a three
Saucy's in the book Are Miraculous Gifts for year old boy that he healed their son who had
Today? In his book Perspectives on polio.[74] Coe then told the parents to remove
Pentecost[72] Gaffin states of healing and the boy's leg braces.[74] However, their son
related gifts that "the conclusion to be drawn is was not cured of polio and removing the braces
that as listed in 1 Corinthians 12(vv. 9f., 29f.) left the boy in constant pain.[74] As a result,
and encountered throughout the narrative in Coe was arrested and charged on February 6,
Acts, these gifts, particularly when exercised 1956 with practicing medicine without a license,
regularly by a given individual, are part of the a felony in the state of Florida. A Florida Justice
foundational structure of the church... and so of the Peace dismissed the case on grounds that
have passed out of the life of the church."[72] Florida exempts divine healing from the law
Gaffin qualifies this, however, by saying "At the
same time, however, the sovereign will and
550
treatment for any condition. Therefore the

value of reiki remains unproven."[4] The
American Cancer Society,[5] Cancer Research
UK,[6] and the National Center for
Complementary and Alternative Medicine[7]
Chapter Four have also found that there is no clinical or
Reiki Healing scientific evidence supporting claims that Reiki
is effective in the treatment of any illness.
he English word reiki derives from the Japanese

loanword reiki ( 霊気 , meaning "mysterious
Reiki ( 霊気 ?, /ˈreɪkiː/) is a spiritual practice[1]
atmosphere"), which derives from the Chinese
developed in 1922 by Japanese Buddhist Mikao
loanword língqì ( 靈氣 , "supernatural
Usui, which has since been adapted by various
influence"). Its earliest recorded usage in
teachers of varying traditions. It uses a
English dates to 1975.[8] Instead of the usual
technique commonly called palm healing or
transliteration, some English-language authors
hands-on-healing as a form of alternative
pseudo-translate reiki as "universal life energy".
medicine and is sometimes classified as oriental
[9]
medicine by some professional medical bodies.
[2] Through the use of this technique, Reiki is commonly written as 霊気 in shinjitai
practitioners believe that they are transferring kanji or as レイキ in katakana syllabary. It
universal energy (i.e., reiki) in the form of qi compounds the words rei ( 霊 : "spirit,
(Japanese: ki) through the palms, which they miraculous, divine") and ki ( 気 ; qi: "gas, vital
believe allows for self-healing and a state of energy, breath of life, consciousness").[10] The
equilibrium.[3] ki (better known as Chinese qi or ch'i) in reiki is
understood as meaning "spiritual energy; vital
There are two main branches of Reiki,
energy; life force; energy of life".[11] Some reiki
commonly referred to as Traditional Japanese
translation equivalents from Japanese-English
Reiki and Western Reiki. Though differences can
dictionaries are: "feeling of mystery",[12] "an
be wide and varied between both branches and
atmosphere (feeling) of mystery",[13] and "an
traditions, the primary difference is that the
ethereal atmosphere (that prevails in the sacred
Westernised forms use systematised hand-
precincts of a shrine); (feel, sense) a spiritual
placements rather than relying on an intuitive
(divine) presence."[14] Besides the usual Sino-
sense of hand-positions (see below), which is
Japanese pronunciation reiki, these kanji 霊気
commonly used by Japanese Reiki branches.
have an alternate Japanese reading, namely
Both branches commonly have a three-tiered
ryōge, meaning "demon; ghost" (especially in
hierarchy of degrees, usually referred to as the
spirit possession).
First, Second, and Master/Teacher level, all of
which are associated with different skills and Chinese língqì 靈氣 was first recorded in the
techniques. (ca. 320 BCE) Neiye "Inward Training" section of
the Guanzi, describing early Taoist meditation
The concept of ki underlying Reiki is speculative
techniques. "That mysterious vital energy
and there is no scientific evidence that it exists;
within the mind: One moment it arrives, the
a 2008 systematic review of randomised clinical
next it departs. So fine, there is nothing within
trials concluded that "the evidence is
it; so vast, there is nothing outside it. We lose it
insufficient to suggest that reiki is an effective
because of the harm caused by mental
551
agitation."[16] Standard Chinese língqì is was also responsible for creating and erecting
translated by Chinese-English dictionaries as: Usui's memorial stone and for ensuring the
"(of beautiful mountains) spiritual influence or maintenance of the grave site.[26] Ushida was
atmosphere";[17] "1. intelligence; power of followed by Iichi Taketomi, Yoshiharu
understanding; 2. supernatural power or force Watanabe, Kimiko Koyama and the current
in fairy tales; miraculous power or force";[18] successor to Usui, Kondo, who became
and "1. spiritual influence (of mountains/etc.); president in 1998.[26] The sixteen masters
2. ingeniousness; cleverness". initiated by Usui include Toshihiro Eguchi,
Jusaburo Guida, Ilichi Taketomi, Toyoichi
Origins
Wanami, Yoshihiru Watanabe, Keizo Ogawa, J.
See also Five Precepts and Timeline of Reiki Ushida, and Chujiro Hayashi.
history
Before Usui's death, Chujiro Hayashi (林忠次郎
The system of Reiki was developed by Mikao Hayashi Chūjirō) approached Usui about
Usui (臼井甕男) in 1922 whilst performing Isyu developing a different form of Reiki that was
Guo, a twenty-one day Buddhist training course much simpler. Usui agreed.[28] After Usui's
held on Mount Kurama.[20] It is not known for death, Hayashi left the Usui Reiki Ryōhō Gakkai
certain what Usui was required to do during this and formed his own clinic where he gave Reiki
training, though it most likely involved treatments, taught, and attuned people to
meditation, fasting, chanting, and prayer.[21] Reiki, and it was to this clinic that Hawayo
[22] It is claimed that by a mystical revelation, Takata was directed in the 1930s.[26] Hayashi
Usui had gained the knowledge and spiritual simplified the Reiki teachings, stressing physical
power to apply and attune others to what he healing and using a more codified and simpler
called Reiki, which entered his body through his set of Reiki techniques.[29]
crown Chakra.[21] In April 1922, Usui moved to
After Hawayo Takata received multiple Reiki
Tokyo and founded the Usui Reiki Ryōhō Gakkai
sessions from Hayashi's trainees at his clinic for
(" 臼井靈氣療法學會" in old style characters,
illnesses including abdominal pain and asthma,
meaning "Usui's Spiritual Energy Therapy
Hayashi initiated and trained Takata to use
Method Society") in order to continue treating
Reiki,[30][31] and she became a Reiki Master on
people on a large scale with Reiki.
21 February 1938.[30][32] Takata established
According to the inscription on his memorial several Reiki clinics throughout Hawaii, one of
stone,[24] Usui taught his system of Reiki to which was located in Hilo,[30] and then went on
over 2000 people during his lifetime, and to travel throughout the United States,
sixteen of these students continued their practising Reiki and teaching the first two levels
training to reach the Shinpiden level, a level to others,[33] and it was not until 1970 that
equivalent to the Western third, or Takata began initiating Reiki Masters.[34] At
Master/Teacher, degree.[24][25] While this stage, Takata also introduced the term Reiki
teaching Reiki in Fukuyama (福山市, Fukuyama- Master for the Shinpiden level.[35] She stressed
shi), Usui suffered a stroke and died on 9 March the importance of charging money for Reiki
1926.[24] treatments and teachings, and fixed a price of
$10,000 (roughly £6,500 or €7,400) for the
Early development Master training.[34]
After Usui's death, J. Ushida, a student of Usui, Takata died on 11 December 1980,[34][36] by
took over as president of the Gakkai.[26] He which time she had trained 22 Reiki masters,
552
[37][38] and almost all Reiki taught outside association. This society remained secret for
Japan can be attributed to her work.[39] many years and at present, the shihan (master),
Masaki Kondoh, is the president of the Gakkai.
Usui's concepts and five principles
Though many of their teachings still remain
Usui was an admirer of the literary works of the secret, little by little, members of this
Emperor Meiji (明治天皇 Meiji tennō). While in association — such as Master Hiroshi Doi —
the process of developing his Reiki system, Usui have been sharing their knowledge with the
summarised some of the emperor's works into rest of the world. In spite of this, it continues to
a set of ethical principles (called the "Concepts" be a hermetic society, nearly impossible to
概念 Gainen), which later became known as the access.
Five Reiki Precepts ( 五戒 Gokai, meaning "The
Reidō Reiki Gakkai ( 靈道靈氣學會 , meaning
Five Commandments", from the Buddhist
"Spiritual Occurrence [and] Spiritual Energy
teachings against killing, thievery, sexual
Society") is the name given to the system that
misconduct, lying, and intemperance). It is
derives from the masters of the Ryōhō Gakkai,
common for many Reiki teachers and
and is led by Fuminori Aoki, who added to the
practitioners to abide by these five precepts, or
teaching of the Gakkai, though differences in
principles.
teaching are minimal. In this system, the Koriki
The term Traditional Japanese Reiki is normally (meaning "the force of happiness") symbol that
used to describe the specific system that inspired Fuminori Aoki has been adopted.
formed from Usui's original teachings[41] and
Kōmyō Reiki Kai ( 光明レイキ會 , meaning
the teachings that did not leave Japan. During
"Enlightened Spiritual Energy Meeting
the 1990s, Western teachers travelled to Japan
(Association)") is the name given to the system
in order to find this particular tradition of Reiki,
that takes the name of a school of Japanese
though found nothing. They therefore started
Traditional Reiki, and was established by
to establish Reiki schools, and started to teach
Hyakuten Inamoto ( 稲本　百天 ), a Reiki
Reiki levels 1 and 2 to the Japanese. Around
teacher with Western Reiki background. It
1993, a German Reiki Master, Frank Arjava
differs from other systems in that it does not
Petter, also started to teach to the
originate with the Gakkai, but instead comes
Master/Teacher level, and as a result, the
from the Hayashi line, through Chiyoko
Japanese started teaching their knowledge of
Yamaguchi ( 山口　千代子 ) that remained in
Traditional Reiki. Since then, several traditions
Japan.
of Traditional Japanese Reiki have been
established, the main traditions of which are Jikiden Reiki ( 直傳靈氣 , meaning "The Direct
listed below.[42] Teaching [of] Spiritual Energy") is the name
given to the original system that was taught by
Usui Reiki Ryōhō Gakkai (臼井靈氣療法學會 in
Dr. Hayashi, and was founded by Mrs.
Traditional Chinese Characters, meaning "Usui
Yamaguchi and her son, Tadao Yamaguchi (山口
Reiki Healing Method Learning Society")[43] is
忠夫).[46]
the name of the society of Reiki masters
founded by Mikao Usui. His style is assumed to The Japanese Reiki hand positions presented in
have survived to the present day (assumed as the Usui Reiki Ryōhō Hikkei ( 臼井靈氣療法必
no-one knows exactly how the Gakkai practises 携 , Usui Reiki Treatment Handbook) as used
nowadays), with Ushida being the one who, and compiled by Usui are considerably more
upon death, substituted the presidency of the
553
extensive than the hand positions used in Usui/Tibetan Reiki is the name given to the
Western Reiki. system that was developed by Arthur Robertson
and later popularised by William Lee Rand and
Western Reiki
Diane Stein.[51][52] This system is derived from
Western Reiki ( 西洋レイキ , Seiyō reiki) is a Usui Reiki as taught by Takata and includes
system that can be accredited to Hawayo techniques from the Usui Reiki Ryōhō Gakkai,
Takata.[48] The principal difference between such as Byōsen-hō (病専法, Scanning Method),
the traditions is the use of set hand patterns for Gyōshi-hō (凝視法, Healing Eyes Method), and
internal treatments instead of Reiji-hō, the Kenyoku-hō ( 件抑制法 , Dry Bathing Method).
intuitive skill of "knowing where to place the There have been a few additions to this system
hands."[42] This style of Reiki places more in comparison with Usui Shiki Ryōhō by Rand,
emphasis on the healing of ailments, and such as a modified attunement method that
ascension to higher levels of attunement is incorporates the Violet Breath,[51] the use of
more formalised. the Tibetan Master and kundalini fire symbols
along with the four traditional Usui symbols, the
After being trained by Hayashi, Takata went hui yin position (located in the perineum), and
back to Hawaii, taking Reiki with her. After also the microcosmic orbit.[51] Along with
setting up clinics there, Reiki then spread to the introducing the above, Usui/Tibetan Reiki can
rest of the Western world. As a result of the sometimes incorporate psychic surgery. Unlike
second world war, Takata decided to modify the Usui Reiki Shiki Ryōhō, it has four levels,
Traditional Japanese Reiki system in order to commonly called First Degree, Second Degree,
make it more understandable and credible to Advanced Reiki Training (commonly 3A or ART),
the mentality of the West. and Master/Teacher (commonly 3B).[51]
Usui Reiki Shiki Ryōhō ( 臼井靈氣式療法 , Gendai Reiki Hō ( 現代靈氣法 , meaning
commonly translated as meaning "Usui's "Modern Spiritual Energy Method") is a system
Spiritual Energy Style of Therapy", but a more that incorporates elements of both Japanese
literal translation is "Usui's Spiritual Energy and Western Reiki,[53] and was established by
Style of Medical Treatment" (Ryōhō ( 療法 ) Hiroshi Doi.[53] Doi was first trained in Western
meaning medical treatment)) is the name given Reiki by Mieko Mitsui, a Master of the
to the Western system of Reiki, and is a system "Radiance Technique."[54] In 1993, he was
that has tried to stay near enough the same as granted membership to Usui Reiki Ryōhō
the original practises of Hawayo Takata. It is Gakkai.[54]
taught today by, for instance, the Reiki Alliance,
led by Phyllis Lei Furumoto, Takata's Teachings
granddaughter.[49] In this system, as with most
Western systems of Reiki, there are three
levels, respectively called the First Degree, Reiki teachings claim that Reiki is
Second Degree, and Master/Teacher Degree, inexhaustible[55][56] and that it can be used to
which uses Takata's versions of the four original induce a healing effect.[57] Practitioners claim
symbols passed to her by Hayashi. Usui Reiki that anyone can gain access to this energy[58]
Shiki Ryōhō is also the norm requested by means of an attunement process[59] carried
qualification (along with Reiki lineage) when out by a Reiki Master.[60]
seeking insurance to practise Reiki on the
Reiki is described by adherents as a holistic
general public in the United Kingdom.[50]
therapy which brings about healing on physical,
554
mental, emotional and spiritual levels.[61] The Teacher; some hold four sessions spread over a
belief is that the energy will flow through the number of days, others hold two sessions over
practitioner's hands whenever the hands are two days.[70]
placed on, or held near a potential recipient.
Second degree
Some teachings stress the importance of the
practitioner's intention or presence in this In the second degree Reiki course,[71]
process, while others claim that the energy is sometimes given the Japanese name of Okuden
drawn by the recipient's injury to activate or (" 奥伝 " in Japanese, meaning "Inner
enhance the natural healing processes.[62] Teachings"),[72] the student learns the use of a
Further to this notion, the belief is that the number of symbols that are said to enhance the
energy is "intelligent",[63] meaning that the strength and distance over which Reiki can be
Reiki knows where to heal, even if a exerted.[73] This involves the use of symbols to
practitioner's hands are not present in the form a temporary connection between the
specific area. practitioner and the recipient, regardless of
location and time, and then to send the Reiki
Training
energy.[74][75] Another attunement is given,
The teaching of Reiki outside of Japan is which is said to further increase the capacity for
commonly divided into three levels,[64] or Reiki to flow through the student, as well as
degrees, the most common of which are empowering the use of the symbols.[76] Having
described below. Traditional Japanese Reiki was completed the second level, the student can
taught intensively under Usui's guidance, with work without being physically present with the
weekly meditation meetings where Reiki was recipient — a practise known as "distant
given and used to scan the body in order to healing".[77] Students in Japan sometimes only
supply an energetic diagnosis,[65] which is attained the Second Degree after a period of 10,
known in Japanese as Byosen-hō, as a Japanese sometimes 20, years of practice under Usui's
Reiki treatment is intuitive and specifically tutorship, and the majority of students never
directed in comparison to a Western Reiki attained the Third Degree.[78]
treatment, which tends to generally treat the
Third degree
whole body instead of specific areas.
Through the third degree, or "master training",
First degree
[79] sometimes given the Japanese name of
The first degree Reiki course,[66] sometimes Shinpiden (" 神秘伝 " in Japanese, meaning
given the Japanese name of Shoden (" 初伝" in "Mystery Teachings"),[80] the student becomes
Japanese, meaning "Elementary/Entry a Reiki Master. In Reiki terminology, the word
Teachings"),[67] teaches the basic theories and "master" does not imply spiritual
procedures. A number of "attunements" are enlightenment, and is sometimes changed to
given to the student by the teacher.[68] "Master/Teacher" in order to avoid this
Students learn hand placement positions on the confusion. According to the specific branch of
recipient's body that are thought to be most Reiki, either one or more attunements can be
conducive to the process in a whole body carried out and the student learns a further
treatment.[69] Having completed the first symbol.[81] Having completed the master
degree course, Reiki practitioners can then treat training, the new Reiki Master can attune other
themselves and others with Reiki. Course people to Reiki and teach the three degrees.
duration is dependent on the Reiki Master The duration of the master training can be
555
anything from a day to a year or more,

