Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.

in

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY AND electron is less than the number of orbital. So in
CHEMICAL CALCULATIIONS both cases electron pairing does not occur.
1. Relative atomic mass: It is defined as ratio of * If number of electrons are more than the
the average atomic mass factor to the unified number of orbital's electron pairing occurs.
atomic mass unit. Ex. O 1s2 2s22p4 number of electrons greater
2. Mole: It is the amount of substance of a than the number of orbital's Electron paired up.
system which contain as many as elementary 3. Pauli's Exclusion principle: No two electrons
particles as there are atoms in 12 gram of in an atom can have same set of values of all
carbon 12 isotope. 1mole = 6.022x1023molecule four quantum numbers.
3. Equivalent mass: It is defined as the mass of Ex. He 1s2 n l m s
an element(compound or ion) that combines or for first en 1 0 0 +1/2
displaces 1.008g of hydrogen or 8g of oxygen or for 2nd en 1 0 0 -1/2
35.5g of chlorine. Fourth quantum numbers different for both the
4. oxidation number: It is defined as actual or electrons of He 1s orbital.
apparent charge possessed by atom of element 4. Write the electronic configuration of
in a compound. Cr,Cu,Cr3+ and Mn2+
5. Cr- 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
oxidation Reduction Cu- 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
Reaction involves loss Reaction involves gain Cr3+- 1s22s22p63s23p63d3
of electrons of electrons Mn2+- 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
Oxidation number of Oxidation number of 5. Define orbital. Calculate n,l value for 3p x,
element increases element decreases 4dx2-y2 2s, 2py orbital's.
Addition of oxygen Removal of oxygen 3px 4dx2-y2 2s 2py
Removal of hydrogen Addition of hydrogen n 3 4 2 2
Produce cations Produce anions. l 1 2 0 1
6. Calculate equivalent mass of sulphuric acid. Orbital is the region of space around the
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 98 nucleus where probability of finding electron
Equivalent mass = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 = 2 = 49
density is maximum.
of H2SO4 6. How many orbital's are possible for n=4?
n=4 l=0 m=0 one s orbital
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM l=1 m=0,-1,1 three 4p orbital's
1. Aufbau principle: In the ground state of atom l=2 m= 0,-1,-2,1,2 five 4d orbital's
the orbital's are filled in the order of their l=3 m= -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3 seven 4f orbital's
increasing energies.(increasing order is Overall = 1+3+5+7 = 16 orbitals.
determined by n+l rule.
*If n+l values for two orbital's are same orbital PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION
with lower n value filled first. 1. Modern periodic law: The physical and
Ex. For 3p n+l = 3+1 = 4 For 4s n+l = 4+0 =4 chemical properties of elements are periodic
so 3p orbital filled first. functions of their atomic number.
*If n+l values for two orbital's are different then 2. Iso electronic ions: Two ions having same
orbital's withlower n value filled first. number of electrons are called iso electronic ion
Ex. For 1s n+l = 1+0 =1 for 2s n+l = 2+0 = 2 Ex: O2-,F-,Na+,Mg2+ have 10 electrons in their
So 1s orbital filled first. valence shell.
2 Hund's rule Electron pairing in the degenerate 3. Give the general electronic configuration of
orbital's does not takes place until all the lanthanides and actinides.
available orbital's contain one electron each. Lanthanide [Xe] 4f1-14 5d0-16s2
*If number of electrons are equal or less than Actinide [Rn] 5f1-14 6d0-27s2
the number of orbital electron pairing does not
occur. Ex. H 1S1 ↑ Number of orbital equal to
number of electrons C 1S2 2S2 2P2 number of

