APPROACHES & PRACTICES IN PEST MANAGEMENT

(CP 2)
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

Topic Outline

Chapter 1- Introduction
o Course Overview
o History, evolution and definition of integrated pest management (IPM)
o Principles of IPM

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Course Overview

The CP2 or Approaches & Practices in Pest & Disease Managements is an introduction to the application of
ecological principles to the management of pest populations. Most of the pest such as insects, plant
pathogens, weeds, rodents, mollusk as well as mite species, infest agricultural crops. They can directly and
indirectly inflict damage to crops that could result to production losses due to reduction in quantity and
quality of the yield. The impact of pests on crops is influenced by several factors. Understanding the
relationship of pests with their environment, within an agroecosystem, is therefore vital in determining an
effective way to manage or control the pests.

As the principles and theories of pest management have evolved from the use of chemical pesticides to
environment-friendly approaches, a systems approach that considers a combination of different pest
management strategies could provide an ecological-based solution to solve pest problems to maximize crop
production. This approach, called Integrated Pest Management (IPM), considers agroecosystem analysis as
basis in designing a sustainable approach to suppress pest populations at an acceptable level and combines
different pest management tactics to minimize economic, health and environmental risks.

The course involves a series of lectures and reading recent journal articles relevant to the subject. The course
involves active learning, group work, fieldwork, and laboratory work to expand the knowledge of the
students. The CP 2 will be carried out in a flexible/blended format. The students will submit assignments
and mini-review paper through Moodle.
A. Historical development of pest management with special emphasis on the Philippine situation

1. History of IPM: World

History of IPM: 250,000 BC

 Appearance of Homo sapiens. – Pests are limited to lice, fleas, flies and mosquitoes that cause
human discomfort; Prehistoric pest control methods are limited to picking, slapping and
squashing (hardly be called a science).

History of IPM: 4700 to 1200 BC

 4700 BC Silkworm culture in China.
 2500 BC First records of insecticides, e.g. Sumerians used sulfur compounds to control insects
and mites.
 1500 BC First descriptions of cultural controls especially manipulation of planting dates.
 1200 BC Botanical insecticides were being used for seed treatments and as fungicides in China.
The Chinese were also using mercury and arsenical compounds to control body lice.

History of IPM: 950 BC to 13 BC

 950 BC First descriptions of burning as a cultural control method.
 200 BC The Roman statesman, Cato the Censor, advocated oil sprays for pest control.
 13 BC First rat-proof granary was built by the Roman architect.

History of IPM: 300 to 400 AD

 300 AD First record of the use of biological controls (predatory ants) in citrus orchards in China.
Colonies of the predatory ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) were set up in citrus groves with
bamboo bridges to move between trees to control caterpillar and beetle pests.
 400 AD Ko Hung an alchemist recommended a root application of white arsenic
when transplanting rice to protect against insect pests.

History of IPM: 650 to 1780

 1000-1300 Date growers in Arabia seasonally transported cultures of predatory ants from nearby
mountains to oases to control phytophagous ants which attack date palm. First known example
of movement by man of natural enemies for purposes of biological control.
 650-1780 Burgeoning of insect descriptions (after Linneaus) and biological discoveries in
the Renaissance.
 1732 Farmers begin to grow crops in rows to facilitate weed removal.
 1763 Linnaeus won a prize for an essay under the name of C.N. Nelin on how orchards could
be freed from caterpillars by mechanical and biological control methods.
History of IPM: 1800 to 1878
 Early 1800's Appearance of first books and papers devoted entirely to pest control
covering cultural control, biological control, varietal control, physical and chemical
control.
 1840 Potato blight (Phytophthora infestans) outbreak in Ireland, England and Belgium leading to
famine. Large numbers of predatory carabid beetles (Calasoma sycophanta) to destroy leaf
feeding larvae of the gypsy moth.
 1848-1878 Introduction of grape Phylloxera (Viteus vitifoliae) from Americas nearly put an end
to the French wine industry. The release of the natural enemy Tyroglyphus phylloxerae from
North America in 1873 provided adequate levels of control.