depending on the school and philosophy of the
A schematic diagram of the human body's
Reiki Master giving the training. There are
meridians.
commonly two types of Master: Master Teacher
and Master Practitioner; a Master Teacher is a In Western Reiki, it is taught that Reiki works in
Master of Reiki and also has the ability to teach conjunction with the meridian energy lines and
Reiki (i.e., attune others), though a Master chakras through the use of the hand-positions,
Practitioner is a Master of Reiki but does not which normally correspond to the seven major
teach Reiki. chakras on the body. These hand-positions are
used both on the front and back of the body,
Variations
and can include specific areas (see localised
There is much variation in training methods, treatment). According to authors such as James
speed of completion (i.e., attunement), and Deacon, Usui used only five formal hand-
costs. Though there is no accreditation and positions, which focused on the head and neck.
central body for Reiki, nor any regulation of its [85] After Reiki had been given first to the head
practice, there exist organisations within the and neck area, specific areas of the body where
United Kingdom that seek to standardise Reiki imbalances were present would then be
and Reiki practises, such as the UK Reiki treated.[85] The use of the chakras is
Federation[82] and the Reiki Council (UK).[83] widespread within Western Reiki, though not as
Reiki courses are also available online, although much within Traditional Japanese Reiki, as it
traditionalists state that attunement must be concentrates more on treating specific areas of
done in person in order to take effect, as the the body after using techniques such as Byosen-
Reiki Master/Teacher doing the attunement hō and Reiji-hō, which are used to find areas of
must be able to actually touch the energy field dis-ease (discomfort) in the auras and physical
of the person being attuned. A distance Reiki body.
attument is not always recognised by certain
Healing
Reiki federations, such as with the UK Reiki
Federation, who state, "[a]ll training must have Usui Reiki Ryōhō does not use any medication
been "in-person" or "face to face" (distant or instruments, but uses looking, blowing, light
attunements are not accepted)."[84] Some tapping, and touching.[86] According to Frank
traditionalists also hold the ideal that methods Arjava Petter, Usui touched the diseased parts
that teach Reiki "quickly" cannot yield as strong of the body, he massaged them, tapped them
an effect, because there is no substitute for lightly, stroked them, blew on them, fixed his
experience and patience when mastering Reiki. gaze upon them for two to three minutes, and
specifically gave them energy,[87] and used a
Practice
technique commonly referred to as palm
healing as a form of complementary and
alternative medicine. Through the use of this
palm healing (sometimes referred to as
"tenohira" ( 掌 , meaning "the palm"),
practitioners believe that they are transferring
The seven major chakras used within many universal energy (reiki) in the form of ki through
Western systems of reiki the palms that allows for self-healing and a
state of equilibrium.[3]
556
Whole body treatment[edit] Energising on the mental level through the use
of the Reiki symbols,
In a typical whole-body Reiki treatment,[88] the
Reiki practitioner instructs the recipient to lie Energising on the emotional level through the
down, usually on a massage table, and relax. love that flows with the use of the symbols,
Loose, comfortable clothing is usually worn
Energising on the energetic level though the
during the treatment. The practitioner might
presence of an initiated practitioner as well as
take a few moments to enter a calm or
the presence of the Reiki power itself.[78]
meditative state of mind and mentally prepare
for the treatment,[89] that is usually carried out It is reported that the recipient often feels
without any unnecessary talking.[90] warmth or tingling in the area being treated,
even when a non-touching approach is being
The treatment proceeds with the practitioner
used. A state of deep relaxation, combined with
placing the hands on the recipient in various
a general feeling of well-being, is usually the
positions. However, practitioners may use a
most noticeable immediate effect of the
non-touching technique, where the hands are
treatment, although emotional releases can
held a few centimetres away from the
also occur.[93] As the Reiki treatment is said to
recipient's body for some or all of the positions.
stimulate the body's natural healing processes,
The hands are usually kept in a position for
instantaneous "cures" of specific health
three to five minutes before moving to the next
problems are not normally observed. A series of
position. Overall, the hand positions usually give
three or more treatments, typically at intervals
a general coverage of the head, the front and
of one to seven days, is usually recommended if
back of the torso, the knees, and feet. Between
a chronic condition is being addressed,[91] and
12 and 20 positions are used, with the whole
regular treatments on an on-going basis can be
treatment lasting anywhere from 45 to 90
used with the aim of maintaining well-being.
minutes.[91]
The interval between such treatments is
Many Western practitioners use a common typically in the range of one to four weeks,
fixed set of 12 hand positions,[65] while others except in the case of self-treatment where daily
use their intuition to guide them as to where practice is common.[91]
treatment is needed[92] as is the practise in
Localised treatment
Traditional Japanese Reiki, sometimes starting
the treatment with a "scan" of the recipient to A Reiki treatment in progress.
find such areas. The intuitive approach might
also lead to individual positions being treated Localised Reiki treatment involves the
for much shorter or longer periods. A Western practitioner's hands being held on or near a
Reiki treatment is considered a type of large- specific part of the body for a varying length of
scale treatment in comparison to the more time. Recent injuries are usually treated in this
localised-style treatment of Traditional way,[94] with the site of injury being targeted.
Japanese Reiki.[78] There is great variation in the duration of such
treatments, though 20 minutes is typical. Takata
The use of the 12 hand positions are believed to described "localised treatment" as 'hands-on
energise on many levels,[78] by: work,' compared to distant or "absent healing."
Energising on a physical level through the Some practitioners use localised treatments for
warmth of the hands, certain ailments, and some publications have
557
tabulated appropriate hand positions,[96][97] Gasshō

However, other practitioners prefer to use the
Gasshō (" 合掌 " in Japanese, meaning "two
whole body treatment for all chronic conditions,
hands coming together") is a meditative state
on the grounds that it has a more holistic effect.
where both palms of the hands are placed
[98] Another approach is to give a whole body
together, and was practised each time at the
treatment first, followed by a localised
beginning of Usui's Reiki workshops and
treatment for any specific ailments.[99]
meetings. One technique of Gasshō is to
Usui used specific hand positions to treat concentrate on the pads where the two middle
specific ailments and dis-eases (discomfort), fingers meet.
[100] which included disorders of the nervous
Reiji-hō
system (such as hysteria),[101] respiratory
disorders (such as inflammation of the trachea), Reiji-hō ( 霊示法 , meaning "indication of the
[102] digestive disorders (such as gastric ulcers), Reiki power method") is a means of connecting
[103] circulatory disorders (such as chronic high with the Reiki power by asking it to flow
blood pressure),[104] metabolism and blood through the practitioner three times, and is
disorders (such as anaemia),[105] urogenital commonly split into three parts. The first part is
tract disorders (such as nephritis),[106] skin to ask the Reiki power to flow through the
disorders (such as inflammation of the lymph practitioner. It will either enter through the
nodes),[107] childhood disorders (such as crown chakra (as this is the highest ascension),
measles),[108] women’s health disorders (such the heart chakra (as indicated by the pure love
as morning sickness),[109] and contagious of Reiki), or the hands (as the palms are attuned
disorders (such as typhoid fever).[110] with specific Reiki symbols). A student of the
Second Degree can use the third/distance
Breathing
symbol to connect with the Reiki along with the
Though the specific use of breath and breathing first/power symbol; the distance symbol is sent
is central to many styles of Japanese Reiki, it is first and is then sealed with the power symbol.
often a neglected topic in Western Reiki.[111]
The second part is to pray for the recovery of
Usui taught a technique called Joshin Kokyū-hō
the person if a specific ailment is being healed,
(女神呼吸法), which roughly translates as "the
or for the general health of the person if
breathing method for cleansing the spirit,"
otherwise.
though literally translates as "Goddess Breath
Method".[87] Joshin Kokyū-hō is performed by The third part is to place both hands, palms
sitting straight, with the back aligned, breathing facing each other, to the third eye (the area in
in slowly through the nose. As the practitioner between the two eyebrows), and ask the Reiki
inhales, s/he also breathes the Reiki energy in power to guide the hands to where energy is
through the crown Chakra in order to purify the needed.[113] Though similar to the practice of
body and make it fit for the flow of Reiki, and is Byosen-hō, Reiji-hō relies specifically on
drawn down into the tanden. intuition of where to heal, whereas Byosen-hō
scans for areas with the hands, feeling for
Three pillars
subtle changes in the aura of the practitioner's
Along with the five Reiki principles, Usui based hands and the aura of the recipient.
his Reiki system on three other practises:
Chiryō
Gasshō, Reiji-hō, and Chiryō.
558
Chiryō ("治療" in Japanese, meaning "(medical) placebo or sham controls have shown no
treatment") requires the practitioner to place difference between the procedure and the
his/her dominant hand on the crown chakra control groups.[4]
and wait for hibiki ( 響き , "feedback") in the
A 2009 review in The Journal of Alternative and
form of an impulse or inspiration, which the
Complementary Medicine found that "the
hand then follows. During Chiryō, the
serious methodological and reporting
practitioner gives free rein to the hand,
limitations of limited existing reiki studies
touching painful areas of the body until the area
preclude a definitive conclusion on its
no longer hurts or until the hands move on their
effectiveness."[118]
own to another area.[114]
Safety and effectiveness
Research, critical evaluation, and controversy
Testing of safety
The American Cancer Society has noted that the

Scientific research
research surrounding reiki has been poorly
The proposed mechanism for reiki energy is conducted, and stated: "Available scientific
hypothetical as the existence of the ki or "life evidence at this time does not support claims
force" energy used in this method has not been that reiki can help treat cancer or any other
proven scientifically illness. More study may help determine to what
extent, if at all, it can improve a patient's sense
A 2008 systematic review of randomised clinical
of well-being."[5] Likewise, the National Center
trials assessing the evidence basis of reiki
for Complementary and Alternative Medicine
concluded that efficacy had not been
has echoed this position, noting that the
demonstrated for any condition.[4] Nine studies
existence of energy fields in biofield therapies,
fit the inclusion criteria; a modified Jadad score
such as reiki, "has not yet been scientifically
of methodological quality was used, taking into
proven."[7] Cancer Research UK say that "there
account the difficulty of blinding practitioners.
is no scientific evidence to prove that Reiki can
Non-randomised studies were excluded, as the
prevent, treat or cure cancer or any other
potential for intentional or unintentional bias in
disease".[6] It does, however, continue on to
such studies is large, rendering the results un-
say that "many healthcare professionals accept
interpretable. Overall, the methodological
Reiki as a useful complementary therapy that
quality of the evidence base was poor as most
may help to lower stress, promote relaxation
of the studies suffered from flaws such as small
and possibly help reduce some types of pain."
sample size, inadequate study design and poor
reporting, with even high-ranking studies failing Concerns about safety in reiki are similar to
fully to control for placebo effects."[4] As trials those of other unproven alternative medicines.
with such flaws are known to be likely to show Some physicians and allied health care workers
exaggerated treatment effects, there is believe that patients might avoid clinically
insufficient evidence to indicate that reiki is proven treatments for serious conditions in
effective as sole or adjuvant therapy for any favour of unproven alternative medicines.[119]
medical condition, or that it has any benefits Reiki practitioners may encourage their clients
beyond possible placebo effects.[4][116] to consult a physician for serious conditions,
Placebo trials of Reiki are complicated by the stating that reiki can be used to complement
difficulty of designing a realistic placebo,[117] conventional medicine.[120] Clinical trials have
although subsequent trials with adequate
559
not reported any significant adverse effects involve breath, air, gas, or relationship between
from the use of Reiki.[4 matter, energy, and spirit.[7] Qi is the central
underlying principle in traditional Chinese
medicine and martial arts. Gong (or kung) is
often translated as cultivation or work, and
definitions include practice, skill, mastery,
Chapter Five merit, achievement, service, result, or
Qigong accomplishment, and is often used to mean
gongfu (kung fu) in the traditional sense of
achievement through great effort. (see MDBG
Qigong, chi kung, or chi gung (simplified
dictionary entry) The two words are combined
Chinese: 气功; traditional Chinese: 氣功; pinyin:
to describe systems to cultivate and balance life
qìgōng; Wade–Giles: chi4 gong1; literally "Life
energy, especially for health.[1]
Energy Cultivation") is a practice of aligning
breath, movement, and awareness for exercise, Although the term qigong ( 氣功 ) has been
healing, and meditation.[1] With roots in traced back to Taoist literature of the early Tang
Chinese medicine, martial arts, and philosophy, Dynasty (618-907 AD), the term qigong as
qigong is traditionally viewed as a practice to currently used was promoted in the late 1940s
cultivate and balance qi (chi) or what has been through the 1950s to refer to a broad range of
translated as "intrinsic life energy".[2] It is Chinese self-cultivation exercises, and to
generally accepted that Qigong exercises have emphasize health and scientific approaches,
three components: a posture (whether moving while de-emphasizing spiritual practices,
or stationary) 調身, breathing techniques 調息, mysticism, and elite lineages.[8][9][10]
and mental focus on guiding qi through the
History
body 調心 . The prerequisite is a calm relaxing
state of mind. [3] Qigong is now practiced Qigong history
throughout China and worldwide, and is
considered by some to be exercise, and by With roots in ancient Chinese culture dating
others to be a type of alternative medicine or back more than 4,000 years, a wide variety of
meditative practice.[4] From a philosophical qigong forms have developed within different
perspective qigong is believed to help develop segments of Chinese society:[11] in traditional
human potential, allow access to higher realms Chinese medicine for preventive and curative
of awareness, and awaken one's "true nature". functions,[12] in Confucianism to promote
[5] longevity and improve moral character,[1] in
Taoism and Buddhism as part of meditative
Possible health benefits of qigong have been practice,[5] and in Chinese martial arts to
studied in various medical conditions. Evidence enhance fighting abilities.[9][13] Contemporary
of effectiveness is inconclusive due to the poor qigong blends diverse and sometimes disparate
quality of the clinical trials.[ traditions, in particular the Taoist meditative
Qigong (Pinyin), ch'i kung (Wade-Giles), and chi practice of "internal alchemy" (Neidan 內丹术),
gung (Yale) are English words for two Chinese the ancient meditative practices of "circulating
characters: qì (氣) and gōng (功). qi" (Xing qi 行氣 ) and "standing meditation"
(Zhan zhuang 站桩 ), and the slow gymnastic
Qi (or chi) is usually translated as life energy, breathing exercise of "guiding and pulling" (Tao
lifeforce, or energy flow, and definitions often yin 導引 ). Traditionally, knowledge about
560
qigong was passed from adept master to interested in qigong come from diverse
student in elite unbroken lineages, typically backgrounds and practice it for different
with secretive and esoteric traditions of training reasons, including for exercise, recreation,
and oral-mind transmission.[14] preventive medicine, self-healing, self-
cultivation, meditation, and martial arts
Starting in the late 1940s and the 1950s, the
training.
mainland Chinese government tried to integrate
disparate qigong approaches into one coherent Training methods
system, with the intention of establishing a firm
Qigong comprises breathing, physical, and
scientific basis for qigong practice. This attempt
mental training methods based on Chinese
is considered by some sinologists as the start of
philosophy.[21] While implementation details
the modern or scientific interpretation of
vary, all qigong forms can be characterized as a
qigong.[15][16][17] During the Great Leap
mix of four types of training: dynamic, static,
Forward (1958–1963) and the Cultural
meditative, and activities requiring external
Revolution (1966–1976), qigong, along with
aids.
other traditional Chinese medicine, was
encouraged in state-run rehabilitation centers Dynamic training
and spread to universities and hospitals, but
was under tight control with limited access involves fluid movement, usually carefully
among the general public. After the Cultural choreographed, coordinated with breath and
Revolution, qigong, along with t'ai chi, was awareness. Examples include the slow stylized
popularized as daily morning exercise practiced movements of T'ai chi ch'uan, Baguazhang, and
en masse throughout China. Xing yi.[22] Other examples include graceful
movement that mimics the motion of animals in
Popularity of qigong grew rapidly during the Five Animals,[23] White Crane,[24] and Wild
Deng and Jiang eras of the 1970s through Goose (Dayan) Qigong.
1990s, with estimates of between 60 and 200
million practitioners throughout China. In 1985, Static training
the state-run "National Qigong Science and involves holding postures for sustained periods
Research Organization" was established to of time.[27] In some cases this bears
regulate all of the nation's qigong resemblance to the practice of Yoga and its
denominations.[18] In 1999, in response to continuation in the Buddhist tradition.[28] For
widespread revival of old traditions of example Yiquan, a Chinese martial art derived
spirituality, morality, and mysticism, the from xingyiquan, emphasizes static stance
Chinese government took measures to enforce training.[29] In another example, the healing
control of public qigong practice, including form Eight Pieces of Brocade (Baduanjin qigong)
banning groups such as Zhong Gong and Falun is based on a series of static postures.[30]
Gong.[19][20]
Meditative training
Through the forces of migration of the Chinese
diaspora, tourism in China, and globalization, utilizes breath awareness, visualization, mantra,
the practice of qigong spread from the Chinese and focus on philosophical concepts such as qi
community to the world. Today, millions of circulation.[31] For example, in the Confucius
people around the world practice qigong and scholar tradition meditation is focused on
believe in the benefits of qigong to varying humanity and virtue, with the aim of self-
degrees. Similar to its historical origin, those enlightenment. In various Buddhist traditions,
561
the aim is to still the mind, either through The acquiring time, the strength and extent of
outward focus, for example on a place, or the feeling on the body as well as the exact
through inward focus on the breath, a mantra, a sensation vary widely between individuals. The
koan, emptiness, or the idea of the eternal. In "mind" part of qigong is the mental guiding of qi
Taoist and traditional Chinese medicine sensation (i.e. qi) through the body. [34] All
practice, the meditative focus is on cultivating qi qigong forms unanimously suggest that one
in dantian energy centers and balancing qi flow should not be afraid of or excited by these
in meridian and other pathways.[11] feelings. They are just normal sensations during
qigong practice. Out of control qi sensation is
Use of external agents
known as qigong deviation.
Many systems of qigong training include the use
Application
of external agents such as ingestion of herbs,
massage, physical manipulation, or interaction
with other living organisms.[5] For example,
People practice qigong for many different
specialized food and drinks are used in some
reasons, including for exercise and recreation,
medical and Taoist forms, whereas massage and
prevention and self-healing, meditation and
body manipulation are sometimes used in
self-cultivation, and training for martial arts.
martial arts forms. In some medical systems a
qigong master uses non-contact treatment, Alternative medical systems
purportedly guiding qi through his or her own
body into the body of another person.[32] Acupuncture
Qi Sensation Bowen technique
Eight typical sensations have been observed by Chiropractic

