Training manual

Capacitive and level sensors

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Training manual

You will find further information, data sheets, prices, etc. at: www.ifm-electronic.com

Training manual Capacitive Proximity Switches Level sensors (February 2003)

H:\STV\INTERN\Sc- und Se-Unterlagen alt\DEUTSCH\Sc\SC100\sc100.doc 10.01.07 14:49

Guarantee note

This manual was written with the utmost care. However, we cannot assume any guarantee for the contents.

Since errors cannot be avoided despite all efforts we appreciate your comments.

We reserve the right to make technical alterations to the products which might result in a change of contents of the
training manual.
Capacitive and level sensors
Contents

1 Introduction 5

1.1 Proximity switches in industrial processes 5

1.2 Layout 7
1.3 On the contents 8

2 Basics 9

2.1 Capacitance 9
2.2 Dielectric constant 11

3 Properties of capacitive sensors 14

3.1 Comparison 14
3.1.1 Classification 14
3.1.2 Systems for level monitoring 15

3.2 Technology and operating principle 19

3.2.1 Basic sensor capacitive 19
3.2.2 Signal generation 22
3.2.3 Evaluation 24

3.3 Practical use 26

3.3.1 Sensing range 26
3.3.2 Hysteresis 27
3.3.3 Correction factors 28
3.3.4 Compensation of the environment 29
3.3.5 Switching times and switching frequency 31
3.3.6 Notes on the practical use 31

3.4 Mounting instructions 32

3.4.1 Flush/Non-flush 32
3.4.2 Mutual interference 33
3.4.3 Mechanical stability 34

3.5 Analogue level sensors 36

3.5.1 Technology and operating principle 36
3.5.2 Practical use 38

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3.5.3 Installation instructions 39

3.6 Type LI 41

4 Capacitive proximity switches from ifm 42

4.1 Mechanical configuration 42

4.2 Designs 45
4.3 Electrical data 46
4.3.1 Important parameters 46
4.3.2 Overview 47

4.4 Setting of the switch point (binary) 48

4.5 Analogue level sensors 50
4.5.1 Design and mechanical characteristics 50
4.5.2 Display 51
4.5.3 Programming 53
4.5.4 Electrical data and other features 55
4.5.5 Notes on practical use 57

4.6 Approvals 58
4.7 Switches with special characteristics 59
4.7.1 Use in hazardous areas 59
4.7.2 Quadronorm units 60
4.7.3 Special designs 61

4.8 Criteria for practical use 62

5 Application examples 64

5.1 Overview 64
5.2 Examples 65

Annex 67

Type key 69

Glossary of technical terms 73

Index º´«·¼ -»²-±®-

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Capacitive and level sensors

1 Introduction
1.1 Proximity switches in industrial processes

what for? Automated production processes require sensors for supplying

information. These sensors provide signals about positions, limits, levels
or serve as pulse pick-ups. Without sensors that work reliably even the
best controller is not able to control processes.

In general, all these sensors consist of two parts: the first registers the
change in the physical conditions (basic sensor), the second converts the
signals of the basic sensor into electrical output signals (signal
processing).

In general, a distinction is made between binary sensors which provide a

definite high-low signal and analogue sensors which are preferably used
for temperature, distance, pressure, force measurement, etc. The sensor
supplies an analogue signal which is further analysed for measurement
and control.

sensor The figure shows the general diagram which basically applies to every
sensor. Only some details are different, e.g. individual components are
not used or cannot be separated. Sometimes the basic sensor is also just
called sensor. In this case it must be seen from the context whether the
whole unit or the basic sensor is meant. Some units consist of separate
components, e.g. NAMUR sensors or often also temperature sensors.
Here the transducer is connected to a separate evaluation unit or
amplifier.

Figure 1 : Configuration of a sensor

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intelligent A sensor which only supplies the binary information

object detected (level reached) or
object not detected (level not reached)
is in general not yet called intelligent. One also speaks of an intelligent
sensor if it is able to supply additional information, e.g.
object reliably detected or
object not reliably detected.
An analogue sensor provides more information, of course.

level Binary sensors have been developed which are especially designed for
monitoring levels. They are also called level switches. Below they are
called binary level sensors. A new sensor family operates according to the
analogue principle. To make the distinction easier and to avoid
misunderstandings we will call them analogue level sensors (see 3.5).

This text will focus on binary sensors as position switches and level
sensors as well as analogue level sensors as sensors generating a
measured value. It will provide information about the operating principle,
features and criteria for using capacitive sensor systems. Furthermore it
will describe typical applications and suitable types thus making it easier
for the user to select the unit suitable for his application. There are many
different names for these sensors: proximity switches, initiators, non-
contact position indicators, but also manufacturer-specific names such as
efector (registered trademark of ifm electronic gmbh) are used. This
manual will use the term proximity switch for binary sensors.

In industrial applications mainly one system has been tried and tested:
capacitive proximity switches. This sensor system is suitable for the non-
contact detection of a wide range of different materials.

The new analogue level sensor also operates according to the capacitive
principle. However, it has to be immersed in the medium, if necessary
using a thermowell. There are differences as far as generation and
evaluation of the measured signal are concerned which will be explained
below.

ifm has produced non-contact capacitive proximity switches for over 30

years. There must be a reason why these switches are used everywhere in
industrial plants. Why are these units and in particular the efectors so
successful?

A lot of experience made in the past few decades has led to more and
more improvements. For more than 20 years ifm has granted a 5-year
warranty for its standard units. Due to its high degree of reliability
reached for the first time the capacitive proximity switch has been widely
accepted in state-of-the-art technology. Moreover, new fields of
applications open up where a high degree of automation was
inconceivable before.

next generation When the electronic proximity switch was launched it was just seen as a
replacement for the mechanical switch. Meanwhile the mechanical
switches have been replaced in many applications. This means different
types were developed, produced, sold to the user who contacted the
manufacturer if the sensor needed additional features in his application.
After years of experience with the units, another point of view can be
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Capacitive and level sensors
taken. The first question is: What features does a sensor need to solve an
application?

are there any examples? The correct sensitivity setting could be difficult in specific applications.
This proved to be true for example for applications where the sensor had
to detect the level through a wall (see 3.3.4). The first generation is set
using a potentiometer. The level sensors are set automatically. The sensor
selects the optimum setting to compensate for the wall concerned.
The increasing use of frequency converters generates an increased
conducted high-frequency noise level to which the capacitive sensor
reacts more sensitively than other sensors. Therefore the measuring
principle was modified so that the capacitive sensor is virtually immune to
such noise.

Details will be described in 3.2.2.

1.2 Layout
For a better understanding the layout will be explained to make reading
the text and finding information easier.

keywords Keywords which refer to the topic to be dealt with in the following
section are given in the left margin.

what does ‘FAQs’ mean? This stands for Frequently Asked Questions. This term is also used for
modern electronic media. Almost everybody starting to deal with a new
task faces the same questions. Sometimes FAQs introduce a section
instead of keywords. To differentiate them from simple keywords, they
are written in italics.

( 4) A figure in round brackets in the left margin refers to a formula used in

the following text, e.g. see (4). Of course, these formulas do not need to
be learnt by heart. They are meant to make understanding of the subject
easier because a formula similar to an illustration describes a relation
more briefly and clearly than many words.

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1.3 On the contents

The purpose of this manual is to give basic information about capacitive
proximity switches. Important terms and relations will be explained, state-
of-the-art technology will be described and technical data of ifm’s units
will be presented. This results in the following structure.

1. Introduction This introduction is followed by the chapter:

2. Basics Here the physical basics that are useful for a better understanding of the
operating principle and the features will be briefly presented. A few basic
terms and their context will be described.

3. Features of the capacitive proximity switches, binary and analogue level sensors
The binary as well as the analogue sensors will be discussed. Other
systems in practical use will also be mentioned. Then a general overview
of different sensing systems will follow. This is meant to facilitate the
correct classification of sensors to the capacitive principle and to decide
where they can and where they cannot be used. The knowledge of these
features, the advantages and disadvantages is a prerequisite for
successful use.

4. ifm units Here the data of ifm sensors are listed and explained. The mechanical
configuration, electrical features and use are described. Special units will
be presented.

5. Applications A few applications with illustrations will be briefly described.

Annex This manual is also intended to help you study on your own. Therefore
important terms will be briefly explained again in the glossary of technical
terms. The points which are essential for the ifm sensor will be detailed in
the chapters preceding the glossary. The index will help to look them up.
The type key and the code for the production date will also be briefly
presented.

much success! Having this basic information everybody should be able to benefit from
the chance this product offers and to use the efector 150 successfully.

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Capacitive and level sensors

2 Basics
do I have to know this? Many operators use capacitive sensors successfully without knowing
these basics. In the following chapters several notes on practical
applications will be given. The basic knowledge helps to structure such
information. This is more effective than learning a dozen rules by heart.
Understanding the operating principle also makes the selection of the
types and their application easier. Some basic knowledge is necessary to
be a competent partner.
This chapter will also outline the physical basics. This description is not
too long and theoretical. We have tried to focus on essential information.
In this respect it is necessary to shorten and simplify facts and
explanations.

In the following sections, we will recall a few basic terms which will be
used without any further explanation in 3.2. Those who are familiar with
these basic terms can skip this chapter or come back to it if necessary.

2.1 Capacitance
what does it mean? Everybody is probably familiar with this term; it is used in many contexts.
In connection with electric charge it has a special meaning.

charge We only want to recall briefly that there are two kinds of electric charge
which are characterised by + and -. These charges are tied to carriers, e.g.
electrons and other elementary particles. Usually the charges in the
objects surrounding us are balanced. These objects are electrically
neutral. The fact that charges are always present is of special importance
in the next chapter 2.2. If there is an excess of charge, positive or
negative, the object is said to be charged.

consumption capacity This is another term for capacitance. First of all we want to recall one
characteristic of electric charges. They exert force on one another: equal
ones repel one another, unequal ones attract one another. If you want to
add more equal charges to an already charged object, these (or their
carriers) have to move against the repelling force. This means work has to
be performed. One unit for electrical work is the electrical voltage. Now
you can characterise structures of conductors, capacitors by the amount
of work that is needed to charge them. So it is obvious to define
capacitance as:

Q
( 1) Cã
U

[C] = 1 F = 1 farad, electrical capacitance

[Q] = 1 C = 1 coulomb, electric charge
[U] = 1 V = 1 volt, electrical voltage

In words: the more charge flows onto an object at a certain voltage, the
higher the capacitance.

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Training manual

is 1 F much? When it comes to a measuring unit it is useful to ask this question in

order to get a feeling for this unit. 1 F is very much. It is quite difficult to
generate such high capacitances. Capacitors are electrical components
whose task is to store electric charges. 1 mF is already quite a lot, typical
are rather µF. With capacitive sensors even changes in capacitance in the
pF range are evaluated. This also applies to ifm’s pressure sensors, for
example, which also operate to the capacitive principle.

reminder Meaning of the abbreviations:

m milli 10-3
µ micro 10-6
n nano 10-9
p pico 10-12

One problem should be clarified here in order to avoid

misunderstandings. Charges are not simply generated, just as little as
they can disappear. Charges are separated. This means that in order to
apply charges to an object, they have to be taken away from another
object. Bearing this in mind a simple example of a capacitor, the plate
capacitor, becomes clearer (see Figure 2). Not only one plate is charged
but both, with reversed signs, however. An electrical field is built up
between the plates. This means that e.g. a negative charge between the
plates is repelled by the negative plate and attracted by the positive plate.
So far we have not mentioned, either, that the electrical voltage cannot
be seen absolutely but that it only makes sense as the difference between
two points. For the plate capacitor e.g. the voltage between the plates is
meant.

plate capacitor Bearing this in mind the formula for the capacitance of a plate capacitor
is easy to understand. If the distance between the plates is small, less
work has to be performed to separate the charges. The capacitance is
bigger. The larger the surface of the plates the better the charges can
spread on it. Less work is required to apply additional charges. The
capacitance is also bigger. The formula is:
A
( 2) Cã 0
d
[C] = 1 F = 1 farad, electrical capacitance
[ 0] = 8.8541 10 -12 F/m, electric field constant
[A] = 1m2, surface of a plate
[d] = 1m, distance between the plates

Figure 2: Plate capacitor

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Capacitive and level sensors
note The two basic terms, electrical field and electrical voltage are also
important in connection with the EMC issue (see Training Manual CE
Marking).

2.2 Dielectric constant

This term means a material property which is characteristic of the
behaviour in the electrical field. This characteristic shows e.g. when
material is placed between the plates of a capacitor (see 2.1). Non-
conductive material is meant here, otherwise there would be a short
circuit between the plates (see below). The following term will help clarify
this background.

polarisation As mentioned above, matter consisting of elementary particles such as

electrons is electrically neutral. The electric charges which are bound to
the elementary particles are balanced. At this point we want to recall the
structure of matter. The smallest parts are atoms (at this point we do not
want to ask in detail what they consist of). It is only in inert gas that they
are isolated, usually they combine to form molecules. Looking at this
structure in more detail you will see that there are materials in whose
molecules the charges are not arranged completely symmetrically. A well-
known example is water. A water molecule is electrically neutral.
However, it is easy to imagine that for example a “left-hand” side is
slightly positive and the “right-hand” side is slightly negative. This is the
cause of some properties of the water, e.g. the good solubility of salts.
Usually this is hardly noticed because the water molecules are oriented
completely irregularly. However, if you place them into an electrical field,
e.g. between the plates of a capacitor, they orient themselves. The
positive side will point to the negative plate and accordingly the negative
side to the positive plate.
If you enter a material which is not polarised into an electric field, it can
slightly stretch these charges. Even if before the charge distribution was
symmetrical, there will be a polarisation in the electric field.

is this of any significance for practical use?

Especially in connection with capacitors there is an important
consequence. Whether the charges orient themselves or whether they
stretch, the field is weakened in either case. For example, opposite the
negative plate there will be positive charges which partly neutralise the
negative charge of the plate. Thus less work is required to apply
additional charges to the plates, i.e. the capacitance increases. Formula
( 2) has to be modified.

A
( 3) Cã 0 r
d

r A comparison with ( 2) shows that r is a dimensionless number. It is

called relative dielectric constant. It represents the correction factor by
which the capacitance is to be multiplied if there is matter between the
plates. Its value depends on the material. Using the above term this value
can be clearly explained. r indicates how much the material can be
polarised.

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Training manual

Figure 3:Capacitor with dielectric material

dielectric material This term sounds very scientific and abstract but in fact a dielectric
material is nothing special. Each non-conductive material is a dielectric
material (we will discuss conductive material further below). This term
only points out that in the current context polarisability is the essential
property.

values If there is no matter between the plates (vacuum), then r = 1. With air
the difference is so small that r also virtually takes the value 1. With
other materials this value can only be > 1. For many materials it is
between 1 and 10. With water it is already unusually high, here r 81.
This means that the capacitance of a capacitor where there is water
between the plates is 81 times higher than in air. r is considerably higher
with only some “exotic” substances. For example they are used in the
production of special capacitors with high capacitances.

half full? A special case is of particular importance for the analogue level sensor. If
you imagine that the water level between the capacitor plates can take
any value between full and empty, e.g. half full, then what about
capacitance? It depends on the level. It makes, of course, sense to take
the empty capacitor to ( 2) as reference. Above we stated that the
capacitance rises to about 81 times when it is filled with water, see ( 3).
If it is only filled half, the capacitance will increase by only half the value.
To be more precise we can say: the change in capacitance is proportional
to the difference in height (for rectangular plates). This relation is used
for the signal generation in the analogue level sensor (see 3.5.1).

