Statistics for Computing II

COM 216
Goal: This course is designed to enable students to acquire a basic knowledge of SPSS Package Tools
General Objectives: On completion of this course the diplomate, should be able to:
1.0 Understand the main feacture of SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science)
2.0 Understand the use of SPSS Graphical User Interface (GUI) effectively
3.0 Understand how to perform descriptive analyses with SPSS and Ms Excel ER
4.0 Understand how to perform common parametric and non-parametric test
5.0 Understand how to perform simple regression and multivariate analyses

There are many statistical software packages including STATA, SAS, SPSS, and R that are use to make
data meaningful for mankind to live a better way of life.

1.0 SPSS
SPSS Software is a suite of software programs that can be used to analyzes scientific data related to the
social sciences. SPSS offers a fast-visual modeling environment that ranges from the smallest to the
most complex models. Data obtained from SPSS is used for surveys, data mining, market research, etc.
SPSS was originally launched in 1968 by SPSS Inc., and IBM acquired it in 2009.
SPSS is popular because of its simplicity, easy-to-follow command language, and well-documented user
manual. Government entities, educational institutions, survey companies, market researchers, marketing
organizations, health researchers, data miners, etc use SPSS for analyzing data.

The core functionalities offered in SPSS includes

i. statistical program for quantitative data analysis – It includes frequencies, cross-tabulation,
and bivariate statistics.
ii. modeler program that allows for predictive modeling. It enables researchers to build and
validate predictive models using advanced statistical procedures.
iii. text analysis helps you derive insights from qualitative inputs through open-ended
questionnaires.
iv. visualization Designer allows researchers to use their data for a variety of visual
representations.
SPSS also provides data management solutions like Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR)
that enable researchers to perform case selection, create derived data, and perform file reshaping.
Statistical methods that can be leveraged in SPSS are;
i. Descriptive Statistics – It includes methodologies such as cross-tabulation, frequencies, and
descriptive ratio statistics.
ii. Bivariate Statistics – It includes methodologies such as means, nonparametric tests, correlation, and
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA
iii. Predicting numeral outcomes such as linear regression
iv. Methodologies such as cluster analysis and factor analysis which is great for predicting for
identifying groups

Limitations of Using SPSS

One of the biggest disadvantages of using SPSS is that you cannot use it to analyze a big data set. There
are certain fields where there is a huge trove of data present. In such industries, using SPSS might not be
the best option out there. IBM SPSS Statistics has pricing plans and free trial.

2.0 PSPP
PSPP is a statistical analysis tool developed to be a free, open-source alternative to SPSS (which is now
developed by IBM).  Although not identical, it is similar in many respects, and allows one to work with

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file formats common to SPSS.  Users can freely download PSPP from
https://www.gnu.org/software/pspp/.
Whereas SPSS was originally an acronym for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, "PSPP" has no
corresponding meaning (although the letters obviously relate to the SPSS name).

Unlike SPSS, PSPP does not limit the number of cases or variables which you are able to use, nor will it
require you to purchase add-ons to gain access to more advanced functions. As a fully functional
statistical analysis program, it is capable of performing descriptive statistics, y-tests, linear regression, as
well as non-parametric tests. Included in its basic design is the ability to perform analyses as quickly as
possible, regardless of the volume of data entered. In addition, you have the option of using the program
through its graphical user interface (GUI), or through the more traditional method of utilizing syntax
commands.

3.0 Creating a Dataset

Step 1: Entering Variables
Fist download and install PSPP. Upon opening PSPP, you will see a blank data table. Because no
variables have yet been defined, your column headings will all read "var," while the row headings will
be ordered numerically.

 
Figure 3-1 
In order to enter the variables for your dataset, you will need to switch from Data View to Variable View.
You can do this by locating the Variable View tab at the bottom left-hand corner of your screen, and

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clicking on it.

Figure 3-2
Once you are in Variable View, you will be able to enter the variables for your dataset. You can enter
names of the variables under the Name column, and press Tab to cause the rest of the fields to propagate
in accordance with default settings.
For the purpose of this note, lets create a simple dataset with two variables: the first variable will be (1)
height, and the second (2) sex. Click on the first cell under the Name column, and enter "Height." Press
Tab, and then click on the second cell under the Name column, entering the variable "Height." Press
Tab again. Now the names of your variables have been successfully entered.

