BII Algebra: Lecture 1
Equivalence relation on a set
Let A be a set. A binary relation on A is a
subset R of A × A.
We write a ∼ b (a is related to b) if (a, b) ∈ R.
We shall be interested in a special type of
relation called the equivalence relation.
A relation ∼ on A is called an equivalence relation
if the following three conditions hold:
1. x ∼ x for all x ∈ A.
2. For x, y ∈ A, if x ∼ y, then y ∼ x.
3. For x, y, z ∈ A if x ∼ y and y ∼ z hold, then
x ∼ z.
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One of the most important results in this con-
text:
Theorem. Let A be a set. An equivalence re-
lation ∼ on A partitions A into disjoint subsets.
(Converse is also true.)
Proof. For a ∈ A, write
[a] := {x ∈ A | x ∼ a},
called the equivalence class of a.
Clearly,
[
A= [a]
a∈A
Check that the equivalence classes are either
equal or disjoint.
Conversely, let
[
A= Aα ,
α∈I
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be a partition of A into disjoint subsets.
Define: a ∼ b if and only if there is some α ∈
I such that a, b ∈ Aα. Check that this is an
equivalence relation.
A construction
For any set A, define S(A) = A ∪ {A}. This
is called the successor operation. Let us now
apply this operation repeatedly, starting from:
The empty set!
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Starting point: ∅.
S(∅) = ∅ ∪ {∅} = {∅}.
S({∅}) = {∅} ∪ {{∅}} = {∅, {∅}}.
S({∅, {∅}}) = {∅, {∅}}∪{{∅, {∅}}} = {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}}.
S(−) = {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}, {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}}}.
... and so on...
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Let us give those sets from the last page some
names (rather symbols).
Write:
0 for ∅.
1 for {∅} (= {0}).
2 for {∅, {∅}} (= {0, 1}).
3 for {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}} (= {0, 1, 2}).
4 for {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}, {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}}} (= {0, 1, 2, 3}).
... and so on ...
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The system of symbols {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, · · · } thus
obtained is the set of natural numbers, denoted
by N.
Remark 1: Each natural number is a set.
Remark 2: A natural number is the set of its
preceding natural numbers.
The set N satisfies the so called Peano Axioms:
• 0 is a natural number.
• Every natural number has a successor which
is also a natural number.
• 0 is not the successor of any natural num-
ber.
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• If the successor of x equals the successor
of y, then x equals y.
• (Axiom of Induction) If a statement is true
for 0, and if the truth of that statement for
a number implies its truth for the successor
of that number, then the statement is true
for every natural number.
Addition.
Define n + 0 = n for all n. Then go on recur-
sively as follows:
n + S(m) = S(n + m)
Illustration:
1 + 1 = 1 + S(0) := S(1 + 0) = S(1) = 2
2 + 1 = 2 + S(0) := S(2 + 0) = S(2) = 3
n + 1 = n + S(0) := S(n + 0) = S(n)
Remark: Note that n + 1 is the successor of n.
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The set N, together with addition + satisfies:
1. n + (m + p) = (n + m) + p for all m, n, p ∈ N.
2. n + m = m + n for all m, n ∈ N.
3. n + 0 = n for all n ∈ N.
Exercise: Prove the above properties!
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In an algebraic system as above we would like
to solve equations.
While the equation X + 1 = 2 has a solution
in N, the following
X +2=1
does not (why?).
Question. Can we embed N in a bigger sys-
tem, retaining all its properties, so that the
equation as above has a solution (in the big-
ger system)?
So we have to bring in the “negatives”. We
only have (N, +) and basic set theory at our
disposal. This will be our focus now.
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Construction of Integers
Consider the set X = N × N. On X, define the
relation:
(a, b) ∼ (c, d) if a + d = c + b
Example. (1, 3) ∼ (5, 7), (11, 5) ∼ (100, 94)
etc.
Exercise. Check that ∼ is an equivalence re-
lation.
Write Z = set of all equivalence classes.
Notation: [(a, b)] for the equivalence class con-
taining (a, b).