Figure 4:Capacitor half-filled

r of metal? In metals (by the way likewise in other electrical conductors such as
graphite) charges (more precisely: charge carriers) move relatively freely.
So what happens if the space between the capacitor plates is filled with
metal? As already said this does not mean completely filled because
otherwise the capacitor would be short-circuited. There must remain a
small gap on both sides. If the capacitor is charged, an electrical field is
generated between the plates. It acts on the electric charges which move
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Capacitive and level sensors
negative plate and vice versa. The movement of the charges will continue
until the electrical field inside the metal has been compensated. Here the
term polarisation is stripped of its meaning, however. r cannot be
indicated for conductors. You can easily understand the effect of the
charge distribution if you imagine that this arrangement is replaced by
two capacitors.

Figure 5: Metal inside the capacitor

will C become greater or smaller? We do not intend to explain more relations of electrical circuits. We just
want to recall that with connection in series of two capacitors the overall
capacitance is smaller than that of each individual capacitor. Now you
have to be careful not to come to a wrong conclusion namely that the
capacitance of the plate capacitor decreases when metal is placed
between the plates. The two individual capacitors of the “replacement
circuit” have a considerably higher capacitance than the capacitor
without metal between the plates. The reason why is that d is much
smaller, see ( 2). So the answer is: C becomes greater. Metal virtually
acts as a good dielectric material. This special case will be discussed
further below (see 3.3.3).

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3 Properties of capacitive sensors

3.1 Comparison

3.1.1 Classification

universal The capacitive proximity switch detects all materials. Thus it is more
versatile than the inductive switch. It is, however, also more susceptible
to interference, e.g. due to build-up of dirt.

The same capacitive principle is also used for ifm’s pressure sensor, see
Training Manual Pressure Sensors. Since this is a completely different unit
of measurement it will not be discussed here.

The capacitive sensor has some common traits with the inductive sensor,
however it cannot be compared as easily as the latter with a mechanical
switch, see Training Manual Inductive Proximity Switches. Certain
properties can hardly be compared, e.g. the ability to detect a medium
through a wall, see 3.3.4, the sensitivity setting, see 4.4. or the
evaluation of the analogue signal, see 3.5.1.

binary and analogue First of all we want to describe in detail the binary type which has existed
for quite a while and which is the most frequently used type. Below, 3.2
to 3.5, we will discuss the use as a binary position sensor. Here the
analogue signal is not evaluated externally. For a better overview, the
analogue level sensor will be discussed in a later chapter, see 4.5.

position sensor The binary capacitive sensor belongs to the group of position sensors.
The photoelectric or inductive sensors also belong to this group. Criteria
to select the suitable position sensor will be discussed in the training
manual Photoelectric Sensors, criteria to select a capacitive proximity
switch will be discussed in the following chapters (see e.g. 3.3.6).
Another group is formed by e.g. the fluid sensors. There is no clear
distinction between these groups; there are fluent transitions. Capacitive
sensors with binary output are, for example, often used for level
monitoring of fluids. They can also be seen as part of the position sensors
since in the end it is a position that is detected.

medium The binary capacitive sensor cannot only be used for monitoring the level
of liquids. It is also frequently used for bulk materials such as grains and
plastic granulates.

Especially in this function as position sensor there are properties it shares

with the inductive proximity switch. The statements made in the Training
Manual Inductive Proximity Switches in comparison with mechanical limit
switches also apply here.

alternatives The criteria to select a position sensor for a certain application will be
described, as mentioned, in 3.3.6. For measuring systems for lengths or
distances the task is different. The capacitive sensor as limit monitor has a
series of advantages. There is, of course, also interference. Important
aspects shall once again be summarised here. The properties of other
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Capacitive and level sensors
Electronic output signal
It helps avoid problems such as contact bouncing, wear and tear,
corrosion of the contacts, etc.
Contact with the medium not required
Non-contact detection even through walls or PTFE thermowells is of
advantage here.

soiling, deposits We will discuss this important aspect in more detail. Above we
mentioned the susceptibility of the capacitive sensor to these influences.
At first glance this seems to be a disadvantage. However, it has to be
taken into consideration that many alternative systems can be affected to
a higher degree. For the capacitive sensor these influences can be
compensated for, within limits, however.
Remote setting
If the sensor is not in direct contact with the medium, this aspect
refers to deposits, e.g. on the wall, through which the sensor detects
the medium. By making another empty state adjustment, see 4.4,
which can be effected as remote setting via the programming wire,
see 4.3, this effect can easily be compensated for, if the layer is not
too thick. For mechanical systems only cleaning will be a remedy for
which they may have to be removed.
Dynamic evaluation
For the analogue level sensor even thick layers of deposit or
encrustation can be compensated for by dynamic evaluation of the
segments, see 3.5.1.

3.1.2 Systems for level monitoring

alternatives Here we want to mention briefly some possible alternatives to capacitive

sensors. These alternatives mainly concern level. In this context we will
also discuss some analogue systems. For position monitoring of any (not
only conductive) objects there are hardly any comparable and economical
alternatives, apart from optical sensors, maybe. In this chapter we will
therefore focus on alternatives to level monitoring.

floats Since the inductive sensor is least susceptible to interference, among

others to wetting due to water, (see Overview) people try to use it also
for level monitoring. However, since it mainly reacts to metal materials a
float made of metal is required. The latter is an indication of the level of
the fluid. There are various systems with round and pear-shaped floats on
the market. To ensure reliable detection they have to be mechanical. This
fact makes the configuration quite complex. For example, if several levels
are to be detected, several floats have to be used. Generation of
analogue signals is possible but mechanically even more complex. As an
alternative, reed switches are also used. Mechanical microswitches which
are e.g. operated via a lever are partly used with the function of limit
monitors. It is especially this solution most arguments favour which are
described e.g. in the Training Manual Inductive Proximity Switches as an
advantage of the electronic sensor.

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Training manual

Figure 6: Round float and float switch

Whichever way the signal is picked up, these devices are particularly
susceptible to soiling. Mounting is complex and cost-intensive. A large
variety of types makes the selection very difficult.

buoyancy This principle is also called displacement method. A specifically heavier

cylinder is placed into the medium. Depending on the level the force at
the suspension is reduced by the buoyancy. In principle analogue
measurements are also possible, however they require some mechanical
efforts. It is also due to the poor precision that they are rather used for
simple monitoring tasks.

Figure 7: Float

pressure As described in more detail in the Training Manual Pressure Sensors

pressure sensors can also be used for level measurement. To obtain a
high degree of accuracy there have to be high demands on measurement
accuracy and resolution. To measure level in a closed vessel in which the
inside pressure may differ from the atmospheric pressure a differential
pressure measurement becomes necessary.

These mechanical methods share the susceptibility to soiling, deposits or

encrustation. In some cases the float and displacement systems have to
be protected against movement of the medium, flow or eddies by means
of complex modifications.

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16
Capacitive and level sensors
conductivity This method is also called conductive level measurement. There are two
electrodes in the medium which is required to have a certain minimum
conductivity. In metal vessels the wall may also be used as the second
electrode. The electrical resistance in between depends on the level. In
order to avoid retroaction, e.g. electrolytic decomposition, alternating
current is used. A condition is that a homogenous medium with constant
conductivity is used. A variation of this system is based on the evaluation
of changes in the potential curves. It is independent of the conductivity;
only a minimum value is a condition here again. Conductive level
measurement is rarely used.

radar This is a promising technology for the future. Radar sensors generate
primarily analogue signals which can, of course, also be used for limit
value detection. Direct determination of the pulse duration is too
complex due to the relative short distances. Therefore interference
procedures (see Training Manual Photoelectric Sensors) are used. There
are also procedures evaluating the attenuation of the signal during
penetration into the medium. This method is also called radiometry. The
basic sensors, however, do not yet exist in large numbers so that the
price is still relatively high. The EMC issue (see Training Manual CE
Marking) entails that this method is only used in closed metal vessels.
Similar to the capacitive principle the dielectric constant (see 2.2) must
not be too small.

ultrasonics This technology is already being used. Ultrasonic sensors generate

analogue signals.

Figure 8: Radar or ultrasonics

interference There are system-related problems also with the methods mentioned last.
The waves are difficult to focus. Therefore the use in applications where
baffles such as cross-struts or unevenly shaped vessels are present is
problematic. The echoes from the vessel walls alone can cause
interference. Furthermore the determination of level is uncertain with
foaming liquids. Waves on the surface of the medium can also disturb
measurement.

capacitive So far also various capacitive procedures have been used. They can partly
be compared to the ifm systems. Other procedures where an electrode is
directly introduced into the medium are susceptible to changes in the
conductivity of the medium.

vibration Such units work to the principle of a tuning fork. It is generally known
that the vibration frequency of a tuning fork is mainly restricted to one
basic pitch due to the material and the shape. If you immerse a tuning

17
Training manual

fork with the freely vibrating tines in a liquid, it will be off-tune. This
detuning is electronically evaluated and enables the use as limit monitor.
Here it is also called vibrating fork. We also talk of a vibration sensor.
Since the tines are paddle-shaped they are also called paddle switches.
They cannot generate an analogue signal. They have to be in direct
contact with the medium which makes them susceptible to deposits,
corrosion, etc. There are numerous types from which the unit best
suitable for the application has to be selected. This unit, however, is less
suitable for other applications. So you have to expect that several
different types are necessary. It is in particular the types for the detection
of liquids and bulk materials which are different.

Figure 9 shows the paddle-shaped vibrating fork as seen from the side.
Hidden behind and symmetrically to it you will find the second arm. This
is only a schematic representation and it should not be confused with
figure 8 where a funnel-shaped transmitter and receiver are outlined.

Figure 9: Vibrating fork

This brief overview should be sufficient. There are more methods, e.g.
optical ones, which will not be discussed here.

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18
Capacitive and level sensors
Problems with level determination Finally we want to list briefly some conditions which make level detection
especially difficult.
movement of the medium
movement of stirring devices
mud or dust above the medium
suspended matter, bubbles, deposits in the medium
encrustation
chemically aggressive media

We can see here again that electronic sensors are replacing mechanical
solutions step by step. The above-listed types of interference especially
affect a mechanical unit. The variety of methods also shows that level
monitoring is an important task in process technology and that it
presents a considerable potential. However, there will never be just one
sensor which is suitable for all kinds of applications. The analogue level
sensor from ifm is designed for certain applications (see 3.5.3).

3.2 Technology and operating principle

First of all we only want to discuss the binary sensor. The analogue level
sensor will be explained in 3.5.

3.2.1 Basic sensor capacitive

1 Compensation electrode
2 Measuring electrode
3 Machine earth
4 Housing
5 Electrical field
Figure 10: Capacitive sensor

Below the sensor will be built up step by step: from plate capacitor to
sensor.

19
Training manual

capacitor In a plate capacitor the field is concentrated on the area between the
plates. For the simple capacitor the small portion of the electromagnetic
field extending beyond the circuit is rather neglected. Figure 11
corresponds to Figure 2 with the exception that here the field lines (see
2.1) are added.

Figure 11: Field of the plate capacitor

object detection It would mean a significant restraint on the function of a position sensor
if the object to be detected had to fit in between the plates of a
capacitor. On the contrary, in this case it is the emitted electromagnetic
field that is used. To ensure optimum alignment of this field the plate
capacitor is “deformed”. As a first step you can image that the surface of
the one plate, here also called electrode, is enlarged. If you also image
that this plate is bent to take the shape of a cup and the other plate is
placed in front of the opening of this cup you already have the basic
capacitive sensor. This structure also represents a capacitor. A further
component is a ring-shaped compensating electrode which is designed to
compensate for environmental influences.

The figures below show the arrangement of the plates (electrodes) where
an electromagnetic field is formed between the active “hot” electrode
and the ground electrode.

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20
Capacitive and level sensors

Figure 12: Field of a cup-shaped capacitor

If material enters the electrical field emerging to the front, the

capacitance of the capacitor changes. It is already sufficient if it is in front
of the cup. The capacitive proximity switch thus has an active face similar
to the inductive one (see Training Manual Inductive Proximity Switches).

1 Compensation electrode
2 Housing

Figure 13: Field of the capacitive sensor

The level of the change in capacitance depends on several factors:

distance and position of the object in front of the proximity switch

dimensions of the object and its shape
its dielectric constant.

pF The values of the change are comparatively small. The smallest somehow
reproducible values that can be evaluated are around 0.1 pF (see 2.1).

21
Training manual

3.2.2 Signal generation

So the idea is to evaluate a change in capacitance. There are several

possibilities to this end. First of all we will briefly describe the
technologies which were used with earlier efectors.

oscillator circuit You can imagine the capacitor to be a component of an oscillator circuit,
similar to the coil of the inductive proximity switch. This oscillator circuit is
excited close to the resonance frequency. As with the inductive principle
the frequencies used to be between 100kHz and 1Mhz. This means that
it oscillates at a low amplitude. If the capacitance changes, according to (
3) it can only increase, the resonance frequency is shifted, the amplitude
increases. Nevertheless it is said: “the sensor is damped”. This description
is somewhat simplified. It was not a simple LC oscillator circuit that used
to be generated but a non-linear oscillator of the Wien-Robinson type.
However, this principle is more susceptible to interference than the
inductive one. High-frequency electromagnetic fields, e.g. from
transmitters, can cause interference via electrodes acting as antennae.
This problem could be solved by shifted frequencies. In addition there is
high-frequency interference which is caused via the mains and which is
mainly due to frequency converters. The consequence of this was that
this principle is no longer used for today’s units.

Figure 14: Diagram of the former circuit

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22
Capacitive and level sensors

Figure 15: Block diagram of the former circuit

setting In Figure 15 you can see that the sensitivity can usually be set which is
not the case with the inductive proximity switches. This feature remains,
nowadays, however, also advanced techniques without potentiometer
are used (see 4.4).

current situation With today’s generation two things have changed:

operating principle of the circuit and
evaluation of the capacitance
Today evaluation is effected by a microprocessor. Therefore the
potentiometer was no longer needed which made the mechanical
configuration complex in order to obtain ingress resistance. The second
advantage is that setting to the optimum switch point is fully automated
by pressing a button or by a pulse on the programming wire (see 4.4).

capacitance of the capacitor Similar to the inductive sensor, the relation between the distance of an
object and the change in the parameter affecting the oscillator circuit (in
this case the capacitance of the capacitor) is non-linear. That is why this
sensor type is hardly suited to distance measurements, its main
application is that of a binary switch.

23
Training manual

Figure 16: Capacitance characteristic curve

fixed frequency When high-frequency interference acts on the circuit you can say that it is
a system of coupled oscillator circuits. You could see that the resulting
frequency of the oscillator circuit has been shifted. An approach to avoid
this effect was to force a fixed frequency by means of an oscillating
quartz crystal. This principle which helped improve resistivity to such
interference considerably in practical use was used for the next
generation. However, it is no longer used today because an even better
procedure has been developed.

charge balance This principle, described in a simplified way, means that the actual
measuring capacitor and a reference capacitor are charged alternately.
This dynamic procedure ensures optimised compensation of noise. These
units are designated ni (noise immune).

