• Intermolecular forces- attractive force between Examples: Ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds

molecules. It is responsible for keeping matter in solid

or liquid phase. 2. INTERMOLECULAR FORCE – forces that exist
between molecules.
• Intramolecular forces- force which keeps molecules
together in hands. Examples: Ion-dipole forces, dipole-dipole forces,
London dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonds
• Kinetic Molecular Theory- is a model used to explain
the behavior of matter. Dispersion Forces

• Covalent bond- is a very strong attraction between It is rather easy to understand intermolecular forces
two or more atoms that are sharing their electrons. among charged particles and polar molecules, but it is
not so among nonpolar molecules or atoms. Nonpolar
• Molecule- a molecule refers to two or more atoms molecules such as C2 and CH4 exhibit attractive forces.
which have chemically combined to form a single These nonpolar substances can be condensed to liquid
species. and even solid if cooled enough to low temperatures.

• Ion- an atom which has lost or gained electrons and On the average, the electrons in a nonpolar molecule or
become charged. atom are distributed uniformly around the nucleus.
However, at certain instances, the electrons may be on
• Kinetic energy- an energy of an object due to its one side of the nucleus. The molecule becomes
motion. temporary dipole or momentary dipole or
• Dipole- electric or magnetic separation of charge. instantaneous dipole. An instantaneous dipole exerts
an influence on nearby particles. It causes the
• Non-polar molecules- occur when electrons are distortion of the electron clouds of neighboring
shared equal between atoms of a diatomic molecule or molecules. They are called induced dipoles because
when polar bonds in a larger molecule cancel each they are caused by the formation of the first dipole.
other out. This kind of attraction is called instantaneous dipole-
induced dipole attraction or London dispersion forces.
• Polar molecules- occur when two atoms do not share They are short-lived attractions because electrons keep
electrons equally in a covalent bond. on moving which causes the dipole to vanish as quickly
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Solids and Liquids as they formed.

The kinetic molecular theory explains the properties of The ease with which dipole can be induced is called
gases by assuming that gas particles act independently polarizability. Polarizability increases with increased
of each other. Due to the very weak attractive forces molecular mass. In large molecules, the electrons are
between them, the particles are free to move randomly less firmly held and are therefore easier to be
and fill their containers. Gases are compressible and polarized. As polarization and London dispersion
they diffuse through one another easily. forces increase, the boiling and melting points of
covalent substances generally increase with increasing
The particles of a liquid are close together because of molecular mass.
strong attractive forces between them. Like gas
particles, liquid particles also collide with each other Dipole-dipole Forces
and with the walls of their container. However, since Recall that covalent compounds can be classified as
the particles are close together, they can move only nonpolar or polar. A nonpolar molecule results when
over short distances. This type of movement allows the electronegativity difference between two atoms is
liquids to flow and take the shape of their container less than 0.4 and the molecule is symmetrical in shape.
without filling it completely as gases do. This also On the other hand, a polar molecule is formed when
explains why liquids compress only very slightly, have there is an uneven sharing of electrons between two
higher densities than gases, and diffuse more slowly atoms. In this case, the electronegativity difference is
than gases. greater than 0.4 and the molecule is unsymmetrical.
In solids, the attractive forces between the particles are The more electronegative atom becomes partially
stronger than those in liquids and gases. These result negative, and the less electronegative atom is partially
in an ordered arrangement of particles in which the positive.
particles are not free to move around. The movement Ion-dipole Forces
of the particles is limited to vibrations while they
remain in their fixed positions. Thus, a solid has a fixed An ion-dipole intermolecular force of attraction results
volume and shape. Solids compress even less than from the interaction between an ion and a polar
liquids and hardly diffuse. molecule. When an ionic compound is placed in a
solution of water (polar), the positive end of the ionic
Two Kinds of Attraction That Operate In a Molecule compounds becomes surrounded with the partial
1. INTRAMOLECULAR FORCE – forces that hold negative oxygen of water.
atoms together within a molecule.
Hydrogen Bond heat. The amount of heat needed to vaporize a given
amount of liquid at its boiling point is called heat of
Some polar molecules have very high electronegativity vaporization. For water, the amount of heat needed to
differences. This is most especially true for fluorine, vaporize 1 mole of water (18 grams) is 40.7 kilojoules
oxygen, and nitrogen bonded to a hydrogen (H-F, H-O, or 540 calories/gram at the same temperature and one
H-N). This results to a high partial positive charge on atmospheric pressure.
hydrogen and a large partial negative charge for the
more electronegative atom. Because of the very large • Intermolecular forces- attractive force between
dipole produced between the hydrogen atom of one molecules. It is responsible for keeping matter in solid
molecule and the F, N, O of another molecule, a special or liquid phase.
name is given to this kind of force – hydrogen bond.
Therefore, hydrogen bond is dipole-dipole in nature • Heat- added energy that causes substances to rise in
but for the molecules containing O-H, H-F, AND N-H, temperature. It is also associated with random motions
this force is called a hydrogen bond. of molecules and atoms.