R. RAMESH MSc.BEd. PG ASSISTANT , CASA DI MIR MATRIC HSS, RAJAPALAYAM

 Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in

4. Electronegativity: It is defined as the relative ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS

tendency of an element present in a covalently 1. Plaster of paris preparation:
393𝐾
bonded molecule to attract the shared pair of 2CaSO42H2O ∆ > 2CaSO4H2O + 3H2O
electrons towards itself.(It has no unit.) 2. Uses of plaster of paris:
5. Diagonal relationship. The similarity in * Used in building industry as well as plaster
properties existing between the diagonally *Use in dentistry, in ornamental work and
placed elements is called diagonal relationship making casts of statues and busts * Used for
Li Be B C immobilizing the affected part of organ where
Na Mg Al Si there is a bone fracture or sprain.
6. Effective nuclear charge: The net nuclear 3. Give the names of
charge experienced by the valence electrons in *Milk of magnesia - magnesium hydroxide
the outer most shell is called effective nuclear *Lye - sodium hydroxide
charge. Zeff = Z - S (s- screening constant) * lime- calcium hydroxide
* caustic potash - potassium hydroxide
HYDROGEN * washing soda -sodium carbonate decahydrate
1. Isotopes: Atoms of same element with same *Soda ash - sodium carbonate monohydrate
atomic number but different mass number are *Trona - sodium sesqui carbonate
called isotopes. Hydrogen has three isotopes 4. Write the chemical equations involved in
namely protium 1H1, Deutrium 1H2 &tritium1H3 solvay process.
2. Water gas shift reation: 2NH3 + H2O + CO2 ---> (NH4)2CO3
𝐶𝑢/𝐹𝑒
CO + H2O 400𝑐 > CO2+ H2 (NH4)2CO3 + H2O + CO2 ---> 2NH4HCO3
CO2 + K2CO3 + H2O---> 2KHCO3 NH4HCO3 + NaCl ---> NH4Cl + NaHCO3
3. Exchange reactions of deutrium: 2NaHCO3 ---> Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
CH4 + 2D4 ↔ CD4 + 2H2 5. Substantiate LiF has lowest solubility among
2NH3 + 3D2 ↔ 2ND3 + 3H2 the group one metal fluorides.
4.How do you convert para hydrogen to ortho The solubility of metal fluoride is in the order
hydrogen? of LiF< KF < RbF<CsF. The solubility of LiF is less
Pa ra hydrogen is converted into ortho due to small size of both Li+ and F- and have
hydrogen *by using Fe/Pt catalyst very high lattice energy.
*By passing electric discharge * by heating to 6. An alkali metal x forms a hydrated sulphate
8000c or above* mixing with paramagnetic x2SO410H2O. Is the alkali metal more likely to
substances like O2 , NO, NO2 * With nascent or be Na or K.
atomic hydrogen. The metal is Na. So x is Na2SO410H2O. It is
5. Write the chemical reactions for i. reaction otherwise called as globular salt. Smaller the
of hydrogen with tungsten VI oxide on heating size of the cation greater is degree of hydration.
ii. hydrogen gas and chlorine gas. Hydration energy is in the order Na+ >k+. So Na
i. WO3 + 3H2 -----> W + 3H2O is hydrated more readily than K.
ii. H2 + Cl2 -----> 2HCl
6. Uses of heavy water: GASEOUS STATE
* Used as a moderator in nuclear reactor as it 1. Boyles law: At constant temperature for a
lowers the energies of fast moving neutrons. given mass of gas its volume is inversely
* Used as tracer to study organic reaction proportional to its pressure. v α 1/p
mechanism and mechanism of metabolic 2.Can a vanderwaals gas with a= 0 be liquefied.
reactions. * Used as a coolant in nuclear reactor Explain?
as it absorbs the heat generated. If a vanderwaals gas with a = 0
cannot be liquefied because there is no
intermolecular forces of attraction between the
gaseous molecule.

R. RAMESH MSc.BEd. PG ASSISTANT , CASA DI MIR MATRIC HSS, RAJAPALAYAM

 Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in

3. Would it be easier to drink water with a 5. III law of thermodynamics: The entropy of
straw on the top of the mount everest? pure crystalline substance at absolute zero is
Drinking through a straw is slightly more 𝑙𝑖𝑚
zero. Mathematically 𝑇→0 s= 0.
difficult on the top of the mountain because
6. Identify state function or path function.
reduced atmospheric pressure is less effective
State function: H, S,T,G
in pushing water up in to the straw.
Path function: Heat and work
4. When ammonia combined with HCl NH4Cl is
formed as white dense fumes. Why do more
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
appears near HCl?
1. Why chemical equilibrium is called as
Ammonia has lower molar mass will diffuse
dynamic equilibrium?
faster and hence travel a greater length of the
chemical equilibrium is called as dynamic
tube hence more fumes appear near HCl.
equilibrium because both forward and reverse
5. Why astronauts have to wear protective
reaction takes place endlessly and
suits on the surface of moon?
simultaneously with equal rates.
Astronauts must wear protective suits when
2. Le chatlier principle.
they are on the surface of the moon, since
If a system at equilibrium is disturbed then
there is no air to breath and no air pressure.
the system itself shifts in a direction that
Space is extremely cold and filled with
nullifies the effect of that disturbance.
dangerous radiation. Space suits are specially
3. law of mass action: At constant temperature
designed to protect astronauts from the cold,
the rate of chemical reaction is directly
radiation and low pressure in space. It also
proportional to the product of active masses of
provide air to breath.
the reactants at that instant.
6. Name two items that can serve as a model
4. For a given reaction at a particular
for Gay lussac law and explain.
temperature the equilibrium constant has
*Pressure in well inflated tyre is constant when
constant value. Is the value of Q is also
temperature increases in summer days it
constant explain.
increase the pressure and sometimes tyre may
In a chemical reaction as the reaction
burst. * Guns. when gun pin strikes, it ignites
proceeds there is a continuous change in the
the gun powder and this increases the
concentration of reactants and products and
temperature which in increases the pressure
also the Q value until the reaction reaches
and bullet is fired.
equilibrium. So even at a particular
temperature Q is not constant. Even once the
THERMODYNAMICS
equilibrium is achieved then the change in
1. Hess's law: The enthalpy change of a reaction
concentration of reactants or products,
either at constant volume or pressure is the
pressure, volume will change the value of Q.
same whether it takes place in a single or
5.For a gaseous homogeneous reaction at
multiple steps provided the initial and final
equilibrium number of moles of products are
states are same.
greater than the number of moles of reactants.
2. Define Gibb's free energy.
Is Kc is larger or smaller than Kp?
G= H-TS H - enthalpy T- temperature
If number of moles of product is greater than
S - entropy
number of moles of reactants ie np>nr ∆ng +ve.
3. Entropy: It is the measure of molecular
If ∆ng +ve then Kp>kc Ex. PCl5 ↔ PCl3 + Cl2
disorderliness of a system. s = q/T
∆ng = 1 so Kp>kc .
Unit: SI = j/k
4. Lattice energy: The amount of energy
required to completely remove the constituent
ions from its crystal lattice to an infinite
distance.