qigong practitioners. [33] Homeopathy
Motion – involuntary body movement or Naturopathic medicine
tingling sensation in muscle
Osteopathy
Itch – body becoming itchy
Traditional medicine
Lightness – floating feeling
Chinese · Korean · Mongolian · Tibetan · Unani ·
Heaviness – the feeling of the body becoming Siddha · Ayurveda
very heavy or the feeling that a force is exerted
on the body Previous NCCAM domains
Cold – cold feeling Mind–body interventions
Warm – warm feeling Biologically based therapies
Rough – the feeling that the body is in contact Manipulative therapy

with rough surfaces Energy therapies
Smooth – the feeling that the body is in contact Health
with smooth surfaces
As a form of gentle exercise, qigong is
composed of movements that are typically
562
repeated, strengthening and stretching the Qigong for self-cultivation can be classified in
body, increasing fluid movement (blood, terms of traditional Chinese philosophy:
synovial, and lymph), enhancing balance and
Confucianism
proprioception, and building awareness of how
the body moves through space.[35] In recent Qigong provides a means to become a Junzi (君
years a large number of books and videos have 子) through awareness of morality.[41][42]
been published that focus primarily on qigong
as exercise and associated health benefits. Taoism
Practitioners range from athletes to the Qigong provides a way to achieve longevity and
physically challenged. Because it is low impact spiritual enlightenment,[43] as well as a closer
and can be done lying, sitting, or standing, connection to the natural world.[44]
qigong is accessible for disabled persons,
seniors, and people recovering from injuries. Buddhism
As a healing art, qigong practitioners focus on Qigong is part of a spiritual path that leads to
prevention and self-healing, traditionally spiritual enlightenment or Buddhahood.[45]
viewed as balancing the body's energy Martial arts training
meridians and enhancing the intrinsic capacity
of the body to heal.[12] Qigong has been used The practice of qigong is an important
extensively in China as part of traditional component in both internal and external style
Chinese medicine, and is included in the Chinese martial arts.[5] Focus on qi is
curriculum of Chinese Universities.[36] Qigong considered to be a source of power as well as
is now recognized as a form of complementary the foundation of the internal style of martial
and alternative medicine.[37][38] arts (Neijia). T'ai chi ch'uan, Xing yi, and
Baguazhang are representative of the types of
There are three main forms of qigong used to Chinese martial arts that rely on the concept of
complement medical treatment: 1) Qigong qi as the foundation. [46] Extraordinary feats of
exercises (also called "internal Qigong") martial arts prowess, such as the ability to
performed by individuals for general health or withstand heavy strikes (Iron Shirt, 鐵衫 ) [47]
treatment of disease, 2) Qigong massage by a and the ability to break hard objects (Iron Palm,
trained Qigong practitioner to treat specific
铁掌) [48] [49] are abilities attributed to qigong
injuries and illnesses (e.g. autism);[39] and 3)
training.
External qigong in which a trained practitioner
focuses healing energy on patients without Forms
touching them.[40]
There are numerous qigong forms. 75 ancient
Meditation and self-cultivation forms that can be found in ancient literature
and also 56 common or contemporary form
Qigong is practiced for meditation and self-
have been described in a qigong compendium.
cultivation as part of various philosophical and
[50] The list is by no means exhaustive. Many
spiritual traditions. As meditation, qigong is a
contemporary forms were developed by people
means to still the mind and enter a state of
who had recovered from their illness after
consciousness that brings serenity, clarity, and
qigong practice.
bliss.[5] Many practitioners find qigong, with its
gentle focused movement, to be more
accessible than seated meditation.[4]
563
In 2003, the Chinese Health Qigong Association

officially recognized four health qigong forms:
[51]
Muscle-Tendon Change Classic (Yì Jīn Jīng 易筋

经).[52][53] Chapter Six
Five Animals (Wu Qin Xi 五禽戲).[54] Therupedic touch
Six Healing Sounds (Liu Zi Jue 六字訣).[55]
Therapeutic touch (commonly shortened to
Eight Pieces of Brocade (Ba Duan Jin 八段錦 ). "TT"), known by some as Non-Contact
[56] Therapeutic Touch (NCTT),[1] is an energy
In 2010, the Chinese Health Qigong Association therapy which practitioners claim promotes
officially recognized five additional health healing and reduces pain and anxiety.
qigong forms:[57] Therapeutic Touch is a registered trademark in
Canada for the "[s]tructured and standardized
Tai Chi Yang Sheng Zhang ( 太极养生杖 ): a tai healing practice performed by practitioners
chi form from the stick tradition. trained to be sensitive to the receiver's energy
field that surrounds the body;...no touching is
Shi Er Duan Jin (十二段锦): seated exercises to
required."[2] The College of Nurses of Ontario
strengthen the neck, shoulders, waist, and legs.
includes Therapeutic Touch as a complementary
Daoyin Yang Sheng Gong Shi Er Fa (导引养生功 health-related therapy that is among permitted
十二法 ): 12 routines from Daoyin tradition of nursing interventions.[3] New York University's
guiding and pulling qi. Department of Integrated Health Programs
offers Therapeutic Touch through its Patient
Mawangdui Daoyin (马王堆导引术): guiding qi and Care Partner Services at the Langone
along the meridians with synchronous Medical Center.[4] Therapeutic Touch was
movement and awareness. developed by NYU professor Dolores Krieger.[5]
Da Wu ( 大舞 ): choreographed exercises to Practitioners of therapeutic touch state that by
lubricate joints and guide qi. placing their hands on, or near, a patient, they
are able to detect and manipulate the patient's
Other commonly practiced qigong styles and
energy field.[6] One highly cited study, designed
forms include the following:
by a then-nine-year-old Emily Rosa and
Soaring Crane Qigong[58] published in the Journal of the American
Medical Association found that practitioners of
Wisdom Healing Qigong[59]
therapeutic touch could not detect the
Pan Gu Mystical Qigong[60] presence or absence of a hand placed a few
inches above theirs when their vision was
Wild Goose Qigong[61]
obstructed.[7][8][9] Simon Singh and Edzard
Dragon and Tiger Qigong[62] Ernst concluded in their 2008 book Trick or
Treatment that "the energy field was probably
Primordial Qigong (Wujigong)[63][64] nothing more than a figment in the
imaginations of the healers."[10] The American
Cancer Society has noted, "Available scientific
564
evidence does not support any claims that TT able to do this, the actual results did not
can cure cancer or other diseases. support their assertions. After repeated trials
the practitioners had succeeded in locating her
Dora Kunz, a theosophy promoter and one-time
hand at a rate not significantly different from
president (1975–1987) of the Theosophical
chance.[8][9][12] JAMA editor George D.
Society in America, and Dolores Krieger, now
Lundberg, M.D, recommended that patients
Professor Emerita of Nursing Science, New York
and insurance companies alike refuse to pay for
University,[5] developed therapeutic touch in
therapeutic touch or at least question whether
the 1970s.
or not payment is appropriate " 'until or unless
According to Krieger, therapeutic touch has additional honest experimentation
roots in ancient healing practices,[15] such as demonstrates an actual effect.' "[12]
the laying on of hands, although it has no
A 1999 review of the physics of complementary
connection with religion or with faith healing.
therapies states that the existence of a "bio-
Krieger states that, "in the final analysis, it is the
field" or "bio-energetic field" directly
healee (client) who heals himself. The healer or
contradicts principles of physics, chemistry, and
therapist, in this view, acts as a human energy
biology.[17] A systematic review on the
support system until the healee's own
effectiveness of various distance healing
immunological system is robust enough to take
techniques concluded that "The methodologic
over".
limitations of several studies make it difficult to
Scientific investigations draw definitive conclusions about the efficacy of
distant healing. However ... the evidence thus
far merits further study."[1]
Emily Rosa, at 9 years of age, conceived and A Cochrane systematic review found "[t]here is
executed a study on therapeutic touch. With no robust evidence that TT promotes healing of
the help of Stephen Barrett from Quackwatch, acute wounds."[18]
and with the assistance of her mother, Linda
Rosa, RN, Emily became the youngest research The American Cancer Society has noted,
team member to have a paper accepted by the "Available scientific evidence does not support
Journal of the American Medical Association any claims that TT can cure cancer or other
(JAMA) for her part in a study of therapeutic diseases."[11]
touch, which debunked the claims of
Therapeutic touch and nursing education
therapeutic touch practitioners. Twenty-one
practitioners of therapeutic touch participated
in her study, and they attempted to detect her
Owen Hammer and James Underdown from the
aura. The practitioners stood on one side of a
Independent Investigations Group examined
cardboard screen, while Emily stood on the
nursing standards in California, where the
other. The practitioners then placed their hands
California Board of Registered Nursing (CBRN)
through holes in the screen. Emily flipped a coin
can award registered nurses taking classes in
to determine which of the practitioner's hands
therapeutic touch with continuing education
she would place hers near (without, of course,
units (CEUs) required for licensure renewal. In
touching the hand). The practitioners then were
2006 Hammer and Underdown presented the
to indicate if they could sense her biofield, and
Board with the scientific evidence refuting the
where her hand was. Although all of the
validity of therapeutic touch as a legitimate
participants had asserted that they would be
565
treatment, but the Board did not change its magnetic blankets (blankets with magnets
policy. woven into the material); magnetic creams;
magnetic supplements; plasters/patches and
water that has been "magnetized". Application
is usually performed by the patient.[6]
Chapter Seven Purported mechanisms of action
Magnetic Therapy
Perhaps the most common suggested
Magnet therapy, magnetic therapy, or mechanism is that magnets might improve
magnotherapy is a pseudoscientific alternative blood flow in underlying tissues. The field
medicine practice involving the use of static surrounding magnet therapy devices is far too
magnetic fields. Practitioners claim that weak and falls off with distance far too quickly
subjecting certain parts of the body to to appreciably affect hemoglobin, other blood
magnetostatic fields produced by permanent components, muscle tissue, bones, blood
magnets has beneficial health effects. These vessels, or organs.[1][7] A 1991 study on
physical and biological claims are unproven and humans of static field strengths up to 1 T found
no effects on health or healing have been no effect on local blood flow.[4][8] Tissue
established.[1][2][3] Although hemoglobin, the oxygenation is similarly unaffected.[7] Some
blood protein that carries oxygen, is weakly practitioners claim that the magnets can restore
diamagnetic (when oxygenated) or the body's hypothetical "electromagnetic
paramagnetic (when deoxygenated) the energy balance", but no such balance is
magnets used in magnetic therapy are many medically recognized. Even in the magnetic
orders of magnitude too weak to have any fields used in magnetic resonance imaging,
measurable effect on blood flow.[4] which are many times stronger, none of the
claimed effects are observed. If the body were
Methods of application
meaningfully affected by the weak magnets
used in magnet therapy, MRI imaging would be
impractical.
A smooth circular band of magnetite on a finger
Efficacy
Magnetite ring
Several studies have been conducted in recent
Magnet therapy is the application of the
years to investigate what role, if any, static
magnetic field of electromagnetic devices or
magnetic fields may play in health and healing.
permanent static magnets to the body for
Unbiased studies of magnetic therapy are
purported health benefits. Some believers
problematic, since magnetisation can be easily
assign different effects based on the orientation
detected, for instance, by the attraction forces
of the magnet; under the laws of physics,
on ferrous (iron-containing) objects; because of
magnetic poles are symmetric.[5]
this, effective blinding of studies (where neither
Products include magnetic bracelets and patients nor assessors know who is receiving
jewelry; magnetic straps for wrists, ankles, treatment versus placebo) is difficult.[12]
knees, and the back; shoe insoles; mattresses; Incomplete or insufficient blinding tends to
566
exaggerate treatment effects, particularly therapy, especially when treatment or diagnosis

where any such effects are small.[13] Health are avoided or delayed.[6][14][15]
claims regarding longevity and cancer
Reception[edit]
treatment are implausible and unsupported by
any research.[7][14] More mundane health
claims, most commonly about anecdotal pain
relief, also lack any credible proposed The worldwide magnet therapy industry totals
mechanism and clinical research is not sales of over a billion dollars per year,[7][14]
promising.[6][15][16] including $300 million per year in the United
States alone.
Magnet therapy has been promoted as a
treatment for cancer and other diseases; the A 2002 U.S. National Science Foundation report
American Cancer Society state, "available on public attitudes and understanding of
scientific evidence does not support these science noted that magnet therapy is "not at all
claims".[17] scientific."[20] A number of vendors make
unsupported claims about magnet therapy by
Pain using pseudoscientific and new-age language.
Such claims are unsupported by the results of
Effects of magnet therapy on pain relief beyond
scientific and clinical studies.
non-specific placebo response have not been
adequately demonstrated. A 2008 systematic Legal regulations
review of magnet therapy for all indications
found no evidence of an effect for pain relief. Marketing of any therapy as effective treatment
[15] It reported that small sample sizes, for any condition is heavily restricted by law in
inadequate randomization, and difficulty with many jurisdictions unless all such claims are
allocation concealment all tend to bias studies scientifically validated. In the United States, for
positively and limit the strength of any example, U.S. Food and Drug Administration
conclusions. In 2009 the results of a randomized regulations prohibit marketing any magnet
double-blind placebo-controlled crossover trial therapy product using medical claims, as such
on the use of magnetic wrist straps (a leather claims are unfounded.
strap with a magnetic insert) for osteoarthritis
were published, addressing a gap in the earlier
systematic review. This trial showed that
magnetic wrist straps are ineffective in the
management of pain, stiffness and physical
function in osteoarthritis. The authors
concluded that "[r]eported benefits are most
likely attributable to non-specific placebo
effects".[18][19]
Safety
These devices are generally considered safe in

themselves, though there can be significant
financial and opportunity costs to magnet
567
practical implications in the case of health care,

expert testimony, environmental policies, and
science education.[7] Distinguishing scientific
Chapter Eight facts and theories from pseudoscientific beliefs
such as those found in astrology, medical
Pseudoscience quackery, and occult beliefs combined with
scientific concepts, is part of science education
and scientific literacy.[8]
The term pseudoscience is often considered

