My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 27

(F) Reflection and Transmission of a Wave :

In reference to its behaviour towards a wave, a medium is said to be denser (relative to the other)
if the speed of wave in this medium is lesser than the speed of the wave in the other medium. It is
the speed of wave which decides whethers the medium is denser or rarer for that particular wave
and thus vdenser < vrarer . If a medium is denser for one type of wave then at the same time the same
medium can be rarer for the other type of wave. For example, water is denser for electromagnetic
(light) waves compared to air, because the speed of electromatnetic waves is less in water than in
air. At the same time, for sound wave water is a rarer medium because speed of sound wave in
water is more. The laws of refraction (or transmission from one medium to ther other) and reflect
-ion remain the same for all types of waves.
Law of Reflection : Angle of incidence = angle of reflection , i = r,
Law of Refraction : sin i  v1  constant, called Refractive Index
sin r1 v2
It is clear from the law of refraction that a ray bends towards the normal if it travels from a rarer
medium to a denser medium (v1 > v2) and vice-versa.

Any type of wave is associated with the following physical quantities:

(i) speed of wave (v)
(ii) frequency (f), time period (T) and angular frequency (  )
(iii) wavelength (  ) and wave number (k)
(iv) amplitude (A) and intensity (I) and
(v) phase (  )
Now, let us see what happens to these physical quantities when they are either reflected or trans
mitted.
(i) Speed of wave (v) : Speed of a wave depends on the medium and some of its characteristics.
For example, speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string depends on the tension T and its
mass per unit length µ. In reflection medium and hence, its characteristics do not change. So, in
reflection speed of wave does not change. On the other hand, in transmission, medium and hence
the speed of wave changes.
(ii) Frequency (f), time period (T) and angular frequency (  ) : These three are related to
2
each other by the relation ,   2 f  . If any one of them is knwon, other two can easily be
T
obtained. As the frequency of the wave depends on the source from where wave originates ,
since source does not change, hence, none of the three changes in reflection and transmission .
Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal
My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 28

(iii) Wavelength (  ) and wave number (k) : These two are related to each other by the simple
2 v
relation, k = . Also ,  
, and v depends on medium and f depends on source , so if any
 f
one of them is changed, the wavelength will change. Therefore, in reflection  and k do
not change as medium and source both remain unchanged, while in transmission, as the medium is
changed so  and k are changed.
(iv) Amplitude (A) and intensity (I) : Expression for the intensity of a wave is,
1
I  2 A 2 v
2
 I  A2
Intensity is the energy transmitted per unit area per unit time. When a wave is incident on a bound
ary (separating two media) part of it is reflected and part is transmitted. Hence, intensity and
amplitude both change in reflection as well as transmission unless 100% reflection or 100%
transmission is there.
(v) Phase : In transmission no phase change takes place. While in reflection phase change is zero
if the wave is reflected from a rare medium and it is  if it is relfected from a denser medium.
For example, in above figure (a), the reflected ray suffers a phase difference of  with the incident
ray, because for electromagnetic wave water is denser, while in above figure (b) the refelected
wave is in phase with the incident wave , because for sound wave water is a rare medium.
The above results in tabular form are given below :

Wave property Reflection Transmission (Refraction)

v does not change changes
f,T,  do not change do not change
,k do not change change
A,I change change
   0 , from a rarer medium does not change
   , from a denser medium

A note on phase change on reflection :

(1) Reflection of Transverse Wave
(a) From rarer medium (No Phase Change)
Upward displacement will be reflected as upward displacement and downward displacement
will be reflected as downward displacement. A trough will be reflected as through and crest will be
reflected as crest.
(b) From denser medium (Phase Change of ) : Upward displacement will be reflected as
downward displacement and downward displacement will be reflected as upward displacement
crest will be reflected as trough and through will be reflected as crest.
(2) Reflection of Longitudal Wave
(a) From rarer medium (No Phase Change) : Forward displacement will be reflected as for
ward displacement and backward displacement will be reflected as backward displacement.
(b) From denser medium (Phase Change of ) : Forward displacement will be reflected as
backward displacement and backward displacement will be reflected as forward displacement.

