UNIT I8 TRIBAL RELIGION: TWO CASE

STUDIES
Structure

18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Tribal Religion in a State of Simplicity
18 2 1 Rltual Way of L ~ f e
18 2 2 Rltual Llements
18 2 3 Spirits and Souls
!8 2 4 Religion without Explanation
18.3 Tribal Religion Seeking Theologizal Complexity
18.3 1 I-,ncounter w ~ t hChrlstlan~ty
18 3 2 Old Bellef ar~dNew Interpretallon
I8 3 3 Writlng a Tribal Theology
18 3 4 I he Changing Worldview
18.4 Cross-Cultural Comparison
18.5 Let Us Sum Up
18.6 Key Words
1 8.'7 Further Reading
I8 8 Ansbers to Check Your Progress

18.0 OBJECTIVES
After dudying this Unit, you will be abie to

identifj the basic constituents oftribal ritual complex

understand the tribal concept of human being as a ritual being
describe theolog~calorientation of a tribal religion without explanation
discriss the tribal method of meeting the chalienges of Christianity
evaluate the proczss of transformation from oral to textual modes of cultural
transnllssiorl
sl~oivthe consequences of conflicting cosmologies on the life of the converts
explain the features of continuity in the changing tribal religion.

18.1 INTRODUCTION
In tl:e prcvious ucit (number 17) you studies the various aspects of religious pluralism
in India. You learnt about the geographical distribution of religious communities
throughout India, their demographic aspects and then you learnt about the social and
siiltural-historical foundations of the value systems of different religions. Tribes in
India constitute about 7% of the total population of lndia (1981 Censs). In this unit
m e are going to exp!air, the nature and development of tribal religions in India with
th.: help of two case studies; Birhors of Bihar and Khasis of Meghalaya. In this
uilit, we will examine two cases of tribal religion to highlight further its specific
fedtui'es.

As you know, tribal religion is based on oral traditions. The tribes express their
beliefs in everyday language. Their rituals are aimed at solving day to day problems
of life. Objects of worship are things of Nature such as trees, rivers, mountain, sun,
moon and earth. Offerings are usually i n the forni of food and drink, domesticated
birds and animals. Rituals are mostly performed co!lectivelv and transmitted orally.
By the term ritual: which has been interchangeably used wlth t h 1~ ~,I:-1 111- ( -.?\
--I.-
 Religious pluralism-I or custom; one implies any non-instinctice h~haviourwhich is repetitive, symbolic
and meaningful. It stands for any formal actions following a set pattern which
express through symbol a public or shared meanir,? These symbols express sacred
values which are demarcated from profane or mundane day to day activities of
everyday life. The sacred is that which is superior to the ordinary, utilitarian life
activities which falls in the purview of the profane. Tribal World view is grounded
in the natural events and life-experiences. Their cosmology is socially effective i.e.
existential, but uninterpretative. It lacks interpretability, precisely because the tribes
themselves have no metaphysical anxiety i.e. the anxiety to knhow about the reason
for their existence or how and why the cosmology exists, arid so on. But, coming
in contact with the complex forms of religion, they are now adopting explanatory
apparatus.

This unit will apprise you of both the situation, that is: (i) tribal religion in a state
of simplicity, and (ii) tribal religion seeking theological complexity. Section 18.2
describes tribal religions in their original state. For this let us take an example of
the Birhors of Bihar. In order to explain the tribal religion seeking theological
complexity we have given you the example of the Khasis of Meghalaya in the
section 18.3. Section 18.4 gives the Cross-cultural comparison of these two tribes
and finally, section 18.5 provides the summary of the unit.

18.2 TRIBAL RELIGION IN A STATE OF SIMPLICITY

The Birhors (Roy 1925, 198) are a nomadic hunting and gathering tribe. They are
numerically a small population located chiefly in the Chotanagpur plateau (south
Bihar) and sporadically found in Orissa, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. They
move about in small groups snaring monkeys, tracking hare, deer or other games,
and collecting rope-fibres, honey and bees wax. During the rainy season they camp
in tiny leaf huts called Kumba, and make wooden vessels and plait ropes, weaving
them into hunting nets. Their habitat, called tanda, is located in open spaces on the
wooded hill tops and slopes, or the edges of the jungles. By the sides of most Birhor
I
I settlements is a 'sacred grove' called the J a y a r or Jilu-Jayar, marked by one or
more trees and a few blocks of stones. This is the seat of the Sendra-bongas, the
spirits presiding os c.1. the hunt.

Birhor literally means the "Jungle (bir) fold (hor)". There are two main divisions:
(i) Uthalus or Bhulies, the wanderers, and (ii) Jaghis or Thanias, the settlers.
I The Uthalus move about from jungle to jungle in small groups with their families
t and scanty belongings. Their deities represented by lumps of clay, pieces of stones
and wooden pegs are carried in baskets by one or two young bachelors who walk
at the head of the party. The jaghis settle down for a comparatively long period
on the outskirts of the jungle, but rarely stop at one place for any considerable
length of time.
i
1 18.2.1 Ritual Way of Life
Every Birhor tanda has a headman called the Naya, who is primarily the priest of
the group, supernaturally selected. On the death of a Naya, his successor is chosen

I I
I
of the spirits in the following rnanner: A Mati, spirit-doctor, who is called on this
occasion, swings his head from side to side and reaches a state of ecstasy. He asks
the spirits.

"Whom will you have for your Naya?"

In answer the spirits, through the mouth of the Mati, declares,

"We want the man who is of such and such

24
 appearance, and has so many children, we Tribal Religion: Two
shall obey him". Case Studies

The new Naya selected in this way, first takes a bath in some sp;ing or stream and
then takes to the jilu-Jayar where the hunting neits have been ;-.!wed in a heap.
There he offers rice to the spirits. Following the brief ritual, the meri of the tanda
go out for a hunt to test the correctness of the selection. If the hunt proves
successful the people rejoice; if fails, the Naya is called upon for an explanation.
The Mati again gets possessed and finds out what spirit has caused failure. On his
declaring the nanie of the spirit and the sacrifices it requires, the Naya proceeds
to propitiate the unfriendly spirit. He thus, puts himself right with man and spirit.