inherently pejorative, because it suggests
Pseudoscience is a claim, belief, or practice
something is being inaccurately or even
which is presented as scientific, but does not
deceptively portrayed as science.[9]
adhere to a valid scientific method, lacks
Accordingly, those labeled as practicing or
supporting evidence or plausibility, cannot be
advocating pseudoscience usually dispute the
reliably tested, or otherwise lacks scientific
characterization.
status.[1] Pseudoscience is often characterized
by the use of vague, contradictory, exaggerated xamples of pseudoscience concepts, proposed
or unprovable claims, an over-reliance on as scientific when they are not scientific,
confirmation rather than rigorous attempts at include: acupuncture, alchemy, ancient
refutation, a lack of openness to evaluation by astronauts, applied kinesiology, astrology,
other experts, and a general absence of Ayurvedic medicine, biorhythms, cellular
systematic processes to rationally develop memory, cold fusion,[38] craniometry, creation
theories. science, Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard's
engram theory, enneagrams, eugenics,
A field, practice, or body of knowledge can
extrasensory perception (ESP), facilitated
reasonably be called pseudoscientific when it is
communication, graphology, homeopathy,
presented as consistent with the norms of
intelligent design, iridology, kundalini,
scientific research, but it demonstrably fails to
Lysenkoism, metoposcopy, N-rays, naturopathy,
meet these norms.[2] Science is also
orgone energy, Oyagaku, paranormal plant
distinguishable from revelation, theology, or
perception, phrenology, physiognomy, qi, New
spirituality in that it offers insight into the
Age psychotherapies (e.g., rebirthing therapy),
physical world obtained by empirical research
reflexology, remote viewing, neuro-linguistic
and testing.[3] Commonly held beliefs in
programming (NLP), reiki, Rolfing, therapeutic
popular science may not meet the criteria of
touch, and the revised history of the solar
science.[4] "Pop science" may blur the divide
system proposed by Immanuel Velikovsky.
between science and pseudoscience among the
general public, and may also involve science Robert T. Carroll stated in part:
fiction.[4] Pseudoscientific beliefs are "Pseudoscientists claim to base their theories
widespread, even among public school science on empirical evidence, and they may even use
teachers and newspaper reporters.[5] some scientific methods, though often their
understanding of a controlled experiment is
The demarcation problem between science and
inadequate. Many pseudoscientists relish being
pseudoscience has ethical political implications,
able to point out the consistency of their ideas
as well as philosophical and scientific issues.[6]
with known facts or with predicted
Differentiating science from pseudoscience has
consequences, but they do not recognize that
568
such consistency is not proof of anything. It is a Use of obscurantist language, and use of
necessary condition but not a sufficient apparently technical jargon in an effort to give
condition that a good scientific theory be claims the superficial trappings of science
consistent with the facts."[39]
Lack of boundary conditions: Most well-
In 2006, the U.S. National Science Foundation supported scientific theories possess well-
(NSF) issued an executive summary of a paper articulated limitations under which the
on science and engineering which briefly predicted phenomena do and do not apply.[45]
discussed the prevalence of pseudoscience in
Lack of effective controls, such as placebo and
modern times. It said, "belief in pseudoscience
double-blind, in experimental design
is widespread" and, referencing a Gallup Poll,
[40] stated that belief in the 10 commonly Lack of understanding of basic and established
believed examples of paranormal phenomena principles of physics and engineering[46]
listed in the poll were "pseudoscientific beliefs".
[41] The items were: "extrasensory perception Over-reliance on confirmation rather than
(ESP), that houses can be haunted, ghosts, refutation
telepathy, clairvoyance, astrology, that people Assertions that do not allow the logical
can communicate mentally with someone who possibility that they can be shown to be false by
has died, witches, reincarnation, and observation or physical experiment (see also:
channelling".[41] Such beliefs in pseudoscience Falsifiability)[47]
reflect a lack of knowledge of how science
works. The scientific community may aim to Assertion of claims that a theory predicts
communicate information about science out of something that it has not been shown to
concern for the public's susceptibility to predict[48] Scientific claims that do not confer
unproven claims.[41] The following are some of any predictive power are considered at best
the indicators of the possible presence of "conjectures", or at worst "pseudoscience" (e.g.
pseudoscience. Ignoratio elenchi)[49]
Use of vague, exaggerated or untestable claims Assertion that claims which have not been
proven false must be true, and vice versa (see:
Assertion of scientific claims that are vague Argument from ignorance)[50]
rather than precise, and that lack specific
measurements Over-reliance on testimonial, anecdotal
evidence, or personal experience: This evidence
Failure to make use of operational definitions may be useful for the context of discovery (i.e.
(i.e. publicly accessible definitions of the hypothesis generation), but should not be used
variables, terms, or objects of interest so that in the context of justification (e.g. Statistical
persons other than the definer can hypothesis testing).[51]
independently measure or test them)[43] (See
also: Reproducibility) Presentation of data that seems to support its
claims while suppressing or refusing to consider
Failure to make reasonable use of the principle data that conflict with its claims[52] This is an
of parsimony, i.e. failing to seek an explanation example of selection bias, a distortion of
that requires the fewest possible additional evidence or data that arises from the way that
assumptions when multiple viable explanations the data are collected. It is sometimes referred
are possible (see: Occam's razor)[44] to as the selection effect.
569
Reversed burden of proof: In science, the Absence of progress

burden of proof rests on those making a claim,
Failure to progress towards additional evidence
not on the critic. "Pseudoscientific" arguments
of its claims[58] Terence Hines has identified
may neglect this principle and demand that
astrology as a subject that has changed very
skeptics demonstrate beyond a reasonable
little in the past two millennia.[59] (see also:
doubt that a claim (e.g. an assertion regarding
scientific progress)
the efficacy of a novel therapeutic technique) is
false. It is essentially impossible to prove a Lack of self-correction: scientific research
universal negative, so this tactic incorrectly programmes make mistakes, but they tend to
places the burden of proof on the skeptic rather eliminate these errors over time.[60] By
than the claimant.[53] contrast, ideas may be regarded as
pseudoscientific because they have remained
Appeals to holism as opposed to reductionism:
unaltered despite contradictory evidence. The
Proponents of pseudoscientific claims,
work Scientists Confront Velikovsky (1976)
especially in organic medicine, alternative
Cornell University, also delves into these
medicine, naturopathy and mental health, often
features in some detail, as does the work of
resort to the "mantra of holism" to dismiss
Thomas Kuhn, e.g. The Structure of Scientific
negative findings.[54]
Revolutions (1962) which also discusses some of
Lack of openness to testing by other experts the items on the list of characteristics of
pseudoscience.
Evasion of peer review before publicizing results
(called "science by press conference"):[55] Statistical significance of supporting
Some proponents of ideas that contradict experimental results does not improve over
accepted scientific theories avoid subjecting time and are usually close to the cutoff for
their ideas to peer review, sometimes on the statistical significance. Normally, experimental
grounds that peer review is biased towards techniques improve or the experiments are
established paradigms, and sometimes on the repeated, and this gives ever stronger evidence.
grounds that assertions cannot be evaluated If statistical significance does not improve, this
adequately using standard scientific methods. typically shows the experiments have just been
By remaining insulated from the peer review repeated until a success occurs due to chance
process, these proponents forgo the variations.
opportunity of corrective feedback from
Personalization of issues
informed colleagues.[56]
Tight social groups and authoritarian
Some agencies, institutions, and publications
personality, suppression of dissent, and
that fund scientific research require authors to
groupthink can enhance the adoption of beliefs
share data so others can evaluate a paper
that have no rational basis. In attempting to
independently. Failure to provide adequate
confirm their beliefs, the group tends to identify
information for other researchers to reproduce
their critics as enemies.[61]
the claims contributes to a lack of openness.
[57] Assertion of claims of a conspiracy on the part
of the scientific community to suppress the
Appealing to the need for secrecy or proprietary
results[62]
knowledge when an independent review of
data or methodology is requested[57]
570
Attacking the motives or character of anyone chronic pain, and HIV, are the most routine
who questions the claims (see Ad hominem consumers of CAM.[65]
fallacy)[63]
The National Science Foundation stated that
Use of misleading language pseudoscientific beliefs in the U.S. became
more widespread during the 1990s, peaked
Creating scientific-sounding terms to add
near 2001, and declined slightly since with
weight to claims and persuade nonexperts to
pseudoscientific beliefs remaining common.
believe statements that may be false or
According to the NSF report, there is a lack of
meaningless: For example, a long-standing hoax
knowledge of pseudoscientific issues in society
refers to water by the rarely used formal name
and pseudoscientific practices are commonly
"dihydrogen monoxide" and describes it as the
followed.[66] Bunge states, "A survey on public
main constituent in most poisonous solutions to
knowledge of science in the United States
show how easily the general public can be
showed that in 1988 50% of American adults
misled.
[rejected] evolution, and 88% believed
Using established terms in idiosyncratic ways, astrology is a science."[67] Other surveys
thereby demonstrating unfamiliarity with indicate about a third of all adult Americans
mainstream work in the discipline consider astrology to be scientific.
Demographics In the Journal of College Science Teaching, Art

Hobson writes, "Pseudoscientific beliefs are
surprisingly widespread in our culture even
In his book The Most Precious Thing Carl Sagan among public school science teachers and
discusses the government of China and the newspaper editors, and are closely related to
Chinese Communist Party concern about scientific illiteracy."[5]
Western pseudoscience developments and Explanations
certain ancient Chinese practices in China. He
sees pseudoscience occurring in the U.S. as part
of a worldwide trend and suggests its causes,
In a report Singer and Benassi (1981) wrote that
dangers, diagnosis and treatment may be
pseudoscientific beliefs have their origin from at
universal.[64] In Spain, another science writer
least four sources.[71]
Luis Alfonso Gámez was sued after he notified
the public about the lack of efficacy to support Common cognitive errors from personal
the claims of a popular pseudoscientist. In the experience
US, 54% of the population believe in psychic
Erroneous sensationalistic mass media coverage
healing and 35% believe in telepathy. In Europe,
the statistics are not that much different. A Sociocultural factors
significant percentage of Europeans consider
homeopathy (34%) and horoscopes (13%) to be Poor or erroneous science education
reliable science.[65] Over the past decade, Another American study (Eve and Dunn, 1990)
consumer interest in the use of complementary supported the findings of Singer and Benassi
and alternative medicine (CAM) practices and found sufficient levels of pseudoscientific
and/or products has increased. Surveys belief being promoted by high school life
demonstrate that the people with the most science and biology teachers.[72]
serious medical conditions, such as cancer,
571
Psychology[edit] minded species pursuing greater avenues of

happiness and satisfaction, but we are all too
Pseudoscientific thinking has been explained in
frequently willing to grasp at unrealistic
terms of psychology and social psychology. The
promises of a better life.[76]
human proclivity for seeking confirmation
rather than refutation (confirmation bias),[73] Psychology has much to discuss about
the tendency to hold comforting beliefs, and pseudoscience thinking, as it is the illusory
the tendency to overgeneralize have been perceptions of causality and effectiveness of
proposed as reasons for the common numerous individuals that needs to be
adherence to pseudoscientific thinking. illuminated. Research suggests that illusionary
According to Beyerstein (1991), humans are thinking happens in most people when exposed
prone to associations based on resemblances to certain circumstances such as reading a
only, and often prone to misattribution in book, an advertisement or the testimony of
cause-effect thinking.[74] others are the basis of pseudoscience beliefs. It
is assumed that illusions are not unusual, and
Lindeman states that social motives (i.e., "to
given the right conditions, illusions are able to
comprehend self and the world, to have a sense
occur systematically even in normal emotional
of control over outcomes, to belong, to find the
situations. One of the things pseudoscience
world benevolent and to maintain one's self-
believers quibble most about is that academic
esteem") are often "more easily" fulfilled by
science usually treats them as fools. Minimizing
pseudoscience than by scientific information.
these illusions in the real world is not simple.
Furthermore, pseudoscientific explanations are
[65] To this aim, designing evidence-based
generally not analyzed rationally, but instead
educational programs can be effective to help
experientially. Operating within a different set
people identify and reduce their own illusions.
of rules compared to rational thinking,
experiential thinking regards an explanation as
valid if the explanation is "personally functional,
satisfying and sufficient", offering a description
of the world that may be more personal than
can be provided by science and reducing the
amount of potential work involved in
understanding complex events and outcomes.
[75]
In our culture and thinking, people appear to

have trouble distinguishing science from
pseuodoscience. The prime reason people
believe in wishful things is because they want
to, it feels good and it is consoling. Many weird
beliefs give immediate gratification. Immediate
gratification of a person's belief is made a lot
easier by simple explanations for an often
complicated and contingent world. The
scientific and secular systems of morality and
meaning are generally unsatisfying to most
people. Humans are, by nature, a forward-
572
10:8[bible 4] which speaks of "the word of faith

that we preach."[10][11][not in citation given]
The concept of a blood covenant is relevant to

