The Effects of Inadequate Communication in the Construction Industry

Contents
Executive Summary...................................................................................................................3

Objective....................................................................................................................................3

Specific Objectives.....................................................................................................................3

Background Of The Project.......................................................................................................4

Explicit Knowledge....................................................................................................................8

Predicted Findings......................................................................................................................9

Major Findings.........................................................................................................................10

Other Factors............................................................................................................................11

Implications To The Construction Industry.............................................................................13

Conclusion................................................................................................................................14

References................................................................................................................................15
Executive Summary
The research is primarily based on the inadequate communication and its impacts on the
construction industry. For better understanding, research study has been done on the grounds
of several key factors that are vital in the construction industry to complete a project
effectively. Those factors of concern can be taken as the key variables that are the measure of
inadequacy or else the effectiveness of communication which are- labour productivity,
effective construction project completion, quality work, supervision and guidance and many
other current and emerging factors present in the construction sector(Alinaitwe,
Apolot&Tindiwensi, 2013). On the other hand, there are some explanatory variables that are
deeply connected with the communication factor and those variables revolve around
educational qualifications, experience in a construction company, work duration spent, timely
information based on the changing nature of working, adequate training and cooperation. The
bottom line of the project reflects that communication indeed has vital effects on the
significant attributes of the construction industry whether it is about building projects or road
projects(Arayici, Egbu& Coates, 2012). The civil engineering projects get considerably
affected by the inadequacy of various organizations that exist in the construction industry.

Objective
The main objective of this project is to illustrate the real world perspective of construction
industry towards the ineffective style of communication management system which is the
main problem in this modern era while handling the projects. So, the key objective of this
research study is to analyze the problems regarding communication and their effects on the
delivery of construction project(Badurdeen et al., 2014). To come up with the relevant
problem solving strategies to solve the problems regarding the use of appropriate information
as well as communication medium in construction industry.

Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the company illustrate the particular outcomes of this research
project which is about assessing the problematic issues associated with communication in the
construction industry and the impacts of those issues. For this, critical assessment of the issue
of inadequate style of construction project communication, specific objectives have been
designed here on the basis of effects due to ineffective communication on the project delivery
as well as productivity of major corporations(Chidambaram, Narayanan &Idrus, 2012). The
objectives are as follows-

 To find out the problematic issues regarding poor communication from the
perspective of construction projects
 To determine the factors that are responsible for inadequate communication in
construction industry
 To find out the effects of miscommunication or improper style of communication
management in case of construction projects that lead to cost overrun as well as time
delay
 To know about the existing barriers of communication and its efficiency that come
in the way of success of the construction industry and violating the standardized
format of good communication systems and models.
 To go through the various sources, such as- proceedings, journals, academic
research papers and construction company reports based on the causality of
ineffective communication specifically in the construction industry.

Source: (Higgin & Jessop, 2013)

Background of the Project
Communication has its own significant role when it comes to certain factors that are quite
imperative for the project success and industry productivity as well as profitability, like-
project completion in time, effective team work and supervision, quality delivery etc.
According to the recent study of DETR, it has come to the front that there are certain
characteristics present in the construction industry that forcibly create a complex
communication environment in the industry and therefore major companies, such as- Bechtel
Group Inc, Flour Corporation, The Turner Corporation, Halliburton, Washington Group
International often suffer loss of productivity and profit making. It is a fact that construction
is a dynamic as well as fragmented sector that is entirely project-based nature(Crotty, 2013).
Therefore, most of the stakeholders have to operate in an environment where frequent
changing nature of relationships is a common thing which is also contractually driven. Hence,
this kind of culture in the construction sector demonstrates the reality of conflicts as well as
lack of trust along with mutual respect which is the impact of ineffective communication
system. By taking the real-world scenario of communication in construction industry of UK,
the problems can be perfectly reported as intra-supplier communication is main concern of
the UK construction industry where the giant companies only emphasize on the demand-
supply based communication especially throughout the design phase(Doloi et al., 2012).
Miscommunication between the demand side that consists of users, investors, principals of
the representatives etc and that of the supply side consisting contractors, subcontractors,
architects, advisors etc can affect the construction process and the work completion time as
well as quality of the project. The deprived nature of effects due to this problematic issue
often fall on the team building, work effectiveness of the project teams, relationship between
the contractors and the project managers that enhances the chance of project failure. Failures
regarding innovations as well as technical solutions are the effects of not establishing an open
communication system within the construction industry which has been seen in case of
Nigerian Construction sector(Eriksson, 2013). Inadequate communication systems and
approaches negatively influence the stakeholders’ perspective that is involved in a particular
project. It has also been seen that poor communication style especially during the briefing
phase often results into ineffective decision-making(Fang, 2013).