The duty of the Naya is to offer the sacrifice. He appoints a man as the Kotwar
or Diguar to the hunt, to attend at the sacrifices and to make all necessary
arrangements for them. The position of the Mati is different from both the Naya
and the Kotwar. He is neither elected nor appointed. He is the person believed to
have the power of second sight. Usually, a person who feels a call to the vocation
of a Mati goes to another Mati for training. He observes certain strict rules as to
diet and worship. After having completed the training he is recogised as a Mati.
The function of the Mati is to find out the unfriendly spirits causing sickness and
other misfortunes of the community, and the required sacrifices to propitiate them.
When there is a new birth in the tanda, certain hills which may not stand pollution
have to be avoided by the hunting party of the tanda until the purificatory ceremony
has been performed on the seventh day of the birth. It is the business of the Mati
to discover and declare the hills which could resent such contact.

As a nomadic hunter and food gatherer, the Birhor social organisation and religious
beliefs are essentially concerned with success or luck in securing food. Any case
of ill-luck that befalls the .community either in respect of food, health or other
concerns of life is attributed to the infringement of some taboo by some member
of the community and the consequent wrath ofr some spirit. To illustrate the point,
let us look into the ritual3 and beliefs associated with the monkey-hunt, called qari-
sendra, which is the Birhor's characteristic mode of food quest.

On the morning of the appointed day of monkey-hunt, the Naya bathes in a stream
or spring, fills a pot with water and brings it home. He changes his loin-cloth, and
in the company of one or two elders proceeds with a handful or aura rice and the
water-pot to the Jily-Jayar which his wife has alreadv cleaned with mud or
cowdung. The Kotwar has placed there all the nets of the int. ' ~ n ghunters. Before
this heap of nets, the Naya stands on his left leg with his right heal resting on his
left knee (Fig. I), and with his face to the east and with arms extended forward,
pours a little of water three times on the groud, invokes all the spirits by name for
success in hunting:

A Trabal ceremony
Religious Pluralism-T "Here I am making a libation in your names.
May blood of game flow like this".

He then sits down before the nets and puts three vermilion marks on the ground.
On these he spripkles a little arua rice, and address the spirits:

"Today I am offering this rice to you all.

May we have speedy success.
May game be caught in our nets
as soon as we enter the jungle".

All the asszmbled persom, then return home, leaving the nets there. After breakfast
each iut- ding hunter tyakes up from the Jule-jayar his own hunting net, clubs and
i;arLoo poles for fixing nets, and subsequently proceeds to the selected jungle.

Precautions are taken, while leaving the tanda, that none of the pary may chance
to see any empty vessel being carried along, or a person easing himself. Such sights
are regarded as bad auguris. When the party arrive at the selected jungle, all sit
down together on the ground for a short while. The Kotwar tcuches each net with
an ebony twig and bands it over to the Naya to perform a ritual called bana-sana
which is believe:! LO have neutralised the harmful effects of the evil eye that may
have been directed against the party. With a low murmuring voice, he says

"Today I am making bana-sana in the names of

those (women) who cast their eyes at us
while sending us away.
May we have success in the hunt
as soon as we go (enter the jungle).
May oil of the bhelwa, or making-nut, drop
into the eyes and anus of those who
cast evil eyes on us".

The parties are, then, told to set off in different directions for monkey-capturing.
After bagging the game, the party leaves the forest. When they arrive at some
stream, they light a fire and scorch the monkeys in it. The roasted meat is distributed
among the members of the party. But before that, the Naya offers it to all the spirits
jointly and promises them similar offerings in future if they always bring them such
game. When the hunting party return home, the wife of each hunter first washes
the feet of her husband, and then all the women proceed to the house of the Naya
and there each women washes his feet and anoints them with oil. If the party
returns home unsuccessful, the Naya askes the Kotwar to bring him the hunting
nets of each family in the tanda. He takes out a bit of thread from each of the
nets and buries the bundle of thread in the ground. Sitting down by its side, he goes
on muttering incantations, and exclaims,

"Here is the bundle which these spirits have secreted.

That is wbjl no game could be had.
Now that h have taken out this impediment
to chase, it: will henceforth be all right7'.
d,

Then addressing the s&its, fre says, * - '

. .
' % '

"I shall swrifice fowls to yo&, ";,

Don't offet cibstructions &t more. - :'-.- ... -rbi

From todaj may game bq cawt - :::

.. -- .
-. s - . %-:,
in plenty i$ our nets. ...'<.. -- ,,$-<-
-. ,? -..*.. <-
- , '&-
., rC-
* *-.a
a,+,
Saying this, he sadrifices a fowl by cutting its'nick with a knife.
26
 Tribal Religion: l'wo
Case Sludics

1 l r o u just icilrl the sccton on '.Ritual Way ufLifeY7

of the Birhor tribals. Arc I
1 I ~ L T Cccjiii\ali.!it
rituals which YOU perfor~iiin your family and community.

1 1Icsc1-:bcii? detail a: ie:ist one such ritual in about two pages Conipare, if
pni:;iblc. YVLir answcr \vith tiiose of other students of your study centre.

how ~ I I C Birhor a whole life---biological, economic, social and political-

O L I ! ~ , I V C5ci.1:

i k pcrX. ,:di:d !,y his I-eiigion.Birhor religion consists ofbeliefs in the sacred prcsence
!
I>;' 11;~. spirit5 4: ith L! j11.)~1 tribcsri.lel~interact in everqday language and through
I
I
I
I!i;!l>i'l-;:::\ r i h . sacs~jiceq.channs and spells in everyday life.
t
I I ; i c r;~nalspcri'onned du:in2 th :v,~llhcy-hunt:such as that cf pouring of water
iiu-cc. ~ i n ~ i.;y c s the Birho~i > l - i ~ . , t I; . . i :iiets of the intending hunters invoking
,

I
i
all 1!1c >,i>irlt~ by I?:lrxrnc f ~ isuc;cs:
- , i n 1 1 1 iri~i~g,
rcfers to whai the anthropologists call
,:y~~lpatj~etic ~iiagic.i r l othct word ... i;ke produces iibe. if; a broad sense, this is the
i i i i i i ~ ~iliil~klng
l o f human bcirigs regardlug ihc regularjij t i t cilusc atid effect. Ii'the
,!>l!.it i. tllc c311se, Ihc desircd effect. such as success in h u n i ~ ~w~ ~g l, follow l in the
; , ! : ~ ion
i L.!' tile n:%t