the Word of Faith movement. A blood covenant
is a contract that binds two parties together as
one "blood", or family, and pledges them to the
mutual interest and prosperity of one another.
This kind of covenant would be symbolized by a
"covenant cut" and the spilling of blood, for
Chapter Nine example with circumcision in Genesis
Word of Faith for Healing 17:10[bible 5]. In Genesis 17[bible 6], a
covenant is established by God with Abram and
his descendants, the future Israel. God pledges
Word of Faith (also known as Word-Faith or himself to the well-being of Israel including
simply Faith) is a worldwide Christian protection from violence, sickness, poverty
movement to take a more literal interpretation (which meant overall financial prosperity), etc.
of what God has said in the Bible, especially the In return Israel was expected to "fully obey" and
words of Jesus. Its distinctive teachings are pledge itself to the interests and service of God;
found on the radio, internet, television, and in [12] for example, in blessing the nations in
many Christian churches. It shares some Genesis 12:3[bible 7]. The movement considers
similarities with Pentecostal and charismatic that Christians are heirs to that covenant by
believers. The basic doctrine preached is that of identification with Abraham's descendants
salvation through the atonement and sacrifice through Jesus Christ in Galatians 3:29[bible 8].
of Jesus Christ[8] and what that salvation
entails. This includes the Bible teaching on born Teachings
again believers becoming a new being or
Healing
creation through faith in Jesus Christ (found in
the biblical passages 2 Corinthians 5:17[bible 1] The Word of Faith teaches that complete
and Galatians 6:15[bible 2]). healing (of spirit, soul, and body) is included in
Christ's atonement and therefore is available
The Word of Faith movement has many
here and now to all who believe. Frequently
distinctive teachings including physical,
cited is Isaiah 53:5[bible 9], "by his stripes we
emotional, financial, relational, and spiritual
are healed", and Matthew 8:17[bible 10], which
healing or prosperity for any who would take
says that Jesus healed the sick so that "it might
Jesus at his word.[9] The movement emphasizes
be fulfilled which was spoken by Isaiah the
choosing to speak the promises and provisions
Prophet, 'Himself took our infirmities, and bore
contained in the Word of God (Bible), as an act
our sicknesses'."
of faith and agreement with God's plans and
purposes. They believe this is what Jesus meant Because Isaiah speaks in the present tense ("we
in Mark 11:22-23[bible 3], when he said are healed"), Word of Faith teaches that
believers shall have whatsoever they say and believers should accept the reality of a healing
pray with faith. The term word of faith itself is that is already theirs. Accepting this healing is
derived from the biblical passage Romans done by confessing the verse or verses found in
the Bible declaring they are healed (i.e. Word of
Faith) and then believing them fully without
573
doubt. It is not an act of denying the pain, The businesses that each of the apostles
sickness, or disease, but an act of denying its apparently owned/worked in[20]
right to supersede the receiving the gift
This is contrary to the traditional view of Jesus,
mentioned in Isaiah 53:5.[13] According to
who is often viewed as being a poor, wandering
adherents, sickness is an attempt by Satan to
teacher.[21] Based on the concept that Jesus
rob believers of their divine right to total health.
and his apostles were arguably wealthy, as well
[14]
as the historical examples of his people having
Prosperity great wealth, and the promises for financial
prosperity throughout the Old and New
Prosperity theology
Testaments, Word of Faith proponents teach
Word of Faith teaching holds that God wants his that modern believers also have access to the
people to be financially prosperous, as well as "blessing" and may also become financially
have good health, good marriages and wealthy.[22] Teachers like Kenneth Copeland
relationships, and to live generally prosperous assert the Prosperity Gospel is validated by the
lives. Word of Faith teaches that God empowers teachings of the Apostle John: "Beloved, I wish
his people (blesses them) to achieve the above all things that thou mayest prosper and
promises that are contained in the Bible.[15] be in health, even as thy soul prospereth" (3
Because of this, suffering does not come from John 2[bible 11]). Copeland posits that “as the
God, but rather, from Satan. As Kenneth seeds of prosperity are planted in your heart, in
Copeland's ministry has stated, the idea that your will and in your emotions...they eventually
God uses suffering for our benefit is considered produce a great financial harvest."[23]
to be "a deception of Satan" and "absolutely
Faith and confession
against the Word of God." [16] Additionally, if
someone is not experiencing prosperity, it is Within Word of Faith teaching, a central
because they have given Satan authority over element of receiving from God involves
their lives. God will not do anything at all unless "confession". This doctrine is often referred to
the person invites him to.[17] as "positive confession" or "faith confession" by
practitioners. While similar, the teaching should
It is argued that Jesus and the apostles were
not be confused with Norman Vincent Peale's
financially wealthy,[18] owning homes, having
positive thinking theology. Peale's teaching was
monetary resources and businesses. The
marked by its focus on the individual, as
following arguments have been offered for this
evidenced by his oft-spoken statement, "Faith
claim:
in God and believe in oneself".[24] Noted Word
Jesus' ability to travel without apparently of Faith teachers, such as Kenneth E. Hagin and
working to earn a living for three years Charles Capps, have argued that God created
the universe simply by speaking it into existence
References by Jesus and the apostles to owning (Genesis 1[bible 12]), and that humans have
homes[19] been endowed with the ability (power) to speak
Jesus had a treasurer (Judas Iscariot)[19] things into existence. Thus, making a "positive
confession" (by reciting a promise of scripture,
Jesus consorting with the upper echelons of for example), and believing that which God
society says, generates power which enables those
things to come into fruition. This teaching is
interpreted from Mark 11:22-23[bible 13].
574
Word of Faith preachers have likened faith to a Arguing similarly but in an opposite direction is
"force".[25] Bowman, whose Word-Faith Controversy is
more sympathetic to Kenyon's historical
Likewise, according to Word of Faith teaching,
background yet more critical of his doctrine
"negative confession" can yield negative results,
than DeArteaga.
and hence believers should be conscious of
their words. This is argued on the interpretation Baptist evangelist Justin Peters, an outspoken
of Proverbs 18:21[bible 14], "Life and death are critic of the Word of Faith movement who
in the power of the tongue, and they that love wrote his Master of Divinity thesis on Benny
them will eat the fruit thereof", also Numbers Hinn and has appeared frequently as an expert
14:28[bible 15], "...saith the Lord, as you have on Word of Faith pastors in documentaries and
spoken in my ears, so will I do", among other TV news stories, traces the movement's origins
scriptures. to the late 19th and early 20th centuries
(Phineas Quimby's New Thought Movement,
Critics and controvers
Mary Baker Eddy's Christian Science) in his
This section may need to be rewritten entirely seminar "A Call for Discernment". In contrast,
to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. Pastor Joe McIntyre, now head of Kenyon’s
You can help. The discussion page may contain Gospel Publishing Society in Washington State,
suggestions. (May 2013) argues that the primary influences of Kenyon
were A.B. Simpson and A.J. Gordon of the Faith
Additionally, many beliefs that the movement Cure branch of the Evangelical Movement.
holds as essential are often criticised by some McIntyre’s version is told in the authorized
Christians as diverging from Christian biography, E.W. Kenyon: The True Story.
orthodoxy. Christian author Robert M.
Bowman, Jr. states that the word of faith One of the earliest critics of the teaching was
movement is "neither soundly orthodox nor Oral Roberts University professor Charles Farah,
thoroughly heretical".[26] One popular critic who published From the Pinnacle of the Temple
and opponent of The Word of Faith, D.R. in 1979. In the book, Farah expressed his
McConnell of Oral Roberts University, has disillusionment with the teachings, which he
charged in a thesis entitled Kenyon Connection, argued were more about presumption than
that Kenyon adopted the teachings of New faith.[27]
Thought and relabeled them. Thus, the Word of
That same year, Pentecostal scholar Gordon Fee
Faith movement, in McConnell’s view,
wrote a series of articles denouncing both the
constitutes a "Trojan Horse". This argument was
health and the wealth gospels. In 1982, one of
the primary conclusion reached by McConnell’s
Farah's students, Daniel Ray McConnell,
master’s thesis published as a book, A Different
submitted a thesis to the faculty at Oral Roberts
Gospel.
University arguing that Kenyon was the father
Similar criticisms were made by William of the teaching, that Hagin had plagiarized his
DeArteaga and Robert Bowman. Formerly of doctrines from Kenyon, and that the unique
the Christian Research Institute, DeArteaga doctrines of the Word of Faith were heretical.
concedes some new thought influence in McConnell's thesis was published as the book A
Kenyon's teaching, but he argues that Kenyon's Different Gospel in 1988.
views helped the church rediscover some
One of McConnell's classmates, Dale H.
biblical truths. The primary work in defense of
Simmons, published his own research in earning
this theory is DeArteaga's Quenching The Spirit.
575
a doctorate at Drew University. Simmons suffered martyrs' deaths). In a January 2006

argued that Kenyon was influenced by sermon entitled "How our Suffering Advances
heterodox metaphysical movements and the the Gospel," Piper stated bluntly that "the
Faith Cure movement of the nineteenth prosperity gospel will not make anybody praise
century. In 1990, The Agony of Deceit was Jesus; it will make people praise prosperity."
published as a conglomeration of critiques of
'Little gods' controversy
Word of Faith doctrines. One of the authors,
Christian Research Institute founder Walter Many Word of Faith teachers have sought to
Martin, issued his personal judgment that emphasize the full meaning of the believer's
Kenneth Copeland was a false prophet and that status as a child of God (through Christ) by using
the movement as a whole was heretical. phrases such as "little gods" to describe them, a
[citation needed] practice that has garnered some criticism from
some other segments of the Christian
In 1993, Hank Hanegraaff's Christianity in Crisis
community. Kenneth Hagin wrote that God
charged the Word of Faith movement with
"made us in the same class of being that he is
heresy and accused many of its churches of
himself," and that the believer is "called Christ"
being "cults." He accused the Word of Faith
because "that's who we are, we're Christ!"[32]
teachers of "demoting" God and Jesus, and
According to Hagin, by being "born again", the
"deifying" man and Satan.[28] Hanegraaff is
believer becomes "as much an incarnation as
derided within the Word of Faith community as
Jesus of Nazareth".[33] Hagin like Kenyon
a present-day "Christian Witch Hunter."[citation
reasons that that humans are made in God’s
needed] Hanegraaff has focused a significant
image. Since God is spirit, then humans must
portion of his anti-heresy teaching since the
essentially be spirit as well and ‘in God’s class’,
1990s on addressing and refuting Word of Faith
[34][35] and thereby ‘gods’.[34][36] Kenneth
teachings.
Copeland says Adam was "not a little like God ...
Other critics, such as Norman Geisler, Dave not almost like God ...",[37] and has told
Hunt and Roger Oakland, have denounced believers that "You don't have a God in you. You
Word of Faith theology as aberrant and are one." Based primarily on the Psalms
contrary to the teachings of the Bible. Critics 82:6[bible 16], which says "I have said, Ye are
have also condemned the teachings on wealth, gods and all of you, children of the Most High,"
arguing that the Bible condemns the pursuit of this was also corroborated by Jesus making
riches.[29][30] reference to this scripture in John 10:34[bible
17].[38] A common theme in Word of Faith
The "health and wealth" teachings had been
preaching is that God created man as "an exact
heavily criticized, with opponents arguing that
duplication of God's kind." (Hebrews 1:3[bible
Word of Faith teachers[who?] tend not to stress
18], John 14:12[bible 19], etc.)[39] In all of this,
some scriptures warning against emphasis on
there is no argument of man's ability to exist
material prosperity and telling of the
and operate independently of God, but rather,
importance of helping the poor.[citation
the emphasis is on what the believer can
needed]
become in God.[40]
John Piper points out that Christ warned the
Suffer the Children, a documentary highlighting
apostles that they would suffer great
some of the teachings of the Word of Faith
persecution[31] for the sake of his name
movement, has a video clip of Creflo Dollar
(except John, all eleven, after Judas Iscariot,
teaching the "little gods" doctrine to his
576
congregation based on the notion that should never be sick, and a god should never be
"everything reproduces after its own kind":[41] poor."[44] In response, Word of Faith defenders
have claimed the teaching is simply
Dollar: "If horses get together, they produce
underscoring the biblical view of the believer's
what?"
"true identity in Christ".
Congregation: "Horses!"
Critics, such as Christian apologist and CARM
Dollar: "If dogs get together, they produce founder Matt Slick and Bible critique author W.
what?" Gary Phillips, believe referencing scriptures
Psalms 82:6 and John 10:34, where it is said
Congregation: "Dogs!" that men are gods, is using these Scriptures out
Dollar: "If cats get together, they produce of context.[45] The biblical application of these
what?" verses is addressed to the Judges of Israel
where they were called gods, not because they
Congregation: "Cats!" were divine, but because they represented the
Dollar: "So if the Godhead says 'Let us make true and only God when they judged the
man in our image', and everything produces people. The Hebrew and Greek words used in
after its own kind, then they produce what?" both Scriptures for "gods" can also be applied
to magistrates and used to describe someone as
Congregation: "gods!" "mighty".
Dollar: "gods. Little "g" gods. You're not human.
Only human part of you is this flesh you're
wearing."
The promulgation of this teaching is one of the

most contentious doctrines to its critics, who
consider it heresy. Mormon scholar Stephen E.
Robinson, whose religion teaches that man can
become gods after eons of exaltation, has
declared the "little gods" teaching heretical as
well.[42] Conversely, Christianity regards this
Mormon teaching as heretical also, and entirely
unsupported by the Bible. Many Evangelical
critics have asserted that the teaching is, in fact,
cultic; Hank Hanegraaff, for example, contends
the 'little gods' doctrine is on a par with the
teaching of the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Jim
Jones.[43] Justin Peters, whose first encounter
with Word of Faith doctrine came at the age of
16 when a faith healer "slayed [him] in the
spirit" in an attempt to cure his cerebral palsy,
states in A Call for Discernment that the reason
the Word of Faith movement holds so
tenaciously to "health and wealth" tenets is
because of the "little gods" teaching: "A god
577
phenomena. This process may involve

psychotherapy, pharmaceutical treatment and
increasingly traditional spiritual approaches.
In order for an injury to be healed by

regeneration, the cell type that was destroyed
must be able to replicate. Cells also need a
collagen framework along which to grow.
Alongside most cells there is either a basement
membrane or a collagenous network made by
fibroblasts that will guide the cells' growth.
Since ischaemia and most toxins do not destroy
collagen, it will continue to exist even when the
cells around it are dead.
Example
Chapter Ten Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) in the kidney is a
What is healing? case in which cells heal completely by
regeneration. ATN occurs when the epithelial
cells that line the kidney are destroyed by either
Healing (literally meaning to make whole[1]) is
a lack of oxygen (such as in hypovolemic shock,
the process of the restoration of health to an
when blood supply to the kidneys is
unbalanced, diseased or damaged organism.
dramatically reduced), or by toxins (such as
Healing may be physical or psychological and
some antibiotics, heavy metals or carbon
not without the mutual reception of these two
tetrachloride).
dimensions of human health. With respect to
physical damage or disease suffered by an Although many of these epithelial cells are
organism, healing involves the repair of living dead, there is typically patchy necrosis,
tissue, organs and the biological system as a meaning that there are patches of epithelial
whole and resumption of normal functioning. It cells still alive. In addition, the collagen
is the process by which the cells in the body framework of the tubules remains completely
regenerate and repair to reduce the size of a intact.
damaged or necrotic area and replace it with
new living tissue. The replacement can happen The existing epithelial cells can replicate, and,
in two ways: by regeneration in which the using the basement membrane as a guide,
necrotic cells are replaced by new cells that eventually bring the kidney back to normal.
form similar tissue as was originally there; or by After regeneration is complete, the damage is
repair in which injured tissue is replaced with undetectable, even microscopically.
scar tissue. Most organs will heal using a Healing must happen by repair in the case of
mixture of both mechanisms. injury to cells that are unable to regenerate
In psychiatry and psychology, healing is the (e.g. cardiac muscle or neurons). Also, damage
process by which neuroses and psychoses are to the collagen network (e.g. by enzymes or
resolved to the degree that the client is able to physical destruction), or its total collapse (as
lead a normal or fulfilling existence without can happen in an infarct) cause healing to take
being overwhelmed by psychopathological place by repair.
578
Wound healing Maturation phase
During the maturation phase of wound healing,

unnecessary vessels formed in granulation
Main article: Wound healing
tissue are removed by apoptosis, and type III
In response to an incision or wound, a wound collagen is largely replaced by type I. Collagen
healing cascade is unleashed. This cascade takes which was originally disorganized is cross-linked
place in four phases: clot formation, and aligned along tension lines. This phase can
inflammation, proliferation, and maturation. last a year or longer. Ultimately a scar made of
collagen, containing a small number of
Clotting phase fibroblasts is left.
Healing of a wound begins with clot formation Healing of tissue damaged by inflammation
to stop bleeding and to reduce infection by
bacteria, viruses and fungi. Clotting is followed
by neutrophil invasion three to 24 hours after
After inflammation has damaged tissue (when
the wound has been incurred, with mitoses
combatting bacterial infection for example) and
beginning in epithelial cells after 24 to 48 hours
pro-inflammatory eicosanoids have completed
Inflammation phase their function, healing proceeds in 4 phases.[2]
In the inflammatory phase, macrophages and Recall phase

other phagocytic cells kill bacteria, debride
In the recall phase the adrenal glands increase
damaged tissue and release chemical factors
production of cortisol which shuts down
such as growth hormones that encourage
eicosanoid production and inflammation.
fibroblasts, epithelial cells and endothelial cells
which make new capillaries to migrate to the Resolution phase
area and divide.
In the Resolution phase, pathogens and
Proliferative phase damaged tissue are removed by macrophages
(white blood cells). Red blood cells are also
In the proliferative phase, immature granulation
removed from the damaged tissue by
tissue containing plump active fibroblasts
macrophages. Failure to remove all of the
forms. Fibroblasts quickly produce abundant
damaged cells and pathogens may retrigger
type III collagen, which fills the defect left by an
inflammation.
open wound. Granulation tissue moves, as a
wave, from the border of the injury towards the Regeneration phase
center.
In the Regeneration phase, blood vessels are
As granulation tissue matures, the fibroblasts repaired and new cells form in the damaged site
produce less collagen and become more spindly similar to the cells that were damaged and
in appearance. They begin to produce the much removed. Some cells such as neurons and
stronger type I collagen. Some of the fibroblasts muscle cells (especially in the heart) are slow to
mature into myofibroblasts which contain the recover.
same type of actin found in smooth muscle,
Repair phase
which enables them to contract and reduce the
size of the wound. In the Repair phase, new tissue is generated
which requires a balance of anti-inflammatory
579
and pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Anti-

inflammatory eicosanoids include lipoxins, epi-
lipoxins, and resolvins, which cause release of
growth hormones.
580
581
Definitions/ Terms/meanings
Afterlife philosophy in, religion, mythology, and

fiction, the afterlife (also referred to as life after
death or the Hereafter) is the concept of a
realm, or the realm itself (whether physical or
transcendental), in which an essential part of an
individual's identity or consciousness continues
to reside after the death of the body in the
individual's lifetime. According to various ideas
of the afterlife, the essential aspect of the
individual that lives on after death may be some
partial element, or the entire soul, of an
individual, which carries with it and confers
personal identity. Belief in an afterlife, which
may be naturalistic or supernatural, is in
contrast to the belief in eternal oblivion after
death.
In some popular views, this continued existence