The impact of this problematic issue is severe while considering the difference occurs
between formal as well as informal style of communication routes and mediums which the
construction companies and the stakeholders choose during the design phase and the
developmental phases.It has also been observed that due to inadequate communication,
opposing interests come to the minds of the stakeholders and then it leads to diverse hidden
agendas that are not at all good for the project development and completion as per the report
of Construction Industries Board.This problem of inadequate communication was also found
in the Dutch Construction Industry for which the leading groups of construction companies
thought beyond the demand-supply communication, intra-demander communication and
other traditional style of communication and started a new program called Rethink
Construction in which they follow the critical points established by PSIBouw and arranged
open interviews of the different stakeholders, investors and innovators associated with the
Dutch network of construction industry(Fellows & Liu, 2012). Various theoretical
frameworks successfully established the concept of problems regarding communication based
on language differences, physical noises due to machinery and behavioural aspects, like-
mindset and attitudes of the stakeholders; however the impacts of all these inadequate
communication factors disprove the development of demand-supply communication system.

On an industry context, it can be stated that major involvement of information exchanging,

diverse actions as well as behaviours and convey style between recipients and the spenders
influence the construction projects(Finkel, 2015). Improper communication style in terms of
the diverse medium of communication in the same industry, like- written communication in
the form of emails, manuals, contracts, reports, schedules, manuals etc, verbal
communication such as- face-to-face approach, presentations, speech and phone calls along
with the non-verbal style of inadequate communication including ineffective body language
and improper use of signals can create misunderstanding between the members who get
involved all together in a construction project. When there is lack of listening in a
construction organization, it affects the project fulfilment criteria. On the other hand, lack of
clarity in speech, frequent use of jargons, speaking at wrong levels, and too much negativity
in speech, careless selection of words, excessive sarcasm and insincere style of poor non-
verbal communication hamper the organizational success(Harris &McCaffer, 2013). Most of
the time, the project managers don’t feel the importance of getting in regular touch with the
subordinates and it affects various factors that are essential in case of robust communication
development, that are- clarity, concreteness, consideration, conciseness, completion and
correctness(Higgin & Jessop, 2013). Inadequate communication leads the mangers towards a
pool of information and in this case they choose to ignore the imperative messages and
thereby the project quality and delivery date get affected. However, wrong perceptions create
misunderstanding and confusion which later lead to errors in judgement and decision-making
process that are vital to achieve the qualitative parameters necessary for a construction
project. Many researchers have found that the problem here lies in the encoding as well as
decoding of the messages. Ineffective communication has also adverse effects on the
organizational structure, because more inadequacy in communication results into more
complexity and more number of hierarchical levels get emerged. Furthermore, it enhances the
risk of loss of information and greater chances of misinterpretation come to the
view.Grapevines also get developed with the ineffectiveness of communication that can
create the dearth of healthy open door policies simply because of communication-based
misunderstandings(Hwang, Zhao & Gay, 2013). With continuous inadequacy related to
communication, the employees get more leaned on towards poor listening as in this case,
many a time the receivers are not properly focused towards the messages of the senders. With
this sort of poor listening, emotions, such as- stress, anger, constant worry, resentment etc
come to the view. Linguistics difference is the top obstacle here in case of inadequate
communication and overcoming the causes in relation to the ineffective communication
becomes a conundrum here(Marzouk& El, 2014). According to BCSPT, when an industry
fails to improve the communication related problems and its consequences, adverse effects on
the objective-driven policies, goal-making approaches, resource allocation and distribution as
well as management that are necessary for the completion of a construction project. With this,
the construction industry fails to convert the complete inputs into desired outputs. This affect
the productivity measures of the industry in a poor way that comprises- labour productivity,
single factor productivity, capital productivity, total factor productivity and multi-factor
productivity(McChesney, 2015). Significant communication-based problems affect the
measure of labour productivity in terms of power of the supervisors, availability and
utilization of diverse tools, rework, skills of the employees, construction methods, inaccurate
drawings, work stoppage as the consultants reject the project, equipment breakdown and
insecurity. It has been observed that the building industry is much of an information
dependent industry that relies on the traditional communication style and when this
communication method is insufficient the construction organizations fail to attain overall
success regarding different projects(Mirsky&Schaufelberger, 2014). It is a fact that in case of
construction industry a huge part of production environment belongs to out-doors and when
the production point or else known as the work site get inadequate information from the
offices or the design teams or from the contraction, information access becomes difficult. It
also causes waiting of information based on design-related communication problem that
creates order variations and with this, the on-site construction gets disrupted which causes
little amount of productivity(Owolabi et al., 2014).