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 29

Important note : A medium denser for displacement wave is generally rarer for pressure wave.In
case of a longitudinal wave when displacement wave undergoes a phase change of , pressure
wave will get no phase change. Thus when forward displacements are reflected back as back
ward displacements and backward displacements are reflected back as forward displacements
then compression will be reflected back as compression and rarefaction will be reflected back as
rarefaction. It is due tothis fact that a sound wave travelling in air does not undergo any
phase change when it is reflected by a rigid wall or water surface.
(G) Superposition of Waves & Principle of Superposition
The displacement of a medium particle which is oscillating under the influence of two or more then
two waves is a result of superposition of the waves. The superposition of the waves takes place
according to the principle of superposition which is stated as under:
“When two or more waves superpose on a medium particle than the resultant displacement
of that medium particle is given by the vector sum of the individual displacements produced
by the component waves at that medium particle independently.”
Let y1 , y 2 ,.....y N are the displacements produced by N independent waves at a medium particle
in absence of other then the displacement of that medium, when all the waves are superposed at
that point, is given as
y  y1  y 2  y 3  .......  y N ... (i)
If all the waves are producing oscillations at that point are collinear then the displacement of the
medium particle where superposition is taking place can be simply given by the algebraic sum of
the individual displacement. Thus we have
y = y1 + y2 + ...... + yN ... (ii)
The above equation is valid only if all individual displacements y1, y2 ......... yN are along same
straight line. In this book mainly we’ll deal with the problems of superposition of this type.
A simple example of superposition can be understood by below figure. Suppose two wave pulses
are travelling simultaneously in opposite directions in a string as shown. When they overlap each
other the displacement of particle on string is the algebric sum of the two displacements as the
displacements of the two pulses are in same direction. Figure (b) also shows the similar situation
when the wave pulses are in opposite sides.

Figure (a)

Figure (b)

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 30

Problem : A triangle pulse moving at 2 cm/s on a rope approaches an end at which it is free to
1
slide on a vertical pole.(a) Draw the pulse at s interval until it is completely reflected. (b) What
2
is the particle speed on the trailing edge at the instant shown ?

Solution (a) Reflection of a pulse from a free boundary is really the superposition of two identical
waves travelling in opposite direction. This can be shown as under:

As the wave speed is 2 cm/s, in every 1/2s, each pulse (the real one moving towards right and the
imaginary one moving towards left) travels a distance of 1 cm .

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 31

(b) We know that the particle speed , VP = | – v (slope)|

further , wave speed (v) = 2 cm/s and slope of wave function = 1/2
therefore , particle speed (VP ) = 1 cm/s
Problem : Figure shows a rectangular pulse and triangular pulse approaching each other.
The pulse speed is 0.5 cm/s. Sketch the resultant puluse at t = 2s.

Solution : In 2s each pulse will travel a distance of 1 cm.The two pulses overlap between 0 and 1
cm as shown in figure. So, A1 and A2 can be added as shown in figure (c)

(H) Amplitudes of Reflected and Transmitted Waves :

Whenever a wave is incident on the boundary of two different media, it splits in three parts :
(i) a part of the incident wave bounces back into the same medim called reflected wave ,
(ii) a part of the incident wve is transmitted into the other medium, called refracted wave ,
(iii) a part of the incident wave is absorbed by medium particles of both the medium at the bound
ary of media, called absorbed wave energy. If the incident wave amplitude is A; then the ampli-
tudes of reflected, transmitted and absorbed waves can be given as :
Ar = arAi , At = atAi , and , Aa = aaAi
Where ar, at and aa are called reflection coefficient, transmission coefficent and absorption coeffi
cient for the respective wave amplitudes
We can find the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted wave . This is explained as described
under :
Let us consider a wave propagating in medium-1 (velocity - v1) incident on a medium boundary as
shown in fig. (a). If displacement amplitude of incident wave is Ai its equation can be written as
yi  Ai sin t  k1 x  ... (i)
If Ar and At be the amplitudes of respective reflected and transmitted waves as shown in fig. (b),
the corresponding equation are
For reflected wave yr  Ar sint  k1 x  ... (ii)
and the transmitted wave yt  At sin t  k 2 x  ... (iii)
 
Where k1  , and k2  , (  remains same as frequency does not change)
v1 v2

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 32

As wave is continuous at the boundary i.e. at x = 0 the displacement of medium particles in the
two media must be equal, thus we have
yi + yr = yt
Ai + Ar = At ... (iv)

At the boundary, the slope of displacement cuve must also be continuous thus at x = 0, we also
have
dyi dyr dyt
 
dx dx dx
Now from equation (ii), (iii) and (iv), we have
 Ai k1 cos  t  Ar k1 cos  t   At k 2 cos  t

k 
or Ai  Ar  At  2  ... (v)
 k1 
Adding equation (iv) and (v) we get

k 
2Ai  At  2  1
 k1 

 2k1 
or At    Ai ... (vi)
k 
 1 2k

 2v2 
ot At    Ai
v 
 1 2v

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 33

If at be the transmission coefficient for the boundary of the two media we have
At=atAi ... (vii)
comparing equation (vii) and (viii) we get
2k1 2v2
Tranmission coefficient at   ... (viii)
k1  k 2 v1  v2
Now dividing equation (v) by (iv) we get
Ai  Ar k 2