often takes place in a spiritual realm, and in
other popular views, the individual may be
582
reborn into this world and begin the life cycle Much debate exists as to whether "true"
over again, likely with no memory of what they altruism is possible. The theory of psychological
have done in the past. In this latter view, such egoism suggests that no act of sharing, helping
rebirths and deaths may take place over and or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic,
over again continuously until the individual as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in
gains entry to a spiritual realm or Otherworld. the form of personal gratification. The validity
Major views on the afterlife derive from of this argument depends on whether intrinsic
religion, esotericism and metaphysics. rewards qualify as "benefits."
Some belief systems, such as those in the The term altruism may also refer to an ethical
Abrahamic tradition, hold that the dead go to a doctrine that claims that individuals are morally
specific plane of existence after death, as obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it's
determined by a god, gods, or other divine usually contrasted to egoism, which is defined
judgment, based on their actions or beliefs as acting to the benefit of one's self
during life. In contrast, in systems of
Anthroposophy, a philosophy founded by
reincarnation, such as those in the Dharmic
Rudolf Steiner, postulates the existence of an
tradition, the nature of the continued existence
objective, intellectually comprehensible
is determined directly by the actions of the
spiritual world accessible to direct experience
individual in the ended life, rather than through
through inner development. More specifically, it
the decision of another being.
aims to develop faculties of perceptive
imagination, inspiration and intuition through
cultivating a form of thinking independent of
sensory experience, and to present the results
Altruism or selflessness is the principle or thus derived in a manner subject to rational
practice of concern for the welfare of others. It verification. In its investigations of the spiritual
is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a world, anthroposophy aims to attain the
core aspect of various religious traditions, precision and clarity attained by the natural
though the concept of "others" toward whom sciences in their investigations of the physical
concern should be directed can vary among world.
cultures and religions. Altruism or selflessness is
Apocalypse (Ancient Greek: ἀποκάλυψις
the opposite of selfishness.
apocálypsis, from ἀπό and καλύπτω meaning
Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of 'un-covering'), translated literally from Greek, is
duty and loyalty. Altruism is a motivation to a disclosure of knowledge, i.e., a lifting of the
provide something of value to a party who must veil or revelation, although this sense did not
be anyone but one's self, while duty focuses on enter English until the 14th century. In religious
a moral obligation towards a specific individual contexts it is usually a disclosure of something
(e.g., a god, a king), or collective (e.g., a hidden. In the Revelation of John (Greek
government). Pure altruism consists of Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου, Apocalypsis Ioannou),
sacrificing something for someone other than the last book of the New Testament, the
the self (e.g. sacrificing time, energy or revelation which John receives is that of the
possessions) with no expectation of any ultimate victory of good over evil and the end of
compensation or benefits, either direct, or the present age, and that is the primary
indirect (e.g., receiving recognition for the act of meaning of the term, one that dates to 1175.
giving). Today, it is commonly used in reference to any
583
prophetic revelation or so-called End Time twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible divided
scenario, or to the end of the world in general. into thirty-nine books and ordered differently
than the Hebrew Bible. The Catholic Church and
Asceticism (/əˈsɛtɪsɪz(ə)m/; from the Greek:
Eastern Christian churches also hold certain
ἄσκησις áskēsis, "exercise" or "training")
deuterocanonical books and passages to be part
describes a lifestyle characterized by abstinence
of the Old Testament canon. The second part is
from various worldly pleasures, often with the
the New Testament, containing twenty-seven
aim of pursuing religious and spiritual goals.
books: the four Canonical gospels, Acts of the
Many religious traditions (e.g. Buddhism,
Apostles, twenty-one Epistles or letters, and the
Jainism, and the Christian Desert Fathers)
Book of Revelation.
include practices that involve restraint with
respect to actions of body, speech, and mind By the 2nd century BCE Jewish groups had
like that of the Pythagoreans. The founders and called the Bible books "holy," and Christians
earliest practitioners of these religions lived now commonly call the Old and New
extremely austere lifestyles, refraining from Testaments of the Christian Bible "The Holy
sensual pleasures and the accumulation of Bible" (τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or
material wealth. They practiced asceticism not "the Holy Scriptures" (η Αγία Γραφή, e Agía
as a rejection of the enjoyment of life, or Graphḗ). Many Christians consider the whole
because the practices themselves are virtuous, canonical text of the Bible to be divinely
but as an aid in the pursuit of physical and inspired. The oldest surviving complete
metaphysical health. Christian Bibles are Greek manuscripts from the
4th century. The oldest Tanakh manuscript in
Hebrew and Aramaic dates to the 10th century
Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, CE, but an early 4th-century Septuagint
"the books") is a canonical collection of texts translation is found in the Codex Vaticanus.
considered sacred in Judaism as well as in
The Bible was divided into chapters in the 13th
Christianity. The term Bible is shared between
century by Stephen Langton and into verses in
the two religions, although the contents of each
the 16th century by French printer Robert
of their collections of canonical texts is not the
Estienne and is now usually cited by book,
same. Different religious groups include
chapter, and verse. The Bible has estimated
different books within their canons, in different
annual sales of 25 million copies, and has been
orders, and sometimes divide or combine
a major influence on literature and history,
books, or incorporate additional material into
especially in the West where it was the first
canonical books.
mass printed book.
The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, contains twenty-
four books divided into three parts: the five
books of the Torah ("teaching" or "law"), the Christianity (from the Ancient Greek translation
Nevi'im ("prophets"), and the Ketuvim Χριστός, Christos of the Hebrew ַ‫מָ ִׁש יח‬, Mašíaḥ,
("writings"). meaning "the anointed one" and the Latin
suffixes ian and -itas) is a monotheistic religion
Christian Bibles range from the sixty-six books
based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ
of the Protestant canon to the eighty-one books
as presented in the New Testament. Christianity
of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church canon. The
is the world's largest religion with
first part of Christian Bibles is the Old
approximately 2.2 billion adherents, known as
Testament, which contains, at minimum, the
584
Christians. Most Christians believe that Jesus is through missionary work and colonization.
the Son of God, fully divine and fully human, Christianity has played a prominent role in the
and the savior of humanity prophesied in the shaping of Western civilization.
Old Testament. Consequentially, Christians
Worldwide, the three largest groups of
refer to Jesus as Christ or Messiah.
Christianity are the Roman Catholic Church, the
The foundations of Christian theology are Eastern Orthodox Church, and the various
expressed in ecumenical creeds that are denominations of Protestantism. The Roman
accepted by followers of the Christian faith. Catholic and Eastern Orthodox patriarchates
These professions state that Jesus suffered, split from one another in the schism of the 11th
died, was buried, and was resurrected from the century, and Protestantism came into existence
dead in order to grant eternal life to those who during the Reformation of the 16th century,
believe in him and trust in him for the remission splitting from the Roman Catholic Church
of their sins. The creeds further maintain that
Jesus bodily ascended into heaven, where he
reigns with God the Father. Most
denominations teach that Jesus will return to
judge all humans, living and dead, and to grant Christian mysticism refers to the development
eternal life to his followers. He is considered the of mystical practices and theory within
model of a virtuous life. His ministry, crucifixion, Christianity. It has often been connected to
and resurrection are often referred to as the mystical theology, especially in the Catholic and
gospel, meaning "Good News" (a loan Eastern Orthodox traditions.
translation of the Ancient Greek: εὐαγγέλιον The attributes and means by which Christian
euangélion). The term gospel also refers to mysticism is studied and practiced are varied
written accounts of Jesus's life and teaching, and range from ecstatic visions of the soul's
four of which—the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, mystical union with God to simple prayerful
Luke and John—are considered canonical and contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio
are included in the Christian Bible. Divina).
Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began
as a Jewish sect in the mid-1st century.
Originating in the Levant region of the Middle
East, it quickly spread to Syria, Mesopotamia, Christian apologetics (Greek: ἀπολογία, "verbal
Asia Minor and Egypt. It grew in size and defence, speech in defence") is a field of
influence over a few centuries, and by the end Christian theology which aims to present a
of the 4th century had become the official state rational basis for the Christian faith, defending
church of the Roman Empire, replacing other the faith against objections.
forms of religion practiced under Roman rule.
During the Middle Ages, most of the remainder Christian apologetics has taken many forms
of Europe was Christianized, with Christians also over the centuries, starting with Paul the
being a sometimes large religious minority in Apostle in the early church and Patristic writers
the Middle East, North Africa, Ethiopia and such as Origen, Augustine of Hippo, Justin
parts of India. Following the Age of Discovery, Martyr and Tertullian, then continuing with
Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, writers such as Thomas Aquinas and Anselm of
sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world Canterbury during Scholasticism. Blaise Pascal
585
was active before and during the Age of humankind as it is revealed by the Bible, which
Enlightenment, and in the modern period is the primary source for all Christian
Christianity was defended through the efforts of eschatology studies.
many authors such as G. K. Chesterton and C. S.
The major issues and events in Christian
Lewis. In contemporary times Christianity has
eschatology are death and the afterlife, Heaven
been defended through the work of figures
and Hell, the Second Coming of Jesus, the
such as Doug Wilson, Alvin Plantinga and
Resurrection of the Dead, the Rapture, the
William Lane Craig.
Tribulation, Millennialism, the end of the world,
Apologists have based their defense of the Last Judgment, and the New Heaven and
Christianity on historical evidence, philosophical New Earth of the world to come. Eschatological
arguments, and arguments from other passages are found in many places in the Bible,
disciplines. Christian polemic is a branch of both in the Old and the New Testaments. There
apologetics aimed at criticizing or attacking are also many extra biblical examples of
other belief systems. eschatological prophecy, as well as church
traditions.
Esotericism or Esoterism signifies the holding of

Contemplation means "to admire something
esoteric opinions or beliefs, that is, ideas
and think about it." The word contemplation
preserved or understood by a small group of
comes from the Latin word contemplatio. Its
those specially initiated, or of rare or unusual
root is also that of the Latin word templum, a
interest. The term derives from the Greek
piece of ground consecrated for the taking of
ἐσωτερικός (esôterikos), a compound of ἔσω
auspices, or a building for worship, derived
(esô): "within", thus pertaining to interiority or
either from Proto-Indo-European base *tem-
mysticism. Its antonym is "exoteric".
"to cut", and so a "place reserved or cut out" or
from the Proto-Indo-European base *temp- "to The term can also refer to the academic study
stretch", and thus referring to a cleared space in of esoteric religious movements and
front of an altar. The Latin word contemplatio philosophies, and religious movements or
was used to translate the Greek word θεωρία philosophies whose proponents distinguish
(theoria). In a religious sense, contemplation is their beliefs, practices, and experiences from
usually a type of prayer or meditation. mainstream exoteric and more dogmatic
institutionalized traditions.
Examples of esoteric religious movements and

philosophies include Alchemy, Astrology,
Christian eschatology is a major branch of study Anthroposophy, early Christian Mysticism,
within Christian theology. Eschatology, from Freemasonry, Gnosticism, Kabbalah, Neo-
two Greek words meaning last (ἔσχατος, last) Platonism, Magic, Merkabah mysticism,
and study (λογία, lit. discourse), is the study of Mesmerism, Rosicrucianism, Taoism,
the end of things, whether the end of an Numerology, Swedenborgianism, Spiritualism,
individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the Alawites, the Theosophy of Jacob Böhme
the world. Broadly speaking, Christian and his followers, and the Theosophical
eschatology is the study of the destiny of revivalist movement associated with Helena
Blavatsky.
586
Although Esotericism refers to the exploration religion and spiritual practice, in particular
of the inner meanings and symbolism of various Christian mysticism.
philosophical, historical and religious texts,
In the English-speaking world, she was one of
these texts themselves are often central to
the most widely read writers on such matters in
mainstream religions. For example the Bible
the first half of the 20th century. No other book
and the Torah are examples of esoteric
of its type—until the appearance in 1946 of
material.
Aldous Huxley's The Perennial Philosophy—met
with success to match that of her best-known
work, Mysticism, published in 1911.
Eucharist /ˈjuːkərɪst/, also called Holy
Communion, the Sacrament of the Altar, the
Blessed Sacrament, the Lord's Supper, and
Desert Fathers (there were also Desert
other names, is a Christian sacrament or
Mothers) were Christian hermits, ascetics, and
ordinance. It is reenacted in accordance with
monks who lived mainly in the Scetes desert of
Jesus' instruction at the Last Supper, as
Egypt beginning around the third century AD.
recorded in several books of the New
The Apophthegmatic Patrum is a collection of
Testament, that his followers do in
the wisdom of some of the early desert monks
remembrance of him as when he gave his
and nuns, still in print as Sayings of the Desert
disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and
Fathers. The most well-known was Anthony the
gave them wine saying, "This is my blood."
Great, who moved to the desert in 270–271 and
In spite of differences between Christians about became known as both the father and founder
various aspects of the Eucharist, there is, of desert monasticism. By the time Anthony
according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, "more died in 356, thousands of monks and nuns had
of a consensus among Christians about the been drawn to living in the desert following
meaning of the Eucharist than would appear Anthony's example — his biographer,
from the confessional debates over the Athanasius of Alexandria, wrote that "the
sacramental presence, the effects of the desert had become a city." The Desert Fathers
Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which had a major influence on the development of
it may be celebrated." Christianity.
The word Eucharist may refer not only to the The desert monastic communities that grew out
rite but also to the consecrated bread (leavened of the informal gathering of hermit monks
or unleavened) and wine (unfermented grape became the model for Christian monasticism.
juice in some Protestant denominations, water The eastern monastic tradition at Mt. Athos and
in the LDS church) used in the rite. In this sense, the western Rule of St. Benedict both were
communicants (that is, those who partake of strongly influenced by the traditions that began
the communion elements) may speak of in the desert. All of the monastic revivals of the
"receiving the Eucharist", as well as "celebrating middle Ages looked to the desert for inspiration
the Eucharist". and guidance. Much of Eastern Christian
spirituality, including the Hesychast movement,
had its roots in the practices of the Desert
Evelyn Underhill (6 December 1875 – 15 June Fathers. Even religious renewals such as the
1941) was an English Anglo-Catholic writer and German evangelicals and Pietists in
pacifist known for her numerous works on Pennsylvania, the Devotio Moderna movement,
587
and the Methodist Revival in England are seen geographical location of the Essenes other than
by modern scholars as being influenced by the the whole land of Israel, Pliny places them in Ein
Desert Fathers. Gedi, next to the Dead Sea.
A little later Josephus gave a detailed account of