R. RAMESH MSc.BEd. PG ASSISTANT , CASA DI MIR MATRIC HSS, RAJAPALAYAM

 Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in

6. Write a balanced chemical equation for an 2. σ bond: When two atomic orbital's overlap
equilibrium reaction for which the equilibrium linearly along the molecular axis the resultant
constant is given by the expression bond is called σ bond.
Kc = [NH3]4[O2]5 Chemical reaction is π bond: When two atomic orbital's overlap
[NO]4[H2O]6 4NO + 6H2O --> 4NH3 + 5O2 sideways the resultant bond is called π bond.
3. Bond energy: It is defined as the minimum
SOLUTIONS amount of energy required to break one mole
1. Isotonic solutions: Two solutions having of a bond in a molecule in their gaseous state>
same osmotic pressure at a given temperature It's unit kjmol-1
are called isotonic solutions. 4. Dipole moment: The polarity of a bond is
2. Osmosis: It is a spontaneous process by measured in terms of dipole moment which is
which the solvent molecules flows through a defined as( µ =qx2d) µ is dipole moment q is
semi permeable membrane from a solution of charge 2d is the distance between two charges
lower concentration to the solution of higher Unit = cm. It is expressed in Debye.
concentration. 1debye = 3.336 x 10-30 cm.
3.Henry's law: The partial pressure of the gas in 5.Which one of the following has highest bond
vapor phase is directly proportional to the mole order? N2,N2+ and N2-.
fraction of the gaseous solute in the solution at N2 N2+ N2-.
low concentration. [Psoluteαxsolute] Bond order 3 2.5 2.5
4. What is vapor pressure and relative lowering So N2 has highest bond order.
of vapor pressure? 6. What are the hybridization involved in
*The pressure of the vapor in equilibrium with following geometries?a) octahedral b)
its liquid is called vapor pressure of the liquid at tetrahedral c) square planar
a given temperature. * The relative lowering of a) octahedral - sp3d2 b) tetrahedral - sp3
vapor pressure is the ratio of lowering of vapor c) square planar - dsp2
pressure to the vapor pressure of pure solvent.
RLVP = p0solvent -psolution FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
p0solvent 1. What is meant by functional group? Identify
5. Molality:(m) It is defined as number of moles the functional group of a)acetaldehyde b)
of solute present in 1k of the solvent. oxalic acid c) dimethyl ether d) methyl amine.
Normality: It is defined as number of gram The physical and chemical properties of
equivalent of solute in 1 liter of the solution. elements are characterized by a group called
6. A 0.25m glucose solution at 370.28k has functional group. a)acetaldehyde - CHOb) oxalic
approximately the pressure as blood does acid -COOH c) dimethyl ether -O- d) methyl
what is the osmatic pressure of blood? amine-NH2.
π = CRT 2. Write the general formula for a)aliphatic
= 0.25mollit-1x0.08Latmk-1mol-1x370.28k mono hydric alcohol b) aliphatic ketone c)
= 7.59atm aliphatic amine.
a)aliphatic mono hydric alcohol - CnH2n+1OH
CHEMICAL BONDING b) aliphatic ketone - CnH2nO
1. Bond order: The number of bond formed c) aliphatic amine- CnH2n+1NH2
between two bonded atom is called bond order 3. Write the molecular formulas of first six
HYBRIDISATION: It is the process of mixing of members of nitro alkanes.
atomic orbital's of same atom with comparable CH3NO2, CH3CH2 NO2, CH3CH2CH2NO2,
energy to form equal number of new orbital's CH3CH2CH2CH2NO2, CH3CH2CH2 CH2CH2NO2,
with same energy. The resultant orbital's are CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NO2.
called hybridized orbital's and they possesses
maximum symmetry and definite orientation in
space so as to minimize the force of repulsion
between their electrons.

R. RAMESH MSc.BEd. PG ASSISTANT , CASA DI MIR MATRIC HSS, RAJAPALAYAM

 Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in

4.Describe detection of nitrogen by lassaignes 6.Differentiate carbanion and carbocation.