Surface Tension • Covalent bond- is a very strong attraction between

two or more atoms that are sharing their electrons.
One interesting special physical property of liquids is
surface tension. Phenomena such as insects walking on • Metallic bond- characterized by the presence of
the surface of water, drops of liquid being spherical in mobile electrons around the positive metal ion.
shape, and a needle remaining suspended on the • Surface tension- refers to the amount of heat needed
surface of water can all be explained in terms of surface to change temperature.
tension. Surface tension is the force that causes the
surface of a liquid to contract. • Density- mass of a unit volume of a material
substance.
Viscosity
• Vaporization- a change of state from liquid to gas.
When maple syrup is poured it flows because it is
liquid. However, it does not flow very readily. Water, • Crystal- any solid material in which the component
on the other hand, flows relatively quickly and easily. A atoms are arranged in a definite pattern and whose
liquid’s resistance (friction) to flow that exists between surface regularity reflects its internal symmetry.
the molecules of a liquid when they move past each
other is called viscosity. 1. High boiling point. The high boiling point of water is
a consequence of its strong intermolecular forces of
A liquid with low intermolecular forces allows a freer attraction caused by the formation of the H-bond. It
movement of its molecules and, therefore, has lower also explains why water is liquid at room temperature
viscosity. An increase in temperature causes the kinetic in contrast to NH3, H2S and HF which are all
energy to increase. corrosive gases at room temperature.

Vaporization is a change of state from liquid to gas, 2. High specific heat. Specific heat refers to the amount
while the opposite process (gas to liquid) is of heat needed to change the temperature of 1 gram of
condensation. When liquid molecules break free from a substance by 1°C. For water, its specific heat is 1
their neighbors and escape into the gas phase, the cal/g°C. It means that water can absorb or release large
process is called evaporation. The volume of a liquid quantities of heat without change in temperature. This
placed in an open container decrease after some time is the reason why body temperature remains at 37°C
because of evaporation. Vaporization is a broader term even when there’s a change in the areas temperature.
that includes evaporation and boiling. Substances that This also explains why oceans and lakes exert an
evaporate readily have high escaping tendency and are influence on the climate. If there were no large bodies
said to be volatile. They have weak intermolecular of water that surround the earth, the earth would
forces attraction. experience great temperature variations.

Equilibrium means that two opposing processes are 3. High density in its liquid form. Water is the only
taking place simultaneously and at the same rate and substance that contracts when cooled. For some
there is no change in measurable quantities in the substances, their solid form is denser than their liquid
system. At equilibrium, the number of vapor molecules form. This is because the H-bond is more extensive in
remain constant. Temperature is directly proportional its solid state (ice) than in its liquid state. Ice has an
to vapor pressure, an increase in temperature increases open structure because the hydrogen bonds could not
vapor pressure. get inside the hexagonal ring structure.

Molar Heat of Vaporization 4. High surface tension. The hydrogen bond formation
among water molecules causes water to have high
As described earlier, vaporization is a change of state surface tension, as described earlier. This high surface
from liquid to gas. For a liquid to change into a gas, tension causes water to move from roots of a tree to the
energy must be added to the liquid. This is an top of very tall trees and explains why water moves
endothermic process and the total kinetic energy of the into the fibers of a towel. Thisphenomenon is called
substance increases. Energy added is in the form of capillary action or capillarity.
5. High heat of vaporization. The heat of vaporization ❖ Dilute solution – contains a relatively small
is the amount of heat required to change a given amount of solute.
amount of liquid into gas. This causes a significant
drop in temperature during evaporation. This explains Example: A solution containing 5g of salt in
why perspiration lowers the body temperature. 100 ml of water.

• Concentration – the amount of a substance dissolved ❖ Concentrated solution – contains a relatively

in a liquid. large amount of solute.

• Insoluble – a substance that does not dissolve in Example: A solution containing 40g of salt in
another substance. the same volume of water is concentrated.