Due to the above-mentioned challenges regarding communication, the construction projects

often fail to meet the expectation levels of the clients. During the ongoing project
development, it is very necessary that communication directions are clear depending on the
senders who are conveying the messages. But, when inadequate communication occurs the
construction firms fail to management the expectations as per the desire of the clients.
Machinery can’t be placed in the right position so that further communication will be possible
and it affects the lateral, upward, downward and horizontal communication approaches of a
constructing company. This kind of scenario affects the diverse labour market which is on the
rise now in the construction industry(Potts &Ankrah, 2014). The impacts can be delineated as
skill shortage in case of the employees because they feel reluctant to go for personal and
professional skills development as they find the communication process quite ineffective and
inadequate. Effects of inadequate style of communication can also be seen in case of cultural
grounds that challenge the healthy and safety issues of the workers while they are in the work
environments and engaging themselves in different on-site activities(Radosavljevic&
Bennett, 2012). Faulty transmission of messages via inappropriate channels, no clear-cut
objectives, perception-related problems and attitudes and other environmental problems, such
as- physical distance, inappropriate behaviours and distractions are the effects of inadequate
communication in the construction industry.

It has also come to the sight that ICT-based problems also occur due to the inadequate
communication system in construction industry. With miscommunication, many a time the
ICT business systems, shared storage servers and communication tools are neglected for
which quicker access towards the imperative information can’t be obtained by the
stakeholders. Improvement regarding the project communication based on ICT technologies
is to support the construction business sector but it still involves effective communication
among the production managers, superintendents and construction supervisors and it has been
seen that when they experience inadequacy in the communication process, they start violating
the protocols unknowingly(Sousa, Almeida & Dias, 2014). Therefore, it has become a
strategic challenge which is actually an effect due to the issue of inadequate information
sharing and communication process which decreases the productivity rate along with
efficiency of the construction process.
 Source: (Higgin & Jessop, 2013)

Explicit Knowledge
Inadequate style of communication in construction industry creates a lot of industrial
problems that could be misunderstanding, displaying negative behaviours, incompatibility,
lack of smoothness, various negative organizational outcomes as well as neglecting attitudes
towards adapting communicated messages etc. In real world scenarios, it has been observed
that inadequate and ineffective communication jeopardize the managerial proficiency in
terms of message delivery as well as message receiving.With this, not only the managers but
also the employees fail to identify and understand their roles and responsibilities in the
construction organizations by which the desired level of industry performance can’t be
achieved(Potts &Ankrah, 2014). When, the industry suffers inadequacy regarding
communication perspective, it is often perceived that the standard framework of
communication development in the construction industry gets deprived because the impacts
deteriorate certain imperative factors of communication that have strong relationship with the
organizational progress. By affecting the factor- completeness, inadequate communication
conveys the facts with many errors that the receiver might take mistakenly but with this, the
crucial information and the additional information get infringed and mixed-up. It hampers the
decision-making of the leaders present in the construction industry and thereby the clients get
unhappy for sure. It also has severe impact on conciseness as miscommunication and
inadequacy lessen the time-saving along with cost-saving approaches which might have
helped the industry to gain more revenue. Repetitive nature of messages without any
conciseness comes to the front which is an imperative impact of miscommunication here.
With inadequate style of communication, clarity factor in the message gets negatively
affected and often the employees or the employers can’t get the necessary information. The
specific facts as well as figures related to a particular construction project is based on
concreteness and it often gets fuzzy with misinterpretation(Mirsky&Schaufelberger, 2014). In
case of inadequate style of communication, the senders forget to add courtesy and politeness
which is a de-motivating factor and with this, the employees lose their interests in the
project.With ineffective communication in the industry, appropriateness as well as use of
correct language get hampered that affects the correctness factor a lot.