test. Carbonium ion Carbanion
Na + C + N ----> NaCN Carbon bear positive Carbon bear negative
FeSO4 + 2NaOH ---> Fe(OH)2 + Na2SO4 charge and it is sp2 charge and it is sp3
6NaCN+Fe(OH)2 --> Na4[Fe(CN)6] + 2NaOH hybridised hybridised
3 Na4[Fe(CN)6] -->Fe4[Fe(CN)6] +12NaCl Planar structure Pyramidal structure
prussian blue precipitate Ex. CH3 +
EX. CH3CH2-
5. Give the IUPAC names for a) CH3OCH3
b) CH2=CH-CH=CH2 HYDROCARBON
a) CH3OCH3 - methoxy methane 1.Distinguish 1 - butyne and 2 -butyne
b) CH2=CH-CH=CH2 - 1,3 - buta diene. 1- butyne contain one acidic hydrogen with
6. Write the molecular and structural formulas Tollen's reagent give silver butynide.
for first four members of carboxylic acids. CH3CH2C≡CH + 2AgNO3 +NH4OH --->
M.F. S.F. CH3CH2C≡CAg + 2NH4NO3 + 2H2O
1.HCOOH H-C-O-H 2 - Butyne does not contain acidic hydrogen. So
O it does not react with Tollen's reagent.
2.CH3COOH CH3-C-O-H 2. How will prepare propane from sodium salt
O of fatty acid?
3.CH3CH2COOH CH3-CH2-C-O-H 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻/𝐶𝑎𝑂
CH3CH2CH2COONa → CH3CH2CH3+Na2CO3
O 𝑯+ 𝑯𝑩𝒓
4. CH3-CH2-CH2-C-O-H 3. CH3-CH-CH-CH3 → (A) Major product → (B)
CH3CH2CH2COOH O CH3 OH major prodcut
𝐻+ 𝐻𝐵𝑟
1. formic acid 2. acetic acid 3. propanoic acid (CH3)2-CH-CH(OH)-CH3 → (CH3)2C=CHCH3 →
4. butyric acid 2 - methyl - 2 - butene(A)
(CH3)2-C(Br)-CH2CH3(B) 2-methyl-2-bromobutan
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC REACTIONS 4. What happens when isobutylene is treated
1. Convert benzene to cyclohexane (oxidation) with H+/K2Cr2O7?
𝑃𝑡 H+/K2Cr2O7
C6H6 𝐻2>C6H12 (CH3)2C=CH2→ CH3COCH3
2. Convert alcohol to aldehyde(Reduction) Isobutylene acetone
𝐻+/𝐾2𝐶𝑟2𝑂7
CH3CH2OH → CH3CHO 5.Convert ethyl chloride toi)ethane ii) n-butane
𝑍𝑛/𝐻𝐶𝑙
3. Identify the product and mention the type CH3CH2Cl + 2[H] → CH3CH3 + HCl
of reaction involved. ehtyl chloride ethane
CH3CHBrCH3 +C2H5ONa+C2H5OH ----> ? Wurtz reaction
CH3CHBrCH3 +C2H5ONa+C2H5OH ----> 𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
2CH3CH2Cl+ 2Na → CH3CH2CH2CH3 + 2NaCl
CH3CH=CH2. This is elimination reaction.
Ethyhl chloride n- butane
4. Identify which of the following shows +I and
6. Write a chemical equation for combustion of
-I effect? a) -NO2 b) -SO3H c) - I d) -OH e) CH3O
propane.
f) -CH3
CH3CH2CH3 + 5O2 --> 3CO2+4H2O ∆HF = -101.6KJ
+I effect : CH3O, CH3
-I effect: -NO2 , SO3H, -I, -OH.
HALO ALKANES AND HALO ARENES
5. Differentiate electrophile and nucleophile.
1. Classify as alkyl,allylic,vinylic and benzyllic
Electrophile Nucleophile
halides.a)CH3CH=CHCl b)C6H5CH2
Electron deficient site Electron rich site
c)CH3CH(Br)CH3 d) CH2=CHCl
They are cations They are anions a)CH3CH=CHCl - Allylic b)C6H5CH2 - benzylic
Lewis acids Lewis base c)CH3CH(Br)CH3- alkyl d) CH2=CHCl- vinyl
Accept e- 1 pair Donate e-1 pair 2. Convert n-propyl bromide to n-propyl iodide
Attack e-1 rich site Attack e-1deficient site 𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒
CH3CH2CH2Br+NaI → CH3CH2CH2I+ NaBr
n-propyl bromide n-propyl iodide
This SN2 reaction is Finkelstien reaction.

R. RAMESH MSc.BEd. PG ASSISTANT , CASA DI MIR MATRIC HSS, RAJAPALAYAM

 Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in

3. Chlorobenzene with sodium in ether gives x. 5. Explain how oxygen deficiency is caused by
What is x? What is the name of the reaction? CO in our blood? Give its effect.
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 CO binds with hemoglobin to form toxic
2C6H5Cl+2Na→ C6H5C6H5 + 2NaCl
Chlorobenzene biphenyl (Wurtz reaction) carboxy hemoglobin which impairs normal
4. Give reasons for polarity of C-X bond in halo oxygen transport by blood and oxygen carrying
alkanes. capacity of blood is reduced. It results in head
C-X bond is polar as halogen is more electro ace, dizziness, loss of consiousness,blurring of
negative than carbon. So carbon exhibits partial eyesight, tension and cardiac arrest.
positive charge and halogen acquires partial 6. Which gases are responsible for green house
negative charge. effect?
5. Acetyl chloride + excess CH3MgI -->X. What CO2,CH4N2O, Water vapors, CFCs and ozone are
is x? OMgI responsible for green house effect.
𝐻2𝑂
CH3COCl+ CH3MgI -->(CH3)2C-Cl >CH3COCH3
𝐻+
+ Mg (I) (Cl) : CH3COCH3 + CH3MgI -->
𝐻2𝑂
(CH3)3C-OMgI 𝐻+ >(CH3)3C-OH + Mg(I)(OH)
6. Arrange the following alkyl halide in the
increasing order of bond enthalpy of RX.
CH3Br,CH3F,CH3Cl,CH3I
CH3F> CH3Cl> CH3Br> CH3I
452kj/mol 351kj/mol 293kj/mol 234kj/mol

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY.
1.Smog: Smog is a combination of smoke and
fog which form droplets that remain suspended
in the air. Smog is a chemical mixture of gases
that forms a brownish yellow haze. It mainly
consists of ground level ozone, oxides of
nitrogen, volatile organic compounds SO2 acidic
aerosols and some other gases.
2. Which is considered as earth's protective
umbrella? why?
Ozone is considered as earth's protective
umbrella because it protect us from harmful UV
radiations of the sun such as skin cancer.
3. A person was using water supplied by
corporation. Due to the shortage of water he
started using the underground water. He felt
laxative effect. What could be the cause?
Drinking water contain moderate level of
sulphur is harmless. But excessive
concentration (>500ppm) of sulphate in
drinking water causes laxative effect.
4. what is green chemistry?
Green chemistry means science of
environmentally favorable chemical synthesis. It
is a philosophy encouraging the design of
products and processes that reduces or
eliminates the use and generation of hazardous
substances.