History of IPM: 1750 to 1890

 1750-1880 Agricultural revolution in Europe; international trade promoted the discovery of the
botanical insecticides pyrethrum.
 1870 Pyrethrum production begins in California.
 1870-1890 Grape Phylloxera (Viteus vitifoliae) and powdery mildew controlled in French
vineyards (by the introduction of Bordeaux mixture and Paris Green and the use of resistant
rootstalks and grafting).
 1880 First commercial spraying machine.
 1883 Apanteles glomeratus was imported from the UK to the USA to control cabbage
white butterfly.
 1885 Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate and lime) invented.
 1889 Entomologic Society of America founded.

History of IPM: 1888 to 1901

 1888 First major success with imported biological control agents the coccinellid beetle
(Rodolia cardinalis) from Australia for the control of cottony-cushion scale in U.S. citrus
fruits.
 1896 First selective herbicide, iron sulphate, was found to kill broad leaf weeds.
 1890's Introduction of lead arsenate for insect control.
 1901 First successful biological control of a weed; Lantana in Hawaii.

History of IPM: 1899 to 1930

 1899-1909 Breeding program that developed varieties of cotton, cowpeas, and water melon
resistant to Fusarium wilt.
 1905 Use of kerosene for mosquitoes control and yellow fever; cyanide used for bed bugs.
 1915 Control of malaria and yellow fever carrying mosquitoes allowing completion of the
Panama Canal after its abandonment in the late 1800's.
 1916 First bait used for Argentine ants.
 1920-1930 More than 30 cases of natural enemy establishment were recorded throughout
the world.
 1920 First manufacturing of dintrophenols and paradichlorobenzene.
  1921 First aerial application in insecticide against Catalpa sphinx moth in Ohio, USA.

History of IPM: 1929 to 1940

 1929 First area-wide eradication of an insect pest against Mediterranean fruit fly in Florida, USA.
 1930 Introduction of synthetic organic compounds for plant pathogen control.
 1933 National Pest Control Association founded
 1980 Transition to cockroach bait formulations.
 1985 U.S. pesticide use reaches 1.2 billion lbs.
 1985 First resistance reported to Bacillus thuringiensis in the flour moth Plodia interpunctella.
India and Malaysia declare IPM official Ministerial Policy.
 1986 Germany makes IPM official policy through the Plant Protection Act. Indonesia
Presidential Decree makes IPM official policy. Philippines - IPM implicit in Presidential
declaration.
 1935 Pesticide use was 50 million lbs mainly in agriculture.
 1939 Recognition of insecticide properties of DDT for crop pests, lice and mosquitoes.
 1940 Use of milky disease to control the Japanese beetle as the first successful use of an
entomopathogen.

History of IPM: 1942 to 1960

 1942 First successful plant breeding program for insect resistance in crop plants through release of
wheat resistant to the Hessian fly. Rediscovery of the insecticidal properties of benzene
hexachloride and in particular its gamma isomer ("-BHC) shared with DDT the credit for the
dawn of a new era of insect control in agriculture, horticulture, stored products, timber
preservation and public health.
 1944 First hormone based herbicide - 2,4-D available.
 1946 First report of insect resistance to DDT in houseflies in Sweden.
 1950's-60's widespread development of resistance to DDT and other pesticides.

History of IPM: 1950 to 1965

 1950's First applications of systems analysis to crop pest control.
 1959 Introduction of concepts of economic thresholds, economic levels and integrated control by
V.M. Stern, R.F. Smith, R. van den Bosch and K.S. Hagen. ‘Integrated control’
using multiple methods to control alfalfa aphid.
 1960 First insect sex pheromone isolated, identified and synthesis in the gypsy moth.
 1962 Publication of "Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson.
 1963 Bald eagle down to 416 nesting pairs in continental U.S.
 1965 Release of carbamate insecticide pirimicarb and pirimiphos ethyl, and the systemic fungicide
dimethirimol for control of mildew on cucurbits.

History of IPM: 1967 to 1972

 1967 Introduction of the term Integrated Pest Management by R.F. Smith and R. van den
 Bosch. The relevance of ecology to IPM through the concept of "Life Systems" was introduced
by L.R. Clark, P.W. Geier, R.D.Hughes and R.F. Morris. Release of pirimiphos methyl.
 1969 US National Academy of Sciences formalized the term Integrated Pest Management. ‘Pest
management’ is the management of pest, not control of pests.
 1970's Widespread banning of DDT.
 1972 FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act) passed.
 1972 Release of Bacillus thuringiensis insecticide based on isolate HD-1 for control of
lepidopterous pests.