Ai  Ar k1
Ai k1  k 2
or 
Ar k1  k 2

 k k 
or Ar   1 2 Ai ... (ix)
 k1  k2 

 v  v1 
or Ar   2  Ai
 v1  v 2 
If ar be the reflection coefficient for the boundary of the two medium we have
Ar = ar Ai ... (x)
Comparing equation (ix) and (x) we get
k1  k 2 v2  v1
Reflection ceofficient, ar   ... (xi)
k1  k 2 v1  v2
From equation (viii) and (x) we can see that transmission coefficient is always positive but reflec
tion coefficient can be negative when v2 < v1 or when a wave propagating in a rarer medium is
reflected from the boudnary of a denser medium.
The negative sign with reflection coefficient shows that whenever a wave is reflected from the
boundary of a denser medium, a phase addition of  radian takes place in reflected wave (Stokes
law of phase change on reflection).
Reflection of a wave Pulse in a stretched string
Let is consider a case of reflection of a transeverse wave pulse in a stretched string from a wall as
shown. Here we can consider that the wave velocity in second medium (wall), v2 = 0 as wall is
rigid then we have from equation (ix) and (x) , ar = –1 and at = 0.This means that incident wave
is completely reflected with a phase change of  , as shown below :

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 34

Now consider the case shown in below figure. Two different strings are joined end to end stretched
by a tension T. String 1 is lighter than string 2 so the wave speed in string 1 is more than that in
string 2. When a wave pulse traveling from string 1 towards the junction is incident on the junction
a part of energy is reflected and a part in transmitted to the other string. We can see as shown in fig.
(a) that when wave pulse travelling on lighter string (rarer medium) is reflected from heavier string
(denser medium) the reflected pulse suffers a phase change of  radians and inverted. But if a
wave pulse travelling from heavier string incident on the junction, during reflection no phase change
occurs as we can see from fig. (b).

Fixed end of a String : Since the fixed end is equivalent to a string of infinite linear mass
density, v2  T /  2  0 , and we obtain , At = 0 , and , Ar = –Ai
Free end of a string : In this case  2  0 , so v2   and we can show that,
At = 2Ai and Ar = Ai

Problem : A harmonic wave is travelling on string 1. At a junction with string 2 it is partly reflected
and partly transmitted. The linear mass density of the second string is four times that of the first
string, and that the boundary between the two strings is at x = 0. If the expression for the incident
wave is, yi  Ai cos (k1 x  1t ) , then find ,(a) What are the expression for the transmitted and the
reflected waves in terms of Ai, k1 and 1 ? (b)Show that the average power carried by the incident
wave is equal to the sum of the average power carried by the transmitted and reflected waves.
Solution : (a) Since v = T /  , T2 = T1 and µ2 = 4µ1
v1
we have, v2  ... (i)
2
we know that the frequency does not change, that is
1  2 ... (ii)

Also, because k = , the wave numbers of the harmonic waves in the two strings are related by,,
v

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 35

2 1 1
k2   2  2 k1 ... (iii)
v2 v1 / 2 v1
The amplitudes are,
 2v2   2(v1 / 2)  2
At    Ai     Ai ... (iv)
 v1  v2   v1  (v1 / 2)  3

v v   (v / 2)  v1  Ai
and Ar   2 1  Ai   1  Ai   ... (v)
 v1  v2   v1  (v1 / 2)  3
Now with eqas. (ii), (iii) and (iv), the transmitted wave can be written as,
2
yt  Ai cos (2k1 x  1t )
3
Similarly the reflected wave can be expressed as,
 Ai A
yr  cos(k1 x  1t )  i cos ( k1 x  1t   )
3 3