R. RAMESH MSc.BEd. PG ASSISTANT , CASA DI MIR MATRIC HSS, RAJAPALAYAM

 Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY AND 4. In a reaction x + y + z2 --> xyz2 identify the

CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS Limiting reagent if any, in the following
1. Disproportionation reaction: reaction mixtures. (a) 200 atoms of x + 200
In some reactions the same compound undergo atoms of y + 50 molecules of z2 (b) 1mol of x +
both oxidation and reduction. In such reaction 1 mol of y+3 mol of z2 (c) 50 atoms of x + 25
the oxidation state of one and the same atoms of y+50 molecules of z2 d) 2.5 mol of x +
element both increased and decreased. These 5 mol of y+5 mol of z2
reactions are called disproportionation reaction
2H2O2 -----> 2H2O + O2 (-1 to 0 oxidation)
-1 -2 0 (-1 to -2 reduction)
2. Draw a flow chart to illustrate classification
of matter.

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

1. Quantization of angular momentum and de
Broglie concept.
According to the de Broglie concept, the
electron that revolves around the nucleus
exhibits both particle and wave character. In
order for the electron wave to exist in phase,
the circumference of the orbit should be an
integral multiple of the wavelength of the
electron wave. Otherwise, the electron wave is
out of phase.
Circumference of the orbit = n λ
2πr = n λ
2πr = n h/m v
Rearranging, m v r = n h/2π
Angular momentum = n h/2π
The above equation was already predicted by
Bohr. Hence, De Broglie and Bohr’s concepts
are in agreement with each other.
2.
3.Mass of one atom of an element is 6.645 x
10-23 g. How many moles of elements are there
in 0.320kg.
Mass of one atom = 6.645 × 10–23 g
∴ mass of 1 mole of atom
= 6.645 × 10–23 g × 6.022 × 1023
= 40 g
∴ number of moles of element in 0.320 kg =

1
= 40 x 320 =8 mole.

R. RAMESH, MSc.BEd. PG ASSISTANT CASA DI MIR MATRIC HSS, RAJAPALAYAM

 Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in

3. Why halogen acts as oxidizing agent?

Because of low bond dissociation
energy high electron affinity and high
electro negativity, they have strong tendency
to accepts electrons and thus get reduced.
X2 + 2e- ---> 2X- F2 is the powerful oxidizing
agent among all the halogens, it oxidizes
halogens to halide ions in solution or in solid
3. An atom of an element contains 35 phase. The oxidizing nature decreases in the
electrons and 45 neutrons. Deduce i) the order F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
number of protons ii) the electronic 4. Why first IE of Na is lower than that of Mg
configuration for the element iii) All the four while its second IE is greater than Mg?
quantum numbers for the last electron Na ec - 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1 Mg ec - 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2
no. of electrons : 35 no. of protons : 35 Half filled or completely filled orbital's are
Electronic configuration more stable than less filled orbital's. Since Mg
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5 has completely filled electronic configuration it
is more stable and has higher IE than Na.
4Px 4Py 4Pz Na+ ec - 1S2 2S2 2P6 Mg+ ec - 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1
last electron present in 4Py orbital Here Na+ is completely filled and more stable
n = 4 l = 1 ml = either +1 or -1 and has higher IE than Mg +.
and s = –1/2
4. How many radial nodes for 2s, 4p, 5d and 4f HYDROGEN
orbital's exhibit? How many angular nodes? 1. Discuss the types of covalent hydrides
Covalent hydrides are compounds in
which hydrogen is attached to another element
by sharing of electrons. Three types of covalent
hydrides are i) electron precise (C2H6, CH4, SiH)
ii) electron deficient (B2H6) and iii) electron rich
hydrides (NH3, H2O)
2. Complete and classify them as i) redox ii)
hydration iii) hydrolysis reaction.
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION i) KMnO4 + H2O2 →
1. Magnesium loses electrons successively to ii) CrCl3 + H2O →
iii) CaO + H2O →
form Mg+,Mg2+ and Mg3+ ions. Which step will
i) 2KMnO4 +5 H2O2 + 3H2SO4→
have highest ionization energy. Why?
Mg + I.E1 ---> Mg+ + 1e- ---> (1) 5O2 + 2MnSO4 +K2SO4 + 8H2O (Redox reaction)
Mg + I.E2 ---> Mg+2 + 1e- ---> (2) ii) CrCl3 + 6H2O → CrCl36H2O ( Hydration)
iii) CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 ( Hydrolysis)
Mg + I.E3 ---> Mg+3 + 1e- ---> (3)
3rd step will require more energy because they 3. Explain the preparation of hydrogen using
have 10 electrons in their valence shell. Since electrolysis.
valence shell is completely filled more energy High purity hydrogen (>99.9 %) is obtained
by the electrolysis of water containing
will required to remove electrons.
2. Electronic configuration is important factor traces of acid or alkali or the electrolysis of
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide or
which affects the value of IE and EA. Explain.
potassium hydroxide using a nickel anode
The chemical properties of an atom is
determined by valence electrons. IE and EA is and iron cathode. However, this process is
the amount of energy required or released in not economical for large-scale production.
1
pulling out or adding an electron to a neutral At anode : 2 OH- → H2O + 2 O2 + 2e-
atom. So both depend on electronic At cathode : 2 H2O + 2 e- → 2 OH- + H2
1
configuration of the element. Overall reaction : H2O → H2 + 2 O2