History of IPM: 1973 to 1987

 1973-1975 Development and release of the synthetic pyrethroid insecticides permethrin
and cypermethrin.
 1987 IPM implicit in Parliamentary decisions in Denmark and Sweden.

History of IPM: 1988 to 1993

 1988 Major IPM successes in rice systems in Indonesia.
 1989 First resistance reported to genetically engineered Pseudomonas fluorescens containing
the delta endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis.
 1990 Organic Food Production Act, 2001 Federal Organic Rules established.
 1991 IPM implicit in multiyear plan for crop protection introduced by Cabinet decision in the
Netherlands.
 1993 Greater than 504 insect species are known to be resistant to at least one formulation of
insecticide and at least 17 species of insect species are resistant to all major classes of
insecticide.

History of IPM: 1996 to Present

 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) passed to reduce pesticide risks from food.
 1996 Genetically modified crops planted.
 1999 U.S. EPA and National Academy of Sciences release report indicating that risk analysis of
pesticides need to be redone and reviewed based on effects on children and cumulative
exposure. All pesticides being reviewed.
 2000 National Pest Control Association becomes National Pest Management Association
 2002 Organic Standards developed by USDA.
 2004 Chlorpyrifos and diazinon decline in infant blood after EPA restricts use.
 2003 Conventional pesticide use begins to decline – 3% per year.
 2007 Bald eagle delisted from threatened species list.
 2008 - present Organic and Biosafety certification system
- Societal concerns about engineered or transgenic crops (GMOs) increased in
several regions of the world, especially Europe. Public pressure dramatically slowed
adoption of the technology in IPM systems
2. History of IPM: Philippines
• 1569 - Locust outbreak in Panay
• 1850 - Martinez bird, Acridotheres cristatellus, first imported biological control agent
• 1898 - Bureau of Agriculture was established
• 1919 - Plant Pest Sections (Entomology, Plant Pathology and Quarantine sections) of Bureau of
Agriculture were created
• 1921- Introduction of parasitic insects to Hawaii
• 1934 - Trichogramma chilonis (=australicum) was imported to control sugarcane borer
• 1940’s - Planted pest or disease resistant crops; Practiced crop rotation and intercropping; Used of
botanical repellents
• 1946 - First import of pesticide (DDT)
• 1952- National rat drive; UP-Cornell Exchange Program

The national rat control drive in 1952 unknowingly started the IPM implementation in the
Philippines. Control strategies included a wide range of conventional reductional methods,
which include physical, cultural, biological, chemical and legislative control. Following the
introduction and increased demand for agro-pesticides after World War II, many issues
were raised concerning ecological balance and human health. This was because pesticides
misuse has resulted in widespread loss of beneficial and non-target species and increased
the buildup of pesticide resistance and incidence of pest resurgence. All these have led to
major pest outbreaks in rice and vegetables.

• 1954 - First study on crop resistance to pests by Dr. S.M. Cendaña

• 1960’s - Used of biological control agents to control pests
• Trichogramma japonicum against yellow stemborer, Scirpophaga incertulas in rice
• Metarrhizium anisopliae, Bt baculoviruses - entomopathogens
• IRRI was established and the breeding for pest-resistant rice was highlighted
• 1973 - ‘Masagana 99 Rice program'
• The period of 1970s in Philippine agriculture was identified with the effective control of
ricefield rats, brown planthopper resurgence, pesticide resistance and heightened
endeavour to establish national self-sufficiency in rice through the Masagana 99
Program. The movement aspires to have the farmers increase their production to 99
sacks of 4.4 tons of unmilled rice (palay) per hectare. It sets its sights on self- sufficiency
in food, using modern methods of irrigation, infrastructure buildup, and input increases.
Under the Masagana 99 Rice Production Program (M-99), pesticide provision came
along with a package of technology (POT) as a condition to avail production loan. The
technoguide ‘Sixteen Steps for Masagana 99 Rice Culture’ recommended that rice
farmers apply pesticides 6–9 times per cropping season as a preventive measure on a
calendar basis. However, it was subsequently found that yields were not paying off
because of the heavy use of pesticides which was not only unnecessary but also
extremely expensive (Callo, Jr., 1990). Moreover, it was even harmful in causing pest
outbreaks because the intensive chemical treatments killed natural enemies of pests
• 1975: Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB)
• 1976: National Crop Protection Center (NCPC)
• 1979: National Institutes of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (BIOTECH)
• 1986: IPM: core of crop protection policy
• In May 1986, through a presidential pronouncement of then President Corazon C.
Aquino, the Philippines adopted IPM as the core of crop protection policy in agriculture.
Since then IPM has evolved into a more dynamic, practical and farmer-driven activity.
• To best mobilize all Philippine resources to achieve the goals of the IPM program
through strengthening and applying community-based knowledge, strong collaborative
efforts by both the government and private sectors in research, training and extension
at the regional level (moving quickly to the local levels subsequently) was necessary. In
the training component, the training needs of the different target groups were found to
differ. The target groups included subject matter specialists (SMS), municipal experts
and village extension trainers (pesticide dealers, field agents, and paramedics),
plantation workers and the farmers. Thus, development of the various training curricula
• It was during this period when separate IPM technologies for black bug and the golden
apple snail were developed. Additional technologies on economic threshold levels
(ETLs), pest monitoring, judicious use of pesticides and enhancement of endemic
beneficial insects have helped to adjust the earlier national IPM recommendations.
• 1987- Trichogramma was used to control cornborer and cotton bollworm