13.2.2 Ritual Elements

I

i I I ~ . I r!.uciLllc 01' Birh~)r-rituals is formed by varicv.1~components or elemetlts which

::I.. !::e;!l.icab!y rcia~cdn-ith one anather. Briefly, these arc as f ~ i i ;:c ~

i'l-orc.L.i~o!:f r ~ eltil;
i ~ l ~ i 1i1
~ khealth; pwgeny and food; ensure success in the hunt;
li)r ~ i i cgood o i thc Ianiily; to avcrt any mischicf of tlie spirit; causing death ar,d
\icl.~?:',i i';, ill? E2:L'illY; protection of ti;: tanda; trsining o" a spirit-doctor, stopping
.,Lor ~ ; s;it12 iiglltcnilig: rain-making; reco\:ering a !osl dog; driving away bugs and
~:;o..;iji!itc:es;~t!i.aciir?ga beloved person; to conlrol plant-life; puiification from birth
[lild :iclitl; polli~tio!:; for the good o f t h e departed soul; and performances connected
i:iih tlic likcycli. 2nd v;it!i calendrical testivals,

b ) IPcrSorn\~~r

Ti)? .hays priest, tht: Kolwar or Digusr ritual assistant; the Mati diyiner; the
hcaciman of rhe clan; and woman.

c,) Preparation

13athing; smearing oil on head or limbs; fasiing; not eating sait; cleaning the ritual
~ X I C Cwith
mud, co\vdu~.lgand water; and purification by fire, by sharing, etc.

ti) Performance and process

!I Ritual time: Jan-Feb, July, Sept.-C)ct.-Nov.; Friday, Monday; junctures of

iime xuch as rnornii~g,noon, evening.

2 ) Ritu:il space: upland, hill, forest, field; family hut, spirit-hut; square; east-facing.

i) Ritual o:;cc:l;: rock or stone, barnbc.9 or wooden peg, lunlp of clay; leaf-cup,
floa.ers, h!.igs oflrccs. spirit-box cor.!:;ini!:g alittle vennilion in a small container
and soliie aura rice kept in a bamboo-tzbe; spirit-net; husking pestle; arrow
heads, iron tridants or c h a i ~ stoie~ni;.
, objecu such as rice-husk, pellet-bow,
bonga sauri (a kind of wild grass), etc.
'7
Religious Pluralism-I 4) Offerings: arua rice, rice with blood, salt, turmeric, chillies, vermilion; water,
honey, rice-beer, liquor, blood of sacrificial fowl, goat, pig or bullock, dee-
hair or skin roasted flesh of monkey) etc.

5) Sacrifice: Kutam process in which the pigs are sacrificed by striking them
at the neck with the but-end of an axe, and jabai process (with two and
half strokes of a weapon) in the manner of the Muhammadans; the head
of the fowl cut off with the knife, the fowl sacrificed by twisting the head,
that is, sacrifice by ningchha method.

6) Colour: White fowl, speckled (spotted red and white) fowl, white goat, red I
goat, black goat.

7) Ritual drawing: a figure drawn on the ground with rice-flour for takchanrhi
marriage ceremony (Fig. 2), a mystic diagram (Fig. 3) drawn on the
ground with black coal dust, red earth and white rice-flour for bana-sana
ceremony in which the black stand for the Baghour spirit, red for Naga-
Era Bindi-Era, and the white for Banu-bonga.

8) Methods of spirit finding: The khari-hora process in which the Mati sits
down holding with one hand an axe placed upright on the ground with its
buttend downward, and begins by sprinkling around him rice-grains placed
before him on a leaf and goes on muttering invocations to different spirits,
interrogating them in a sing-song tone; the dub-hora process of spirit-
finding consists in the Mati taking some rice on a winnowing basket and
briskly rubbing them with his hands on the baskqt while muttering his
invocations until he is possessed by the bhut responsible for the trouble.

9) Sound: For rain-making ceremony people go up the nearest hill and push-
down stones of all sizes which produce a rumbling noise which at the salne
time is intensified by beating a drum so as to produce a low, heavy, continued
sound in imitation of the sound of falling rain on the roofs of their huts.
Invske clan-god or Yam spirit in imitation of the crowing of a cock by
nttering the queer cry of Kok-ro-cho; relatives of the deceased rending
the air with loud cries of lamentation..

Check Your Progress 1

i) Who are the Birhors? Use about 8 lines for your answer.

....................................................................................................................
ii) What are the ritual elements? Describe any one of them in about 8 lines.

....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
6

28
....................................................................................................................
 Tribal Religion: Two
Case Studies

18.2.3 Spirits and Souls

To the Birhor everything above, below, or around, him is animated either by spirit
or supernatural elements. Every living being is animated by a soul or souls. The
spirits reside in a large number of things. Most of them are dormant, but still the
number of active spirits and energies is considerable. The most important of these
are spirits of their original native hills, forests and streams. Besides, there are the
ever-increasing spirits of dead human beings, all seeking food and nourishment. The
Birhors recognise a distinction between spirits who may have to be propitiated with
prayers and sacrifices and impersonal powers of energies which may be controlled,
averted or repelled by spells, threats and other such methods. All these may be
grouped as follows:

a ) General spirits

I ) Singbonga or the supreme spirit, symbolised by the Sun, generally an

unconcerned spectator or witness who does not ordinarily cause any harm to
man and may occasionally protect him from evil.
2) Burhi mai or the mother spirit, Kali mai, Devi mai, and other represented
by a piece of wood'daubed red with vermilion, brings luck in health, progeny
and food.
Chandi and other spirits of the chase. A piece of rock or stone under some
tree is fixed upon as the seat of the hunting spirit Chandi and his associates.
Bandarbir and Hulmanbir bring success in catching monkeys.
Some of these spirits, for example Chandi, Kalirnai, Devi, Hulman, Mahadeo,
etc. belong to the Hindu pantheon.
4) Mahali chaati, a female spirit, the presiding deity of smaller game like the
wild cat and lizard, grants success in hunting those animals which are
caught in the rainy months.

b) Clan spirits

1) Ora-banga or buru-bonga, the spirits o the different hills reputed to have

formed the original homes of the different Birhor clans, the masters (dispensers)
of sickness, credited with certain powers over Nature such as that of causing
and stopping rain and storm.
2) Larankla bhut, the fighting spirit with whose help in ancient times, the
forefathers of the clan are reputed to have fought against other clans, invoked
on fighting expeditions.
3) Manita or acquired spirits such as Mai or Mebamaya, Mahadeo and several
others provided with seats either in a small leaf-hut called bonga-ora or the
family as distinguished from the common (jama) thaan of the tanda. A vow
or manita is made when the epidemic spreads and the promised sacrifices
are offered by the Naya when it abates.
 c) Family spirit