Predicted Findings
It has been predicted during the research project that there are several physical, semantic and
socio-psychological barriers linked with the impacts of inadequate communication in the
construction sector. It has been confirmed by looking at the impacts of the issue on bodily
movements, discomfort, noise, confusion etc that are the physical factors here. The listeners
find these factors very crucial and they judge their leaders in accordance with these factors.
When, they find out the problems which they have been suffering due to the fact of
inadequate communication(Meng, 2012). Illegible writing, losing interests while listening,
reluctant behaviour towards the responsibilities and lack of participations are the impacts that
are caused because of the physical impacts of ineffective style of communication. It has also
foreseen that semantic impacts of inadequate communication in the construction industry
have considerable issues which can be seen as complex organizational structure, bad choice
of words, poor message quality and deprived nature of encoding and decoding as well as
diverse meanings as per the employee perceptions that have significant impact on the main
purpose of the message conveying(McGeorge& Zou, 2012). In case of socio-psychological
impacts, it has been observed that due to inadequate communication, stereotyping, self-
projection and self-fulfilment driven attitudes come to the minds of the members and
stakeholders which is ineffective in terms of the industry development especially in the
construction sector. So, preconceived notions are the main impacts here which can create
distraction, fear of criticism, switching off, impatience and interruptions. All of these above-
mentioned physical, semantic and socio-psychological impacts can hamper the project
completion and quality delivery of the project and the reason behind these negative factors is
inadequate communication in the industry. It has been seen that the employees come up with
lack of detailed drawings as well as they don’t feel the importance of giving full descriptions
while working on a project. Misinterpretation is the core impact that occurs because of the
inexperience related to the site agents or many a time caused due to the clerk of works. With
this kind of inadequate communication, the original design of the construction project gets
changed a lot and severe damages have to bear by the companies both financially and based
on human resource(Radosavljevic& Bennett, 2012). Job complexity is another impact which
has been predicted here while finding out the impacts and it is a fact that complexity in the
jobs come to view here in case of construction industry which has an adverse effect on the
employee performance as they fail to understand their responsibilities in the organizations.
This factor also has negative impact on the availability as well as level of technology which
the construction industry is currently using.

Major Findings
While analyzing the issue, it has been found that communication in the construction industry
actually flows through four different paths, those are- lateral, horizontal, upward and
downward paths. But, when a top hierarchy official or a subordinate who is connected into
the communication system via the same path or other fail to give adequate information to
others, the chain of command gets useless because problems like- delays as well as
distortions come to the view especially in case of downward communication style. While
considering the upward communication, when inadequate communication occurs on the
subordinate level of low hierarchy the impacts can be perceived on the grievances,
complaints as well as performance level of the subordinate construction workers. The
informative nature of communication is the main impact here due to which the subordinates
in construction industry never feel encouraged or motivated; so many giant construction
companies have started to incline towards directive style of communication. In case, an
organization follows the directive communication and maintains a perfectly open channel
when it is about upward and downward communication, the managers of construction
industry fail to maintain the open channels to any further extent because of misunderstanding
and not having enough information from both sides of the hierarchy that are the results of
inadequate communication(McGeorge& Zou, 2012). This sort of communication mainly
affects the suggestions, open door policy, informal informant, complaint system and appeals,
labour unions, interviews and meetings quite negatively(Hwang, Zhao & Gay, 2013). On the
other hand, when inadequate communication comes to the view while considering horizontal
flow, then conflict of interest based on the construction project occurs which is the most
precarious impact as it can have negative effects on all the hierarchical levels because
employees of a construction organization who are the same levels start to misunderstand and
misapprehend each others because of this particular issue of ineffective communication and
not getting sufficient information.