3.2.3 Evaluation

First, the information contained in the capacitance change must be

converted into a switched signal. So only one of the two possible
switching statuses "current flows" or "current does not flow" can be
taken.

signal processing / output stage The basic sensor is followed by further stages evaluating the signal.
Figure 15 shows evaluation with the oscillator circuit procedure. A
comparison with the Training Manual Inductive Proximity Switches clearly
shows that the electronic configuration of inductive and capacitive
sensors is basically the same. The following two points are different: type
of basic sensor and setting possibilit y of capacitive units. Due to the
further development of the capacitive principle the circuits can, however,
not be directly compared any more. There are also differences now as far
as setting of the switch point and/or sensitivity are concerned (see 4.4).

unambiguous If the object is located precisely at this switch point or approaches it

slowly, there is a risk that the output will constantly change between
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24
Capacitive and level sensors
these two states, i.e. it would chatter. This is prevented by a clearly
defined hysteresis which is generated electronically.

time characteristics Also, it must be ensured by means of the circuitry that no false signal is
provided at the moment the operating voltage is applied. There must be
a power-on signal suppression. The time which elapses between applying
the operating voltage and the sensor being ready for operation is called
power-on delay time and is in the millisecond range. Occasionally, this
leads to confusion. This time is not the same as the switching time (see
3.3.5). The latter is much shorter. Another parameter is the response
time, i.e. the time which elapses between presence of the object and
switching of the output. It depends on the switching frequency (see
3.3.5) and is also shorter.

switching function With many units the normally open or normally closed switching
functions can be selected. For the earlier units this was also called
programming even if just a wire link had to be cut open.

output For switching the output signal solid-state switches such as transistors
and thyristors dominate the market. With respect to life, number of
reliable switching operations, switching frequency, and bounce-free
switching response they offer significant advantages.

The minor disadvantages, i.e. leakage current in the non-switched state,

voltage drop in the switched state and greater sensitivity to overvoltage
and current overloads (see e.g.4.3) can usually be tolerated or can be
more or less avoided by taking the appropriate protective measures.

25
Training manual

3.3 Practical use

3.3.1 Sensing range

what does it mean? At first glance the answer seems quite easy. Taking a closer look reveals,
however, that it is important to understand things right. Capacitive
proximity switches operate without contact. It is sufficient for the object
to be detected to come close to the sensor. But what is understood by
close? This distance at which a proximity switch is capable of reliably
detecting an object is called sensing range (in the IEC 60947-5-2
standard called “operating distance”). It depends on
the type and design of the sensor
the specific features of the individual switch
external conditions
shape, dimensions and material characteristics of the objects to be
detected.

rated sensing range A characteristic value is allocated to each type, the rated sensing range
(also called nominal sensing range) which is also indicated on the type
label. For capacitive systems it depends on the shape and the dimensions
of the electrodes, i.e. the basic sensor. As a rule of thumb, the longer the
sensing range the bigger the external dimensions of the sensor. The
values are between 1 and 60mm.

is this a fixed value? As compared to e.g. inductive proximity switches the sensing range or
the sensitivity of the capacitive switches can be set. This is necessary for
many typical applications (see 3.3.4). Since this setting is so important,
the procedure has been further developed. The sensing range has been
set by the factory so that an optimum excess gain is attained. This means
that there is only minimum susceptibility to soiling, condensation or
temperature fluctuations.

what does “rated” mean? This means that this parameter cannot be seen as absolute but must be
interpreted. How is the real sensing range related to the rated (nominal)
sensing range? In other words: What does the sensing range depend on?
There are a number of influences.

Different units of the same type cannot be completely identical. This

means that variations have to be expected. Also, the sensor is exposed to
changing environmental conditions, e.g. temperature variations,
fluctuations of the operating voltage, etc. Objects close to the sensor but
which are not detected, e.g. stationary equipment of a plant, can also
affect the sensing range (cf. 3.3.3). Eventually, the characteristics of the
objects must be taken into consideration. The effects of this will be
explained below.

The indicated rated sensing range / nominal sensing range is determined

for capacitive sensors by means of an earthed metal target plate.

meaning When using capacitive proximity switches the following question is

usually asked: How is the sensor adapted to the concrete application?
The sensing range is not of the same importance as for the inductive
type. Therefore we will discuss this term only briefly. For a more detailed

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26
Capacitive and level sensors
explanation we refer you to the description of the inductive proximity
switches, see Training Manual Inductive Proximity Switches.
Most of what is said there also applies in general to the capacitive switch.

It goes without saying that for the design of the circuit and during the
production of the capacitive sensor much care is taken that the
permissible tolerances, ±10% variation and ±10% due to environmental
influences, are not only kept but even improved. It is in particular the
resistance to high-frequency noise that could be considerably enhanced,
see 3.2.2.

operating distance The minimum value of 0.81s n is important and interesting for the user.
Each proximity switch should operate reliably at this distance, the assured
sensing range.

The maximum value of i.e. 1.21 times the nominal sensing range is also
of importance to avoid interference caused by remote objects.

rule of thumb As a rule of thumb, the distance of the object (assumed to be an easily
detectable material with sufficient surface area) should be about half the
nominal sensing range.

repeatability In practice, another term is frequently of importance, i.e. repeatability,

also called reproducibility. Here the question is asked how the switch
point scatters if the sensor is approached several times by one and the
same object in the same way. The possible tolerances have no direct
relation with this and should not be confused with it. The repeatability of
the capacitive sensor is smaller than that of the inductive one, for
example.

predamping What are the effects if further detectable objects, e.g. the wall of a
stationary housing or build-up of metal swarf, are close to the sensor? In
this case we say that the efector is predamped. This means that the
sensor is already influenced by these objects but has not yet switched. As
a result, only a slight additional influence is necessary, e.g. a more distant
or smaller object, so that the output switches. Thus the sensor has
become more sensitive, the sensing range has enlarged. If possible, this
case should be avoided because the risk of malfunction is increased.

compensation However, in typical applications, see 5, the capacitive proximity switch is

used so that it is influenced by objects, e.g. the wall of a vessel. Then it
has to be set so that this influence is compensated for. This procedure is
described in 4.4.

3.3.2 Hysteresis

is this intended? The hysteresis is the difference between the distance at which the output
switches when the object approaches and the distance at which the
output switches back again when the object moves away. If an object is
located precisely at the switch point, the switching output constantly
changes between the two ON and OFF conditions. This is prevented by a
clearly defined hysteresis which is electronically generated. The difference
between the switch-on and switch-off points integrated into the circuit
leads to a stroke of several millimetres which the object to be detected
must move to ensure reliable switching on and off of the proximity
switch.

27
Training manual

The hysteresis is also of importance with other sensors, e.g. pressure and
temperature sensors. Here it is of advantage if the hysteresis is freely
adjustable because easy control functions can thus be implemented.

lateral approach If the object does not approach the proximity switch axially but radially,
i.e. from the side, the accurate switch-on and switch-off points depend
on the shape of the electromagnetic field.

3.3.3 Correction factors

is there anything else you have to know? In practice the target is rarely an earthed metal surface (see 3.3.1). The
objects may be bigger, smaller, irregularly shaped and consist of various
materials. In such cases the nominal sensing range has to be multiplied by
correction factors to determine the actual sensing range. This virtually
means a change of scale. The tolerances of the standard, e.g. ± 10% for
temperature fluctuations, are maintained. Also for the hysteresis graph
the dimensions change accordingly. How these factors are determined
will be described below.

side length If a smaller or non-square-shaped plate is used, the sensing range should
be corrected by a factor. As with the inductive sensor smaller sensing
ranges will result for smaller objects and a virtually constant sensing
range for longer sides.

rule of thumb Another rule of thumb is that the sensing range corresponds to the
nominal sensing range if the object is not smaller than the sensing face of
the sensor (see 3.2.1). The limit where objects are no longer detected is
with much smaller dimensions.

shape factor For other shapes, e.g. when cylinders are to be detected, the factor can
no longer be specified in general. For balls the sensing range will be
slightly reduced. The value, however, depends on the radius of the ball.
For objects which are shaped even more irregularly the sensing range can
only be estimated based on experience and should be determined by
practical tests. In contrast to the inductive sensor the sensing range
hardly changes if instead of a compact object a slotted object, e.g. a
comb, is detected.

material If objects made of any kind of material are to be detected, the sensing
range will also have to be corrected. For capacitive proximity switches the
correction factor also depends on the capacitance change of the
capacitor at the sensor tip (see ( 3) in 2.2). The bigger this change the
sooner an object will be detected. So the correction factor depends
directly on the relative specific dielectric constant of the material in
question (see figure below).

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28
Capacitive and level sensors

Figure 17: Correction factor material

The diagram shows that the capacitive sensor reacts especially to water.
This is a desired effect, if e.g. the water level is monitored through a
plastic or glass wall (see 3.3.4). On the other hand the sensor is more
susceptible to interference caused by water splashes or condensation.

In principle the temperature dependence of r must also be taken into

account. However, in most media it is relatively weak so that it is of no
practical significance. The situation is different if a temperature
fluctuation is connected with a change in the physical condition, see the
considerable difference between water and ice in Figure 17.

Electrically conductive materials such as all metals are not shown.

Correction factor 1 applies to all of them, i.e. you will obtain the max.
possible sensing range (see 2.2).

material thickness In contrast to the inductive type the sensing range increases with the
material thickness. It only remains constant after a limit value. No definite
statement can be made as to this limit value because it depends on the
material and the type of the sensor.

3.3.4 Compensation of the environment

wall A frequent application already for binary sensors is level monitoring. The
analogue level sensor will be described in 4.5. If the wall of a vessel or a
tube is made from a suitable material (such as glass or PVC, but not
metal) and if e.g. the level of water is to be detected, the sensor can be
mounted outside the vessel or tube. By means of the sensitivity setting it
can be achieved that the medium behind the wall and not the wall itself
is detected. So the sensor can look through the wall. This is in particular
possible whenever the dielectric constant of the material to be detected is
much greater than that of the wall material.

29
Training manual

Even if the dielectric constants of the medium and the wall are similar,
the wall thickness is still of importance. If in doubt, a practical test is
always useful.

methods A part of the units is set by means of a potentiometer. Here it is tried to

find an average position at which the sensor reacts to the medium but
not to the wall. In individual cases a fine feeling on the part of the user is
important; some experience is of advantage. If the sensor does not react
at all or remains constantly switched, i.e. detects its environment, its own
housing, the reason why is probably that you are far away from the
switch point. Then you need to be patient enough to find the switch
point again, maybe after some revolutions.
The new generation, i.e. units especia lly designed for the application level
monitoring, features a microprocessor and membrane keys or a non-
contact sensor. By activation of the corresponding keys or damping of
the sensor the unit will automatically find the optimum setting. Usually
empty adjustment is sufficient which determines a setting at which the
wall is compensated for. In more critical cases full adjustment can be
made. In 4.4. this procedure will be described in more detail. It is also
called “teach in”.

It allows even the inexperienced user easy and reliable setting of the unit.
If against all odds setting should be unsuccessful, the conditions are so
unfavourable that you can assume that manual setting will not be
successful, either.

accessories Since this application is quite frequent there are also plastic windows as
accessory which allow the sensor to be mounted by means of a mounting
bracket. This window is either straight or elbowed and adapted to certain
pipe diameters. There are also thermowells of PTFE which protect the unit
against contact with aggressive media. You will find them in the
catalogue or they will be sent to you on request at the address: info@ifm-
electronic.com.

observe the distance! In this application special care has to be taken that the sensor is very
close in front of the wall. In individual cases it may even be useful to glue
it to the wall. The greater the distance between the sensor and the wall
the more difficult it is for the sensor to differentiate between the wall
and the medium behind it.

remote setting The units with microprocessor of type KN, see 4.3, have a programming
wire. This wire allows empty adjustment from a distance. This is of special
interest in the following cases:
sites which are difficult to access or
soiling of the wall
With level control of water it is possible that after the vessel is emptied
there are still water drops on the wall. With level control in a flour silo it
is possible that flour, e.g. due to electrostatic charging, sticks to the wall,
even if the silo is empty. If empty adjustment was made on the clean
wall, malfunction is possible. Another empty adjustment will eliminate
this error.

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30
Capacitive and level sensors

3.3.5 Switching times and switching frequency

ms The time which elapses between the moving of the object to be detected
into the sensing field and the switching of the output signal of the
proximity switch is in general around the few millisecond mark. The
switching frequencies are between 50 and 5Hz. The lower value applies
to the binary level sensors with microprocessor of type KN. Higher
frequencies and thus shorter switching times are not useful for its typical
applications.

We will not discuss this aspect in further detail. You will find examples of
the optimum use of inductive sensors in time-critical processes in the
Training Manual Inductive Proximity Switches. These examples can be
transferred to the capacitive sensors should this application ever occur.

The switching time must not be confused with the power-on delay time
which is much greater (see 3.2.3).

3.3.6 Notes on the practical use

In this chapter some aspects will be added and other aspects detailed
above will be summed up.

First of all it must be emphasised that the capacitive proximity switch is a

simple and uncomplicated unit. This is confirmed by the enormous
number of pieces used without requiring trained specialists. Most
explanations and notes in this text are often not followed in practice. But
even with an uncomplicated unit it is possible to make mistakes.
Moreover there are applications where you encounter certain limits. This
manual is to help find solutions, especially with more difficult cases in
which the sensor does not react as expected.

material of the object A capacitive proximity switch can detect all objects which are good
electrical conductors whether or not they are grounded. They are also
capable of detecting materials which are no or poor electrical conductors,
for example plastics, glass, ceramics as well as liquids such as water or oil.
The sensitivity setting by means of an accurate potentiometer or
automatically by pressing a button enables the switch to be adapted to
detect certain materials.

movement of the object As for the inductive sensor, this operating principle is independent of
whether the target is moving or not. The surface characteristics of the
object to be detected are not critical, either.

shape of the object As for the inductive sensor, there should be sufficient material close to
the basic sensor to enable detection. However, it is unimportant whether
the objects are compact, flat and even or e.g. slotted like a comb.
Individual objects which are small compared to the sensing face, e.g.
chips from a machining process, marks or burrs on the surface of the
workpiece, do not affect the function until they are present in a large
number. In the case of irregularly shaped objects measurement is also
integrating and hardly suitable for determining the distance.

31
Training manual

cleanness Cleanness is an important condition for reliable operation of capacitive

sensors. An even minor dust or water layer caused by condensation can
(only to a certain extent, of course) be compensated for. However, if for
example saw dust collects on the sensor, malfunction is possible. If there
are failures in automated processes which are caused by malfunction of
the capacitive sensors, cleaning processes have to be carried out. For
example, it has frequently become a routine in woodworking to clean the
capacitive sensors from sawdust from time to time.

influence on the object Since only a very small voltage is applied to the electrodes and only few
microwatts of energy are needed to operate the electronics, the sensor is
not electrically charged and does not take any static charge and causes
no RF interference in its surroundings (no electrosmog). It works
practically without any interaction.

through the wall The capability of the sensor to “look” through the wall is used in the
frequent application of level control.
This is not possible through metal walls.
Plastic windows with mounting brackets as accessories are available.
Automatic compensation for the wall is simple and reliable.
The sensor should be mounted close to the wall.

how do I find the suitable sensor? In the past some often painful search in the catalogue was necessary.
Here the electronic catalogue is of advantage. An automatic selector
selects suitable units according to defined criteria.

3.4 Mounting instructions

3.4.1 Flush/Non-flush

This is an important criterion for the practical use of the units. This
feature depends on the design of the unit and is therefore not only
indicated in the data sheet but also on the type label.

f / nf The international designation f (for flush mountable) and nf (for non flush
mountable) is used.