the Essenes in The Jewish War (c. 75 CE), with a
Essenes (in Modern but not in Ancient Hebrew:
shorter description in Antiquities of the Jews (c.
‫אִ ִּס י ִים‬, Isiyim; Greek: Εσσήνοι, Εσσαίοι, or
94 CE) and The Life of Flavius Josephus (c. 97
Οσσαίοι, Essḗnoi, Essaíoi, Ossaíoi) were a sect
CE). Claiming first hand knowledge, he lists the
of Second Temple Judaism that flourished from
Essenoi as one of the three sects of Jewish
the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE which
philosophy alongside the Pharisees and the
some scholars claim seceded from the Zadokite
Sadducees. He relates the same information
priests. Being much fewer in number than the
concerning piety, celibacy, the absence of
Pharisees and the Sadducees (the other two
personal property and of money, the belief in
major sects at the time), the Essenes lived in
communality and commitment to a strict
various cities but congregated in communal life
observance of Sabbath. He further adds that the
dedicated to asceticism, voluntary poverty,
Essenes ritually immersed in water every
daily immersion, and abstinence from worldly
morning, ate together after prayer, devoted
pleasures, including (for some groups) celibacy.
themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade
Many separate but related religious groups of
the expression of anger, studied the books of
that era shared similar mystic, eschatological,
the elders, preserved secrets, and were very
messianic, and ascetic beliefs. These groups are
mindful of the names of the angels kept in their
collectively referred to by various scholars as
sacred writings.
the "Essenes." Josephus records that Essenes
existed in large numbers, and thousands lived Pliny, also a geographer and explorer, located
throughout Roman Judæa. them in the desert near the northwestern shore
of the Dead Sea, where the Dead Sea Scrolls
The Essenes have gained fame in modern times
were discovered in the year 1947 by
as a result of the discovery of an extensive
Muhammed edh-Dhib and Ahmed Mohammed,
group of religious documents known as the
two Bedouin shepherds of the Ta'amireh tribe.
Dead Sea Scrolls, which are commonly believed
to be Essenes' library—although there is no Gnosticism (from gnostikos, "learned", from
proof that the Essenes wrote them. These Ancient Greek: γνῶσις gnōsis, knowledge;
documents include preserved multiple copies of Arabic: ‫ الغنوصية‬al-ġnūṣīh) is the belief that the
the Hebrew Bible untouched from as early as material world created by the demiurge should
300 BCE until their discovery in 1946. Some be shunned [citation needed] and the spiritual
scholars, however, dispute the notion that the world (God's world) should be embraced.
Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. Rachel Elior Gnostic ideas influenced many ancient religions
questions even the existence of the Essenes. which teach that gnosis (variously interpreted
as knowledge, enlightenment, salvation,
The first reference is by the Roman writer Pliny
emancipation or 'oneness with God') may be
the Elder (died c. 79 CE) in his Natural History.
reached by practicing philanthropy to the point
[6] Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes
of personal poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as
do not marry, possess no money, and had
possible for hearers, completely for initiates)
existed for thousands of generations. Unlike
and diligently searching for wisdom by helping
Philo, who did not mention any particular
others. However, practices vary.[citation
588
needed] In Gnosticism, the world of the pleroma fulfillment, the higher reality of
demiurge is represented by the lower world archetypes (related to Plato's realm of Ideas).
which is associated with matter, flesh, time, The region of light.
molecules and more particularly an imperfect,
kenoma the visible or manifest cosmos,
ephemeral world. The world of God is
"lower" than the pleroma
represented by the upper world, and is
associated with the soul and perfection. The charisma gift, or energy, bestowed by
world of God is eternal and not part of the pneumatics through oral teaching and personal
physical. It is impalpable, and time doesn't exist encounters
there. To rise to God, the Gnostic must reach
the "knowledge" which mixes philosophy, Sophia "wisdom," worldly understanding;
metaphysics, curiosity, culture, knowledge, and personified as Lady Wisdom, the syzygy of
the secrets of history and the universe. Christ
Gnosticism is primarily defined in a Christian logos The logos is the divine ordering
context. Some scholars have claimed that principle of the cosmos; personified as Christ.
gnosticism predated Christianity and included See also Odic force
pre-Christian religious beliefs and spiritual hypostasis Literally "that which stands
practices argued to be common to early beneath" the inner reality, emanation
Christianity, Neoplatonism, Hellenistic Judaism, (appearance) of God, known to psychics
Greco-Roman mystery religions, and
Zoroastrianism (especially Zurvanism). The ousia essence of God, known to pneumatics.
discussion of Gnosticism changed radically with Specific individual things or being
the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library and gnosis "knowledge," direct insight into God
led to a revision of older assumptions. attained by pneumatics
Term Definition syzygy a divine active-passive, male-female
sarkic earthly, hidebound, ignorant, pair of aeons, complementary to one another
uninitiated. The lowest level of human thought rather than oppositional
the fleshly, instinctive level of thinking. demiurge an entity (usually seen as evil)
hylic lowest order of the three types of responsible for the creation of the physical
human. Unable to be saved since their thinking universe and the physical aspect of humanity.
is entirely material, incapable of understanding The creator God
the gnosis. theos The Greek term for god. Used by
psychic "soulful," partially initiated. Matter- Christian Gnostics for the monad
dwelling spirits Emanation The Supreme Light or
pneumatic "spiritual," fully initiated. Consciousness descends through a series of
immaterial, souls. Escaping the doom of the stages, gradations, worlds or hypostases,
material world via gnosis becoming progressively more material and
embodied. In time it will turn around to return
aeon one of various levels of reality to the One (epistrophe), retracing its steps
archon one of various powers in the cosmos through spiritual knowledge and contemplation.
589
Heaven as the location of the throne of God as Many Christian writers, including Lactantius,
well as the holy angels. In most Christian Thomas of Aquinas, Augustine, Giordano Bruno,
denominations, heaven is also understood as Marsilio Ficino, Campanella and Giovanni Pico
the abode for the righteous dead in the Della Mirandola considered Hermes
afterlife, usually a temporary stage before the Trismegistus to be a wise pagan prophet who
resurrection of the dead and the saints' return foresaw the coming of Christianity.
to the New Earth. The resurrected Jesus is said
An account of how Hermes Trismegistus
to have ascended to heaven where he now sits
received the name "Thrice Great" is derived
at the Right Hand of God and will return to
from the Emerald Tablet of Hermes
earth in the Second Coming. Various people
Trismegistus, wherein it is stated that he knew
have been said to go to heaven alive, including
the three parts of the wisdom of the whole
Enoch, Elijah, and most notably, Jesus Christ
universe. The three parts of the wisdom are
himself. According to Roman Catholic teaching,
alchemy, astrology, and theurgy.
Mary, his mother, is also said to have been
assumed into heaven and is titled the Queen of The Poimandres, from which Marsilio Ficino
Heaven. In the Christian Bible, concepts about formed his opinion, states that "They called him
the future "Kingdom of Heaven" are professed Trismegistus because he was the greatest
in several scriptural prophecies of the new (or philosopher and the greatest priest and the
renewed) Earth said to follow the resurrection greatest king." The Suda (10th century) states
of the dead—particularly the books of Isaiah that "He was called Trismegistus on account of
and Revelation and other sources of Christian his praise of the trinity, saying there is one
eschatology. divine nature in the trinity."
Heaven is therefore spoken of in rather Much of the importance of Hermeticism arises
different senses: as another dimension, as the from its connection with the development of
physical skies or upper cosmos, as the realm of science during the time from 1300 to 1600 A.D.
divine perfection already in existence, or as the The prominence that it gave to the idea of
"coming world" at the return of Christ. influencing or controlling nature led many
scientists to look to magic and its allied arts
(e.g., alchemy, astrology) which, it was thought,
could put Nature to the test by means of
experiments. Consequently it was the practical
Hermeticism, also called Hermetism, is a
aspects of Hermetic writings that attracted the
religious and philosophical tradition based
attention of scientists.
primarily upon pseudepigraphical writings
attributed to Hermes Trismegistus ("Thrice Isaac Newton placed great faith in the concept
Great"). These writings have greatly influenced of an unadulterated, pure, ancient doctrine,
the Western esoteric tradition and were which he studied vigorously to aid his
considered to be of great importance during understanding of the physical world. Many of
both the Renaissance and the Reformation. The Newton's manuscripts—most of which are still
tradition claims descent from a prisca theologia, unpublished—detail his thorough study of the
a doctrine which affirms that a single, true Corpus Hermeticum, writings said to have been
theology exists which is present in all religions transmitted from ancient times, in which the
and was given by God to man in antiquity. secrets and techniques of influencing the stars
and the forces of nature were revealed.
590
In the Hebrew Bible, a messiah (or mashiach) is

a king or High Priest traditionally anointed with
Hypostatic union (from the Greek: ὑπόστασις
holy anointing oil. However, messiahs were not
hypóstasis, sediment, foundation, substance, or
exclusively Jewish, as the Hebrew Bible refers to
subsistence) is a technical term in Christian
Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, as a messiah for
theology employed in mainstream Christology
his decree to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple. The
to describe the union of Christ's humanity and
Jewish messiah is a leader anointed by God,
divinity in one hypostasis.
physically descended from the Davidic line, who
The First Council of Ephesus recognized this will rule the united tribes of Israel and herald
doctrine and affirmed its importance, stating the Messianic Age of global peace also known
that the humanity and divinity of Christ are as the World to Come.
made one according to nature and hypostasis in
The translation of the Hebrew word Mašíaḥ as
the Logos.
Χριστός (Khristós) in the Greek Septuagint
became the accepted Christian designation and
title of Jesus of Nazareth. Christians believe that
prophecies in the Hebrew Bible (especially
Merkabah/Merkavah mysticism (or Chariot Isaiah) refer to a spiritual savior and believe
mysticism) is a school of early Jewish mysticism, Jesus to be that Messiah (Christ).
c. 100 BCE - 1000 CE, centered on visions such Islamic tradition holds that Jesus, the son of
as those found in the Book of Ezekiel chapter 1, Mary, was the promised Prophet and Masih
or in the hekhalot ("palaces") literature, (Messiah) sent to the Israelites, and that he will
concern€ing stories of ascents to the heavenly again return to Earth at the end of times, along
palaces and the Throne of God. The main with the Mahdi, and they will defeat Masih ad-
corpus of the Merkabah literature was Dajjal, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist.
composed in Israel in the period 200–700 CE,
although later references to the Chariot
tradition can also be found in the literature of
Metaphysics the term is not easily defined.
the Chassidei Ashkenaz in the Middle Ages. A
Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer
major text in this tradition is the Maaseh
two basic questions in the broadest possible
Merkabah (Works of the Chariot)
terms: What is ultimately there?
Spiritualism is a religion postulating the belief
What is it like?
that spirits of the dead residing in the spirit
world have both the ability and the inclination A person who studies metaphysics is called a
to communicate with the living. Spiritism, a metaphysics or a metaphysician. The
branch of Spiritualism developed by Allan metaphysician attempts to clarify the
Kardec and today found mostly in continental fundamental notions by which people
Europe and Latin America, especially Brazil, has understand the world, e.g., existence, objects
emphasized reincarnation. and their properties, space and time, cause and
effect, and possibility. A central branch of
metaphysics is ontology, the investigation into
Messiah is a saviour or liberator of a group of the basic categories of being and how they
people, most commonly in the Abrahamic relate to each other. Another central branch of
religions. metaphysics is cosmology, the study of the
591
origin (if it has had one), fundamental structure, reserved to initiates (mystai). The main
nature, and dynamics of the universe. characterization of this religion is the secrecy
associated with the particulars of the initiation
Prior to the modern history of science, scientific
and the cult practice, which may not be
questions were addressed as a part of
revealed to outsiders. The most famous
metaphysics known as natural philosophy.
mysteries of Greco-Roman antiquity were the
Originally, the term "science" (Latin scientia)
Eleusinian mysteries, which were of
simply meant "knowledge". The scientific
considerable antiquity and predated the Greek
method, however, transformed natural
Dark Ages. The popularity of mystery cults
philosophy into an empirical activity deriving
flourished on Late Antiquity; Julian the Apostate
from experiment unlike the rest of philosophy.
in the mid-4th century is known to have been
By the end of the 18th century, it had begun to
initiated into three distinct mystery cults—most
be called "science" to distinguish it from
notably the Mithraic Mysteries. Due to the
philosophy. Thereafter, metaphysics denoted
secret nature of the cult, and because the
philosophical enquiry of a non-empirical
mystery religions of Late Antiquity were
character into the nature of existence. Some
persecuted by the Christian Roman Empire from
philosophers of science, such as the neo-
the 4th century, the details of these religious
positivists, say that natural science rejects the
practices are unknown to scholarship, although
study of metaphysics, while other philosophers
there are educated guesses as to their general
of science strongly disagree.
content.:50f
Justin Martyr in the 2nd century explicitly noted

Monotheism is defined by the Encyclopedia and identified them as "demonic imitations" of
Britannica as belief in the existence of one god the true faith, and that "the devils, in imitation
or in the oneness of God. The Oxford Dictionary of what was said by Moses, asserted that
of the Christian Church gives a more restricted Proserpine was the daughter of Jupiter, and
definition: "belief in one personal and instigated the people to set up an image of her
transcendent God", as opposed to polytheism under the name of Kore" (First Apology).
and pantheism. A distinction may be made Through the 1st to 4th century, Christianity
between exclusive monotheism, and both stood in direct competition for adherents with
inclusive monotheism and pluriform the mystery cults, insofar as the "mystery cults
monotheism which, while recognizing many too [were] an intrinsic element of the non-
distinct gods, postulate some underlying unity. Jewish horizon of the reception of the Christian
Monotheism characterizes the traditions of message". They too were "embraced by the
Atenism, the Bahá'í Faith, Cao Dai, Cheondoism process of the enculturation of Christianity in its
(Cheondogyo), Christianity, Deism, Eckankar, initial phase", and they made "their own
Islam, Judaism, Rastafarianism, Sikhism, contribution to this process".:152 In Klauck and
Tenrikyo and Zoroastrianism and elements of McNeil's opinion, "the Christian doctrine of the
the belief are discernible in numerous other sacraments, in the form in which we know it,
religions. would not have arisen without this interaction;
and Christology too understood how to 'take
up' the mythical inheritance, purifying it and
Mystery religions, sacred mysteries or simply elevating.
mysteries, were religious cults of the Greco-
Roman world for which participation was
592
Nag Hammadi library[1] is a collection of

Gnostic texts discovered near the Upper
Neo-Platonism (also spelled Neo-Platonism), as
Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. Twelve
it has been called since the 19th century, is a
leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a
school of mystical philosophy that took shape in
sealed jar were found by a local peasant named
the 3rd century, based on the teachings of Plato
Mohammed Ali Samman.[2][3] The writings in
and earlier Platonists. Its earliest contributors
these codices comprised fifty-two mostly
were Plotinus and his teacher Ammonius
Gnostic treatises, but they also include three
Saccas. Neo-Platonism focused on the spiritual
works belonging to the Corpus Hermeticum and
and cosmological aspects of Platonic thought,
a partial translation/alteration of Plato's
synthesizing Platonism with Egyptian and
Republic. In his "Introduction" to The Nag
Jewish theology. However, Neoplatonists would
Hammadi Library in English, James Robinson
have considered themselves simply Platonists,
suggests that these codices may have belonged
and the modern distinction is due to the
to a nearby Pachomian monastery, and were
perception that their philosophy contained
buried after Bishop Athanasius condemned the
sufficiently unique interpretations of Plato to
use of non-canonical books in his Festal Letter
make it substantially different from what Plato
of 367 AD.
wrote and believed.
The contents of the codices were written in the
The Neo-Platonism of Plotinus and Porphyry has
Coptic language, though the works were
been referred to as in fact being orthodox
probably all translations from Greek.[4] The
Platonic philosophy by scholars like John D.
best-known of these works is probably the
Turner. This distinction provides a contrast with
Gospel of Thomas, of which the Nag Hammadi
later movements of Neo-Platonism, such as
codices contain the only complete text. After
those of Iamblichus and Proclus, which
the discovery, scholars recognized that
embraced magical practices or theurgy as part
fragments of these sayings attributed to Jesus
of the soul's development in the process of the
appeared in manuscripts discovered at
soul's return to the Source. Possibly Plotinus
Oxyrhynchus in 1898 (P. Oxy. 1), and matching
was motivated to clarify some of the traditions
quotations were recognized in other early
in the teachings of Plato that had been
Christian sources. Subsequently, a 1st or 2nd
misrepresented before Iamblichus (see Neo-
century date of composition circa 80 AD has
Platonism and Gnosticism).
been proposed for the lost Greek originals of
the Gospel of Thomas. The buried manuscripts Neo-Platonism took definitive shape with the
date from the third and fourth centuries. philosopher Plotinus, who claimed to have
received his teachings from Ammonius Saccas, a
The Nag Hammadi codices are housed in the
philosopher in Alexandria.[4] Plotinus was also
Coptic Museum in Cairo, Egypt. To read about
influenced by Alexander of Aphrodisias and
their significance to modern scholarship into
Numenius of Apamea. Plotinus's student
early Christianity, see the Gnosticism article.
Porphyry assembled his teachings into the six
sets of nine tractates, or Enneads. Subsequent
Neoplatonic philosophers included Iamblichus,
Hypatia of Alexandria, Hierocles of Alexandria,
593
Proclus (by far the most influential of later of mainstream science as well as other forms of
Neoplatonists), Damascius (last head of Neo- science that are considered fringe.
Platonist School at Athens), Olympiodorus the
The origins of the movement can be found in
Younger, and Simplicius of Cilicia.
Medieval astrology and alchemy, such as the
Thinkers from the Neo-Platonism school cross- writings of Paracelsus, in Renaissance interests
pollinated with the thinkers of other intellectual in Hermeticism, in 18th century mysticism, such
schools. For instance, certain strands of Neo- as that of Emanuel Swedenborg, and in beliefs
Platonism influenced Christian thinkers (such as in animal magnetism espoused by Franz
Augustine, Boethius, John Scotus Eriugena, and Mesmer. In the 19th and early 20th centuries,
Bonaventure), while Christian thought authors such as Godfrey Higgins and the
influenced (and sometimes converted) Neo- esotericists Eliphas Levi, Helena Blavatsky, and
Platonism philosophers (such as Dionysius the George Gurdjieff articulated specific histories,
Areopagite). cosmologies, and some of the basic
philosophical principles that would influence
In the middle Ages, Neo-Platonism arguments
the movement. It experienced a revival as a
were taken seriously in the thought of medieval
result of the work of individuals such as Alice
Islamic and Jewish thinkers such as al-Farabi
Bailey and organizations such as the
and Moses Maimonides, and experienced a
Theosophical Society. It gained further
revival in the Renaissance with the acquisition
momentum in the 1960s, taking influence from
and translation of Greek and Arabic Neo-
metaphysics, perennial philosophy, self-help
Platonism texts.
psychology, and the various Indian gurus who
visited the West during that decade.[7] In the
1970s, it developed a social and political
New Age movement is a Western spiritual component.[8]
movement that developed in the second half of
the 20th century. Its central precepts have been The New Age movement includes elements of
described as "drawing on both Eastern and older spiritual and religious traditions ranging
Western spiritual and metaphysical traditions from Monotheism through Pantheism,
and infusing them with influences from self- Pandeism, Panentheism, and Polytheism
help and motivational psychology, holistic combined with Science and Gaia philosophy;
health, parapsychology, consciousness research particularly Archaeoastronomy, Astronomy,
and quantum physics".[2] The term New Age Ecology, Environmentalism, the Gaia
refers to the coming astrological Age of hypothesis, UFO religions, Psychology, and
Aquarius.[1] Physics.
The New Age aims to create "a spirituality New Age practices and philosophies sometimes
without borders or confining dogmas" that is draw inspiration from major world religions:
inclusive and pluralistic.[3] It holds to "a holistic Buddhism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion,
worldview",[4] emphasising that the Mind, Christianity, Hinduism, Sufi Islam, Judaism
Body, and Spirit are interrelated[1] and that (especially Kabbalah), Sikhism; with strong
there is a form of monism and unity throughout influences from East Asian religions,
the universe.[5] It attempts to create "a Esotericism, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, Idealism,
worldview that includes both science and Neopaganism, New Thought, Spiritualism,
spirituality"[6] and embraces a number of forms Theosophy, Universalism, and Wisdom
tradition.
594
into the New Testament would seem to have

been written no later than around AD 150.
Collections of related texts such as letters of the