Step 2: Assigning Value Labels for Variables

Now you may enter the value labels for your variables. In this instance, there are two values under the
variable "sex," namely "male" and "female." In assigning a value label, as the name implies, we are
simply associating a label (i.e., "male" or "female") to a particular value (i.e., "1" or "2"). This is similar
to how such values might appear on a survey:
(1) Height (enter in inches):______
(2) Sex (circle "1" or "2"):
1.Male
2.Female
In the above example, under the second (2) variable "Sex," the value "1" is assigned the value label
"Male," while the value "2" is assigned the value label "Female."

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Figure 3-3
To assign values for a particular variable, click on the cell under the Values column, and click on the
grey box in the right-hand corner of the cell.

Figure 3-4
A window will appear, prompting you to enter the value and the value label. For the first value label,
enter "1" in the value field, and then the first label (in this case "Male") in the value label field. For the
second value label, enter "2" in the value field, entering the second label (in this case "Female") in the
value label field.

 
Figure 3-5 
After you have finished entering all your value labels, click OK. After returning to the main screen, your
Variable View should look like Fig. 2-6 below.

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Figure 3-6
Now that the value labels for the variable "Sex" have been properly assigned, we can begin entering our
data by returning to the Data View. You can do this by clicking on the Data View tab at the bottom left-
hand corner of your screen.
Step 3: Entering Data
After clicking on the Data View tab, you will return to the same screen that appeared when you first
opened the program, except now instead of the first and second columns having the heading "var," they
will have as headings "Height" and "Sex" respectively.

Figure 3-7
Now you can begin entering your data. In this example dataset, we are entering our data in inches under
the first column, and the values "1" and "2" for "Male" and "Female" under the second column.
Step 4: Saving a Dataset
Now that you have entered your data, you can save your dataset.

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Figure 3-8
To save, open the File menu and click on Save.

Figure 3-9
Navigate to the location where you want to save your dataset, and then click on the Save button.

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4.0 Univariate Analysis
A univariate analysis is the simplist form of quantitative statistical analysis. It involves the study of the
effects of an independent variable on a single dependent variable. 

Performing and Exporting a Univariant Analysis

Figure 4-1
First, click on the Analyze menu to reveal the various statistical analyses that you can perform. For the
purpose of this note, we will be performing a frequency analysis.

Selecting this particular option allows you to analyze variables individually, rather than in relation to
another variable. Performing this analysis, you can measure individual properties such as mean, median,
mode, etc. To access this function, select Frequencies under Descriptive Statistics.

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Figure 4-2
Once the Frequencies window appears, you can add the variables you would like to include in the
analysis, moving them from the left list to the right by clicking the arrow. If you decide you don't want to
include a variable you have added after all, simply select the variable in the right list, and click the arrow
to move it back over to the left. Alternatively, you can simply double-click on the variables to move
them. If you would like more statistical options, you can select them in the Statistics box on the bottom
right of the window. When you're finished, click OK.

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Figure 4-3
The output window should then appear, displaying the results of your analysis. Clicking on the + sign
beside FREQUENCIES on the left will give you the option of viewing a particular section of the
analysis. Double-click on the section heading to jump to it.

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Figure 4-4
You can also export or print your analysis upon its completion. To export, open the File menu, and click
on Export. Alternatively, you can delete the analysis by closing the Output window.

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Figure 4-5
Navigating to the directory where you would like to save the file, select what format in which you would
like the analysis to be saved.

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Figure 4-6
When finished, click the Save button.

Note. If you do not close the output window after saving your analysis, any further analyses performed
will be added to the output window.

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Figure 4-7
Notice how the second analysis has been added below the first, to the effect that if you export or print
the output window, both analyses will be printed in succession.

5.0 Bivariate Analysis

In a bivariate analysis, neither variable in a study is independent, meaning both variables are  dependent
on one another. It is essentially a univariate analysis extended on two separate variables.

Performing a Bivariant Analysis

Now that we have covered the basics of analyzing data, we will perform a bivariant analysis on a larger
dataset, namely "GSS 2008" or on the General Social Survey download website. Visit:
https://gss.norc.org/Documents/spss/2008_spss.zip

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Figure 5-1
Once the dataset has been opened, open the Analyze menu, and click on the Crosstabs option
under Descriptive Statistics.

Figure 5-2
When the Crosstabs window appears, right-click in the box on the left and uncheck Prefer variable
labels, in order to make the variables easier to spot. Then, select the variable "Sex," and clicking on the
top arrow, move it from the box on the left to the Row box on the top right. Going back to the left box
again, select the variable "Zodiac," and click on the bottom arrow to move it over to the Columns box
on the bottom right. Remember, the dependent variable goes into the Columns  box, while the
independent variable always goes into the Row box. When finished, click OK.