1 ) Haprom or ancestor-spirits, the spirits of such deceased persons of a Birhor

family as have been conducted to the ading or inner-tabernacle of the hut by
the Urnbul-ader ceremony. Although thej gc~~erally exercise a guardian care
ever their descendents, ancestor-spirits are not consulted in times of distress
nor credited with the power of giving oracles to theni.
2) Family m a h a bhuts or the acquired spirits of a family. comprise such
spiiits as owing to repeated mishaps having been c a ~ s e dby them to the
farn i ly.
d) Group-spirits or Sangi hhut
Jaher Buri, Mai,. Kali Mai, Devi, 1)arha Mahatleo and several other dieties
are included among the Sangi bhuts. '1-hese are spirits sacrificcd to b), ancntire
tanda or food group once a year i l l the month of January-I:i.bs~~ary as also whcn
an epidemic visits the tanda or its sar~ountlingcountry.
e ) Individual tutelary or Sakti bhuts
It is only thc lnati who takes to h~rnself\oliie particular deity such as Mahadeo,
Mai, Devi and Durga as tlie Sakti bhut. The Sangi bhuts are characterised as
Arhaia bhuts. [hey \ \ i l l hill people or do them other harm.
f') Minor spirits or Ningchha bhuts
In this class are l i a m a ~spirit5
~ who ~ I t..\cluued
C froni tile category of Haproms
such as the bhuts or spirits of men -whose .wices died during their menstrual
~)criods.Kichin ~ 1 spirits
- of women dying during menses, Raram-hhut or
sp'ril.; ofbachc!:~rs~vhohcpt ~naidensi i concUbinage,
~ Mua or spiritsof pcrsons
d>.ingof snake-bitc. Churin or spirits of women dyring during pregnancy. and
elemental spirits like the Satbahini, the seven sistcrs and Bindi-Era. These are
wandering spirits, having no tixed habitation.
g) Manita bhut of women

Ordinarily, men %lone are entitled to offer sacrifices to the spirits and have
personal rclations, so to say, lvith tlie~n.In some cases womc may also offer
sacrifices to certain spirits. T!?is happens especially when she eats the meat of
the head of an animal, or fowl, sacrificed to a spirit. As thc spirit is thereby
drawn on her and .begins to cause trouble to herself and her family, she adopts
the spirit as a manita to be periodically propitiated with appropriate sacrifices.

I 11) Souls or umbul

When death occurs the umbul o~ bade of the deLcasedjoints tlie sp~rit-world.
A man has two soults- a nlale one and a female one. These remain united in
death as in lifc, a1.d lien they finallj lose their present body by death, are
reincarnated togcther in a new body. When a person dreams, the male soul
goes out of the body and visits different persons and places, while the female
soul remains in-charge of the body, just as his wife is left in-charge of the hut
when a Birhor goes out to hunt. So long as the male soul does not come back,
the body is said to be sleeping; but when it is unsually long in returning the
female soul too goes out in search of her mate leaving the body dead. Some
Matis are credited with the power of calling back the truant souls and thus
restoring life through the aid of their family spirits. When a Birhor dies in the
jungle during a storm, the chances are that his death may be only temporary,
hence some Birhdrs postpone for three or four days after death the cremation
or burial of a man dying through exposure in a storm.
18.2.4 Religion without Explanation Tribal Religion: Trio
Case Studies

The Birhor religion, as we have seen, has its basis i.: a haunting sense of the
presence of spirit-powers all around the world. The most impo~tantproblem of life
is to deal with these powers to ensure individual and collective well-being. The
solution that Birhor society has found is to seek conciliation and communion with
the more definite and potent personal spirits and to deal with the more indefinite and
impersonal forces by way of control, expulsion or avoidance through appropriate
rites, ceremonies. spells and taboos. But the tribal faith does not account for the
ultimate cause of the natural phenomena and happenings in life.

The Birhor supreme-spirit, Singh-Bonga, is creator of the world, but he does not
take any active part in the direction of the universe and in the affairs of human
beings. The other spirits, friendly and ucfriendly, are the potentla1 source of good
luck and bad luck. But no spirit is conceptualised as God in the Christian sense of
creator and ruler of the universe and the one who pronounces reward and punishment
on human beings.

The Birhor spirits are conditioned by the same appetite and desires as those of the
human. They are anxious for animal food and a regular supply of it. Yet the spirit
powers are treated as a class apart. This of course indicates the tribal sense of
sacredness, but gives no phenomenological explanation of the sacred or profane. In
other words, there is no theology or body of religious philosophy behind the tribal
religions.

Box 18.1
Phenomenology The term "phenomenology" is derived from the Greek
word "phainein" which means "to show". It is from this word that
phainemenan that is "that which appears", has been derived. It is in this
sense that phenomenology can be literally understood as the study of
phenomena or appearances. It could therefore, include a large arena of
traditional philosophy and science. 7 he famous twentieth century German
philosopher, Edmund Husserl was closely associated with this school of
thought.

You will learn more about phenomenology and its relationship with sociology
in your post-graduate courses.
-

'The Birhor belief in the multiplicity of supernaturhl powers ,, mains unexplained.

In the more complex forms of religion, the power behind the unlJerse is conceptualised
as one, though with many manifestations.

Among the Birhors, as we have alreaAy seen, a man in a state of self-induced

trance can enter into direct communion with the spirit-world. The Mati comes to
know the wishes and demands of a particular spirit and brings about a mutual
understanding between man and the spirit. The Naya performs rituals to put his
tribesmen on a working relationship with the spirits. The ccmmon human being
enters into the spirit world when he or she is asleep. And all Birhors become one
with the spirit by eating the sacrificial mean. Yet, they do not become the author
of the Advaitin theory of non-duality i.e., the belief that there is one God as believed
by the Hindu philosopher Shankara.

Check Your Progress 2

i) Describe any one of the 4eneral spirits using about six lines.
v

..................................................................................................................
 Religious Pluralism-I

ii) Of the spirits recognised by the Birhors what are the deities that belong to the
Hindu pantheon? List them in about two lines.

iii) What is the nature of the spirit world worshipped and propitiated by the Birhors?
Discuss using about six lines.

iv) Birhor religion is a religion without metaphysics. Discuss in about ten lines.