Due to poor communication style, the construction industry often fails to attain the smooth
running and profitability based prerequisites. Lack of cooperation among the stakeholders
often comes to surface with the impacts of inadequate communication due to which they
often don’t emphasize on the early consultation which is very much essential in this sector.
The various construction stages get hampered and get decelerated because of the poor
communication style. It has been seen that due to communication related problematic issues
in the design or conception stage, an information gap between the consultants of construction
industry and the clients gets formed and on a long-term perception, it generally damages the
factor called project completion(Potts &Ankrah, 2014). Therefore, various real world
examples of inappropriate building sizes, natures of buildings, building functions, time
limitations and availability of funds associated with the construction projects have come to
the surface. On the other hand, miscommunication as well as insufficient information sharing
has unfavourable effects on the structuring of organizational strategies, companies’ policies,
their operations and management related activities along with objectives and goals. With
insufficient and ineffective style of communication measures and processes, even the
managers and other figureheads of the industry fail to identify as well as assess the alternative
courses of actions in case the decision-making process is not up to the mark(Radosavljevic&
Bennett, 2012).

Other Factors
There are certain essential factors associated with the issue of inadequate communication in
construction industry. In this section, these factors play vital role while analyzing the impacts
of miscommunication, ineffective and inadequate communication in the industry of
construction. It has been found that, due to the issue of insufficient available information,
poor pictorial representation along with poor written media come to the surface that have
adverse impact on the reports, drawing and charts, billing of quantities, scheduling, letters
and specification. Therefore, many disputes have come to the view in case of top
construction-based organizations(Sousa, Almeida & Dias, 2014). The semantic barriers often
get alleviated due to misinterpretation of a message by the people and it is the fault of them,
rather the error is solely connected to the inadequacy factor in communication system of the
construction industry. The issue also affects the education and training program which top
organizations provide for the skill development of the employees so that they can excel in the
future and enhance the performance level of their organizations. However, by communication
related barriers these training programs of top organizations can’t simply provide the
necessary information and messages which the organizations and the creative thinkers intend
at first(McGeorge& Zou, 2012). Among other factors, compatibility, discussion failure,
motivation, perception of the members towards the same message etc get significantly
differentiated and therefore conflicts arise in the organizational environment.

Performing the reliability assessment is quite an imperative analytical study here while
discussing the issue of inadequate communicational impacts on the construction industry. The
holistic influences have to be analyzed first so that the factor analysis groups can be
evaluated as per the aforementioned variables discussed in the project previously. It has been
found that, inadequate communication related variables have deep impact on the reform
nature of industrial relations as well as workplace information sharing. 75% of the workers
all over the world who belong to the construction industry think that IWP otherwise known as
Improve Worker Productivity has strong connection with the effective style of
communication(Hwang, Zhao & Gay, 2013). So, in case an organization is facing a difficult
time regarding its employee performance level or productivity, then there is a fair chance that
inadequate communication is the answer. During the analysis, it has also come to the front
that roles of the employees, their incentives, organization and management related strategies,
financial conditions and ICT strategies also get negatively affected when communication
management is not effectively implemented or developed. Inadequate style of communication
with insufficient information and lack of clarity are the main factors of concern here while
comprehensively describing the issue of inadequate communication in construction industry
and its impacts(Marzouk& El, 2014).

Implications tothe Construction Industry

The implications of the findings based on the impacts of inadequate communication in the
construction industry are based on the real world examples taken from various reports and
academic researches. The main implication here in this issue is about inexperience
interpretation related to working drawings that can actually cause a huge failure in case of
building components. Around 80% of the companies all over the world think that this issue of
inadequate communication can affect the organizational performance and productivity of the
entire industry(Owolabi et al., 2014). While, many other companies believe that poor along
with distorted style of information sharing can have negative impact on the level of on-site
working that can result into project cost overrun, project abandonment and project delays.
Insufficiency in case of site meeting is the effect of inadequate communication and
familiarity among the employees and other stakeholders. Negative effects on the on-site
output is another impact here and according to the aforementioned principle it is quite clear
that this occurs due to late information dissemination which is an unpleasant impact of the
inadequate communication in the industry. Unclear channels related to effective
communication results in case of construction projects are one of the major fundamental
impacts along with the issue of communication plans not getting regularly reviewed as well
as adjusted as per the convenience of the current construction project success. The project
objectives have also been affected by the unclear style of communication channels and
inappropriate communication media are chosen for the specific purposes that are not well-
determined(Radosavljevic& Bennett, 2012). The roles and responsibilities of the employees
also get affected with this sort of communication issue in the construction industry. As per
the case study of 1997-2004 New Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh, poor style of project
communication has been found which was the reason of undermining the success rate in case
of a high profile project based on public sector.In 1997, the project briefing was done as per
the client’s requirements. While, due to inadequate communication in 1998-2000 an
important requirement of 18,550 m2 to 30,593 m2 had to fulfil because of conflict between the
two organizations on the dimensions of quality, time, area and cost. So, it is quite evident that
project relationships among the stakeholders and the client was not good enough and
communication activates were given the least importance. Therefore, the time issues as well
as cost and quality issues occurred that could have led into project failure.
 Source: (Harris &McCaffer, 2013)