The operating principle of the capacitive proximity switch makes it more

difficult to develop units for flush mounting which also have a good noise
immunity than for the inductive unit.
This feature could be implemented in the newer generation of type KN in
cylindrical housing. These units can be identified by a metal thread (M 30
x 1.5) up to the sensing face. It ends 15mm before it with the flush-
mountable unit.

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32
Capacitive and level sensors

A: Sensing face

Figure 18: f and nf

free zone for nf The IEC 60947-5-2 standard stipulates the values indicated in the figure
as minimum distances to the side and to the back referring to the
mounting of frequently used cylindrical housings.

1: Free zone

Figure 19: Free zone nf

predamping If there is no way to avoid that the sensor is influenced by an object in its
vicinity, this is called predamping. This term is explained in 3.3.1.

3.4.2 Mutual interference

If several proximity switches of the same type which are mounted close
together are to be operated on one machine, certain minimum distances
between the units should also be observed. Here again the minimum
distances indicated in the following figure have to be observed.

33
Training manual

A: Sensing face
d: Diameter

Figure 20: Free zone with mutual interference

3.4.3 Mechanical stability

In an environment with high vibration the proximity switch must be

carefully fixed. Although many threaded types look like bolts, the
tightening torque for the nuts is limited. Only the fixing elements
supplied or recommended by the manufacturer should be used. This is
especially so for units with a smooth sleeve which should on no account
be fixed using a grub screw.

If the tightening torque for the nuts specified by the manufacturer seems
insufficient, metal threaded units can be used. For small types with plastic
thread rubber washers are recommended to improve fixing. Proximity
switches should be mounted in places where they are protected against
mechanical damage as much as possible. In case of need, they can be
covered: for example glass or ceramic plates are suitable for protecting
the sensing face against sharp-edged or hot chips. Here it will have to be
verified if their influence can be compensated for.

The standard connection cable of proximity switches is only suitable for

slight mechanical stress. If the operating conditions require a stronger
cable, a conduit is necessary for strengthening. As an alternative a switch
with terminal chamber can be used. The cable should be laid so that no
forces can be transferred to the housing. If the cable has to be moved
constantly, using a conduit is also recommended (see the following
figure).

direction of movement The type of mounting shown at the top is not recommended as there is
the risk of mechanical destruction. The switch should on no account be
used as a "limit stop".

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

°±-·¬·±²
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34
Capacitive and level sensors

Figure 21: Direction of movement

35
Training manual

3.5 Analogue level sensors

In this context analogue means the extended operating principle. As will be
described below there are also units with binary outputs as level switches.

3.5.1 Technology and operating principle

basic sensor The basic sensor consists of a number of rectangular segments made of metal
foils which are mounted on a flexible film. It is bent to take the shape of a
cylinder and mounted on a rod. Each segment is separately connected to the
evaluation unit.

Figure 22: Segments of a level sensor

Thus it is possible to determine the capacitance of each individual segment.

Each segment represents an electrode of a capacitor. In contrast to the units
described above the machine earth is not part of the sensor. This function is
e.g. assumed by the metal wall of the vessel into which the sensor is
immersed.

machine earth When placed into plastic vessels an earthed metal strip assuming the function
of the second electrode of the capacitors should, for example, be mounted on
the wall of the vessel.

active zone The zone in which the segments are evaluated is called active zone. Mounting
by using a bracket should always be effected in the inactive zone between the
upper segment and the housing of the evaluation unit. As will be explained
below it is also possible to mount the bracket within the upper 2/3 of the
active zone. This reduces the zone which can be evaluated to the zone below
the bracket. In this case the medium must not rise up to the bracket.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

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-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
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·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
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36
Capacitive and level sensors

A: Active zone
L: Overall length of the pipe
I: Inactive zone

Figure 23: LK active zone

evaluation The use of microprocessors enables considerably more complex

evaluations than with a binary sensor.
The procedure is based on a comparison of the capacitances of the
individual segments. Each segment is individually evaluated by means of
multiplexing so that a number of capacitances can be evaluated.
Several steps can be distinguished:
1. The determination of the capacitance of the lowest segment leads to
a value for the dielectric constant of the medium. It can be seen as
reference at which the sensor sets itself to the medium.
2. The first segment whose capacitance is lower than the reference is
looked for. This enables a rough evaluation of the level.
3. In this segment we have the case of a partly filled capacitor, see 2.2.
The evaluation of the difference in capacitance as compared to the
reference value is the fine evaluation of the level. The resolution is
1mm.

For the moment evaluation is now completed. Installation in the vessel

and even the bracket or flange fixing the sensor are ignored here; they
cannot disturb the measurement. They do cause a change in capacitance,
in another place than the level, however.

notes This is the background for hints about practical use and the installation
instructions which will be summarised in 4.5.5.

The data of measuring ranges, error limits, etc. can be found in the
overview in 4.5.4. Here only values are given which are important in
connection with the operating principle.

speed The switching time or switching frequency is of no practical significance

here. It is important how the sensor reacts when the level changes. If
during evaluation it is found that the measuring signal changes quickly, a
dynamic measurement is changed to. According to 2 above only that
segment is followed where the level is at that moment. If the change is
slower or comes to a standstill, fine adjustment is again changed to.

37
Training manual

100 -300mm/s The maximum speed of the change of the level which can be detected in
that way is 100 – 300mm/s depending on the type.

dielectric constant > 2 The relative dielectric constant r of the medium (see 2.2) should be at
least 2.

3.5.2 Practical use

In 3.5.1 the operating principle was described. This helps to better

understand the following notes, also the installation instructions, see
3.5.3. If time is pressing these notes can be simply used like a “cook
book”. Brief reasons with respect to the notes are added in italics. They
may be skipped.

link Notes which refer specifically to the current units can be found in 4.5.5.
Below you will find some notes resulting from the general operating
principle.

change of the medium For each measurement cycle the sensor adjusts itself automatically to the
medium. Thus it is insensitive to changes in the characteristics of the
medium. With an abrupt change of the medium we recommend,
however, to disconnect the sensor briefly (reset) so that it can reinitialise.

why? For example, if the sensor had adjusted to water with r 81 and is then
immersed in a medium with r 2, e.g. oil, it may possibly not detect it.

set-up with overfilling If the vessel is filled up to above the active zone of the sensor during set-
up, adjustment is not always effected successfully. In this case we
recommend to separate the sensor from the mains, to partly empty the
vessel (up to below the upper limit of the active zone!) and then to set up
the sensor again.
Data (lengths) to locate the active zone depend on the housing length
and can be found in the data sheets (see also 4.5.4). To be noted: if the
bracket fixing the sensor is mounted in that area, the measuring range is
reduced. Only the part below the bracket can be evaluated.

why? In the event of overfilling the sensor may not be able to distinguish
between the medium and air. This means it cannot distinguish empty
from full. If the bracket was mounted in the active zone and the level
reaches up to the bracket, it will probably be detected as being the
medium.

underfilling This case is usually not critical. The sensor does indicate an error,
however. However, if the medium rises above the lower limit of the
active zone, it is automatically adjusted and the error message is reset.
If the sensor is removed from the vessel during operation and then put
back again, a reset is recommended for safety reasons (brief
disconnection from the mains).

why? The lowest segment is always taken as reference. If there is no medium

present there (only air) the sensor does not find any segment with a
lower capacitance. It is not possible to indicate the level. In the event of
extreme changes of the environment the adjustment may fail. This also
applies to the following case.
º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

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-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
®»½±¹²·¬·±²
¾«-ô
·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
¿²¼ ½±²¬®±´ -§-¬»³-

38
Capacitive and level sensors
contact If the active zone has been touched during operation, e.g. with the hand
or a grounded screwdriver, it is recommended to carry out a reset for
safety reasons (brief disconnection from the mains).

medium The sensor is very stable against soiling. Nevertheless there are limits for
this measurement technique. Unsuitable media are:
very conductive or extremely adhesive media (shampoo, toothpaste,
glue, etc.)
dry granulated material with low density
media which are very inhomogeneous (several cm of water among
several cm of oil), a thin oil film does not affect the function of the
sensor

3.5.3 Installation instructions

water > 40° C When used in water and hydrous media with temperatures > 40°C it is
recommended to install the sensor into a climatic tube, see Accessories.

fixing Fix the mounting elements within the inactive zone (I; mounting area
M1). The active zone (A) should be completely in the vessel, see Figure
24.
For an optimum function we recommend: A part of the active zone
should be above the upper edge of the vessel / above the overflow.
You can also fasten mounting elements in the upper half of the active
zone (possible mounting area, M2). This reduces the active zone to the
area between mounting element and probe end. In this case the
mounting element should be above the upper edge of the vessel / above
the overflow.

M1: Mounting zone 1

M2: Mounting zone 2

Figure 24: LK mounting

Mounting using the clamp is best in the inactive zone M1. The bracket
can also be mounted in M2. Then a reduction of the measuring range
has to be accepted; not the entire active zone is used then.

39
Training manual

special mounting conditions

In small plastic vessels mount the unit in the middle of the vessel, if
possible.
With dirty media we recommend: Fasten the unit in a zone where
there is much movement of the medium (e.g. at the supply inlet).
When installed in metal rising pipes (bypass) the sensor must be
mounted in the middle of the pipe. The inside diameter of the pipe
must be min. 120mm.
Metal objects within the vessel (e.g. metal pipes, components
integrated into the vessel) should observe a minimum distance of
60mm to the active zone of the sensor. Otherwise, they are detected
as mounting elements (this reduces the active zone to the area
between the metal object and the probe end).
When installed in metal vessels the following distances should be
observed:
- sensor – vessel wall: 40mm
- sensor – vessel bottom: 10mm

mounting accessories For reliable and easy mounting use ifm’s mounting accessories, see ifm
on the Internet.

To comply with the EMC guidelines of the EU which allow the use of the
CE marking the sensor housing has to be electrically connected to the
ground. This is done either
- mechanically by a fixture which is electrically connected to ground or
- by means of the earthing ring supplied.

The sensor uses the ground / the vessel potential as reference. This means
that a measuring current has to flow from the sensor probe back to the
sensor through the medium to be detected. If the sensor housing is not
grounded, the measured current can flow back to ground via electrical
cables in an undefined way. This may influence other measuring
components.

The level sensor conforms to the standard EN 50081-2 and is a class A

product. The unit may cause radio interference in domestic areas.
Therefore the user may have to take appropriate measures, if necessary.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

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40
Capacitive and level sensors
3.6 Type LI
LI This type will only be discussed in brief because its further development is
in progress. As is often the case, the unit was developed with regard to a
special application. Therefore the applications are at present limited to
the detection of oil in closed vessels and lubricants. The application in all
other media has to be checked in the application department
beforehand.

short description The unit can simply be called an intermediate thing between the binary
proximity switch and the analogue level sensor. This becomes clear in the
following Figure 25.

í ÔÛÜŽ- ø¹®»»²ô §»´´±©ô ®»¼÷

°®±¹®¿³³·²¹ ¾«¬¬±²

°®±¾»

¿½¬·ª» ¦±²» øîë³³÷

©·¬¸ ®¿¼·¿´ ¼»¬»½¬·±² ½¸¿®¿½¬»®·-¬·½-

Figure 25: LI

The LI detects the level like the LK. The measuring signal is not further
evaluated, transformed, passed on to a display but compared with an
adjustable threshold. Thus the output signal is binary.

41
Training manual

4 Capacitive proximity switches from ifm

Here we will first of all discuss the capacitive proximity switches and level
sensors whose features do not differ much. Since the difference to the
analogue level sensors is bigger they will be described separately in 4.5.
For the meaning of the designations see 1.1.

4.1 Mechanical configuration

main groups A distinction can be made between main groups consisting of various
individual components.
Housing
Basic sensor
Circuit
Connection
But they cannot be seen as independent of each other. Below they will
not be discussed as separate elements but as related to each other.

configuration of an efector The figure shows the schematic configuration of a capacitive proximity
switch. Components used to be soldered onto a standard, rigid PCB.
Today’s circuit is a flexible film with SMD components. For most types the
basic sensor consists of cup-shaped electrodes (see 3.2.1) With type KNQ
and the analogue level sensor they are located on a conductive layer on
the film.

1: LED
2: Compensation electrode
3: Housing
4: Connecting cable
5: Component carrier
6: Ground electrode
7: Active electrode
Figure 26: Configuration of a capacitive sensor

Another difference between the earlier and the new generation of the
capacitive proximity switches is to be considered. In figure 26 a sensor
with potentiometer is shown i.e. a unit of the earlier generation. Today a
button is used for setting (cf. Figure 27 and Figure 31). The internal
configuration is similar but there is no longer any potentiometer.
º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

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-»²-±®-
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42
Capacitive and level sensors
trend integration In order to reduce the number of components and perform additional
functions, special integrated circuits are more and more often used.
These ICs are made by semiconductor manufacturers according to ifm's
specifications. In particular they allow automatic setting of the optimum
switch point, see 4.4, by means of a button instead of complex
integration of a potentiometer. This minimises the risk of operating errors
on the part of the user as well as damage to the unit. Price increases can
be prevented.

potting After the electronics has been incorporated into the housing, the
remaining empty space is usually filled with a potting compound. The
advantage of this is a better mechanical strength of the housing to
protect the electronics against vibration and to prevent dust and moisture
from entering. Thus the units conform to the requirements of the users
for a robust switch which can be universally employed.

In the future a large number of unpotted units will probably be used. The
subject of potting is discussed in more detail in the Training Manual
Inductive Proximity Switches. Refraining from using potting compound
has the following advantages: easier disposal of old units, better heat
dissipation for the live components and further improvement of the
ingress resistance by using materials better adapted to the process.

setting For capacitive sensors the sensitivity can be set, see 3.3.1. With some
types this is still effected using a potentiometer (see Figure 28).

potentiometer For these types special care has to be taken to seal the potentiometer or
the adjusting screw because an opening in the housing is required. There
once was the approach not to set the sensitivity electrically by means of a
potentiometer but mechanically by shifting an electrode. This approach
has in the meantime been abandoned.

KN These newer types do not have a potentiometer any longer. Here the
sensor automatically adjusts to the optimum switch point. For example,
for detecting a medium through a wall it is not this wall but the medium
which is to be reliably detected. Adjustment of type KNM is effected
using a membrane key, see Figure 27, and of type KNQ via an inductive
sensor, see ifm on the Internet. With this unit the active face of the
inductive sensor has to be touched e.g. by a screwdriver to effect
adjustment.

Figure 27: Type KN

The internal configuration is similar to figure 26. A considerable

difference is that the programming button whose position is marked by
an arrow in figure 27, replaces the potentiometer. Figure 31 shows the
setting process.

connection As for the connection technology there are no major changes. Over the
years there are only changes as to the preferred connection systems.

43
Training manual

connector units There is a trend towards connector units because for the maintenance of
automated installations, e.g. replacement of a failed unit, time is a major
cost factor. The possible fault sources of a leaky connection are accepted.
However, it can only become leaky, for example, by too loose or too tight
a fastening (risk of mechanical damage) of the nut. Here the universal
connector with M12 thread is the preferred choice.

food industry To meet the special requirements of this application, units optimised for
this industry can be supplied. For example, they feature gold-plated
contact pins. The connector housing should be made of PVC because this
material features the best resistance to water and cleaning agents.

tightening torque In general it is not necessary to use a key with an adjustable maximum
tightening torque for mounting. It should be evident that more care must
be taken with plastic threads than with metal threads. For units with
terminal chamber the screws must be tightened sufficiently to ensure the
protection rating (see Training Manual Protection Ratings).

housing materials In industrial processes capacitive proximity switches are subjected to

environmental influence such as heat, cold, dust, vibration, moisture,
aggressive liquids, vapours, etc. Therefore they have to be
accommodated in housings which are resistant to such conditions.