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4. NH3 has high melting point and boiling point 2. What are ideal gas? Differentiate ideal gas
compared to those of the other hydrides of the from real gas.
remaining element of group 15. Why? An ideal gas is one in which all collisions
Due to inter molecular hydrogen bonding. between atoms or molecules are perfectly
elastic and there are no intermolecular
ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS attractive forces and they obey ideal gas eqn.
1. Write balanced chemical equation for the Ideal gas Real gas
following processes (a) heating calcium in Ideal gas obey all gas Real gas do not obey
oxygen (b) heating calcium carbonate laws under all all gas laws under all
(c) evaporating a solution of calcium hydrogen conditions of T& P. conditions of T&P.
carbonate (d) heating calcium oxide with The volume occupied The volume occupied
carbon by the molecule is by the molecule is not
i) 2Ca + O2 ---> 2CaO negligible compared negligible compared
ii) CaCO3 ---> CaO + CO2 to the total volume to the total volume
iii) Ca(HCO3)2 ---> CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O occupied by the gas. occupied by the gas.
iv) 2CaO + 5C ---> 2CaC2 + CO2 The force of attraction The force of attraction
2. When does blue colored ammonia solution among the molecules among the molecules
of alkali metals changes to bronze color? are negligible. are not negligible.
The blue color of the solution is due to the 3. Aerated water bottles are kept under water
ammoniated electron which absorbs energy in during summer. Why?
the visible region of light and thus imparts blue In aerated water bottles CO2 gas is
color to the solution. The solutions are passed through aqueous solution under
paramagnetic and on standing slowly liberate pressure Since solubility of gas in water is not
hydrogen resulting in the formation of amide. very high. In summer the solubility of the gas in
In concentrated solution, the blue color changes water is likely to decrease since raise in
to bronze color and become diamagnetic. temperature decreases the solubility pressure
3. Why alkaline earth metals are harder than becomes too high for the glass bottle to
alkali metals? withstand and so explodes. To avoid this bottles
Alkaline earth metals have close packed kept under water.
crystal structure have small atomic radius and 4. Liquid ammonia bottle is cooled before
high densities and they are harder than alkali opening the seal.
metals because the metallic bonding are At room T, vapor pressure of liquid
stronger in alkaline earth metals. ammonia is very high and will evaporate. If the
4.i) What is meant by efflorescence? bottle is opened the sudden decrease in
Efflorescence is the spontaneous loss in water pressure will lead to increase in V of the gas and
by a hydrated salt. Ex: Na2CO3 10H2O ---> cause breakage of bottle. Cooling decreases the
Na2CO3H2O + 9H2O vapor pressure and maintains the liquid in the
ii) What is retrograde solubility? same stat. Hence the bottle is cooled before
Gypsum becomes less soluble in water opening.
ad temperature increases. This is known as
retrograde solubility. THERMODYNAMICS
GASEOUS STATE 1. What are spontaneous reactions? Give the
1. An unknown gas diffuses at a rate of condition for spontaneity of a reaction.
0.5 time that of nitrogen at the same A reaction that occurs under the given set of
temperature and pressure. Calculate conditions without any external driving force is
the molar mass of the unknown gas. called a spontaneous reaction.
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒(𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑜𝑤𝑛) 𝑀(𝑁2)
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2
=√𝑀(𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛) Condition for spontaneous reaction
28
0.5 = √ 𝑀(𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛)
squaring on both sides
28
(0.5)2 = 𝑀(𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛)
M unknown = 112 gm per mole

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Enthalpy (H), free energy (G) etc.

Path functions:
A path function is a thermodynamic
property of the system whose value
depends on the path by which the system
changes from its initial to final states.
Example: Work (w), Heat (q).

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

1.
2. The equilibrium constant of a reaction is 10.
What will be the sign of ΔG? Will this reaction
be spontaneous?
ΔG0 = -RTlnK Here R,K,T are positive values.
So ΔG0 = - Ve. Hence it is spontaneous.
3. List the characteristics of internal energy.
• The internal energy of a system is an
extensive property. It depends on the
amount of the substances present in
the system. If the amount is doubled,
the internal energy is also doubled.
• The internal energy of a system is a
state function. It depends only upon
the state variables (T, P, V, n) of the
system. The change in internal energy
does not depend on the path by which
the final state is reached.
• The change in internal energy of a
system is expressed as 􀁄U= Uf – Ui
• In a cyclic process, there is no internal
energy change. 􀁄U(cyclic) = 0
• If the internal energy of the system
in the final state (Uf) is less than the
internal energy of the system in its
One mole of PCl5 is heated in one litre closed
initial state (Ui), then ΔU would be
negative. ΔU=Uf − Ui = −ve (Uf < Ui) container. If 0.6 mole of chlorine is found at
• If the internal energy of the system equilibrium, calculate the value of equilibrium
in the final state (Uf) is greater than constant.
the internal energy of the system in
its initial state(Ui), then ΔU would be
positive. ΔU=Uf − Ui = +ve (Uf > Ui)
4. Define state function and path function.
State function
A thermodynamic system can be defined
by using the variables P, V, T and `n'. A state
function is a thermodynamic property of
a system, which has a specific value for a
given state and does not depend on the
path (or manner) by which the particular 3. For the reaction SrCO3 (s) ⇌ SrO (s) + CO2(g),
state is reached. the value of equilibrium constant KP = 2.2 × 10–4
Example : Pressure (P), Volume (V), at 1002 K. Calculate KC for the reaction.
Temperature(T), Internal energy (U),

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For very dilute solutions the solvent obeys