• 1999: Pilot testing of IPM in Antique

• Since 1991, a pilot IPM project in Antique, Central Philippines, has been extraordinarily
successful in applying an experiential approach which enabled farmers to use IPM in
growing rice and other associated food crops. The project was carried out with technical
assistance and supplemental funding from the FAO Intercountry Programme for
Integrated Pest Control in Rice in South and Southeast Asia (Medina and Callo, Jr.,
1999). This was patterned after the training strategy that was developed by the
Indonesian National IPM Programme.
• It involved getting trainers and farmers into the actual crop for an entire season to learn
and grow the crop by practical experience. The training contents were predicated on the
assumption that farmers needed a better understanding of the factors affecting crop
growth as part of the crop-field agroecosystem. Farmers, through the field training,
became equipped to make their own assessments of the balance between pests and
their natural enemies in their own fields; hence they were able to make the rational
decisions on how to manage their crops.
• 1991: Pesticide Policy Task Force was created
 1992: Plutella xylostella was successfully controlled by Diadegma semiclausum and Cotesia
plutellae.
 1993: KASAKALIKASAN (Kasaganaan ng Sakahan At Kalikasan)
• On 3 May 1993, the former President Fidel V. Ramos launched a revitalized National IPM
Programme through Memorandum Order No. 126. Dubbed as Kasaganaan ng Sakahan
At Kalikasan or KASAKALIKASAN, it is the Philippine government's commitment to
Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in
promoting sustainable agriculture and rural development. The programme aims to make
IPM the standard approach to crop husbandry and pest management in major rice, corn
and vegetable areas in the Philippines (Binamira, 1999). Specifically, the programme's
objectives are to:
 Enhance a farmer's knowledge and skills in using IPM in crop production
through field-based experiential learning activities, field-testing of IPM
technologies in agricultural crops and incorporating them into training
activities.
 Establish firmly the continuation of non-formal education (NFE) in crop
protection for farmers at the provincial up to the municipal level; and
 Put in place the policy and legislative framework that will facilitate the
long-term success of the programme activities.
 KASAKALIKASAN trains farmers and empowers them to become experts
in their own fields by developing their ability in making critical and
informed decisions, including making crop production systems more
productive, profitable and sustainable.
 2000’s Pesticide policies revision
 new developments in pesticide legislation, policies and guidelines
 safeguard human health and environment
 biorational pesticides
 principles of product stewardship and responsible care
 2002 - Bt-corn was commercialized
 2010 – Organic Act
3. Four (4) Stages of Insect Control in Relation to the Changes of Arthropod
Population in Response to Agricultural Development
a. Pre-Insecticide Agriculture
- Nomadic type of crop cultivation
- People live by hunting
- Modern humans appeared about 40,000 years ago. They lived successfully in small nomadic
hunting and gathering bands until around 10,000 years ago when agriculture began to gradually
replace hunting and gathering as the dominant way of life.
- No crop/land destruction
b. Insecticide Agriculture
- There is an increase in population.
- Increase in food demand
- Market oriented type of agriculture
- Lots of inputs
c. Ecological Agriculture
- Applications of ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of sustainable
agroecosystem
- Developed because of effects of insecticides
a. Direct poisoning
b. Residue problems
c. Resurgence – increase pest population bec. Natural enemies are killed
d. Resistance to insecticides
e. Secodary poisoning –natural enemies are most affected

d. Genetically Modified Organism Agriculture

- Transgenic plants are planted

4. Sequential Development of Crop Protection (Smith 1969)

a. Subsistence Phase (Pre-Industrialization Era)