(b) The average power of a harmonic wave on a string is given by,

1 1
P= A2 2av  A2 2  v (as s   )
2 2
1
Now, Pi  12 Ai2 1v1 ... (vi)
2
2
1 2  v  4
Pt  12  A i  4 1  1   12 A i2 1v1 ... (vii)
2 3  2 9
2
1  A  1
and Pr  22   i  1 v1   12 A i2 1v1 ... (viii)
2  3  18
From Eqs. (vi), (vii) and (viii), we can show that
Pi = P t + P r Hence proved.
Application of Principle of Superposition of Waves
Depending on the wave characteristics which are being superposed, we’ll discuss some standard
phenomena which take place due to the superposition of two or more waves. These are :
(1) Interference of Wave , (2) Stationary Waves , (3) Beats
(I) Interference of waves :
When two waves have same frequency and they have constant phase difference at their sources
they are called Coherent Waves. If two or more coherent waves cross a region of space simulta
neously then due to their superposition, uneven energy distribution takes place in the region of their
cross-over and uneven energy pattern remains sustained. This sustained uneven energy distribu
tion is called Interference of Waves.
Suppose two coherent simple harmonic waves of same frequency  and amplitude a1 and a2
cross a region of space simulatenously along approximately parellel directions. Consider a given
point in region of cross over as shown in figure. At the point of cross over phase of the wave-1 is
1   t  kx1  1 , and , phase of wave-2 is 2   t  kx 2   2 .

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 36

The phase difference between the waves at this point is

  = (1   2 )  k ( x 2  x1 )

1
Wave 1
S1 x1
1   t  kx1  1

2   t  kx 2   2
S2 x2
2 Wave 2

Where 1   2  is phase difference between the waves at the sources. The oscillation produced
by wave (1) and (2) at this point is given as
y1  a1 sin 1 and y2  a2 sin 2
According to the principle of superposition of waves the resultant oscillation due to two waves will
be y = y1 + y2 , giving y  a 1 sin 1 + a 2 sin  2
After some mathematical steps we get,
y  A sin(  t  kx   ) ... (i)
Where A  a12  a22  2 a1a2 cos  ... (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we conclude the resultant of superposition of two simple harmonic
waves of same frequency and travelling along approximately same direction is a simple harmonic
wave of same frequency but whose amplitude A is different for different values of   =
(1   2 )  k ( x 2  x1 ) . Further the value of  will be different at different points of region of
corss-over (as x2 – x1 varies from point to point) and it will be constant at a given point provided
1   2  does not change with time (Condition of coherence).
Positions of constructive interference
At the places where    2 n  . where n is an integer. The amplitude A will be max.
Amax = a1 + a2
At such places, we say the waves have constructively interfered.
Position of Destructive Intreference
At the places where    2 n  1 , where n is an integer. The amplitude A will be minimum.
Amin = |a1 – a2|.
At such places we say the wave has interfered distructively.
Intensity Distribution Due to Interference
If I1 and I2 are the intensities of two interfering coherent waves then I  a 2
 I 1  a12 or I1  ka12 and I 2  a 22 or I 2  ka 22
1 1
( For displacement waves k   2 v and k  )
2  v2
The resultant intensity due to the interference of the waves is
Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal
My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 37


I = kA2  k a12  a 22  2 a1 a 2 cos  
I  ka 12  ka 22  2 ka 1a 2 cos 
or I  I1  I 2  2 I1 . I 2 cos 
(i) At constructive interference , cos    1
 I max   I1  I 2 
2

(ii) At destructive intefrence , cos   1

 
I  I min  I1  I 2 
2

From the above discussion, we see that the intensity distribution in the region of cross-over of two
waves because of there superposition will be uneven and this uneven distribution of intensity will
remain as such if the waves satisfy the condition of coherence 1   2  = constant.
The sustained uneven energy distribution in the region of crossover of two or more waves because
of their superposition is called interference of waves.

Problem :Three plane sources of sound of frequency f1 = 400 Hz, f2 = 401 Hz and f3 = 402 Hz
of equal amplitude a each, are sounded together. A detector receives waves from all the three
sources simultaneously. It can detect signals of amplitude  A. Calculate
(a) period of one complete cycle of intensity received by the detector and
(b) time for which the detector remains idle in each cycle of intensity.
Solution : (a)We know that y  A sin  t  A sin2 f t 
This displacements of the medium particles caused by these waves are given as
y1  A sin 800 t  ... (i)
y 2  A sin 802  t  .. (ii)
and y 3  A sin 804  t  ... (iii)
The resultant displacement of medium particle at time t is given by
y  y1  y 2  y 3
 Asin(800  t )  sin(802  t )  sin(804  t )
 A{sin (800  t )  sin (804  t )}  sin (802  t )
 A 1  2 cos 2  t sin 802  t
The resultant is also a plane wave. Let its amplitude be R. Then, y = R sin  t
Here R  A(1  2 cos 2 t ) ... (iv)
Equation (iv) shows that the resultant amplitude (or resultant intensity, I  R 2 ) varies with time.
The resultant amplitude is maximum, when , 2 t  0, 2 , 4 .......
or t = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...........
Hence period of one complete cycle of intensity is one second.
(b) Given that signal is detected when R  A
Thus cos 2 t  0
Thus cos 2 t should lie either in first quadrant or in fourth quadrant i.e., between either o to