..........................................................................................
I .........................L

18.3 TRIBAL RELIGION SEEKING THEOLOGICAL

COMPLEXITY
1 In the previous section you learnt about the simple tribal religion of the Birhors
which lacked metaphysical explanation. But due to the contact of complex religions
such as Christianity and Hinduism some of,these tribal religions have acquired on
explanatory apparatus. One such religion is the religion of the Khasis of Meghalaya.
F
I1 The Khasis are a matrilineal tribe inhabiting the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya. In the
. past, as shifting jhum agriculturists they had to move from one place to another in
i about twenty to thirty-year cycle. Swine husbandry as part of the shifting agricultural
I system, was another source of their livelihood. At one time, each village has had
I a small patch of forest preserved in a virgin state. The Khasi deities representing
32
various elements of nature reside in these sacred groves. Cutting live wood from Tribal Religion: Two
these forests was considered a taboo. It was believed that the spirit would wring Case Studies
the neck of the offender. One, however, is allowed to remove the dead wood.

Each grove had a presiding spirit, U. Basa br U. Ryngkew, for instance, reign the
Mawphlang sacred grove locally called Law Lyngdoh. Such groves also exist in
Upper Shillong, the capital town of Meghalaya, and Mawsmai in Cherapunji, a place
which was known for the world's highest rainfall. The Khasi religion and culture
used to revolve round the jhum operations. Ritual dance and music, pig sacrifice
and other religious rites and ceremonies follow their jhum calender.

This traditional setting has changed considerably in course of time. With the increase
in population and relative decrease in the carrying capacity of land, the Khasis have
changed their jhum way of life. On the introduction of the new method of cultivation
the community rights in land has changed. The post-independence development
schemes have drifted them to new occupations. And yet, the forest farming continues
to some extent. Paddy, potato, betel nut, betel-leaf and banana remain their main
products of cultivation. In the traditional Khasi society, the secular and religious
leadership combined in the person, namely Syiem who in association with Myntries,
Lyngskhors, Basans and ~ ~ n ~ held d otheb Khasi durbar at the regional level.
The larger body called Durbar Bima, or state assembly, reigned supreme in all
judicial matters and was known as Ka Durbar Blei, the Assembly of God. This
system was adversely affected by the establishment of the British Raj. And now,
most of the functions of the traditional political organisation are performed by the
District Council and the State Government.

18.3.1 Encounter with Christianity

Following the British Raj, Chr tian Missionaries made in roads to the Khasi Hills.
In 1813, Krishna Chandra Pal, $, evangelist, succeeded in converting two Khasis
to the Christian fold (Sahay ,1986). And today nearly half of the Khasi population
has embraced Christianity. At the beginning, conversion was vehemently opposed
by several English educated Khasis; prominent among them were Jeebon Roy,
Sibacharon Roy, Harmurai Diengdoh and Rash Mohan Roy. The challenges of
Christianity were met in the following manner:

a)- Reorganisation of traditional Khasis

A formal organisation of the indigenous religion, called Seng Khasi, was formed
in 1899 with a view to safeguarding the Khasi tradition. The fou'r cardinal
principles underlying the objectives of the organisation are:

1) Adherence to the tenets of kinship as specified by the ancestors.

2) Righteousness through service; love and truth and a desire to improve both
mind and body.
3) Respect for one's own fellowmen and cultivation of humility.
4) To work for one's country with faith in God.

b) creation of literature

Publication of literahre on Khasi religious rites and customs became the most
important activity. In the preface of'his booklet Ka Niam jong ki Khasi,
Jeebon Roy wrote in 1897, "The people will completely forget (their religion),
with the coming of the Christian Mission, the Roman Catholic Mission, the
Unitarian Mission, the ~ r a h m oMission; the poor religion of the Khasis without
any written record will pass into oblivion and we will one day forget it completely".
 Since then leading intellectuals of the Seng Khasi organisation are involved In
the creation of Khasi religious literature.

c) Presenration of cultural heritage

'The Seng Khasi plays an important role in revitalising the traditional symbols
and aesthetic manifestations through ritual idiom. It organises calendrical festivals
like Shad Suk Nlynsiem and the Nongkrem dance which involve mass
participation and effective realisation of the Khasi's cultural heritage.

Activity 2

YOUhave just read the section on "Encounter with Christianity". Keeping

:his in mind try and f i ~ dout if there has been the impact of any other
religion on the religious values, beliefs and customs of your own. For this
you may take help from other members of your family, friends and
colleagues.

Write a short note of about two pages. Compare your note, if possible, with
those of other students at your study centre.

18.3.2 Old Belief and New Interpretation

Against the virulent attack of the Christian Missionaries and in response to
anthropologists misinterpretation of Khasi religion and society, the promoters of the
Seng Khasi gave new interpretation to their old beliefs and customs. Rymbai (1980),
the most venerable inspirer of the Seng Khasi movement today, has made the
following assertions:
 Tribal Religion: Two
Box 18.2 Case Studies

The Khasi-Pnars believe that God is omnipotent and ominpresent. Accordingly,

they hold it a sacrilege to symbolise God or to picture Him in any shape
or form. The early Western Christian Missionaries who contemptuously
characterised the Khasi-Pnars as worshippers of idols, of stocks and stones,
spoke of what they did not know, and of what they supercilliously disdained
to learn (May God forgive them). They were also equally and mightily
wrong when they lightly labelled them as animists because they do not
worship spirits said to be inhabiting mountains, rivers or trees. Neither do
the Khasi-Pnars practise ancestor-worship, another misconception of the
Western Missionaries about their reverence for their ancestors who, they
believe, watch them from high place.

The Khasi-Pnars have no temples, churches or synagogues. God, the creator of all,
fills heaven and earth. Every bid of ground is therefore sacred, and no particular
part or portion can be held as holier than the other. They also have no saints or
martyrs or any system or established priesthood, for their creed is that each man
must save himself by his own actions: living justly, observing and obeying the word
of God transmitted to him through the advice of his parents. The Khasi-Pnars are
monotheistic, but they invoke God by various names according to the need of the
moment, as God has all the attributes of goodness and all the power to do good.