Now define addition on these equivalence classes:
[(a, b)] ⊕ [(m, n)] := [(a + m, b + n)]
(note that + is from N)
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Remark. What if [(a, b)] = [(c, d)] and [(m, n)] =
[(p, q)]? Do we have
[(a, b)] ⊕ [(m, n)] = [(c, d)] ⊕ [(p, q)]?
Let us check.
[(a, b)] = [(c, d)] ⇒ (a, b) ∼ (c, d)
(a, b) ∼ (c, d) ⇒ a + d = c + b
[(m, n)] = [(p, q)] ⇒ (m, n) ∼ (p, q)
(m, n) ∼ (p, q) ⇒ m + q = p + n
Then, a+d+m+q = c+b+p+n and therefore,
a + m + d + q = c + p + b + n, implying (a +
m, b + n) ∼ (c + p, d + q). In other words,
[(a, b)] ⊕ [(m, n)] = [(c, d)] ⊕ [(p, q)],
and the definition is consistent.
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What is the “zero” in Z?
It is the class of (0, 0) (which is the same as
[(1, 1)], [(2, 2)], [(3, 3)], · · · ).
The natural numbers are embedded in Z as
follows:
f : N −→ Z by
n 7→ [(n, 0)]
Exercise: Prove that f is injective.
Do we have some [(a, b)] ∈ Z such that
[(a, b)] ⊕ [(1, 0)] = [(0, 0)] ?
Yes, [(0, 1)] ⊕ [(1, 0)] = [(1, 1)] = [(0, 0)].
In general, [(0, n)]⊕[(n, 0)] = [(n, n)] = [(0, 0)].
Let us call [(n, 0)] as n and [(0, n)] as −n.
These are the negatives.
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Let us now drop the ⊕ notation. Also, write n
for [(n, 0)] and −n for [(0, n)].
Take any integer [(a, b)] ∈ Z.
Then
[(a, b)] = [(a, 0)] + [(0, b)] = a − b
Thus, we realized integers as difference of nat-
ural numbers.
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On N. we can also define multiplication.
Define n × 0 = 0 for all n.
Then,
n × S(m) = n × m + n
You can easily check the properties of multi-
plication and the distributive law.
You can extend this definition to Z.
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Now that we have addition and multiplication
on Z, consider the equation:
2x = 3
It has no solution in Z.
Again, can we embed Z into some bigger struc-
ture where we have a solution?
If we can accommodate reciprocals of
n ∈ Z r {0}, we shall be done.
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Almost a similar construction as before.
Take
X = {(a, b) ∈ Z × Z |b 6= 0}
Define a relation ∼ on X by:
(a, b) ∼ (c, d) iff ad = bc
Check that this is an equivalence relation.
Define Q = X/ ∼ (the set of equivlence classes).
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Notation: write [(a, b)] for the equivalence class
of (a, b).
Define:
[(a, b)] + [(c, d)] = [(ad + bc, bd)]
[(a, b)] × [(c, d)] = [(ac, bd)]
Exercise: Check that the above operations are
well-defined.
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Take any [(a, b)] ∈ Q, with a 6= 0. Then
[(a, b)] × [(b, a)] = [(ab, ab)] = [(1, 1)]
Let us keep this in mind.
For convenience, we write [(a, b)] as ab .
We have an injective map
φ : Z −→ Q
n
n 7→
1
Therefore, we can identify n
1 of Q with n.
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Let n(6= 0) ∈ Z. Note that, in Q we have
n 1 1
× =
1 n 1
In other words, n has reciprocal in Q.
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Now consider the equation:
x2 = 2
This has no solution in Q.
One then constructs R to tackle this problem.
But this construction is not an algebraic one
as the above two.
That’s analysis.
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Again, another equation! Consider
x2 + 1 = 0
This has no solution in R.
How do we embed R into a bigger structure?
We shall take
R[X]
2
,
hX + 1i
where
hX 2 + 1i = {(X 2 + 1)f (X) | f (X) ∈ R[X]}
(i.e. all multiples of X 2 + 1).
Let us call hXR2[X]
+1i
as C.
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We shall see later that:
• there is a natural injection ϕ : R −→ C;
• −1 has a square root in C.
And this construction of C would be the model
for various such general constructions.
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