As a rule, the material used for the housing is a glass-fibre reinforced

plastic of good chemical resistance and insulating quality. Threaded units
are often fitted with a metal sleeve which further improves the housing
strength with regard to installation.

PBTP The plastic ifm normally uses for the housing is cadmium-free
polybutyleneterephthalate (PBTP) which is for example produced by Bayer
under the trade name of Pocan. Information about experience with the
chemical resistance to different media will be provided on request.

metal ifm used to use nickel-plated brass for standard cylindrical units, today
Optalloy is used for coating. This is an alloy of copper, tin and zinc which
is also known as white bronze. With the flush-mount type (see 3.4.1) the
metal sleeve goes up to the active face.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

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-»²-±®-
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44
Capacitive and level sensors
4.2 Designs
ifm's standard product range covers rectangular and cylindrical designs
commonly used in industry. They are also described in IEC60947-5-2.

rectangular This design is mainly used for:

units with a long sensing range
The long sensing range, at 50 or 60mm, is achieved by using big
electrodes. They are mounted on the flat side, e.g. at 120 x 80mm² (see
table below).

KNQ This housing is a special case of the rectangular designs. Strictly speaking
it is trapezoidal. The mounting holes for fixing are on the sloped sides.
Alternatively it can also be fixed by a fixing strap, e.g. on a pipe. The
electrode is mounted directly onto the film as a surface. This unit is
specially designed for the detection of levels, i.e. it is a level sensor. It
meets the user’s requirement for a particularly compact unit. Due to the
low height the connector unit features an M8 connector.

The housing is made of plastic (Pocan).

cylindrical and smooth The very first generation of efectors was of this design. It is still used
today. They can be easily mounted and correctly positioned using a
bracket. The bracket is usually supplied with the unit. When using the
bracket care should be taken that the suitable original bracket is used to
avoid mechanical damage (squeezing). The housing is usually made of
plastic (Pocan).

cylindrical with thread This design is also often used. The units can be fixed on an angle bracket
(available as accessory) or by a mounting hole by means of a screw and a
locknut.

It is in particular the KNM flush-mount unit which is of this design. The

housing is made of metal.

Design Dimensions in mm Material

120 × 80 × 30
rectangular 105 × 80 × 40 plastic
60 x 36 x 10
smooth 20 x 85 plastic
34 × 81
cylindrical M18 x 1 plastic
threaded M30 × 1.5 or metal
M 34 x 1.5

For the cylindrical housings the diameter and length or thread dimensions
are indicated. The length refers to the housing, i.e. up to where the cable
or the threaded block starts.

I want to know more! More details, scale drawings, information about permitted tolerances of
the dimensions, etc. are given in the catalogue or at www.ifm-
electronic.com.
The type key in the annex helps to get an overview of the designs.

connection There are 3 variants:

45
Training manual

cable Here the cable is firmly connected to the unit. Fault source: This reliably
excludes a leaky connector due to incorrect mounting.
connector These units having the advantage of easy replaceability are used more
and more often. Even during first mounting a fault by reversing the wires
is excluded. Due to the increasing importance a brochure giving an
overview of the connectors is now available. Moreover standard sockets
or sockets with special features, which are for example especially suited
for use in the food industry, are recommended for proximity switches
with connector in the catalogues and brochures or on the Internet (see
above).
terminal chamber Another variant are special units with terminal chamber where the user
can mount the cable of his choice. Ingress resistance of the terminal
chamber is achieved by a cable gland through which the cable enters.
Here there are cylindrical designs with M8 for which the cable is either
laid in direction of the longitudinal axis or, where space is at a premium,
it can be laid at an angle by rotating the patented shroud by 90°.

A capacitive sensor used as a wear-free switch on traffic lights with

pedestrian buttons to be pressed on request is another example of a
design for a specific application.

4.3 Electrical data

There are a number of electrical characteristics which are the same for all
electronic, binary position sensors, e.g. inductive and capacitive proximity
switches, photoelectric sensors, etc. They are therefore separately
presented in detail, see Training Manual Connection Technology. Only
important points and particularities will be briefly pointed out in the
following without explaining again in detail the technical terms used.

The data of the analogue level sensor are specific and will be discussed
here in 4.5.

4.3.1 Important parameters

The following parameters are of importance for practical use:

connection technology Binary sensors are offered in the so-called 2-wire and 3-wire
technologies. For 3-wire switches the operating voltage is applied
between +U B and 0V, the load is switched via a separate signal wire. For
2-wire switches the operating voltage is the voltage which is commonly
available to the proximity switch and the load in series. The following
points have to be taken into account for practical use:
Voltage drop and leakage current for 2-wire units
For older units the leakage current of a few mA could lead to uncertain
switching statuses, e.g. when connected to electronic controllers. For
more recent units, especially the quadronorm units, the leakage current
could be reduced to typically 0.4 to 0.6mA. Due to the considerably
easier wiring the current 2-wire units are a cost-effective alternative to
the 3-wire units (if a system such as AS-Interface is not used anyway).
Connection in series and in parallel
For the current state of technology electronic position sensors are directly
connected to plc inputs and then logically linked via the program. So this
point is hardly important any more nowadays. But if this cannot be
circumvented, some special points have to be taken into account, see
º´«·¼ -»²-±®- Training Manual Connection Technology. They concern again the leakage
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
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46
Capacitive and level sensors
current and voltage drop for 2-wire units and for 3-wire units possible
effects on the power-on delay time, e.g. for series connection.

voltage supply It is the voltage range at which the units operate reliably and not the
nominal voltage that is important for practical use. They are specified in
the data sheets and on the type label. The standards the CE marking is
based on define the degree of the conducted interference the unit has to
withstand, see Training Manual CE Marking.

residual ripple For DC voltage it has to be noted that the residual ripple does not exceed
the limit values. It is not sufficient to check the root-mean-square value. If
economies were made on the power supply so that no sufficiently
smoothed voltage is provided, reliable function is no longer ensured.

If the residual ripple falls below the limit value of the operating voltage of
the proximity switch, a smoothing capacitor will help. A rule of thumb:
1000µF per 1A current intensity.

protective circuitry Depending on the design and type the units are fitted with different
protective components. They protect against
overload
short-circuit
reverse polarity

4.3.2 Overview

The following overview shows the "family" of the capacitive proximity

switches in the shape of a "tree". DC and AC are terms that should be
known. UC stands for universal current or dual voltage. Such units can be
connected to DC or AC within the specified range.

The figure is still in preparation.

The * refers to units with short-circuit protection.

It can be seen that the current rating for solid-state outputs is between
approx. 100 and 400mA depending on the design.

In the meantime the nominal voltage of 24VDC has largely gained

acceptance as control voltage. Other voltages are used in special
applications or countries. Below an example of wiring diagrams for DC
units is shown.

Figure 28: Wiring diagram 1

47
Training manual

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îæ Ú«²µ¬·±²-µ±²¬®±´´¿«-¹¿²¹ ñ
Ю±¹®¿³³·»®´»·¬«²¹

Figure 29: Wiring diagram KNQ

Type KNQ features a function check output which leads a signal with
uncertain switching status. This is also indicated optically by the red LED,
see 4.4.

quadronorm quadronorm units (see 4.7.2) are particular units. They operate in both
polarities.

4.4 Setting of the switch point (binary)

This chapter again refers to the binary capacitive proximity switches and
level sensors.

A capacitive sensor which is only to detect objects and is not otherwise

affected by objects or media (soiling, moisture) in its environment does
not necessarily have to be set. However, setting is usually necessary in the
frequent application of detection of a medium through a (non-metal!)
wall, see 3.3.4.
In the earlier generation setting was made by means of the
potentiometer:
the sensitivity was changed until the sensor just responded to the
wall
the sensitivity was reduced until the wall, even with sticking medium,
was no longer detected
it had to be checked if the sensor then responded reliably to the
medium
Whether setting was optimal or unreliable could not be found already
because of the non-linearity of the signal, see Figure 16.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
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48
Capacitive and level sensors

Figure 30: Empty adjustment

For binary level sensors setting is considerably more reliable and

comfortable. Setting of KNQ can be simulated on the Internet. It is
recommended to try it there. Empty adjustment of KN is described in
Figure 31.

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·- ´·¬ ½±²¬·²«±«-´§
î øã ¬¸» «²·¬ ·- ¿¼¶«-¬»¼
¿²¼ ·² ¬¸» ±°»®¿¬·²¹
λ´»¿-» ¬¸» °®±¹®¿³³·²¹ ¾«¬¬±² ³±¼»÷
¾»º±®» ¬¸» ë- ¸¿ª» »´¿°-»¼

Figure 31: Empty adjustment of KN

In most cases empty adjustment is sufficient. It can also be made via a

controller, via a programming wire, see 4.3.2. In critical cases an
additional full adjustment is possible which is also made via the button,
see Operating Instructions.

red LED The red LED serves a similar function as the mounting aid for inductive
sensors (see Training Manual Inductive Proximity Switches). The red LED
indicates no malfunction of the unit, it indicates that the internal sensor
signal is close to the switching threshold. 2 cases can be distinguished:
- Normal operation / reliable operation
The red LED is lit temporarily during the change between
"medium" and "no medium".
- Warning of possible malfunction

49
Training manual

If the red LED is lit continuously, the operating conditions are no

longer optimal. For example a change of the sensing range
caused by deposits of dirt can be detected. You can take
preventive measures to avoid malfunction. For example readjust
or clean the unit.

AS-i For photoelectric sensors some types have another switching output to
indicate an unsafe switching condition. This is also called failure warning
and can, for example, be used to remove soiling before problems occur.
This option is also conceivable for capacitive proximity switches but has
not yet been implemented. The extra work involved when two outputs
per sensor must be connected to the controller is, for example, a reason
not to do so. Therefore the uncertain switching status of these sensors is
only indicated via the LED as mounting aid. However, this is different
with the so-called intelligent sensors. They are direct participants of the
AS-i system (see catalogue) and have up to 4 data bits. In addition to the
uncertain switching status it is, for example, also possible to monitor
readiness for operation. With the capacitive AS-i sensor remote setting of
the sensitivity via parameters is in addition possible.

4.5 Analogue level sensors

4.5.1 Design and mechanical characteristics

design In principle there is only one design in at present three mechanical

variants. They differ in the length of the probe.

Figure 32: Design LK

The unit consists of two components:

evaluation unit with display and electrical connection
probe as carrier of the capacitor elements (see 3.5.1)

The three probes of different lengths are distinguished by the number of

capacitor elements. Owing to the measuring principle, see 3.5.1, the
length cannot be significantly increased. With longer probes there would
be more segments and thus more and more printed lines to the
º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

°±-·¬·±²
-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
®»½±¹²·¬·±²
¾«-ô
·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
¿²¼ ½±²¬®±´ -§-¬»³-

50
Capacitive and level sensors
evaluation unit for which there would not be any more space on the
probe.

Other differences can be found in the output circuit, see 4.5.4.

mechanics Notes on mounting can be found in 3.5.3. Here a brief summary:

vertical mounting, evaluation unit on top
mounting clamp optimal in upper inactive zone, also possible in
active zone, definitely not in the lower third

pressure rating Maximum vessel pressure when mounted with ifm’s mounting
accessories: 0.5 bar. For a short time (max. 1 minute) an overpressure of
3 bars is possible.

material Housing material

- EPDM/X (Santoprene)
- FPM (Viton)
- Optalloy-plated brass
- NBR (Buna N)
- PA
- PBTP (Pocan)
- PC (Makrolon)
- PP (polypropylene)
Material (wetted parts)
- PP (polypropylene)

The use of other materials such as PTFE or glass (wetted parts), is

possible, it does, however, require testing.

vibration resistance Continuous vibrations of high amplitude affect the connection between
probe and evaluation unit, especially when the probe is long. To ensure
better withstandability to such extreme conditions the construction of
this connection has been changed. The vibration and shock resistance to
standard are indicated in the data sheet or the installation instructions.

4.5.2 Display

HMI The unit features:

a three-digit LED display as well as additional LEDs to indicate the
switching status and
two programming buttons.

transfer Anybody who has already programmed other fluid sensors from ifm, e.g.
pressure or temperature, see Training Manual Pressure Sensors or
Training Manual Temperature Sensors, will notice that these units are
always programmed according to the same pattern. There are, of course,
differences as far as the measured quantity, the unit, the value range,
etc, are concerned. Nevertheless it can almost be said: whoever knows
one, knows all of them. Therefore programming does not have to be
discussed here in detail.

where do I find more? The detailed instructions are on the Internet in pdf-format (reminder: you
will find our homepage at www.ifm-electronic.com), when you click the
order number of the respective unit. First of all the data sheet will open.

51
Training manual

By clicking “Additional Data” you will eventually find the operating

instructions. The figures below are taken from these instructions.

ï
î

Ó±¼»ñÛ²¬»® Í»¬ í

¼·-°´¿§ ±º ¬¸» ´»ª»´ô

ï ÔÛÜ ¼·-°´¿§
¼·-°´¿§ ±º °¿®¿³»¬»®- ¿²¼ °¿®¿³»¬»® ª¿´«»-

î ÔÛÜ ®»¼ -©·¬½¸·²¹ -¬¿¬«-å ´·¹¸¬- ·º ¬¸» ±«¬°«¬ ¸¿- -©·¬½¸»¼

Ó±¼» ñ Û²¬»® -»´»½¬·±² ±º ¬¸» °¿®¿³»¬»®- ¿²¼

í ¾«¬¬±² ¿½µ²±©´»¼¹»³»²¬ ±º ¬¸» °¿®¿³»¬»® ª¿´«»-
-»¬¬·²¹ ±º ¬¸» °¿®¿³»¬»® ª¿´«»- ø-½®±´´·²¹ ¾§ ¸±´¼·²¹
ì Í»¬ ¾«¬¬±²
°®»--»¼å ·²½®»³»²¬¿´ ¾§ °®»--·²¹ ¾®·»º´§÷

Figure 33: Display of the LK

The numeric display shows:

the initialisation phase during power-on delay time at power on
the level during normal operation
error messages in the event of failures
parameters during programming

Here we will describe first of all examples of displays without activation of

the buttons.

outputs There are currently two types (either one available in the three lengths of
the probe) which differ in the circuitry of the outputs, see 4.5.4.
four binary outputs 4 DO
one binary and one analogue output 1 DO 1 AO
These abbreviations (DO for digital output and AO for analogue output)
will be used below.
The display allows the different number of LEDs for indication of the
switching status to be seen.
Figure 33 shows a unit with 1 DO 1 AO.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

°±-·¬·±²
-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
®»½±¹²·¬·±²
¾«-ô
·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
¿²¼ ½±²¬®±´ -§-¬»³-

52
Capacitive and level sensors

4.5.3 Programming

The units with different output circuitry can, of course, also be easily
distinguished by the programmable parameters.

You can try programming by yourself (in a simulation) on ifm’s website

by clicking virtual product operation.

structure The menu and programming structures are shown in the tables below.