The Khasi-Pnars have no fixed days of congregational worship like the Sunday of
the Christians, the Friday of the Mohammedans, or the Sabbath of the Jews. If to
be religious means to be seen in religious gatherings in churches or temples on fixed
days of the week, or preaching publicity about God, or praying in public to Him, or
sitting in sack clothes and ashes, or going on pilgrimage, a Khasi-Pnar may be
considered as the least religious of human beings, or as one having no religion at
all, because you do not find them doing so. But they are, in fact, intensely religious
people as they must Kamai ia ka hok, which they can fulfil only by means of
honest work, truthfulness in thoughts and word, and justness in all their transactions.
Thus religion permeates the life of a Khasi-Pnar in all its aspects because he or
she must work to live and honest work is worship.

In the Seng Khasi's self-defence we thus find:

i) denial of the most comon characterisation oftribal religion as animistic;

ii) denial of the tribal practice of ancestor-worship; denial of the polytheistic (i.e.
worship of many gods) character of tribal religion;

iii) assertion of the tribal religion that there can be no space bereft of God and no
Sphere of human life on which religion does not have a crucial bearing; and

iv) ascertain of the tribal religion that work is worship is the fundamental truth of life.

'check Your Progress 3

i) How does a tribe meet the challenges of a proselytising religion? Take the
example of the Khasis of Meghalaya. Use about eight lines.
 .....................................................................................................................
ii) In self-interpretation what makes a,tribal truly religious. Use about ten lines.

.............................................................
b.............I.......................n.#,,m,,.~...,...

\
iii) Fill in the blanks:

a) The Khasi religion and culture used to revolve round the ...............
operations. This was a method of'............they followed earlier,
b) In themtraditional
Khasi society, the secular and religious leadershipcombined
in one person, namely ......... who in association with Mystrier,
Lyngskhors, Basans and Lyndohs held the Khasi durbar at the ............
level.
c) A formal organisation of the indigenous religion, called ..was ................
formed in 1899 with a view to safe-guarding the Khasi tradition,

18.3.3 Writing a Tribal Theology

As indicated, the Khasis felt the need to write tribal theology mainly to meet the
Christian challenges to their indigenous faith and form of culture, Most of the
scholars who have writfen the Khasi theology were past-Christians. In the situation,
it is not unexpected that whatever has been written by them will have a strong
bearing on the Christian theology. Let us take a few examples of the basic concepts
that constitute a theology of any tradition. In doing so, we can do no better than
referring to Mawrie (1981) whose expositions of the tenets of the Khasi culture and
religion are considered authentic, ha interprets Khasi concept of man, God and
religion as follows:

a) Man

The Khasi concept of human being is similar to that of the Jews. A Khaei
believes that God made herhim, which means that He made her or him a full-
fledged human being to inhabit this world.

The Khasi thinks that a human baing is a special creature of God. He or she
is incomparably higher than any other creature.

A Human beings' capacity to grow morally and spiritually is quite special to him
or her-and this is God's particular gift to human beings: the element of the
divine in them.
 Another divine gift to human being, a Khasi believes, is the unique gift of K4 Tribal Religion: Two
Case Studies
Rngiew: Ka Rngiew is a human beings' capacity to bring rational considerations
to bear upon his or her understanding of his or her own situation.

The Khasi believes that this world is full of the powers of darkness and evil and
that the sole function of these powers is to dislodge a human being from hislher
place given to him or her by God. Human beings cannot fight these powers on their
own. Their strength lies in the presence of God in them and therefore, God, must
always remain in the resolve of their hearts.

b) God

The Khasis, like the Jews, never seek to formulate arguments to prove that God
exists. They take it for granted that God exists and that there is only one God
who is omnipresent, omnipotent and eternal.

1
I
God may reveal himself to human beings in any or all the following ways:
I
a) through His power,
I b) through His righteousness, and
c) through His spoken word.
To a Khasi the name God is above the rules of gender. He is the alpha and
I
I omega. Therefore, whatever we call U Blei (masculine) or Ka Blei (feminine)
I it makes the same sense. To a Khasi, God is the supreme planner and creator.

A Khasi addressed God with diverse names but all these names are only to
express the qualities and attributes relating to different furktions of God in His
I
particular relation toahurnan beings.

c) Religion
For a Khasi Ka Nlam (religion) necessarily complaments Ka Rukom (rite);
hence the phrase Ka Nlam Ka Rukom. Ka Rukom indicates the ceremonial
aspects of religious observances, which must be according to the norms laid
down in Ka Nlam.

The Khasi religion illustrates the relationship betwwn human beings and God
through parables and mysterious words. According to the Khasi, religion is the
rolationship between them and God, and this relationship is governed by two
factors, namely, Ka Nia and Ka Jutang (reason and covenant). The principle
reason for human beings is that helshe is a creature of God. The covenant on
~~;,*r,otherhand is that as long as helshe is alive in this world, helshe should abide
by and execute the command (hukkum) of God by earning righteousness-and
on God's part the covenant is that God shall take care of herlhim.

The Khasi's religion is an integral part of their clan and group life. The clan
keeps religion in the care of the God-head, the Ancestress, the Ancestor and
the Ancestral Uncle. These four comprise the family cause.
Wh?n any family falls into affliction, or distress, or financial deterioration, or is
inflicted with sickness, or events causing grief, or agony to the family, the family
believes that there is a curse behind such happpenings. A Khasi does not
believe that things take place without a cause.

They ask for ths clue or sign from grains of rice, or cowrie or other materials and
should those not yield any result, they use the egg-breaking or cock-sacrificing
ritual. When they have discovered the cause, they then, perform sacrifices for
Religious Pluralism-I atonement of the shortcomings so that they may be set free from the gripping
affliction.

In general, the Khasi religious rituals take place within a family household, or in a
clan or group with its own ancestress, ancestor and ancestral uncle.