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 38

 / 2 or 3 / 2 and 2 .
So, during first cycle of intensity, the singal is detected when
1 3
0t and  t 1
4 4
This shows that detector remains ideal from
1 3
t s to t s
4 4
3 1 2
   0 .5 s
Therefore, in each cycle of intensity, the detector remains ideal for
4 4 4
Problem : Two coherent narrow slits emitting sound waves of wavelength  in the same phase
are parallel to each other at a small separation of 2 , the sound is detected by moving a detector
on the screen S at a distance D (>>  ) from the slit S1 as shown in below figure. Find the
distance x such that the intensity at P is equal to the intensity at O.

Solution : When detector is at O, we can see that the path difference in the two waves reaching O
is d = 2 thus at O detector receives a maximum sound. When it reaches P and again there is a
maximum sound detected at P the path difference between two waves must be    . Thus from
figure the parth difference at P can be given as
  S1P  S2 P ~ S1Q = d cos 
= 2 cos

And we have at point P, path difference    , Thus

  2 cos  
1 
or, cos   , or  
2 3
 
Thus the value of x can be written as x = D tan  = D tan   = 3 D
3
Problem : Figure shows two coherent sources S1 and S2 which emit sound of wavelength  in
phase. The separation between the sources is 3  . A circular wire of large radius is placed in such

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 39

a way that S1S2 lies in its plane and the middle point of S1S2 is at the centre of the wire. Find the
angular positions  on the wire for which constructive interference takes place.

Solution : Consider a pont P on cicular wire , from previous question, we can say at this point
the path difference in the two waves is :
  S1P  S2 P  d cos = 3 cos
We know for constructive inteference at P, the path difference must be an integral multiple of
n
wavlength  . Thus for a maxima at P, we have , 3 cos  n , , that is , cos   ,
3
where n is an integer . As cos  1 ,  n max  3 , and so three maxima will be observed in
max
each quadrant making a total of 12 on the complete circle .

For different angular positions of the maxima

(i) 3 cos  0 , (ii) 3 cos     , (ii) 3 cos    2  , and (iv) 3 cos    3
 3  1  2
or (i)   or , (ii)   cos 1    , (iii)   cos 1    and , (iv)   0 or 
2 2  3  3

There are four points A, B, C and D on circle at which   0 or and there are two points in
2
 1  2
each quadrant at   cos 1    and   cos 1    at which constructive interference takes
 3  3
place. Thus there are total twelve points on circle at which maxima occurs.

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 40

(J) Stationary Waves or Standing Waves :

When two coherent waves trevelling in opposite direction superpose then simultaneous interfer
ence at all the medium particles takes place. This superposition of the waves produce a vibratory
pattern on all the medium particles what is obtained is called, a Stationary Wave. If the two
interfering waves which travel in opposite direction carry equal energies then no net flow of energy
takes place in the region of superposition. Within this region redistribution of energy takes place
between medium particles. There are some medium particles where constructive interference takes
place and hence energy increases and on the other hand there are some medium particles where
destructive intereference takes place and energy decreases. Now we’ll discuss the stationary
waves analytically.
Let two waves of equal amplitude travelling in opposite direction along x-axis. The wave equation
of the two waves can be given as
y1  A sin t  kx  [Wave travelling in +x direction] ... (i)
and y 2  A sint  kx  [Wave travelling in –x direction] ... (ii)

When the two waves superpose on medium particles, the resultant displacement of the medium
particles can be given as y = y1 + y2
or y  A sint  kx   A sint  kx 
or y  A[sin t cos kx  cos t sin kx  sin t cos kx  cos t sin kx ]
or y  2 A cos kx sin  t ... (iii)
Equation (iii) can be written as
y = R sin t ... (iv)
Where R = 2A cos kx ... (v)
Here equation (iv) is an equation of SHM. It implies that after superposition of the two waves the
medium particles execute SHM with frequency  of the superposing waves but with an ampli
tude R which is given by equation (v). Here we can see that the oscillation amplitude of medium
particles depends on x i.e. the position of medium particles. Thus on superposition of two coherent
waves travelling in opposite direction the resulting interference pattern, we call stationary waves,
the oscillation amplitude of the medium particle at different positions is different.
Position of Anti Nodes
At some points in medium the resultant amplitude is maximum which are given as
R is maximum when , cos kx =  1
2
or x  n [ n  1]

n
or x
2
 3
or x = 0,, , .......
2 2
and the maximum value of R is given as , Rmax =  2 A

2 3
Thus in the medium at position x = 0, , ,
, ....... the waves interfere constructively and the
 2
amplitude of oscillations becomes 2A. The points where this happens are called Anti-Nodes.