• Subsistence agriculture
• Traditional varieties
• No/minimal inputs
• Low yield
• Crop protection method - natural control
• No serious pest/ disease outbreak
• Produce is locally consumed or bartered
b. Exploitation Phase (Renaissance Era)
• Expansion of fields
• New varieties introduced
• Intensive monoculture
• New markets are developed
• Pests/disease became serious problems
• Crop protection method: Pesticides
• Pest control initially successful
• Increase in yield and profit
c. Crisis Phase
 • Pest problems are aggravated
• Crop protection method: Pesticides
• Increase frequency of pesticide application
• Increase dosage; pesticide cocktails
• Side effects of pesticide started to appear - pesticide resistance, resurgence, pest sifting, etc.
• Increase cost of production
• Reduction in profit
d. Disaster Phase (1900-1970)
• Increasing pesticide usage
• Increasing cost of production
• Crop production become unprofitable
• Pesticide residues detected
• Products can not meet minimum residue level (MRL)
• Collapse of pest control program
• Pesticides become ineffective
• Serious pest outbreaks
e. Integrated Pest Control Phase (1970-Present)
• Shift in pest control paradigm
• Introduction of IPM concepts
- utilize compatible control tactics
- economically acceptable: optimize profit
- environment friendly
- socially acceptable
- optimize control rather than maximize
- control strategies are based on ecological principles

2. Review of Different Pests in the Field

PESTS CAN BE BROKEN INTO FOUR MAIN CATEGORIES:

1. Vertebrate Pests
Have a backbone. Examples: Rodents, birds, reptiles, and other mammals

2. Invertebrate Pests
No backbone. Examples: Insets, spiders, ticks, slugs, snails

3. Weeds
Any plant growing out of place.
4. Diseases
Fungi, bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.

3. Plant-Pest Interaction

Plant-pest interactions are classically viewed as mutualistic, antagonistic, or

commensalistic. Mutualism is characterized by help between each partner, with
both benefiting and neither harmed. Mutualisms include pollination (e.g., flowering
plant/insect pollinator systems), plant guarding, or seed dispersal (e.g., plant/ant
systems). In antagonistic relationships, one counterpart benefits and the other are
harmed. This relationship includes phytophagy by insects (e.g., insect pests) but
also insectivory by plants (e.g., carnivorous plants). In commensalism, one
counterpart benefits but the other is not harmed (e.g., the commensal relationship
of the Monarch butterfly larvae with certain species of milkweeds to store cardiac
glycosides for defensive purposes).

C. PRINCIPLES OF IPM

The use of pesticides made it possible to increase yields, simplify cropping

systems, and forego more complicated crop protection strategies. Over-reliance on
chemical control, however, is associated with contamination of ecosystems and
undesirable health effects. The future of crop production is now also threatened by
emergence of pest resistance and declining availability of active substances. There
is therefore a need to design cropping systems less dependent on synthetic
pesticides. Consequently, the European Union requires the application of eight
principles (P) of Integrated Pest Management that fit within sustainable farm
management. Here, we propose to farmers, advisors, and researchers a dynamic
and flexible approach that accounts for the diversity of farming situations and the
complexities of agroecosystems and that can improve the resilience of cropping
systems and our capacity to adapt crop protection to local realities. For each
principle (P), we suggest that (P1) the design of inherently robust cropping systems
using a combination of agronomic levers is key to prevention. (P2) Local availability
of monitoring, warning, and forecasting systems is a reality to contend with. (P3)
The decision-making process can integrate cropping system factors to develop
longer-term strategies. (P4) The combination of non-chemical methods that may be
individually less efficient than pesticides can generate valuable synergies. (P5)
Development of new biological agents and products and the use of existing
databases offer options for the selection of products minimizing impact on health,
the environment, and biological regulation of pests. (P6) Reduced pesticide use
can be effectively combined with other tactics. (P7) Addressing the root causes of
pesticide resistance is the best way to find sustainable crop protection solutions.
And (P8) integration of multi-season effects and trade-offs in evaluation criteria will
help develop sustainable solutions.
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CSU-CAA Supplemental Lecture Notes | CP 3, Rev. 0, 06-30-20