• Mass- is a property that reflects the quantity of 1. Percent Concentration is defined as a part of
matter within a sample. It is usually expressed in solute per 100 parts of solution. Parts of a
grams (g) solution may be expressed either in mass or
volume or both.
• Mole- standard unit in chemistry for measuring large
quantities of very small entities such as atoms, ➢ Mass/Mass Percent Concentration (% by
molecules, or other specified particles mass) – refers to the amount of solute (in
grams) in 100 grams solution.
• Mole Ratio- is a conversion factor that relates the
amounts in moles of any two substances in a chemical ➢ Volume/Volume Percent Concentration (%
reaction. by volume) – is the most practical way to
• Soluble – a substance that dissolves in another express the method of preparation of a
substance. solution of liquids in liquids. The amount of
both solute and solvent are expressed in
• Solution – homogeneous mixture made up of volume units
multiple substances. It is made up of solutes and
solvents. ➢ Mass/Volume Concentration (% by mass-
volume) – these concentrations the number of
• Stoichiometry- quantitative nature of chemical grams of solute in 100 mL of solution
formulas and chemical reactions
2. Molarity (M) is the most common way of
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. They have a expressing the concentration of a solution. It is
uniform composition all throughout. For example, a defined as the number of moles of solute per
spoonful of juice taken from a jugful of juice will taste liter of solution.
the same as any sample from any part of the same
jugful of juice. A solution consists of solute, the 3. Molality (m) of a solution is the number of
substance that dissolves in the solution, and solvent, moles of solute dissolved per kilogram of
the substance in which the solute dissolves. A solvent.
substance that dissolves in another substance is said to
Mole Fraction – if a compound of a solution is
be soluble in that substance. Salt and sugar are soluble
the ratio of the number of moles of the
in water. A substance that does not dissolve in another
component to the total number of moles of all
substance is said to be insoluble in that substance.
the components of the solution. The total mole
Copper and mercury are insoluble in water. Liquids
fraction of solute and solvent is always equal to
which are completely soluble in each other are said to
1.
be miscible. Otherwise, they are immiscible. Oil and
water do not mix; thus, they are immiscible. A solution Stock solutions are concentrated solutions in
in which the solvent is water is called an aqueous the laboratory with a known molar
solution. Because water can dissolve many substances, concentration and are diluted to a lower
it is often called as the “universal solvent.” A concentration for the actual use in the
substance that dissolves in water to form a solution experiment/activity. In your experiments, you
that conducts electric current is called an electrolyte. may need to prepare dilute solutions from
Sodium chloride solution is an electrolyte. On the other concentrated solutions. Bear in mind that the
hand, a substance that dissolves in water to give a number of moles of solute does not change
solution that does not conduct electric current is a when a solution is diluted. Number of moles
nonelectrolyte. Sugar solution is a nonelectrolyte. before dilution = number of moles after
dilution
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
• Concentration – the amount of a substance
Solutions can be described qualitatively or
dissolved in a liquid.
quantitatively based on the amount of solute
relative to a given amount solvent. • Insoluble – a substance that does not dissolve
Qualitatively, we can describe solutions as in another substance.
either dilute or concentrated.
• Mass- is a property that reflects the quantity partial pressure of the gas over the solution.
of matter within a sample. It is usually This is known as Henry’s law.
expressed in grams (g)
Colligative Properties of Solutions
• Mole Ratio- is a conversion factor that relates
the amounts in moles of any two substances in Colligative properties depend primarily upon
a chemical reaction. the concentration of dissolved particles rather
than the nature of these particles. There are
• Osmosis- is the spontaneous net movement of four colligative properties:
solvent molecules through a semi-permeable
membrane into a region of higher solute 1. Boiling Point Elevation
concentration, in the direction that tends to Adding a nonvolatile solute to a pure solvent
equalize the solute concentration on the two lowers the vapor pressure of the solution at
sides. any given temperature, so it follows that a
• Soluble – a substance that dissolves in solution must be heated to a higher
another substance. temperature than that of the pure solvent to
boil.
• Solution – homogeneous mixture made up of
multiple substances. It is made up of solutes Colligative law states that “the boiling point
and solvents. elevation is directly proportional to the molal
concentration of the solution.”
• Stoichiometry- quantitative nature of
chemical formulas and chemical reactions. 2. Freezing Point Depression

• Volatility – describes how easily a substance A lower vapor pressure of a solution compared
will turn into gas or vapor. to that of a pure solvent affects the freezing
point of the solution. The freezing point of a
Stoichiometry Involving Solutions solution is lower than that of a pure solvent.
The greater the number of solute particles, the
Stoichiometry is solving problems using a lower its freezing point because the solutes
balanced chemical equation. The number of interfere with the crystallization of the solvent,
moles of a substance can be related to its molar and thus need to be cooled down to a lower
mass and number of molecules. It can also be temperature to achieve a solid.
related to the volume at Standard Temperature
and Pressure or STP. Stoichiometry may also Colligative law states that “the freezing point of
include solutions in through molarity. a solution is directly proportional to the molal
concentration of the solution,”
The solubility of a substance is the amount of
substance that dissolves in a given amount of 3. Vapor Pressure Lowering
solvent at a given temperature to produce a
saturated solution. Solubility is usually If you examine a liquid with a nonvolatile
expressed in grams of solute in 100 g of solute dissolved in it, the vapor particles above
solvent. Any solution that contains less solute the liquid are attributed mainly to the liquid or
than a saturated solution is unsaturated. A solvent. For example, 5g of sugar is added to
solution that contains a greater amount of 100g of water to form a dilute solution. Some
solute than a saturated solution is said to be of the sugar molecules occupy some of the
supersaturated. spaces on the water surface.