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 41

Position of Nodes
Similarly at some points of the medium, the waves interfere destructively, the oscillation amplitude
becomes minimum i.e. zero in this case. These are the points where R is minimum, when
cos kx = 0
2kx 
or = (2n + 1)
 2

or x = (2n + 1) [ n  1]
4
 3 5
or x= , , ....
4 4 4
and the minimum value of R is given as Rmin = 0
 3 5
Thus in the medium at positions x  , , ..... the waves interfere destructively and the
4 4 4
amplitude of oscillation becomes zero. These points always remains at rest. Such points are called
Nodes. Figure shows the oscillation amplitude of different medium particles in a stationary wave.

Following figure shows how two travelling waves, travelling opposite direction, form standing
wave.

Furthermore, the figures given below explain the movement of medium particles with time in the
region where stationary waves are formed. Let us assume that at an instant t = 0 all the medium
particles are at their extreme positions as shown in figure (a). Here points ABCD are the nodes of
stationary waves where mediuim particles remains at rest. All other particles start moving toward

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 42

T
their mean position and at t = all particles cross their mean position as shown in figure (c), you
4
can see in the figure that the particles at nodes are not moving. Now the medium particles cross
their mean position and start moving on other side of mean position towards the other extreme
T
position. At time t = , all the particles reach their other extreme position a shown in figure (e) and
2
3T
at time t = again all these particles cross their mean position is opposite direction as shown in
4
figure (g). Finally at t = T, after completing oscillation all the medium particles are in their initial
position as shown in figure (i)

(a) t = 0 , Total Energy , E = P.E

T
(b) 0 t  , Total Energy , E = P.E + K.E
4
T
(c) t  , Total Energy , E = K.E
4

T T
(d) t  , Total Energy , E = P.E + K.E
4 2

T
(e) t  , Total Energy , E = P.E
2
T 3T
(f) t  , Total Energy , E = P.E + K.E
2 2
3T
(g) t  , Total Energy , E = K.E
4

3T
(h)  t  T , Total Energy , E = P.E + K.E
4

(i) t T , Total Energy , E = P.E

Based on the above analysis of one complete oscillations of the medium particles, we can make
some inferences for a stationary wave. These are:
(i) In oscillations of a stationary wave in a region, some points are always at rest (nodes) and some
oscillate with maximum amplitudes (antinodes). All other medium particles oscillate with ampli-
tudes less then those of antinodes.
(ii) All medium particles between two successive nodes oscillate in same phase and all medium
particles on one side of a node oscillate in opposite phase with those on the other side of the same
node.
(iii) In the region of a stationary wave during one complete oscillation all the medium particles
come in the form of a straight line twice.

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 43

(iv) Energy Pattern in a Stationary wave : If the component wave amplitudes are equal, then in
the region where stationary wave is formed, no net flow of energy takes place, only redistribu-
tion of energy takes place in the medium. For that to understand more clearly , let us examine a
stationary wave in a string .The nodal points do not move and may be grasped or clamped without
affecting the standing wave. If dissipation of energy by the string is ignored, the oscillation is con-
stant with time and no energy is transmitted along the wave. (In a real string, some energy is
transmitted to maintain the oscillation. Each point on the string executes simple harmonic motion in a
direction perpendicular to the string . That is, one can view the standing wave as a large num-
ber of oscillators vibrating parallel to each other. The energy of the vibrating string con-
tinuously alternates between elastic potential energy - at the time at which the string is
momentarily stationary and , kinetic energy - at the time at which the string is straight and
the particles have their maximum speed . At intermediate time; the string particles have both
potential energy and kinetic energy.
(v) Partial Stationary Waves : When amplitudes of the two component waves are equal then
the resultant amplitude at node is zero and these particles always remain at rest, which does not
allow energy to propagate in any direction. But when the component waves have unequal amplitude
say A1 and A2 then the medium particles situated at nodes also oscillate with amplitude |A1 – A2|
and in this case the amplitude of oscillations of medium particles at antinodes will be |A1 + A2|.
Such an interference pattern is called partial stationary wave. Due to this after superposition there
must be some flow of energy in the direction of propagation of wave having higher amplitude. The
oscillation amplitude pattern of different medium particles in a pure stationary wave and a partial
stationary wave are compared as :