Apostle Paul (a major collection of which must
have been made already by the early 2nd
century) and the Canonical Gospels of Matthew,
New Testament (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Mark, Luke, and John (asserted by Irenaeus of
Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē) is the second Lyon in the late-2nd century as the Four
major part of the Christian biblical canon, the Gospels) gradually were joined to other
first part being the Old Testament. Although collections and single works in different
Christians hold different views from Jews about combinations to form various Christian canons
the Old Testament—that is, the Hebrew of Scripture. Over time, some disputed books,
Scriptures—Christians regard both the Old and such as the Book of Revelation and the Minor
New Testaments together as sacred scripture. Catholic (General) Epistles were introduced into
The contents of the New Testament deal canons in which they were originally absent.
explicitly with first-century Christianity. Other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as
Therefore, the New Testament (in whole or in 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the
part) has frequently accompanied the spread of Diatessaron, were excluded from the New
Christianity around the world. It reflects and Testament. The Old Testament canon is not
serves as a source for Christian theology. Both completely uniform among all major Christian
extended readings and phrases directly from groups including Roman Catholics, Protestants,
the New Testament are also incorporated the Greek Orthodox Church, the Slavic
(along with readings from the Old Testament) Orthodox Churches, and the Armenian
into the various Christian liturgies. The New Orthodox Church. However, the twenty-seven-
Testament has influenced not only religious, book canon of the New Testament, at least
philosophical, and political movements in since Late Antiquity, has been almost
Christendom, but also has left an indelible mark universally recognized within Christianity (see
on its literature, art, and music. Development of the New Testament canon).
The New Testament is an anthology, a
collection of Christian works written in the
common Greek language of the first century, at Protestantism is one of the major divisions
different times by various writers, who were within Christianity. It has been defined as "any
early Jewish disciples of Jesus of Nazareth. In of several church denominations denying the
almost all Christian traditions today, the New universal authority of the Pope and affirming
Testament consists of 27 books. The original the Reformation principles of justification by
texts were written in the first and perhaps the faith in Jesus alone, the priesthood of all
second centuries of the Christian Era, generally believers, and the primacy of the Bible as the
believed to be in Koine Greek, which was the only source of revealed truth" and, more
common language of the Eastern broadly, to mean Christianity outside "of an
Mediterranean from the Conquests of Orthodox or Catholic church".
Alexander the Great (335–323 BC) until the
It is a movement that is widely seen as
evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600). All of the
beginning in Germany by Martin Luther with
works which would eventually be incorporated
The Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 as a reaction
595
against medieval doctrines and practices, our current life are consequences of actions
especially in regard to salvation, justification, taken in previous lives, or Karma.
and ecclesiology. The doctrines of the over
Rosicrucian’s, in the same way of those who
33,000 Protestant denominations vary, but
have had near-death experiences, speak of a life
most include justification by grace through faith
review period occurring immediately after
in Jesus alone, known as Sola Gratia and Sola
death and before entering the afterlife's planes
Fide respectively, the priesthood of all
of existence (before the silver cord is broken),
believers, and the Bible as the supreme
followed by a judgment, more akin to a Final
authority in matters of faith and morals, known
Review or End Report over one's life.
as Sola Scriptura, Latin for "by scripture alone".
In the 16th century, the followers of Martin

Luther established the evangelical (Lutheran)
churches of Germany and Scandinavia.
Reformed churches in Hungary, Scotland, Religion is an organized collection of beliefs,
Switzerland and France were established by cultural systems, and world views that relate
other reformers such as John Calvin, Huldrych humanity to an order of existence. Many
Zwingli, and John Knox. The Church of England religions have narratives, symbols, and sacred
declared independence from papal authority in histories that are intended to explain the
1534, and was influenced by some Reformation meaning of life and/or to explain the origin of
principles, notably during the English Civil War. life or the Universe. From their beliefs about the
There were also reformation movements cosmos and human nature, people derive
throughout continental Europe known as the morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred
Radical Reformation which gave rise to the lifestyle. According to some estimates, there are
Anabaptist, Moravian, and other pietistic roughly 4,200 religions in the world.
movements. Many religions may have organized behaviors,
clergy, a definition of what constitutes
adherence or membership, holy places, and
Reincarnation refers to an afterlife concept scriptures. The practice of a religion may also
found among Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, include rituals, sermons, commemoration or
Rosicrucian’s, Theosophists, Separatists, and veneration of a deity, gods or goddesses,
Wiccans. Reincarnation is also a belief described sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trance, initiations,
in Kabbalistic Judaism as gilgul neshamot funerary services, matrimonial services,
(Reincarnation of Souls)] In reincarnation, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, public
spiritual development continues after death as service or other aspects of human culture.
the deceased begins another earthly life in the Religions may also contain mythology.
physical world, acquiring a superior grade of
consciousness and altruism by means of The word religion is sometimes used
successive reincarnations. This succession leads interchangeably with faith, belief system or
toward an eventual liberation. sometimes set of duties; however, in the words
of Émile Durkheim, religion differs from private
One consequence of reincarnations beliefs is belief in that it is "something eminently social".
that our current lives are both afterlife and a A global 2012 poll reports that 59% of the
before life. According to those beliefs events in world's population is religious, and 36% are not
religious, including 13% who are atheists, with a
596
9 percent decrease in religious belief from encounter, give and take, criticism and self-
2005. On average, women are more religious criticism. Dialogue means both speaking and
than men. Some people follow multiple listening, and that process reveals both
religions or multiple religious principles at the common understandings and real differences.
same time, regardless of whether or not the Dialogue does not mean everyone at the
religious principles they follow traditionally “table” will agree with one another. Pluralism
allow for syncretism. involves the commitment to being at the table
—with one’s commitments,[1] as a social norm
and not merely a synonym for religious
Religious pluralism is an attitude or policy diversity.[
regarding the diversity of religious belief
systems co-existing in society.
First, pluralism is not diversity alone, but the

energetic engagement with diversity. Diversity Spiritualism developed and reached its peak
can and has meant the creation of religious growth in membership from the 1840s to the
ghettoes with little traffic between or among 1920s, especially in English-speaking countries.
them. Today, religious diversity is a given, but By 1897, it was said to have more than eight
pluralism is not a given; it is an achievement. million followers in the United States and
Mere diversity without real encounter and Europe, mostly drawn from the middle and
relationship will yield increasing tensions in our upper classes.
societies. Second, pluralism is not just
The religion flourished for a half century
tolerance, but the active seeking of
without canonical texts or formal organization,
understanding across lines of difference.
attaining cohesion through periodicals, tours by
Tolerance is a necessary public virtue, but it
trance lecturers, camp meetings, and the
does not require Christians and Muslims,
missionary activities of accomplished mediums.
Hindus, Jews, and ardent secularists to know
Many prominent Spiritualists were women, and
anything about one another. Tolerance is too
like most Spiritualists, supported causes such as
thin a foundation for a world of religious
the abolition of slavery and women's suffrage.
difference and proximity. It does nothing to
By the late 1880s the credibility of the informal
remove our ignorance of one another, and
movement had weakened due to accusations of
leaves in place the stereotype, the half-truth,
fraud being perpetrated by mediums, and
the fears that underlie old patterns of division
formal Spiritualist organizations began to
and violence. In the world in which we live
appear. Spiritualism is currently practiced
today, our ignorance of one another will be
primarily through various denominational
increasingly costly. Third, pluralism is not
Spiritualist churches in the United States,
relativism, but the encounter of commitments.
Canada and United Kingdom.
The new paradigm of pluralism does not require
us to leave our identities and our commitments Although various Spiritualist traditions have
behind, for pluralism is the encounter of their own beliefs, known as Principles, there are
commitments. It means holding our deepest some shared concepts:
differences, even our religious differences, not
in isolation, but in relationship to one another. A belief in spirit communication.
Fourth, pluralism is based on dialogue. The
language of pluralism is that of dialogue and
597
A belief that the soul continues to exist after the Church, establishing a 'New Church', which
death of the physical body. would worship God in one person: Jesus Christ.
The New Church doctrine is that each person
Personal responsibility for life circumstances.
must actively cooperate in repentance,
Even after death it is possible for the soul to reformation, and regeneration of one's life. The
learn and improve movement was founded on the belief that God
explained the spiritual meaning of the
A belief in a God, often referred to as "Infinite Scriptures to Swedenborg as a means of
Intelligence". revealing the truth of the Second Coming of
The natural world considered as an expression Jesus Christ. Swedenborg claimed divine
of said intelligence. inspiration for his writings and followers believe
that Swedenborg witnessed the Last Judgment
in the spiritual world, along with the
Synchronicity is the experience of two or more inauguration of the New Church.
events as meaningfully related, whereas they The New Church is seen by members of New
are unlikely to be causally related. The subject Church organizations as something which the
sees it as a meaningful coincidence, although Lord is establishing with all those who believe
the events need not be exactly simultaneous in that the Lord Jesus Christ is the one God of
time. The concept of synchronicity was first heaven and Earth, and that obeying his
described by Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss commandments is necessary for salvation.
psychologist, in the 1920s.[1] Therefore, it is thought that any Christian
The concept does not question, or compete holding these beliefs is part of this New Church
with, the notion of causality. Instead, it movement. New Church organizations also
maintains that just as events may be connected acknowledge the universal nature of the Lord's
by a causal line, they may also be connected by church: all who do good from the truth of their
meaning. A grouping of events by meaning religion will be accepted by the Lord into
need not have an explanation in terms of cause heaven, as God is goodness itself, and doing
and effect. good conjoins one to God.[3] Adherents believe
that the doctrine of the New Church is derived
In addition to Jung, Arthur Koestler wrote from scripture and provides the benefit of
extensively on synchronicity in The Roots of further enlightenment concerning the truth,
Coincidence.[ and that this leads to diminished doubt, a
recognition of personal faults, and thus a more
The New Church (or Swedenborgianism) is the
directed and happier life.
name for several historically related Christian
denominations that developed as a new Other names for the movement include
religious movement, informed by the writings Swedenborgian, New Christians, Neodan-
of Swedish scientist and theologian Emanuel Christians, Church of the New Christ, and The
Swedenborg (1688–1772). Swedenborg claimed Lord's New Church. Those outside the church
to have received a new revelation from Jesus may refer to the movement as
Christ through continuous heavenly visions Swedenborgianism; however, some adherents
which he experienced over a period of at least seek to distance themselves from this title,
twenty-five years. In his writings, he predicted since it implies a following of Swedenborg
that God would replace the traditional Christian rather than Jesus Christ. Swedenborg published
598
his works anonymously, and his writings In its most specific meaning, it consists of the
promoted one Church based on love and first five books of the Tanakh written in Biblical
charity, rather than multiple churches named Hebrew. The names of each of these books in
after their founders based on belief or doctrine. Hebrew are taken from the first phrase in each
book: Bereshit ("In [the] beginning", Genesis),
Shemot ("Names", Exodus), Vayikra ("He
Theosophy (from Greek θεοσοφία theosophia, called", Leviticus[2]), Bamidbar ("In the desert",
from θεός theos, divine + σοφία sophia, Numbers) and Devarim ("Words",
wisdom; literally "divine wisdom"), refers to Deuteronomy).
systems of esoteric philosophy concerning, or
In rabbinic literature the word Torah denotes
investigation seeking direct knowledge of,
both these five books, Torah Shebichtav (‫תורה‬
presumed mysteries of being and nature,
‫שבכתב‬, "Torah that is written"), and an Oral
particularly concerning the nature of divinity.
Torah, Torah Shebe'al Peh ( ‫תורה שבעל פה‬,
Theosophy is considered a part of the broader "Torah that is spoken"). The Oral Torah consists
field of esotericism, referring to hidden of the traditional interpretations and
knowledge or wisdom that offers the individual amplifications handed down by word of mouth
enlightenment and salvation. The word esoteric from generation to generation and now
dates back to the 2nd century CE.[1] The embodied in the Talmud and Midrash.[3]
theosophist seeks to understand the mysteries
According to religious tradition, all of the
of the universe and the bonds that unite the
teachings found in the Torah, both written and
universe, humanity and the divine. The goal of
oral, were given by God to Moses, some of
theosophy is to explore the origin of divinity
them at Mount Sinai and others at the
and humanity, and the world. From
Tabernacle, and all the teachings were written
investigation of those topics theosophists try to
down by Moses, which resulted in the Torah we
discover a coherent description of the purpose
have today. According to a Midrash, the Torah
and origin of the universe.
was created prior to the creation of the world,
and was used as the blueprint for Creation.[4]
The majority of Biblical scholars believe that the
Torah (/ˈtɔːrə/; Hebrew: ‫ּתֹורה‬, ָ "Instruction", written books were a product of the Babylonian
"Teaching") is a central concept in the Jewish exilic period (c. 600 BCE) and that it was
tradition. It has a range of meanings: it can completed by the Persian period (c. 400 BCE).
most specifically mean the first five books of the [5]
Tanakh, it can mean this plus the rabbinic
commentaries on it, it can mean the continued Traditionally, the words of the Torah are written
narrative from Genesis to the end of the on a scroll by a sofer on parchment in Hebrew.
Tanakh, it can even mean the totality of Jewish A Torah portion is read publicly at least once
teaching and practice.[1] Common to all these every three days, in the halachically prescribed
meanings, Torah consists of the foundational tune, in the presence of a congregation.[6]
narrative of the Jewish people: their call into Reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases
being by God, their trials and tribulations, and for Jewish communal life.
their covenant with their God, which involves
following a way of life embodied in a set of
religious obligations and civil laws (halakha).
599
600
i

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[

why? Then one night the Lord showed me a

Church of the Latter Day Saint’s...........376

Doctrine of the Lord..............................503

revelation for the instruction of the world, and

Sundry times—Πολυμερως, from πολυς, many,

Believer Divers manners—Πολυτροπως, from πολυς,

associate them with God in the creation of the

ALL earthly things are the shadows of heavenly

Let us specially beware of one great mistake.

Let us begin to think as God thinks. Let us

of Israel into the city, and said unto him, Thus

What Ben Hadad asked was absolute surrender;

Absolute surrender — let me tell you where I

The words struck me as never before. And that

to be called to be entirely free from the world,

Come and cast this self-life and flesh-life at the

"The things which are impossible with men are

The text contains two thoughts — that in

The two thoughts mark the two great lessons

and trust Him as the omnipotent One, not only

The words from which I speak, you will find in 1

There we have two wonderful, blessed truths

Though I speak, etc.—at the conclusion of the

Casaubon; and the remaining manuscript parts Pitt.

Sounding brass—Χαλκος ηχων· That is, like a DRYDEN.

1st, could he speak all the languages of men?

2. He must have Divine teaching to know the Chapter Seven

3. Without immediate influence from God he

It is impossible to overestimate the importance God would have us to understand concerning

The all important thing is to make Jesus Lord:

I went off at once to see him, and he said as he

"Follow after charity, and desire spiritual gifts,

They came to Jordan and Elijah took his mantle

Elijah said, "Thou hast asked a hard thing:

Onward they go, and as one steps, the other

uncertain manner concerning that which is

true prophetic utterance always exalts the Lamb

No prophetic touch is of any good unless there

May God take us on and on into this glorious

3d. At the same feast, a cow led to sacrifice Matthew 24:8

before rulers and kings, as Paul before Gallio, Matthew 24:12

avail against such towers as these?" WAR, b. vi.

Although Esotericism refers to the exploration

Plato, in his dialogue Alcibíades (circa 390 BC),

“We say that it [the origin of the traditions] is

In perennialist usage, esotericism is a

“Our starting point is the acknowledgment of

these are often seen as precursors to esoteric

Non-Western traditions can also display the

The major exponent of esotericism in the latter

Yet another notable esoteric strain stems from

Secondly, Hanegraaff follows a distinction

“The principal theoretical tool to safeguard

alchemy. 6) Magical uses. A book can be used as

Arthur Versluis (Professor, Ph.D., Michigan State

“While I am convinced of the critical importance

Theosophy (from Greek θεοσοφία theosophia,

Theosophy is considered a part of the broader

The 12th-century philosopher Al-Shahrastānī Modern theosophy arose in Germany in the