Raoult’s law and the solute obeys Henry’s law.
2. What are the limitation of Henry's law?
NH3+ H 2O ⇆ NH4+ + OH–
+ Henry’s law is applicable at moderate
temperature and pressure only. + Only the less
soluble gases obeys Henry’s law + The gases
reacting with the solvent do not obey Henry’s
law. For example, ammonia or HCl reacts with
water and hence does not obey this law.+ The
4. 1 mol of CH4, 1 mole of CS2 and 2 mol of H2S gases obeying Henry’s law should not associate
are 2 mol of H2 are mixed in a 500 ml flask. The or dissociate while dissolving in the solvent.
equilibrium constant for the reaction KC = 4 × 3. Differentiate ideal solution and non ideal
10–2 mol2 lit–2. In which direction will the solution.
reaction proceed to reach equilibrium ?
Ideal solution Non ideal solution
It is a solution in which It is a solution in which
each component obey each component do
Raoults law over not obey Raoults law
entire range of over entire range of
concentration concentration
ΔHmix = 0 Δvmix = 0 ΔHmix ≠ 0 Δvmix ≠ 0
Ex. Benzene and Ex. Ethyl alcohol and
toluene cyclohexane
4. Effect of pressure on solubility
Effect of pressure: Generally the change in
pressure does not have any significant effect in
the solubility of solids and liquids as they are
not compressible. However, the solubility of
gases generally increases with increase of
pressure.
Consider a saturated solution of a gaseous
solute dissolved in a liquid solvent in a closed
SOLUTIONS container. In such a system, the following
1. Compare Raoult's law and Henry's law. equilibrium exists.
According to Raoult’s law, for a solution Gas (in gaseous state) ⇆ Gas (in solution)
containing a nonvolatile solute According to Le-Chatelier principle, the increase
psolute = p°solutexsolute in pressure will shift the equilibrium in the
According to Henry’s law: direction which will reduce the pressure.
psolute = KHxsolute in solution . Therefore, more number of gaseous molecules
The difference between the above two dissolves in the solvent and the solubility
expressions is the proportionality constant p°A increases.
(Raoults Law) and KH.(Henry's Law).
Henry's law is applicable to solution containing CHEMICAL BONDING
gaseous solute in liquid solvent, while the 1. Give example and structure of i) AB3L
Raoults Law is applicable to nonvolatile solid ii) AB2L2
solute in a liquid solvent.
If the solute is non volatile then the Henry's law
constant will become equal to the vapor of the
pure solvent (p°A) and thus, Raoult’s law
becomes a special case of Henry’s law.

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with ns2 np6 configuration. Hence, they show

greater covalent character.
CuCl is more covalent than NaCl. Compared to
Na+ (1.13 Å) . Cu+ (0.6 Å) is small and have 3s2
3p6 3d10 configuration.
Electronic configuration of Cu [Ar] 3s2, 3p6, 3d10
+

Electronic Configuration of Na+ [He] 2s2, 2p6

4. Octet rule The atoms transfer or share
electrons so that all the atoms involved in
bonding obtain 8 electrons in their outer shell
to attain stability. This is called octet rule.
2. Draw Lewis dot structure for SO3, NH3, CH4,
N2O5 FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. Characteristics of organic compounds.
They are covalent compounds.
Insoluble in water and readily soluble in organic
solvent such as benzene, toluene.
Many of the organic compounds are
inflammable.
Many of the organic compounds inflammable
They exhibit isomerism.
Organic compounds are characterized by
functional groups.
2. Homologous series:
3. Fajan's rule. A series of organic compounds each containing
(i) To show greater covalent character, both the a characteristic functional group and the
cation and anion should have high charge on successive members differ from each other in
them. Higher the positive charge on the cation, molecular formula by a CH2 group is called
greater will be the attraction on the electron homologous series. Eg.Alkanes: Methane (CH4),
cloud of the anion. Similarly higher the Ethane(C2H6),Propane(C3H8)etc. Alcohols:
magnitude of negative charge on the anion, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (C2H5OH) Propanol
greater is its polarisability. Hence, the increase (C3H7OH) etc..)Compounds of the homologous
in charge on cation or in anion increases the series are represented by a general formula
covalent character Alkanes CnH2n+2, Alkenes CnH2n, Alkynes
Let us consider three ionic compounds CnH2n-2 and can be prepared by general
aluminum chloride, magnesium chloride and methods. They show regular gradation in
sodium chloride. Since the charge of the cation physical properties but have almost similar
increase in the order Na+ < Mg2+ < Al3+, the chemical property.
covalent character also follows the same order 3. Explain geometrical isomerism in 2 - butene.
NaCl < MgCl2 < AlCl3.
(ii) The smaller cation and larger anion show
greater covalent character due to the greater
extent of polarization.
Lithium chloride is more covalent than sodium
chloride. The size of Li+ is smaller than Na+ and
hence the polarizing power of Li+ is more.
Lithium iodide is more covalent than lithium
chloride as the size of I- is larger than the Cl-.
Hence I- will be more polarized than Cl- by the
cation, Li+ .
(iii) Cations having ns np6 nd10 configuration
2

show greater polarizing power than the cations

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(ii) electrophilic substitution

2. Hyper conjugation:
The delocalization of electrons of σ bond is
called hyper conjugation. It is a permanent
effect. It is due to interaction of electrons of σ
bond with adjacent empty non bonding p
orbital's resulting in an extended molecular
orbital.It requires an α-CH group or a lone pair
on atom like N, O adjacent to a π bond (sp2
hybrid carbon).

The process of removing a substance from its

aqueous solution by shaking with a suitable
organic solvent is termed extraction. When an
organic substance present as solution in water
can be recovered from the solution by means of
a separating funnel. The aqueous solution is
taken in a separating funnel with little quantity
of ether or chloroform (CHCl3). The organic
solvent immiscible with water will form a
separate layer and the contents are shaken
gently. The solute being more soluble in the
organic solvent is transferred to it. The solvent
layer is then separated by opening the tap of
the separating funnel, and the substance is
recovered.
3. Show the heterolysis of covalent bond by
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC REACTIONS
using curved arrow notation and complete the
1. Give examples for (i) β - elimination (ii)
following equations. Identify the nucleophile is
electrophilic substitution.
each case. (i) CH3 - Br + KOH →
(i) β - elimination

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where n is an integer (n=0,1,2….)