Fig.(a) Pure Stationary Wave Fig.(b) Partial Stationary Wave

A partial stationary wave can also be regarded as a superposition of a pure stationary wave with
a propagating wave. Analytically we can discuss this. Let the two different amplitude coherent
waves travelling in opposite direction be
y1  A1 sint  kx  [Travelling in + x-direction] ... (i)
and y 2  A 2 sint  kx  [A1 > A2] [Travelling in –ve x-direction] ... (ii)
The region in which these waves will superpose the resultant displacement of medium particles can
be given as : y = y1 + y2= A1 sin t  kx   A 2 sinwt  kx 
First term of the above equation can be split as
y = A 2 sint  kx   A1  A 2 sin t  kx   A 2 sint  kx 
y = 2A2 cos kx sin t  A1  A 2  sin t  kx  .
... (iii)

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 44

The first term in the expression in equation (iii) is the equation of a pure stationary wave with
antinode amplitude 2A2 and node amplitude zero and second term in equation (iii) is a propagating
waves travelling in +x direction with amplitude A1 – A2. Here we can state that net energy flow
takes places in the medium due to the propagating wave in + x direction as A1 > A2.
This situation finds best example when an incident travelling wave is only partially reflected from a
boundary, the resulting superposition of two waves having different amplitudes and travelling in
opposite directions gives a partial standing wave pattern. The envelope of a partial stationary
waves is as shown in figure.

In such a case we define a term called Standing Wave Ratio (SWR).

A max A1  A 2
SWR = A  A  A
min 1 2

(1) Standing Waves in a Stretched String (fixed at both ends) :

Consider a string of length L that is fixed at both ends. Standing -waves are set up in the string by a
continuous superposition of waves incident on and reflected from the ends. The string has a number
of natural patterns of vibration, called normal modes. Each of these has a characteristic frequency
that is easily calculated.
First, note that the ends of the string are nodes by definition because these points are fixed.

The first normal mode, shown in given figure , has nodes at its ends and one antinode in the middle. This
normal mode occurs when the wavelength 1 equals twice the length of the string, that is, when

 1 = 2 L. The next normal mode, of wavelength  2 occurs when the wavelength equals the length of
the string, that is, when  2 = L. The third normal mode corresponds to the case where the wavelength
is two-thirds the length of the string,  3 = 2L/3. In general, the wavelengths of the various normal
modes can be conveniently expressed as

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 45

2L
n  (n = 1 , 2 , 3 , ....)
n
where the index n refers to the nth normal mode of vibration. The natural frequencies associated
with these modes are obtained from the relationship f = v/  . where the wave speed v is the same
for all frequencies. we find that the frequencies of the normal modes are
v n
fn   v (n = 1 , 2 , 3 , ....)
n 2 L
T
Because v = , where T is the tension in the string and  . is its mass per unit length, we can also

express the natural frequencies of a taut string as :

n T
fn = (n = 1 , 2 , 3 , ....)
2L 
The lowest frequency, corresponding to n = 1, is called the fundamental mode and the fundamental
frequency, f1 and is gievn by
1 T
f1 =
2L 

Clearly, the frequencies of the remaining normal modes (sometimes called overtones) are integral
multiples of the fundamental frequency. These higher natural frequencies, together with the
fundamental frequency, form a harmonic series. The fundamental, f 1 , is the first harmonic; the
frequency f 2 = 2 f 1 is the second harmonic; the frequency f n, i s the nth harmonic.

(2) Standing Waves in Air Columns or Organ Pipes :

Standing waves can be setup in a tube of air, such as an organ pipe, as the result of interference
between longitudinal waves traveling in opposite directions. The phase relationship between the
incident wave and the wave reflected from one end depends on whether that end is open or
closed. This is analogous to the phase relationships between incident and reflected transverse
waves at the ends of a string. The closed end of an air column is a displacement node because the
wall at this end does not allow molecular motion. As a result, at a closed end of a tube of air, the
reflected wave is 180° out of phase with the incident wave. Furthermore, since the pressure wave
is 90° out of phase with the displacement wave, the closed end of an air column corresponds to a
pressure antinode (that is, a point of maximum pressure variation).
Open End Pipe :
The open end of an air column is approximately a displacement antinode and a pressure node. The
fact that there is no pressure variation at the open end can be understood by noting that the end of
an air column in a tube is open to the atmosphere, and the pressure at this end must remain
constant. If the pressure at this end were to change, air would flow into or out of the column. The
wave reflected from an open end is nearly in phase with the incident wave when the tube’s diameter
is small relative to the wavelength of the sound.The first three normal modes of vibration of a pipe
open at both ends are shown in figure shown as under :
When air is directed against an edge at the left, longitudinal standing waves are formed and the
pipe resonates at its natural frequencies. All modes of vibration are excited simultaneously (although
not with the same amplitude).