Ó
ÎËÒ
Í
Ó
Ó
Í
Ó
Ó
Í
Ó
Ó
Í
Ó
Ó
Í
Ó
Ó
Í
Ó
Ó
Í
Ó
Ó
Í
Ó Ó±¼»ñÛ²¬»® Í»¬
Ó

ÎËÒ
Ó Í
Figure 34: Menu of LK

53
Training manual

Ю»-- ¬¸» Ó±¼»ñÛ²¬»® ¾«¬¬±²

ï Ó±¼»ñÛ²¬»® Í»¬
-»ª»®¿´ ¬·³»- «²¬·´ ¬¸»
®»-°»½¬·ª» °¿®¿³»¬»® ·-
¼·-°´¿§»¼ò
Ю»-- ¬¸» Í»¬ ¾«¬¬±² ¿²¼ µ»»° ·¬
°®»--»¼ò
Ó±¼»ñÛ²¬»® Í»¬
̸» ½«®®»²¬ °¿®¿³»¬»® ª¿´«»
º´¿-¸»- º±® ë-ò
î
¬¸»² ¬¸» ª¿´«» ·- ·²½®»¿-»¼ö
ø·²½®»³»²¬¿´ ¾§ °®»--·²¹ ¾®·»º´§ ±®
-½®±´´·²¹ ¾§ ¸±´¼·²¹ °®»--»¼÷ò
Ю»-- ¬¸» Ó±¼»ñÛ²¬»® ¾«¬¬±²
¾®·»º´§ øã ¿½µ²±©´»¼¹»³»²¬÷ò
í Ó±¼»ñÛ²¬»® Í»¬ ̸» °¿®¿³»¬»® ·- ¼·-°´¿§»¼ ¿¹¿·²ô
¬¸» -»¬ °¿®¿³»¬»® ª¿´«»
¾»½±³»- »ºº»½¬·ª»ò
Ú·²·-¸ °®±¹®¿³³·²¹æ
ݸ¿²¹» ³±®» °¿®¿³»¬»®-æ É¿·¬ º±® ïë- ±® °®»-- ¬¸»
ì ͬ¿®¬ ¿¹¿·² ©·¬¸ -¬»° ïò Ó±¼»ñÛ²¬»® ¾«¬¬±² «²¬·´ ¬¸» ½«®®»²¬
³»¿-«®»¼ ª¿´«» ·- ·²¼·½¿¬»¼ ¿¹¿·²ò
öÜ»½®»¿-» ¬¸» ª¿´«»æ Ô»¬ ¬¸» ¼·-°´¿§ ±º ¬¸» °¿®¿³»¬»® ª¿´«» ³±ª» ¬± ¬¸»
³¿¨·³«³ -»¬¬·²¹ ª¿´«»ò ̸»² ¬¸» ½§½´» -¬¿®¬- ¿¹¿·² ¿¬ ¬¸» ³·²·³«³ -»¬¬·²¹
ª¿´«»ò

Figure 35: Programming of LK

Most points are self-explanatory. The differences are, fist of all, that with
the unit with 1 DO only this one output can be parameterised and
secondly the AO can be switched to current or voltage output. The
following two parameters out of the common ones that are specific to
the analogue level sensor are to be pointed out:

OFS If the distance between the bottom of the vessel and the lower face of
the probe is known, this value can be entered as offset. This value is
added to the measured level. The display will then indicate the actual
level.

bin The unit with 4 DO can be operated as quasi analogue in binary mode.
The level is then output in 4 bits, i.e. resolved in 16 steps.

The other parameters correspond largely to those of pressure and

temperature, see Training Manual Pressure Sensors and Training Manual
Temperature Sensors. There the terms “hysteresis” and “window” are
described in more detail. Here they will be presented in brief.

process The programming process is shown in Figure 35.

The Mode/Enter button is used to select the desired menu item. If you
only want to check the parameter, it is sufficient to touch the set button
briefly. Figure 34 and Figure 35 show how it is changed.

internet An example for setting the switch point of the electronic (analogue) level
sensor can be found on the Internet under “virtual product operation”.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

°±-·¬·±²
-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
®»½±¹²·¬·±²
¾«-ô
·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
¿²¼ ½±²¬®±´ -§-¬»³-

54
Capacitive and level sensors

4.5.4 Electrical data and other features

DO (digital output) The electrical data of the outputs are the usual ones. Only the essential
values which can, of course, be found in the data sheet, will be listed
here.

operating voltage [V] 18 ... 30 DC

current rating [mA] 200 for 1 DO 1 AO
400 for 4 DO short-circuit protection, pulsed; reverse polarity
and overload protection
voltage drop [V] < 2.5
current consumption [mA] < 80
analogue output 4 ... 20 mA (max. 500 )
0 ... 10 V (min. 2000 )

The terms used are described in the Training Manual Connection

Technology.

Below you will find some examples of connection diagrams, first of all the
pin connection.

Figure 36: Pin connection LK

ݱ®» ½±´±«®- ±º ·º³ -±½µ»¬-æ

ï ã ÞÒ ø¾®±©²÷ô
ï ÞÒ î ã ÉØ ø©¸·¬»÷ô
Ôõ í ã ÞË ø¾´«»÷ô
î ÉØ
ì ã ÞÕ ø¾´¿½µ÷ò
ì ÞÕ
í ÞË
Ô

Figure 37: Wiring diagram LK3

55
Training manual

°ó-©·¬½¸·²¹ øÔÕ騨¨÷ ²ó-©·¬½¸·²¹ øÔÕ𨨨÷

ï ÞÒ ï ÞÒ
Ôõ Ôõ
î ÉØ î ÉØ
ì ÞÕ ì ÞÕ
ìæ ÑËÌï í ÞË ìæ ÑËÌï í ÞË
îæ ÑËÌî Ô îæ ÑËÌî Ô

ݱ®» ½±´±«®- ±º ·º³ -±½µ»¬-æ

ï ã ÞÒ ø¾®±©²÷ô î ã ÉØ ø©¸·¬»÷ô í ã ÞË ø¾´«»÷ô ì ã ÞÕ ø¾´¿½µ÷ò
Ю±¹®¿³³·²¹ ±º ½±³°´»³»²¬¿®§ ±«¬°«¬-æ
±«¬°«¬ ïæ ã ز±ô ±«¬°«¬ îæ ã ز½ô
ÍÐï ã ÍÐî ñ ®Ðï ã ®Ðîò

Figure 38: Wiring diagram LK7

LK8 The LK8 has four switching outputs. They can either be used as outputs
in the same way as with the other types or as a kind of output of an AD
converter with a 4-bit resolution. For further information we refer you to
ifm on the Internet.

Figure 39: Pin connection LK8

ݱ®» ½±´±«®- ±º ·º³ -±½µ»¬-æ

ï ÞÒ ï ã ÞÒ ø¾®±©²÷ô
Ôõ î ã ÉØ ø©¸·¬»÷
î ÉØ Ñ«¬î
ÞË í ã ÞË ø¾´«»÷ô
í Ô ì ã ÞÕ ø¾´¿½µ÷
ì ÞÕ Ñ«¬ï ë ã ÙÇ ø¹®»§÷
ë ÙÇ Ñ«¬í ê ã ÐÕ ø°·²µ÷
ê ÐÕ Ñ«¬ì é ã ÊÌ ø´·´¿½÷
é ÊÌ ²ò½ò ²ò½ò ã ²±¬ ½±²²»½¬»¼

Figure 40: Connection diagram LK8

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

°±-·¬·±²
-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
®»½±¹²·¬·±²
¾«-ô
·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
¿²¼ ½±²¬®±´ -§-¬»³-

56
Capacitive and level sensors
Strictly speaking, the following values are not exactly electrical data.
However, since they influence the behaviour of the outputs they are
mentioned here. (VMR stands for final value of measuring range)

switch point accuracy [% of VMR] ±5

repeatability [% of VMR] ±2

max. speed of the level change [mm/s]

100 for LKX022
200 for LKX023
300 for LKX024

The X represents the various types, see 4.5.1

4.5.5 Notes on practical use

In 3.5.2 general notes were given which are directly related to the
function principle. In this chapter you will find notes which refer to the
current units and are specific to them.

Since Hanover Fair 1999 ifm electronic has marketed the level sensors of
type LK. The unit was designed for applications in machine tools, mainly
in the field of coolants and lubricants processing as well as monitoring of
hydraulic oils. The sensor material was selected in accordance with this
specification, a plastic which features high resistance to aggressive fluids.
In applications with other fluids this high resistance cannot be
guaranteed over a longer period of time. These are for example washing
benches for degreasing machine-worked workpieces, aggressive media
such as acids and alkalis as well as various other liquids.

In addition improvements have been made on the basis of experience

made in special applications. These were, for example, failures due to
vibration caused by significant movement of the fluid and uncertain level
detection with metal build-up. We have looked at both problems from
the development point of view and have made the respective
optimisations.
reliable use Reliable use of all LK level sensors is ensured for monitoring coolants, e.g.
in machine tools and for monitoring oils.

what is the technical background? In the Training Manual Inductive Proximity Switches one aspect is pointed
out in connection with the new efector m whose ingress resistance could
also be further improved: there is no waterproof plastic! Plastics such as
polypropylene (PP) used for the sensor probe have the characteristic to be
permeable to water molecules. This process is called permeation. The
higher the temperature, the faster the fluid penetrates into the sensor
probe. In the probe the penetrated water molecules condense to water.
This water causes the film to corrode. As a result the sensor will fail. As
compared to water, oils consist of long molecular chains from the
chemical point of view. Even at high temperatures these long molecular
chains cannot permeate the plastic of the sensor probe. Therefore
monitoring oils using the LK at temperatures of up to 80°C is possible
without any restrictions.

57
Training manual

The use in water and water with cleaning agents at temperatures

exceeding 30°C causes the sensor to fail. Resulting from these findings
the LK is considered to be reliable in the following applications:

Coolants (oil / water emulsion) in a temperature window of 0...30°C)

Oils in a temperature window of 0 ... 80°C

All other applications require an assessment by our application team in

Tettnang. Please contact the responsible branch office or ask for
information here (via Internet, www.ifm-electronic.com).

what are the next steps to cover other applications?

Many of our sensors are used in plants for cleaning processed metal
parts. The fluid to be monitored is water with cleaning agents. The
temperature in these applications can be up to 70°C. To be able to offer
you stable level monitoring over a long term we have designed a
thermowell into which the LK can be inserted. There is a defined air gap
between the sensor and the wall of the thermowell. Water penetrating
through the thermowell due to the permeation described above escapes
again without affecting the sensor. Matching thermowells and fixings are
planned for all three lengths of the sensors. You should look for
information about the exact operating principle, the relevant applications,
article numbers, delivery dates and prices, see above. With the
introduction of the thermowell the LK can also be used for applications
with water and hydrous media in a temperature range of 0...70°C.

4.6 Approvals
An obvious application of the level sensors is overspill protection.
However, this requires a special approval. The designation of such a unit
is: limit switch with approval to the German overspill standard WHG
section 19 (LI2). This approval is issued by the Deutsches Institut für
Bautechnik (German Institute for Building and Civil Engineering
Technology).

For the latest information about the approval procedure, whether it has
been initiated, is in process or has been completed, we refer you to
www.ifm-electronic.com.

This concludes the description of the types LI and LK.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

°±-·¬·±²
-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
®»½±¹²·¬·±²
¾«-ô
·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
¿²¼ ½±²¬®±´ -§-¬»³-

58
Capacitive and level sensors

4.7 Switches with special characteristics

In the following we will discuss binary capacitive proximity switches.

4.7.1 Use in hazardous areas

reference Since this subject is also common to many binary position sensors and in
addition important for fluid sensors (such as CE marking, see Training
Manual) it will likewise be discussed separately, see Training Manual
ATEX. This manual details the terms, designations, in particular marking
of the units, standards, etc.

important! The sensor manufacturer can have units tested and approved by notified
bodies. However, he cannot make any statement about which unit may
be used in a specific application. Each user is responsible for knowing the
standards and regulations and for applying them correctly.

The use in hazardous areas, not only in the chemical industry but also
e.g. in paint-spraying booths, mills or tank farms is the oldest of all
applications for proximity switches. As only very low voltages can be
applied in these areas there are often problems with mechanical
switches. However, no sparks, light arcs or impermissibly high
temperatures occur in proximity switches during normal operation so that
many types can be used directly in certain Ex zones.

This briefly describes the requirements for the unit. On no account should
a spark occur which can trigger an explosion, e.g. with mechanical
destruction of a unit, by a short circuit through a component storing
electrical energy, i.e. the coil or the capacitor. Such requirements are met
by separating two units, for example. The sensor as such or the sensor
element can be used in the hazardous area. The switching output is in a
separate switching amplifier which is to be mounted outside this area.

KX Since capacitive proximity switches are also often used to check the level
of bulk material, e.g. in flour silos, the risk of a dust explosion is an
important subject. Flour dust, mixed in the right proportion with air, is a
very explosive mix of high energy. ifm offers a sensor for this application,
type KX. Below you will find an extract from the technical documentation
for users who are used to deal with this subject. If you are not familiar
with it, we refer you to the Training Manual ATEX where the terms are
explained in more detail.

¡ Ë-» ·² ¸¿¦¿®¼±«- ¿®»¿- ¿½½±®¼·²¹ ¬± ¬¸» ½´¿--·º·½¿¬·±²

×× ïÜñÙ øÙ®±«° ××ô ½¿¬»¹±®§ ïÜô ¿°°¿®¿¬«- º±® ¼«-¬ ¿¬³±-°¸»®»÷
øÙ®±«° ××ô ½¿¬»¹±®§ ïÙô ¿°°¿®¿¬«- º±® ¹¿- ¿¬³±-°¸»®»÷
̸» ®»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¬¸» -¬¿²¼¿®¼- ÛÒëððïìô ÛÒ ëððîðô ÛÒëðîèïóïóïô
ÛÒëðîèìô ÛÒ êðçìéóëóê ¿®» ½±³°´·»¼ ©·¬¸ò
¡ ÛÝ ¬§°» ¬»-¬ ½»®¬·º·½¿¬»
ÜÓÌ ðï ßÌÛÈ Ûðîð
¡ Ó¿®µ·²¹
×× ïÙ ÛÛ¨ ·¿ ××Þ Ìê ÝÛ ðïëè
×× ïÜ ×Ðêë ÌçðpÝ

59
Training manual

09/02

4.7.2 Quadronorm units

leakage current For the 2-wire units of the earlier generations the leakage current could
be some mA. Thus reliable signal processing, e.g. by plc inputs, is no
longer guaranteed.

polarity For solid-state DC outputs polarity should be observed. In many countries

and industries pnp switching sensors are commonly used. With imported
controlgear from or export of a complete installation to countries where
the other polarity is common, the different polarities are a potential fault
source, in particular if a failed sensor must be replaced. For example, in
Japan npn units are still frequently found.

normally open / normally closed It frequently happens that two units which only differ in their switching
functions and which are otherwise completely identical, are needed. This
doubles storage of spare parts. Moreover, replacement of a failed unit is
a possible source of failure. Especially for units with terminal chamber the
switching function can be determined by selecting the terminals. But this
is not possible with standard units.

The goal of the development of the quadronorm units was to improve

the above-mentioned points. They have the following characteristics:
leakage current usually 0.4 - 0.6mA
automatic recognition and setting of polarity
switching function is inverted by reversing the wires.

core colours For the colour marking of the wires a new approach had to be pursued
as the usual colours, e.g. BN for L+, could not be used (cf. Training
Manual Inductive Proximity Switches).