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Figure 5-3
The results of your analysis will then appear in your output window.
Performing a Linear Regression
Under the Analyze tab, choose Regression, then select Linear from the two choices.

Figure 5-4
To conduct a Regression you need to separate the variables from the left list and organize them into the
independent and dependent variable boxes on the right, as shown in Fig. 4-16 below.

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Figure 5-5
This is the linear regression output window.

Figure 5-6

Changing the Cell Display

Figure 5-7
From the Crosstabs window, you can also change the cell display by clicking on the Cells button.

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Figure 5-8
From here, you can select whatever display options you would like, and then click Continue.

More Statistical Options

Figure 5-9
Also from the Crosstabs window, you can select a wider variety of statistical options, by clicking on
the Statistics button.

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Figure 5-9
Since the "Chi-square" (Chisq) function is one of the more commonly used functions, we will select it,
and click Continue.

Figure 5-10
The output window will appear, displaying the results of your chi-square test.

Recoding the Dataset

Analysis may also be performed by recoding the dataset, particularly if the amount of data is very
substantial, in order to make it easier to work with.

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Figure 5-11
To recode a large dataset into different variables, first open the Transform menu, and then
select Recode into Different Variables.

Figure 5-12
Once the window appears, select the variable you would like to recode, and then click on the arrow to
move it to the Variables box on the right. In this case, we will select "Zodiac."

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Figure 5-13
After the variable has been moved over to the right, click on the Old and New Values button.

Figure 5-14
You may now enter the old and new values for your variable. In addition, you can also select a range of
values, assigning a new value to that range. In this example, we will first input a range of 1 through 6 in
the Old Value column, and assign a new value of 1 on the right. Then, click Add.

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Figure 5-15
Then enter the second recoded variable, entering 7 through 9 under the range of the old value, entering a
new value of 2, and click Add again. When finished, click on Continue.

Figure 5-16
Now that the variable has been recoded, you will need to assign a name to it, in this example we will use
the name "RecZodiac." Then, click Change.

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Figure 5-17

You will notice that the new name appears under the New column in the Variables box. Click OK when
finished.

Figure 5-18

Using our newly-recoded variable, we will now perform a frequency analysis of "age" and "RecZodiac."
Access the Frequencies window by clicking on Analyze from the main menu, and selecting
the Frequencies option under Descriptive Statistics (see Fig. 4-8). When the window appears (see Fig.
4-23 above), first select the "Age" variable, clicking the arrow to move it to the Variable(s) box on the
right. Then, do the same for the "RecZodiac" variable. When finished, click OK.

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Figure 5-19

The results of your analysis will then appear in the output window.

6.0 Multivariate Analysis

A multivariate analysis is based on the statistical principle of multivariate statistics, which involves
observation and analysis of more than one statistical outcome variable at a time.
 Performing a Factor Analysis
To conduct a factor analysis, click the "Analyze" drop-down menu then choose the Factor
Analysis option as shown in figure 4-11 below.

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Figure 6-1
From the factor analysis window, choose each and every variable you would like to include in the data
set then simply choose ok to return results in the output window.

Figure 6-2
This is the extraction window. It grants numerous options such as to change the matrix type, display type
and the maxium iterations for convergences.

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Figure 6-3
This window allows you to adjust the axis rotation. Make sure whichever method you choose,
the Display rotated solution box is checked so it displays properly in the output window.

Figure 6-4
This is the factor analysis output window.

Figure 6-5

7.0 Copying Tables to Microsoft Word

Exporting data from your statistical analysis
In this section of the note, we will cover how to export the contents of your statistical analysis, so that it
the table in the output window can be inserted into a Word document. Because it is difficult to copy
tables in PSPP directly from the output window and directly into a Word document, the output must be
exported first as an .odt (OpenDocument) file and opened in Word. From there, the table can be copied
from the .odt file, and then pasted into your document.

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Figure 7-1
In order to copy your output to Microsoft Word, first open the File menu, and click on Export.

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Figure 7-2
Click on the arrow to the right to reveal a drop-down menu, where you can select the type of file you
would like to export the output as. Select OpenDocument (*.odt), and then click on Save. Saving it with
this file extension allows Word to be able to open it.

Figure 7-3
In Microsoft Word, open the .odt file that was just saved. Select the table, and copying it from the file,
paste it into your document.

Practice questions

Laboratory exercises

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