18.3.4 The Changing Worldview

The changing\yorldview of the Khasis, as reflected in their theology, is to be seen
in the perspective of changing environment. As Saraswati (191) points out, "Unlike
the 'modern' societies, a basic characteristic of all traditional societies is that thde
is no gap in their knowledge and existence. The moment a tribal society loses this
unique feature, its purity and distinction are lost for ever. But this does not mean
that the tribal world is static and closed. There has always been active incorporation
of the new elements and reformation of the old, the evidence of which can be found
in the elaboration of myths and general beliefs. However, affirmation of new ideas
is possible only within the basic ontological categories. Difficulties arise when
cosmologies are in conflict. The following autobiographical statements by Pugh
(1976), a Christian Khasi by birth, trained in agricultural science in the U.S.A. and
a public man of high repute, are relevant:

As a religious man, I believe in God and being a man, my God also in anthropomorphic
(the conception of God as having the form, personality or attributes of man or
woman) while in my heart of hearts, I do not believe that it can be so. Jesus himself
has said: 'God is a spirit' or 'God is spirit'. But being also a Khasi tribal who lives
in a Khasi land, in spite of my science and Christian theology, I continue to pray
to God who seems to me circumscribed in the envirvnment in which I live.

When I die, my desire is that I may be cremated as I do not wish that my body
should lie in close company with the Saints, neither do I with that my mortal remains
shouid unnecessarily encumber the ground which is so hard pressed because of the
increasing populaion".

18.4 CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON

The two cases that we have discussed separately may now be compared for the
sake of our understanding. These two, otherwise incomparable cultures, are
compared in order to grasp the wider phenomena underlying a tribal religion. Let
us present our finds in a tabular form.

Birhor Khasi

1. Hunter, gatherer 1. Shifting agriculturist

2. Partilineal 2. Matrilineal

3. Relatively untouched by modern 3. Exposed to modem education

education and occupation and occupation

4. Secular and sacred combined 4. Secular and sacred combined with

in one person one person

5. Priest chosen of spirits 5. Divinity ascribed to the assembly of

people

6. Multiplicity of spirits, having 6. God with diverse names, indicating

different functions and powers different functions.
I 7. World filled with spirits

8. The supreme spirit created

7. God omnipresent

8. God the creator

Tribal Religion: Two
Case Studies

the universe

' 9. Distinction between benevolent 9. Distinction betwen God and Devil

and malevolent spirits recognised. maintained

10. Spirits distinguished by gender. 10. Traditional sexual distinction of God,

derecognised.

1 1. Sacred groves. 11. Sacred groves.

12. Ritual space not restricted 12. Ritual space not restricted to man-
to man-maLe structures. made structures.

I
I
13. Cause of natural phenomena and
happenings in life recognised.
13. Cause of natural phenomena and
happenings in life recognised.
I
14. Divination: rice and cock-sacrifice 14. Divination: rice and cock-sacrifice.

15. Taboos . 15. Taboos

16. Spirit-powers controlled, averted 16. Man subject to God's reward and
or repelled by man punishment

17. Clan and ancestral spirits 17. Clan and ancestral spirits
worshipped. worshipped.

18. A man as two souls 18. A man has only one soul.

19. Cremation 19. Cremation

20. Primacy of ritual without 20. Primacy of theological explanation.

explanation.

Check Your Progress 4

i) Explain in your own words the Khasi concept of man using about ten lines.
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
ii) What are the three ways in which God may reveal Himself to man, according
to the Khakis? Use about five lines.
Religious Plurqlism-I

iii) Describe at least two features in which the Khasis differ from the Birhors using
about eight lines.

18.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have made the following conclusive observations:

Tribal religions may differ among themselves slightly, or significantly according to

their own cultural history or on the basis of the extent to which other religions have
made an impact on them.

These may be classified into two broad categories: one with the old beliefs and
rituals and another with the old beliefs and rituals undergoing theological orientation.
The difference lies not in praxis but in' the acceptance of a theory developed
outwardly.

Tribal religion of the first order pervades all aspects of life, that is, it performs
integrative functions; which the second category is more restricted in its effect.

In the first case, there is no gap between belief and behaviour; in the latter the gap
exists and widens with the increase in theological orientation.

The tribal revitalisation of indigenous ritual idiom and the search for a new theology ,

may appear incompatible in their goals; in reality they together aim at securing
maximum efflorescence of tribal identity.

KEY WORDS
Animism : The belief in attribution of soul to inanimate objects
and natural phenomena.

Atonement : Correcting moral wrongs.

Augury : Omen, sign portending good or evil.

Charms : ~ o i d or
s objects or characters supposedly having
occult power.

Communion : Participation in Lord's Super, fellowship.

Congregation : Assembly of people for religious worship.

40
 . .
conversion : Change of religion. Tribal Religion: TWO
Case Studies

Covenant : A mutal agreement.

Diviner : One who is expert in divining the future.

Ecstasy : Overwhelming feeling of spiritual joy, raciure.

Incantation : Magic spell.

Indigenous : Belonging naturally to soil or country.

Invoke : Call on in prayer, summon spirit by charm.

Libation : Drink-offering to god or spirit.

Matrilineal : System in which descent is trace through the

mother.

Metaphysics : Theoretical philosophy of being, knowing.

Monotheism : Doctrine that there is only one God.

Omnipotent : All powerful.

Omnipresent : Present everywhere.

Ontology : The metaphysics concerned with nature and

essencfe of being.

Patrilineal : A system in which descent is traced through the

father.

Phenomenology : The philosophy which recognises observed or

apparent objects or fact or occurrence and its cause.

Polytheism : Belief in or worship of more than one God.

Propitiation : Act of appeasement.

Reincarnation : Rebirth of soul in new body.

Sacrilege : Violation of what is sacred.

Shifting cultivation : A method of slash-and-burn forest farming on a

plot of land shifted in cyclical order.

Synagogue : Building for regular assembly of Jews for religious

instruction and worship.

Taboo : Act, or system, of setting apart a person or sacred

thing.

Totem ; Natural object (especially animal) adopted as

emblem, of a tribe,

Trance : A spiritually elevated state of mind.

Religious Pluralism-I
18.7 FURTHER READING
Adhikary, Ashim Kumar 1984. Society and Worldview of the Birhon. Antropological
Survey of India: Calcutta.

Mawrie, H.O., 1981. The Khasi Milieu. Concept Publishing Company: New Delhi.

Pugh, Bransley Marpna, 1976. The Story of A Tribal: An Autobiography. Orient

Longman: Calcutta.

Roy, Sarat Chandra, 1978 (1925). The Birhors: A Little Known Jungle Tribe of
Chota Nagpur. Man in India Office: Ranchi.

Rymbai, R.T. 1980. Some aspects of the religion of the Khasi-Pnars, In: Sujati Miri
(ed) Religion and Society of North-east India. Vikas Publishing House: New
Delhi.