On the other hand, the impact of inadequate communication can be analysed by considering
the case study of vignette project which is the perfect implication of effective inter-personal
commutation in the construction industry that determines success. So, it is also confirmed
that if an organization suffers from inadequate communication in diverse levels of the
organizational structure, then it will be difficult for the company to go forward in the path of
organizational success while its productivity and profitability are at stake. It is quite clear that
in the case study the professional groups in the work environment always maintained the silos
during the leisure time but social interaction based evidence is not sufficient here, so the
verbal interaction related deficiency in effective communication didn’t able to seize the
opportunities and always stayed in the development regarding integrated project team(Sousa,
Almeida & Dias, 2014). Therefore, in this case the project ream got stuck because of
avoiding the face-to-face verbal interaction. There are also some other vital case studies in
construction industries that focus on the teamwork based negative impacts which occurred
due to ineffective communication and insufficient availability of information as well as
clarity. These implication points have been gathered from various secondary sources as well
as from the responses of project professionals who work all over the world in diverse
construction projects.
Conclusion
Construction industry of India, China, Australia, UK, Brazil, US and many other nations have
been taken into account for the analytical study of inadequate communication and its effects
on the construction organizations. It has been found that, most of the responses of project
professionals along with giant construction companies are inclined towards strong
appreciation regarding effective project communication while the theorists, previous
researchers and the project professionals also have mentioned about the negative impacts of
inadequate communication in this industry(Radosavljevic& Bennett, 2012). It has also been
found that there is a unanimous agreement when this particular issue was analyzed because
all the professionals and top construction companies think that with inadequate
communication in the construction sector, various negative impacts like- project delay,
quality deprivation, industry image etc could come to the surface. Site meetings are mostly
ignored by the companies and it is also a fact that those companies are not at all successful
because it is the most imperative channel of communication while a relationship gets built
and strengthened among the clients and the consultants. On the project delivery, this issue has
the highest level of adverse impact; it is because reviewing the communication plans along
with adjusting these as per the necessity of the project success is quite essential in the
competitive construction sector. Along with this, the research project also reflects the
effectiveness of the dynamic communication system and its significance within the
construction industry where all parties have to work alongside so that the desired quality of
work can be achieved within the given time frame(McChesney, 2015). However, the
inadequate style of communication also has harsh impact on the personal and professional
skills of the employees of this industry and most the companies therefore fail to establish a
robust training and development program because what they don’t consider lies within this
small but imperative issue of inadequate communication style. Various factors of employee
management, teamwork, management and unions, the physical, semantic and socio-
psychological impacts have also been analyzed here in this research study.

It is also a fact that there is not much literature and academic researches available on this
particular topic but the standardized pattern of communication models and previous case
studies have been critically analyzed here to get the aforementioned research objectives. Most
of the organizations in the construction sector follow the wheel pattern of communication,
chain pattern as well as information flow while comparing with the vertical and horizontal
style of communication flow. It could be the future direction of research on the context of this
issue of inadequate communication system of construction sector(Fellows & Liu, 2012).
However, the research study also covers the issues related to inadequate communication, like-
language barrier, greater productivity, profitability and organizational performance and its
relations with effective communication as well as barriers and their impacts on the
communication related factors in the construction industry. To remedy this, a organization
should dwell on the effective organizational structure and encouraging the employees for
effective communication as well as coordination among themselves. Implementation and
monitoring of the most suitable communication system in the organizational environment is
the key recommendation proposed by most of the researchers to solve the issue of inadequate
communication and the related impacts(Hwang, Zhao & Gay, 2013). Therefore, looking at
the ultramodern era of construction industry and the new demands of the clients, the
organizations have been embracing the high-tech ICT (Information Technology)
advancements.

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