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
-§-¬»³-

°±-·¬·±²
-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
®»½±¹²·¬·±²
¾«-ô
·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
¿²¼ ½±²¬®±´ -§-¬»³-

60
Capacitive and level sensors

4.7.3 Special designs

A special design is used as non-contact switch for pedestrian traffic lights.

Mechanical switches encounter the usual problems such as corrosion of
the contacts. In particular penetration of water due to damage to the seal
or degrading of the seal due to exposure to sunlight require frequent and
expensive maintenance. In this application special demands are, of
course, also placed on capacitive proximity switches. Influences due to
the environment, especially by water, have to be compensated for in a
special way so that the traffic lights do not switch during each rainfall.
Therefore it is better to touch the sensor with the palm of your hand, the
fingertip may not be detected. Due to their reliability these switches are
used in considerable quantities.

61
Training manual

4.8 Criteria for practical use

overview Most of the following aspects have been discussed above in detail. To
give you a better overview they are summarised and supplemented
below.

As sensors in production processes are normally used at rather exposed

points of the machine, they should directly withstand severe
environmental conditions such as heat, cold, impact, vibration, dust,
moisture, chemically aggressive liquids, etc. They should therefore be
protected against malfunction due to such arduous conditions. The data
sheets provide information about possible applications and operational
conditions under which the units can be used without any problem.

operating temperature This indicates the temperature of the medium surrounding the proximity
switch. The specified permissible temperature range is often between –
25°C and +80°C. Within this range the switch can be operated as long as
desired. Temperatures which are slightly above or below these limits for a
short time are usually also tolerated by the switches. This means that the
switch is not destroyed. However, the sensing range can differ from Sa
within this time. Special units are available for other temperature ranges.

shock and vibration resistance Proximity switches do not contain any moving parts. So they are
extremely insensitive to shock and vibrational stress. The guide value for
the maximum permissible shock is 30 times the gravitational acceleration
(30g) and for the maximum vibrational stress a frequency of up to 55Hz
at a 1mm amplitude.

foreign bodies and dust Capacitive proximity switches can be impaired by dust deposits of
electrically non-conductive materials. Due to the measuring principle this
cannot be avoided. The compensation electrode (see 3.2.1) of the binary
sensor especially ensures compensation of these environmental
influences. As described in 4.4 for automatic setting, this problem can be
solved much more easily for the units of the newer generation, the binary
level sensors. If another adjustment to compensate for the environment
should not lead to the desired effect, cleaning of the sensor is the only
measure to be taken that remains.

Due to the evaluation algorithm, see 3.5.1, the analogue level sensor is
largely insensitive to wrong signals caused by deposits on the probe.

To identify ingress resistance (protection rating, see Training Manual

Protection Ratings) of electrical apparatus an international standard
combination of numbers is used by the proximity switch manufacturers to
indicate ingress resistance of their units, e.g. IP67. IP stands for
"international protection". The first figure indicates the degree of
protection against contact with and ingress of foreign bodies. Figure 6
means protection against the ingress of very fine dust and complete
protection against contact. The second figure indicates up to what
degree a proximity switch can be operated in a moist, wet environment.

moisture and water Proximity switches working on the capacitive principle can be affected in
their function by water, moisture, mist or vapour. Preventive measures
are described above under “Foreign bodies and dust”.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
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62
Capacitive and level sensors
To be on the safe side, it is however important to know how well a
proximity switch is protected against ingress of moisture. This is indicated
by the second figure of the IP identification. 7, for example, means that a
proximity switch is protected against the ingress of water to such a
degree, that it can remain in 1m water depth for 30 minutes without
water penetrating in harmful quantities.
.
As a rule, proximity switches are supplied with a rating of IP65 or IP67.
Units with potted cable normally feature IP67. Units with terminal
chamber or connector are specified with IP65. The latter can also be
often used under conditions where IP67 is required. The protection rating
is indicated because protection can be reduced by incorrect mounting,
e.g. wrong placing of the gasket.

chemical influences If the environment in which a proximity switch is used contains chemical
substances in solid, liquid or gaseous form, great care should be taken to
ensure that the housing and cable are sufficiently resistant. The
nowadays common plastic housings of reinforced glass-fibre material or
the units with metal sheath can, for the most part, also be used when
exposed to chemicals. Special housings of corrosion-resistant stainless
steel or PTFE are available for critical applications.

electromagnetic interference In an industrial environment electromagnetic interference is very varied

and can occur at high energy levels due to radio transmitters, switching
processes in power lines, switching of inductive loads or lightning. Such
electromagnetic interference can affect the sensor field of the proximity
switch. Due to the small size of the sensor in relation to the wavelength
of radio waves such periodic interference only carries a slight risk of
influence. Transient interference of short duration can be filtered out by
means of the circuit design so that noise immunity of the proximity
switches is high.
Interference can also be picked up by the cable. If the cable is laid
unfavourably, the cable to the proximity switch can act as a receiving
antenna for radio waves or pick up transient interference from cables laid
parallel to it. In particular the further development of frequency
converters leads to increased requirements. In special cases the use of
interference-suppression filters can help.
Limit values for resistance to this interference are defined in the EMC
directive (see Training Manual CE Marking). The units must pass a
number of tests to be allowed to carry the mandatory CE marking. Here
resistance to defined interference is tested.
As mentioned above, see 3.2.2, capacitive sensors of the earlier
generation react in a more sensitive way to such influences than e.g.
inductive sensors. Recently developed measuring processes allowed this
sensitivity to be considerably reduced. On the Internet in Overview or in
the Selector they are characterised by “increased immunity”.

other influences In contrast to other sensor types the function of capacitive proximity
switches cannot be impaired by sound and light. The only influence to
which proximity switches are not immune are intensive X-rays or radio
activity.

63
Training manual

5 Application examples
5.1 Overview
A major application for proximity switches is their use as position
switches as an alternative to mechanical position switches. Mechanical
switches are cheaper but they are subject to wear. If they fail, a whole
production line, conveyor system, etc. can be brought to a standstill for
hours. So for this reason it is worthwhile to use non-contact and wear-
free electronic proximity switches in place of mechanical switches for all
these applications.

For monitoring and counting tasks the product is detected directly. Using
non-contact proximity switches it is possible to sense goods which are
difficult to detect such as glass, food, paper, etc.

Capacitive proximity switches can be used in level measurement

technology or in level monitoring in process technology and in the
packaging industry. Levels in tanks and silos can be monitored but also
jams in pipelines (e.g. in mills). Furthermore, capacitive proximity
switches, if mounted and adjusted accordingly, can check the correct
quantity through opaque packaging materials, e.g. detergents in
cardboard boxes.

The use in hazardous areas in the chemical industry, mills or tank farms is
the oldest of all applications for proximity switches. As only very low
voltages can be used in these areas, proximity switches with additional
safety are available for such applications. Proximity switches of type KX
are approved for use in zone 10.

This can only be a short overview of the universal suitability of capacitive

proximity switches. The user frequently comes across many tasks in areas
which are not obvious at the moment of designing his plant. Thus one or
other problem of one or other application can be resolved sooner or later
by the knowledge alone of the function and characteristics of capacitive
proximity switches.

º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
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64
Capacitive and level sensors
5.2 Examples

Figure 41: Level monitoring 1

Two capacitive proximity switches which indicate the level in a silo. The
minimum and maximum levels are monitored.

Figure 42: Sheets of glass

A capacitive proximity switch detects sheets of glass on a roller conveyor.

65
Training manual

Figure 43: Level 2

The two capacitive proximity switches detect the level of liquid in the
vessel through the PVC wall. The signals are directly used to control a
valve.

Figure 44: Level 3

Capacitive efectors detect and monitor the minimum feed to rollers in a

mill. The efectors are adjusted to react only to the product, not to the
º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
container wall.
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
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66
Capacitive and level sensors

Figure 45: Level using KX

When a sensor is used in a silo as shown in figure 45 it is within a

hazardous area (see 4.7.1). Type KX has to be used if the conditions
require it (see Training Manual ATEX).

67
Training manual

Annex

Advantages
In general it can be assumed that efectors operate within the specified
data on the safe side. Standards are complied with and even exceeded. IP
67 means that the unit operates correctly 1m under water for 30 min
(see Training Manual Protection Ratings). There are applications where
efectors are continuously immersed in deeper water and operate without
any problems. In this case a capacitive sensor will, of course, change its
switching status when it is no longer in the water. Values above or below
the specified temperature range of e.g. –25°C to +80°C are possible
within certain limits (cf. sensing range for inductive sensors). Only
compliance with the values specified in the data sheets can, of course, be
assured.

advantages Other advantages of the ifm units are:

Product availability
Reliability (5-year warranty for standard units)
Noise immunity
Service (large sales force)
Meeting special requests (special units)
Use of SM technology
Simplified operation (new generation)

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68
Capacitive and level sensors

Type key and production code

69
Training manual

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70
Capacitive and level sensors

Type key level switch

71
Training manual

Explanation production code

The coding is indicated on the type and box labels of our products or on an alternative type of
labelling, e.g. 'direct laser labelling' as it is used with the units in modular technology.

The coding covers information about Legend 'production site'

production site E ifm ecomatic, Kressbronn
production month K ifm prover, Kressbronn (from 1/3/2000)
P (bought-in products)
special designation S ifm syntron
(meaning registered in the production site)
T ifm Tettnang (parent plant)
production status U ifm USA (efector inc.)
W ifm Sweden
F ifm France

Current production code:

Standard coding Direct laser labelling

(conventional units) (modular units)

spec. prod. site prod. Prod. year prod. year prod. month
des. (see month (last pos.) (last two pos.) (dec.) 01...12
legend) (hex.)
1...9,
A,B,C

prod. status
AA...ZZ prod. site spec. prod. status
(see legend) des. AA...ZZ

Example: SA8 made by Example: 9903 made in 1999,

ifm Syntron in in March (03)
October (A) 1998
- no special designation -
AA first production T AB in the parent plant
status (AA) ifm Tettnang ;
second prod.
status (AB)
- no special designation -

Old coding (until September 1995)

prod. month prod year

spec. (last pos.)
(dec.) 01...12
des.

d:\dokumente und einstellungen\dezeyegu\eigene dateien\lokalab05-04\materiallevele\originale\prodcode-e.doc

This copy was printed on 03.06.04 enclosure to EA SIT-015

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72
Capacitive and level sensors

Glossary of technical terms

Active zone The active zone is the area over the sensing face in which the proximity
switch reacts to the approach of the damping material, e.g. changes its
switching status.

Assured operating distance (s a) The assured operating distance is the distance from the sensing face
where a proximity switch operates reliably under given temperature and
voltage conditions (see operating distance). It is the minimum value of
the usable operating distance.
Cable material
PVC In order to avoid cable break PVC cables must not be moved if the
temperature falls below -5°.

Correction factor If the shape, material or thickness of the target is different from the
standard target, operating distances other than the standard operating
distance result. They can be calculated using correction factors which are
specified in the technical data sheet. The following factors must also be
taken into account:
Shape factor If instead of the standard target, a smaller or non square target is used or
if the target is not flat, the operating distance must be corrected with a
shape factor.
Material factor If instead of the target material defined in the standard, e.g. FE360 to ISO
630, another target material is used, the operating distance must be
corrected with a material factor. For capacitive switches it depends on the
dielectric constant of the material.

Material thickness factor If a target is used with a thickness below the penetration depth of the
sensing field, the operating distance must be corrected with a material
thickness factor. For capacitive switches this factor is normally below 1.

Current rating/peak Switch-on and switch-off capacity under usual/unusual conditions.

The peak current rating is the maximum current which may flow for a
short time at the moment of switch-on without destroying the proximity
switch.
Especially AC units are rated so that they can be operated with six times
the nominal current for a short time due to the high inrush currents of
many AC loads (pilot lamps, contactors...) (also see utilization categories).

Effective operating distance sr The effective operating distance of a proximity switch is the operating
distance measured at rated voltage and room temperature (23 ±5°C). It
must lie between 90 % and 110 % of the rated operating distance (see
operating distance).

Flush mounting The sensing face can be mounted flush with the surface of the damping
material.

Housing materials
Metal housing Aluminium
Stainless steel *
Steel sheet galvanised
Brass with Optalloy (nickel-free)*
PTFE coated brass (safecoating)*
*: Inductive units

73
Training manual

Stainless steels (rust-free stainless steel and acid-resistant high-grade

stainless steel):
Stainless steel: 303S22 (X10CrNiS 189)
304S15 (X2CrNiMo)
High-grade steel: 316S12 (X2CrNiMo 17132)
316S12 (X2CrNiMo 18143)
320S31 (X6CrNiMoTi 17122)

Plastic housing
PBTP (polybutyleneterephtalate) The housing is largely resistant to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons,
oils, greases, hydraulic fluids, fuels; no stress cracking when exposed to
air.
The housing is not resistant to hot water, hot steam, acetone,
halocarbons, concentrated acids and alkalis.
Modified PPO The housing is largely resistant to diluted mineral acids, weak alkalis,
some alcohols, oils and greases depending on the additives.

Chemically resistant fluoroplastics: PTFE (polytetrafluoroetylene)

LCP, PEEK, PEI, PA, mod. PC

The resistance of plastics depends on the environmental and operating

conditions. Therefore certain properties or the suitability for a certain
application cannot be guaranteed.
For frequent or permanent exposure to chemicals it is recommended to
test all housing materials prior to use.

The chemical resistance of the cast resin used for potting is comparable
to that of the plastics for the efector housings. For unpotted efectorm
units protection against contact with the medium other than the housing
materials has been further improved due to the design..

Hysteresis The hysteresis is the difference between switch-on and switch-off point
of the proximity switch. It is indicated in percent referred to the switch-on
point measured under the same conditions and serves to prevent
uncontrolled switching of the proximity switch when the target is near
the switch point ("output chattering").

IP see protection rating

Leakage current in 2-wire units The leakage current is the current which flows through 2-wire units when
the output is blocked in order to supply the electronics with current. The
leakage current also flows through the load.

Measurement of the operating distance The operating distance is determined according to EN 60947-5-2.

NAMUR NAMUR stands for Normenarbeitsgemeinschaft für Meß- und

Regeltechnik (standardisation group for metrology) in the chemical
industry. A NAMUR switch is a special version of a 2-wire DC unit to DN
19234 suitable for use in hazardous areas (today ATEX, see training
manual).

No-load current for 3-wire units The no-load current is the intrinsic current consumption of the proximity
switch when it is not switched.
A very low leakage current of about 0.1 µA flows through the output
transistor when the output is not switched (open collector).

Nominal operating distance

º´«·¼ -»²-±®- See rated operating distance.
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
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74
Capacitive and level sensors

Normally closed Principle of normally closed operation. If an object is in the area of the
active zone, the output is blocked (see output function).

Normally open Principle of normally open operation. If an object is in the area of the
active zone, the output is switched.

Operating distance The operating distance of a proximity switch is the distance at which an
object approaching the sensing face axially causes the output to change
its state (see correction factors and measurement...).
Also see rated operating distance, usable operating distance, effective
operating distance and assured operating distance.

Operating temperature range The temperature range specifies the temperatures at which proximity
switches can be used.
Common ranges for ifm efectors:
Standard units -25...80° C
Units with special features (e.g. increased operating distance)
-25...70 °C
0...100 °C
-40...85 °C

Operating voltage The voltage range (around the nominal voltage) in which the proximity
switch operates reliably. For DC units the minimum and maximum values,
including the residual ripple, must be adhered to.