Sahay, Keshari N., 1986. Christianity and Culture Change in India. Inter-India
Publications: New Delhi.

Saraswati, Baidyanath (ed.) 1991. Tribal Thought and Culture: Essays in Honour
of Shri Surajit Chandra Sinha.. Concept Publishing Company: New Delhi.

Singh, Kynpham, 1980. Khasi Religion and Khasi Society of North-East India.
Vikas Publishing House: New Delhi.

18.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR.PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

i) Birhors are a nomadic hunting and good gathering tribes, numerically small and
a located mostly in the Chotanagpur plateau (South Bihar). They are also found in
Orissa, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. The term Birhor literally meansjungle
folk (BirFjungle and (hor) folk. There are two main divisions: (i) uthalus or
Bhulies. They are the wanderers, and (ii) Jaghis or Thanias. They are the settlers.

hi Ritual elements or components form an integral part of the B*or ritual structure. '
They are all interrelated. For example, the purpose ofperforminm ritual is related
with the performer, the preparation of the ritual and the process of the ritual
performance, and so on. Purpose of ritual can be protection fro4evi1, luck in
health, success in hunting and so on.

Check Your Progress 2

i) One of the general spirits propitiated by the Birhors is Singhonga ar the supreme
spirit. This spirit is symbolised by the sun and is considered to be generally an
unconcerned spectator or witness who does not ordinarily cause any harm to
human beings and may occasionally protect them from evil.

u Some of the deities recognised by the Birhors which belong to the Hindu pantheon
are Devi, Kali Mai, Chandi, Hulman, Satbahini.

iii) Some spirits are benevolent, some malevolent. The spirits who do not cause harm
to human beings and may protect him or her are propitiated with prayers and
 i sacrifices. Those who have certain over Nature and cause harm to human Tribal Religion: Two
I Case Studies
beings arecontrolled, averted or repelled by spells, threats and such other methods.
I
iv) Birhor religion is said to be religion without explanation because although the
Birhors believe in a number of spirits or supernatural powers but these powers
remain unexplained. They believe in a supremespirit, Singbonga, who is the creator
ofthe world. But this creator does not take sn active part in the functioning of the
universe or the dealings of human beings. This spirit or any other spirit, good or
bad in terms of the luck it brings cannot be equated with the concept of God in the
Christian sense of the creator and ruler of the universe. Birhor religion lacks the
theological explanation of the existence of the cosmos or the explanation, in terms
of the theory of knowledge, of the sacred or profane.

I
I Check Your Progress 3

i) A tribe meets the challengesof a proselytisingreligion by (a) reorganising traditional

I
Khasis into a new order called Seng Khasi; (b) creation of literature on Khasi
religious rites and customs; (c) revitalising the traditional symbols and aesthetic
manifestationsthrough ritual idiom; (d) giving new interpretationsto their old beliefs.

ii) What makes a tribal truly religious is not the congregational worship in Churches
or temples, not even pilgrimage, but, as the Khasis sya, Kamai ia ka hok. This
means a tribal becomes an intensely religious person by means of honest work,
truthfulness in thoughts and words, and justness in all his transactions Religion
permeates the life of a tribe in all its aspects because he works to live and honest
work is worship.

iii) a) j hum, cultivation

b) syiem, regional
c) Seng Khasi
I
I Check Your Progress 4
I
i) According to the Khasi belief, God created human beings to inhabit this world.
They believe that human beings are special beings belonging to God and as such
much above the other creatures of this earth. Human beings have the capacity to
grow as moral and spiritual beings. This capacity of human beings is a gift of God
to human kind which brings in the element of the divine in them. Besides this gift,
they believe that God has given them the unique gift of Ka Ru grew which means
that they can understand their own situation rationally.

ii) The three ways in which God may reveal Iiimself to human beings are:
1) through His power,
2) through His reighteousness, and
3) through His spoken word.

iii) a) The Birhors believe in the multiplicity of spirits, having different functionsand
powers while the Khasis believe in God having different names each indicating
different functions.
b) The Birhors believe that the world is filled with spirits while the Khasis believe
that God is both the creator and that He is omnipresent.
Religious Pluralism-I
REFERENCES
Adhikary, Ashim Kumar 1984. Society and World View or the Birhoi:
Anthropological Survey of India: Calcutta.

Barth, A. 1990. Religion of India. A Venture of Low Price Publications: Delhi.

Bhatt, S.R. 192. Secularism and Pluralism in M.M. Sankhdhar (ed.) Secularism
in India Dilemmas and Challenges. pp. 261-271, Deep & Deep Publications:
New Delhi.

Davis, Kingsley 195 1. The populkon of India and Pakistan. Princeton University
Press: New jersey. - *

Madan, T.N. (ed.) 1991. Religion in India. Oxford University Press: Delhi.

Nandelbaum, David G. 1939. The Jewish Way of Life in Cochin. Jewish Social
Studies 1: 423460.

Mawrie, H.O. 1981. The Khasi Milieu. Concept Publishing Company: New,Delhi.

Patai, Raphael 1987. International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences. Vol. 7, pp.

164-172. The Macmillan Company & The Free Press: New York.

Pugh, Bransley Marpna 1976. The Story of a Tribal: Autobiography. Orient

Longman: Calcutta.

Roy, Sarat Chandra 1978 (1925). The ~iihors:A Little Known Jungle Tribe of'
Chota Nagpur. Man in India Offlce: Ranchi.

Ryrnbai, R.T. 1980. Some Aspects of the Religion of the K h i Pnars, in: Sujati
Miri (ed.) Religion and Society of North-east India, Vikas Publishing House:
New : Delhi.

Sah*, Keshari N. 1986. Christianity and Culture Change in India. Inter-India

Publications: New Delhi.

Saraswati, Baidyanath (ed.) 1991. Tribal Thought and Culture: Essays in Honour
of Shri Surajit Chandra Sinha. Concept Publishing C6mpany: Delhi.

Singh, Kynpham 1980. Khasi Religion -and Khasi Society of North-east htida.
Vikas Publishing House: New Delhi.

Srinivas, M.N. & Shah, A.M. 1968. Hinduism" in International Encyclopedia of

the Social Sciences. Vol. 5. pp. 358. The Macmillan Company & The Free Press:
New York.

Weber, Max 1968. The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and
Bwldhism. Free Press: Glencoe.