(𝑂)
→

𝑎𝑙𝑐.𝐾𝑂𝐻
How will you convert ethyl chloride in to CH3CH2Br → CH2 = CH2 (Ethene - A)
𝐶𝑙2/𝐶𝐶𝑙4
i) ethane ii) n – butane CH2 = CH2 → CH2Cl - CH2Cl
𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
i) CH3CH2Cl + Mg → CH3CH2MgCl ( B) 1,2 - Di chloro ethane
𝑁𝑎𝑁𝐻2
chloroethane ethylmagnesiumchloride CH2Cl - CH2Cl → CH ≡ CH (C) acetylene
CH3CH2MgCl + H2O ---> CH3CH3 + Mg(Cl) (OH)

𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
→

How does Huckel rule help to decide the

aromatic character of a compound. 4. What happens when ethylene is passed
A compound may be aromatic, if it obeys the through cold dilute alkaline potassium
following rules permanganate?
(i) The molecule must be co-planar
(ii) Complete delocalization of π electron in the
ring
(iii) Presence of (4n+2) π electrons in the ring

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This reaction is Darzen's process.

4. Write a note on i) DDT ii) chloroform iii)
Biphenyl iv) Feron - 12.

HALO ALKANES AND HALO ARENES

𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐱𝐢𝐝𝐞
1. i) CH3 - CH = CH2 + HBr →
𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐨𝐡𝐨𝐥 /𝐇𝟐𝐎
ii) CH3 - CH2 - Br + NaSH→
𝑻𝑯𝑭 𝜟
iii) C6H5Cl + Mg→ iv) CHCl3 + HNO3 →
𝜟
v) CCl4 + H2O →
Peroxide
i) CH3 - CH = CH2 + HBr → CH3CH2CH2Br ii)
alcohol /H2O
CH3CH2Br+NaSH→ CH3CH2SH + NaBr iii)
𝑇𝐻𝐹
C6H5Cl + Mg→ C6H5MgCl
𝛥
iv) CHCl3 + HNO3 → CCl3NO2 + H2O
𝛥
v) CCl4 + H2O → COCl2 + 2HCl 𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
C6H5Cl + 2Na + C6H5Cl → C6H5 - C6H5 + 2NaCl
CH3CH2Br + KNO2 ---> CH3CH2ON=O + KBr (Fittig reaction) Biphenyl
CH3CH2Br + AgNO2 ---> CH3CH2NO2 + AgBr
3. Write short notes on the the following
i) Raschig process ii) Dows Process iii) Darzens
process.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

This reaction is Raschig process. Greenhouse is intensified by the continuous

emission of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere.
During the past 100 years, the amount of
This reaction is Dow's process. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased by
roughly 30 percent and the amount of methane
more than doubled.
If these trends continue, the average global
temperature will increase which can lead to

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melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low 4. Differentiate photochemical smog and
lying areas. classical smog.
This will increase incidence of infectious
diseases like dengue, malaria etc. Classical smog Photochemical smog
2.
Occur in cool humid Occur in warm dry
Particulate pollutants are small solid particles climate and sunny climate
and liquid droplets suspended in air.
(i) Smoke: Smoke particulate consists of solid Occur in morning Occur in sun shines
particles (or) mixture of solid and liquid and worse when sun and worse in the
particles formed by combustion of organic rises afternoon
matter.
For example, cigarette smoke, oil smoke Contain coal smoke Contain smoke dust
(ii) Dust: Dust composed of fine solid particles and fog fog and oxides of
produced during crushing and grinding of solid nitrogen and
materials. hydrocarbon
For example, sand from sand blasting, saw dust
from wood works Also called as Also called as
(iii) Mists They are formed by particles of spray reducing smoke oxidizing smoke
liquids and condensation of vapors in air.
For example, sulfuric acid mist, herbicides. 5. What are the various methods you suggest
3. How is acid rain formed? Explain its effect to protect our environment from pollution?
Acid rain is a by-product of a variety of sulfur 1. Waste management: Environmental
and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. Burning pollution can be controlled by proper disposal
of fossil fuels (coal and oil) in power stations, of wastes.
furnaces and petrol, diesel in motor engines 2. Recycling: a large amount of disposed waste
produce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. material can be reused by recycling the waste,
The main contributors of acid rain are SO2 and thus it reduces the land fill and converts waste
NO2.They are converted into sulfuric acid and into useful forms.
nitric acid respectively by the reaction with 3. Substitution of less toxic solvents for highly
oxygen and water. 2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 2H2SO4 toxic ones used in certain industrial processes.
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O→ 4HNO3 4. Use of fuels with lower sulphur content (e.g.,
Harmful effects of acid rain: (i) Acid rain washed coal)
causes extensive damage to buildings and 5. Growing more trees.
structural materials of marbles. This attack on 6. Control measures in vehicle emissions are
marble is termed as Stone leprosy. adequate.
CaCO3 + H2SO4→ CaSO4 + H2O +CO2↑
(ii) Acid rain affects plants and animal life in
aquatic ecosystem.
(iii) It is harmful for agriculture, trees and plants
as it dissolves and removes the nutrients
needed for their growth.
(iv) It corrodes water pipes resulting in the
leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and
copper into the drinking water which have toxic
effects. (v) It causes respiratory ailment in
humans and animals.

R. RAMESH, MSc.BEd. PG ASSISTANT CASA DI MIR MATRIC HSS, RAJAPALAYAM