Output function
Normally open Object within the active zone – output switched / high signal
Normally closed Object within the active zone – output blocked / low signal
Programmable Normally closed or normally open selectable
Complementary Normally open and normally closed output functions are available
simultaneously.

Overload protection The output of a proximity switch is protected against overload if any
currents between nominal load current and short-circuit current can flow
continuously without damage.

Passing speed If the proximity switch is damped and undamped by one single target
which moves through the active zone at high speed, there is a maximum
passing speed at which a reliable switching signal is just provided.

Programming For some efector types the output function can be programmed to be
normally open or normally closed. Depending on the efector type the
output function is programmed via a wire link, a jumper or pin
connection.

Protection rating See the training manual protection ratings.

IP 65 Complete protection against contact with live parts. Protection against
the ingress of dust. Protection against water jets.
IP 67 Complete protection against contact with live parts. Protection against
the ingress of dust. Protection against the ingress of water when
submerged in 1 m depth for 30 minutes.

Power-on delay time The time the proximity switch needs to be ready for operation after
power on. It depends on the switch type and is in the ms range (5 ms to
over 200 ms depending on the type). Within this time the internal voltage

75
Training manual

supply must stabilise and the oscillator must start to oscillate. The
output is not active.

Rated impulse withstand voltage Uimp This is the voltage reference for clearance rating.

Rated insulation voltage Ui This is the voltage reference for the dielectric voltage tests and creepage
distances. For units with protection class II the voltage of the adjacent
mains supply is considered to be Ui, 250 V AC.

Rated operating distance (sn) The rated operating distance is a value which does not take into account
individual variations and changes due to external influence like
temperature and voltage (also see operating distance).

Rated operating current The rated operating current (continuous current rating) indicates the
current at which a proximity switch can be continuously operated (also
see current rating/peak).

Repeatability (reproducibility) The difference between two operating distance measurements carried
out for 8 hours under standardised conditions is called repeatability and
specified in percent referred to the effective operating distance. The
difference between two random measurements must not exceed 10% of
the effective operating distance.

Reverse polarity protection A switch is protected against reverse polarity if the wire connection to the
terminals can be reversed without damage to the switch. As a rule 3-wire
switches which are protected against reverse polarity must be short-
circuit protected because otherwise reversing the output and ground
connection (0 V) would destroy the unit.

Sensing face The sensing face is the face on the proximity switch where the electric
field is generated.

Short-circuit protection The output of a proximity switch is short-circuit protected according to

VDE 0160 if it withstands a short circuit of the load or a short to ground
at the output permanently without damage and if it is ready for
operation again without any switching after the short circuit has been
removed.
In the event of a short circuit the output transistor is blocked
immediately. After rectification of the short circuit the unit is ready again
for operation immediately. Reversing the connection wires does not
destroy the units. Short-circuit protected units are normally protected
against overload and reverse polarity.

Smallest operating current in 2-wire units This is the current which must at least flow in the switched state to
ensure reliable operation of the proximity switch (sometimes also called
minimum load current).

Switching delay The switching delay is the time which elapses between moving the target
into the active zone and switching of the output. The switching delays for
damping and undamping can differ considerably. For ifm efectors these
times (depending on the type) are normally 0.2 to 2 ms for damping and
0.3 to 3 ms for undamping. For units with F-IC a ratio of 1:1 for these
two times can be achieved.

Switching frequency The switching frequency is the limit frequency at which each periodic
damping and undamping operation of the proximity switch is just reliably
º´«·¼ -»²-±®- converted into a switching signal. Since the attainable switching
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½
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76
Capacitive and level sensors
frequency depends on several factors, a standard measurement
arrangement is defined in EN 60947-5-2 to obtain values for comparison.
The switching frequencies in real applications are often much higher.
If the proximity switch is operated with a high inductive load (contactor,
relay, solenoid valve) for a longer period and high switching frequency,
additional protective measures must be taken to reduce the switching
overvoltage (e.g. free-wheeling diodes).

Temperature / switch point drift Switch point drift is the shifting of the switch point caused by a change
of the operating temperature.

Types of mounting When inductive proximity switches are mounted, a distinction is made
between flush and non-flush mounting.
Flush mounting (f) The sensing face can be mounted flush with the surface of the damping
material.
Non-flush mounting (nf) The sensing face must be surrounded by a clear space (see mounting
instructions).
When proximity switches are mounted side by side or opposite each
other defined minimum distances depending on the design must be
adhered to.

Usable operating distance s u The usable operating distance is measured within the permissible
operating voltage and operating temperature ranges according to EN
60947-5-2. It must lie between 90 % and 110 % of the effective
operating distance (see operating distance).

Utilization category The categories are listed and explained in the following table according
to EN 60947-5-2.

Utilization categories for switching elements

Category Typical applications
Alternating current AC-12 Control of resistive and solid-state loads
AC-140 Control of small electromagnetic loads with
holding current < 0.2 A; e.g. contactor relays

Direct current DC-12 Control of resistive and solid-state loads

DC-13 Control of electromagnets

Category AC -140 applies to AC/DC efectors, category DC -13 to 2 and

3-wire DC efectors and category DC-12 to NAMUR types.

Voltage drop (on-state voltage) As the switching output of the proximity switch is equipped with a solid-
state component (transistor, thyristor, triac), a (small) voltage drop occurs
in series to the load in the switched state. In two-wire technology the
voltage drop also serves to supply the electronics of the proximity switch
with energy. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the type and
lies between 2.5 V (DC) and 6.5 V (AC/DC).

77
Training manual

Index

CE marking ............................................................. 47
#
charge....................................................................... 9
r .............................................................................12 charge balance ........................................................ 24
chemical influences ................................................. 63
µ cleaning process...................................................... 31
µ .............................................................................10 cleanness................................................................. 31
compensating electrode .......................................... 20
2 compensation ................................................... 27, 29
2-wire ......................................................................46 complementary ....................................................... 75
conductive level measurement................................. 17
3 conductivity............................................................. 17
3-wire ......................................................................46 conduit.................................................................... 34
connection ........................................................ 43, 45
A connection cable ..................................................... 34
AC ...........................................................................47 connection technology ............................................ 46
accessories ...............................................................30 connector................................................................ 46
active zone ............................................ 36, 38, 39, 73 connector units ....................................................... 44
adjustment ...............................................................43 connectors .............................................................. 46
alternating current ...................................................77 contact.................................................................... 39
alternatives...............................................................15 continuous current rating ........................................ 76
analogue ..................................... 5, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 coolants .................................................................. 57
analogue level sensor .................................... 6, 12, 50 core colours............................................................. 60
analogue level sensors..............................................36 correction factor................................................ 28, 73
analogue output ......................................................55 cup.......................................................................... 20
antenna ...................................................................22 current .............................................................. 74, 76
AS-i ..........................................................................50 current consumption ............................................... 55
assured operating distance .......................................73 current rating .............................................. 47, 55, 73
assured sensing range ..............................................27 cylindrical and smooth............................................. 45
axially .......................................................................28 cylindrical with thread ............................................. 45

B D

baffles ......................................................................17 DC .......................................................................... 47

basic sensor......................................................... 5, 36 deposits............................................................. 15, 16
basic sensor capacitive..............................................19 design ............................................................... 45, 50
basics .........................................................................9 dielectric constant ............................................. 11, 21
binary.................................................................. 5, 14 dielectric material .................................................... 12
binary mode.............................................................54 dimensions .............................................................. 21
bracket.............................................................. 36, 45 direct current........................................................... 77
bulk materials...........................................................14 direction of movement ............................................ 34
buoyancy .................................................................16 displacement method.............................................. 16
display............................................................... 50, 51
C distance............................................................. 21, 30
cable ........................................................................46 dust......................................................................... 62
cable gland ..............................................................46 dynamic measurement ............................................ 37
cable material...........................................................73 E
capacitance ................................................... 9, 12, 13
capacitive .................................................................17 effective operating distance..................................... 73
capacitive proximity switch .......................................14 electrical characteristics ........................................... 46
capacitive proximity switches....................................42 electrode ................................................................. 20
capacitor ........................................... 9, 10, 13, 20, 22 electromagnetic interference ................................... 63
category ...................................................................77 electronic catalogue ................................................ 32
CE ............................................................................63 EMC........................................................................ 63
º´«·¼ -»²-±®- empty adjustment ............................................. 30, 49
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78
Capacitive and level sensors
empty state adjustment............................................15 M
encrustation.......................................................15, 16
m ............................................................................10
Enter ........................................................................54
M12.........................................................................44
evaluation ................................................................37
machine earth ..........................................................36
evaluation of the capacitance...................................23
material........................................................21, 28, 31
evaluation unit .........................................................50
material factor .........................................................73
excess gain...............................................................26
material thickness ....................................................29
F material thickness factor ..........................................73
mechanical stability ..................................................34
f ......................................................................32, 77
medium .............................................................38, 39
failure warning.........................................................50
metal ...........................................................13, 29, 44
FAQ ...........................................................................7
metal housing ..........................................................73
Farad .......................................................................10
microprocessor.........................................................30
feed .........................................................................66
mikro .......................................................................10
fixed frequency ........................................................24
milli..........................................................................10
fixing .......................................................................39
minimum distance....................................................33
fixing elements.........................................................34
Mode .......................................................................54
floats .......................................................................15
mounting .................................................................51
flow .........................................................................16
mounting accessories ...............................................40
fluid sensors.............................................................14
mounting conditions ................................................40
flush ..................................................................32, 77
mounting instructions ..............................................32
flush mounting ........................................................73
movement................................................................31
foaming liquid..........................................................17
mutual interference..................................................33
food industry ...........................................................44
free zone .................................................................33 N
frequency.................................................................24
n ............................................................................10
full adjustment...................................................30, 49
NAMUR....................................................................74
G nano ........................................................................10
nf ......................................................................32, 77
gold-plated contact pins...........................................44
ni ............................................................................24
graphite ...................................................................13
nominal operating distance ......................................74
H nominal sensing range .............................................26
nominal voltage .......................................................47
hazardous areas .......................................................59
non-flush ...........................................................32, 77
high-frequency interference .....................................22
normally closed ............................................25, 60, 75
housing materials...............................................44, 73
normally open..............................................25, 60, 75
hysteresis .....................................................25, 27, 74
not reliably detected ..................................................6
I
O
influence ..................................................................32
offset .......................................................................54
integration ...............................................................43
OFS..........................................................................54
IP ............................................................................75
oil ............................................................................57
IP67 .........................................................................62
on-state voltage .......................................................77
K operating distance ...........................27, 73, 75, 76, 77
operating temperature range ...................................75
KX............................................................................59
operating voltage ...............................................55, 75
L Optalloy ...................................................................73
oscillating quartz crystal ...........................................24
leakage current ..................................................46, 60 oscillator circuit ........................................................22
level .............................................6, 14, 15, 29, 65, 66 output......................................................................25
sensor ....................................................................6 output function........................................................75
switch ....................................................................6 output stage ............................................................24
level sensors.............................................................42 outputs ....................................................................52
LI ............................................................................41 overfilling .................................................................38
LK8 ..........................................................................56 overload...................................................................47
lubricants .................................................................57 overload protection..................................................75
overview ..................................................................62

79
Training manual

P reset.................................................................. 38, 39
residual ripple.......................................................... 47
p .............................................................................10
reverse polarity ........................................................ 47
paddle switches........................................................18
reverse polarity protection ....................................... 76
parallel connection ...................................................46
rule of thumb .................................................... 27, 28
parameters...............................................................46
passing speed...........................................................75 S
PBTP.................................................................. 44, 74
scale drawings......................................................... 45
peak.........................................................................73
segment ............................................................ 36, 50
permeation ..............................................................57
selector ................................................................... 32
pF.............................................................................21
sensing face ............................................................ 76
piko..........................................................................10
sensing range .......................................................... 26
plastic housing ........................................................74
sensitivity setting ....................................................... 7
plate capacitor .................................................. 10, 19
sensor ....................................................................... 5
pnp ..........................................................................60
serial connection ............................................... 13, 46
Pocan .......................................................................45
setting............................................................... 43, 54
polarisation ....................................................... 11, 13
setting of the switch point....................................... 48
polaritiy....................................................................48
set-up...................................................................... 38
polarity.....................................................................60
shape ................................................................ 21, 31
position ................................................... 6, 15, 21, 64
shape factor ...................................................... 28, 73
position sensor .........................................................14
sheets of glass ......................................................... 65
potentiometer ................................................... 43, 48
shock resistance ...................................................... 62
potting.....................................................................43
short-circuit ............................................................. 47
power-on delay time ............................. 25, 31, 47, 75
short-circuit protection ...................................... 47, 76
PPO ..........................................................................74
side length .............................................................. 28
predamping ...................................................... 27, 33
signal processing ..................................................... 24
pressure ...................................................................16
silo .................................................................... 65, 67
probe .......................................................................50
smoothing capacitor................................................ 47
programmable .........................................................75
soiling ............................................................... 15, 16
programming .................................................... 51, 75
specific dielectric constant ....................................... 28
programming ...........................................................53
speed ................................................................ 37, 57
programming buttons ..............................................51
switch point accuracy .............................................. 57
programming wire ...................................................30
switch point drift ..................................................... 77
protection ................................................................76
switching delay ....................................................... 76
protection rating ......................................... 44, 62, 75
switching frequency .......................................... 31, 76
protective circuitry....................................................47
switching function............................................. 25, 60
proximity switch .........................................................6
switching time................................................... 25, 31
PVC................................................................... 44, 73
T
Q
teach in ................................................................... 30
quadronorm...................................................... 48, 60
temperature ...................................................... 62, 77
R terminal chamber .................................................... 46
thermowell.............................................................. 58
radar ........................................................................17
tightening torque .................................................... 34
radially .....................................................................28
time characteristics.................................................. 25
radiometry ...............................................................17
tuning fork .............................................................. 17
rated impulse withstand voltage...............................76
type key ............................................................ 45, 69
rated insulation voltage ............................................76
types of mounting................................................... 77
rated operating current ............................................76
rated operating distance...........................................76 U
rated sensing range..................................................26
UC .......................................................................... 47
readiness for operation.............................................50
ultrasonics ............................................................... 17
rectangular...............................................................45
uncertain switching status ....................................... 50
red LED ....................................................................49
underfilling.............................................................. 38
relative dielectric constant ................................. 12, 38
usable operating distance........................................ 77
reliably detected.........................................................6
utilization category.................................................. 77
remote setting................................................... 15, 30
º´«·¼ -»²-±®-
repeatability
¿²¼ ¼·¿¹²±-¬·½................................................ 27, 57, 76
-§-¬»³-
reproducibility ................................................... 27, 76
°±-·¬·±²
-»²-±®-
¿²¼ ±¾¶»½¬
®»½±¹²·¬·±²
¾«-ô
·¼»²¬·º·½¿¬·±²
¿²¼ ½±²¬®±´ -§-¬»³-

80
Capacitive and level sensors
V vortex.......................................................................16
vibration ..................................................................17 W
vibration resistance ..................................................62
wall........................................... 27, 29, 30, 32, 43, 66
vibrations .................................................................51
warranty ....................................................................6
VMR.........................................................................57
water .................................................................12, 62
voltage drop ................................................46, 55, 77
waterproof...............................................................57
voltage supply..........................................................47
waves.......................................................................17

81