• Temperature 4. Osmotic Pressure

The solubility of gases is easier to predict than Recall an experiment in biology that
that of solids. All gases become less soluble as demonstrates osmosis, the passage of solvent
temperature increases. Therefore, carbonated molecules but not of solute particles through a
drinks bubble up in room temperature after semipermeable membrane.
being refrigerated. After a while, they lose • Calorimetry – is the measurement of the
much of the dissolved CO2 and taste flat. transfer of heat into or out of a system during a
• Pressure chemical reaction or a physical process.

Pressure has almost no effect in the solubility • Energy – is used to break bonds in reactants,
of solids and liquids but has a strong effect on and energy is released when new bonds form in
the solubility of gases. William Henry (1774- products. All chemical reactions involve
1836), an English chemist, found out that the energy.
solubility of a gas in a liquid at a given • Enthalpy - is the sum of the internal energy
temperature is directly proportional to the and the product of the pressure and volume of
a thermodynamic system.
• Endothermic change – is a reaction that changes (absorbed /released at a constant
require external energy, usually in the form of pressure.
heat, for a reaction to proceed.
Chemical Kinetics- is the study of rate and the
• Exothermic change – is a process that sequence of steps by which chemical reaction
releases heat, causing the temperature of the occurs.
immediate surroundings to rise.
Collision Theory- assumes that the particles
• First Law of Thermodynamics - states that collide at the proper orientation and with
energy can be converted from one form to sufficient energy in order to react.
another with the interaction of heat, work, and
internal energy, but it cannot be created nor Activation energy- is the minimum energy
destroyed, under any circumstances. required for a chemical reaction to occur and
make the reactants from an activated complex
• Heat energy – is the result of the movement of or transition state. The transition state is
tiny particles called atoms, molecules or ions located at the peak of energy diagram for a
in solids, liquids, and gases. reaction.

• Specific Heat – is the amount of energy Rate law- describes the relationship between
needed to increase the temperature of 1g of a the concentration of reactants and the reaction
substance by 1°C. rate.

• Thermodynamics – is the study of how heat Catalyst

and work relate to each other both in changes
of state and in chemical reaction. Catalyst is a substance that increases/
decreases the rate of a chemical reaction
• Work – is the change in internal energy that without itself undergoing a permanent
produces heat. chemical change. The catalyst decreases the
activation energy, thus causing the rate faster.
Thermochemical Equations and Heat of
Reaction There are two types of catalyst, namely:

A thermochemical equation is a balanced 1. Promoter or Positive Catalyst- is a substance

stoichiometric chemical equation that includes that increases the rate of chemical reaction
the heat of reaction, or the enthalpy change of since it decreases the activation energy.
the reaction, ΔH. It is represented by the Enzymes present in the human body are
equation. examples of catalysts like pepsin is the
digestive enzyme in the stomach that breaks
Hess’s Law of Heat Summation down protein into absorbable substance.
Hess’ law states that the enthalpy change of an 2. Inhibitor or Negative Catalyst- is a substance
overall reaction is the sum of the enthalpy that decreases the rate of chemical reaction
changes of its individual steps. Since enthalpy since it increases the activation energy. For
is a state function where the final and initial example, Phosphoric acid can be used to retard
states are the only important states, the the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
individual equations and their known enthalpy
can be manipulated to determine the enthalpy Reaction Mechanism
of the reaction.
A balanced chemical equation indicates the
Standard Heat of Reaction stoichiometric ratios of reactants and
products, but it provides no information about
The Heat of Reaction also known, and Enthalpy how the reaction occurs. The complete
of Reaction is the change in the enthalpy of a description of how the reactants is converted to
chemical reaction that occurs at a constant products is called the reaction mechanism.
pressure. It is a thermodynamic unit of
measurement useful for calculating the
amount of energy per mole either released or
produced in a reaction. Since enthalpy is
derived from pressure, volume, and internal
energy, all of which are state functions,
enthalpy is also a state function.

Enthalpy is an extensive property substance

that can be used to obtain the heat absorbed or
evolved in a chemical reaction. It is a
thermodynamic quantity used to describe heat