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 46

1  2 L
: First Harmonic
v v
f1  
1 2L

2  L
2v
f2   2 f : Second Harmonic
2L

2L
3 
3
3v : Third Harmonic
f2   3 f1
2L

Note that the ends are displacement antinodes (approximately). In the fundamental mode, the
v
wavelength is twice the length of the pipe, and hence the frequency of the fundamental, f1 = .
2L
The frequencies of the higher harmonics are 2 f1, 3 f1, . .
Thus, in a pipe open at both ends, the natural frequencies of vibration form a harmonic series, that
is, the higher harmonics are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Since all harmonics are present in a pipe open at both ends, we can express the natural frequencies
of vibration as
v
fn = n (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .)
2L
where v is the speed of sound in air.

Closed End Pipe :

If a pipe is closed at one end and open at the other, the closed end is a displacement node . In this
case, the wavelength for the fundamental mode is four times the length of the tube.
Hence, the fundamental, is equal to v /4L, and the frequencies of the higher harmonics are equal to
3f1 , 5f1 , . . . .

That is, in a pipe closed at one end, only odd harmonics are present, and the natural frequencies
are
v
fn = n (n = 1, 3, 5, . . .)
4L

Following figures depict the standing waves in a closed pipe

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 47

1  4 L
v v : First Harmonic
f1  
1 4L

4L
3 
3
3v : Third Harmonic
f3   3 f1
4L

4L
5 
5
5v : Fifth Harmonic
f5   5 f1
4L

3.End Correction in Organ Pipes

We have discussed, that in an organ pipe incident and reflected waves superpose and give rise to
establishment of stationary waves at harmonic frequencies.
First we discuss how a wave is reflected from the open end of an organ pipe.

Consider an organ pipe shown in figure. Here we consider a wave is propagating towards its open
end. As due to longitudinal wave medium (air) particles oscillates along the length of pipe as shown
in figure. But the oscillations are along the length of the pipe within the boundaries of the pipe.
When wave reaches the open end, due to collisions the medium particles outside the pipe scatters
in the direction away from pipe and due to this medium (air) density reduces outside the pipe and
from the region of this rarer medium the wave is reflected.
Here we can see that when a wave reaches the open end of a pipe it penetrates atmosphere upto
to a small depth where the density is decreased and then it is reflected back into the pipe. Thus the
wave is not exactly reflected from the open end of the pipe. Hence in the formation of stationary
waves in organ pipe we say always there is an antinode at the open end of the pipe but in fact
antinode is formed a little above the open end as shown in figure. The distance above the open end
where antinode formed is called end correction and is represented by e.
It is observed that end correction depends on the radius of organ pipe and is experimentally
determined and expressed as e = 0.6 r
Thus for a broad pipe end correction is more than a narrow pipe. When we find the different

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 48

harmonic frequencies of oscillastions of air column in organ pipe, we must account end correc
tions. Now taking into account end correction the fundamental frequency of a closed pipe of
length L is taken as
v
f1  [One end open]
4L  e 
and fundamental frequancy of an open pipe of length L is taken as
v
f1  [Both ends open]
2L  2e
Problem :The following equation represents standing wave set up in a medium.
x
y  4 cos sin 40  t
3
Where x and y are in cm and t in sec. Find out the amplitude and the velocity of the two component
waves and calculate the distance between adjacent nodes. What is the velocity of a medium
particle at x = 3 cm at time 1/8 s?
Solution : The given equation of stationary wave is
x
y  4 cos sin 40  t
3
 x 2 (120) t
or y  2  2 cos sin ... (i)
6 6
 x 2 v t
We know that y  2A cos sin ... (ii)
 
Comparing the equations (i) and (ii), we get
A = 2 cm,  = 6 cm and v = 120 cm/s
2
The component waves are y1  A sin vt  x 

2
and y 2  A sin vt  x 

 6
Distance between two adjacent nodes =    3 cm
2 2
dy x
Particle velocity  4 cos cos 40  t  40
dt 3
 x 
= 160  cos  cos 40  t
 3 
At x = 3, t = 1/8, the particle velocity is given by
 1
= 160  cos  cos  40     160  cm / s
 8
4.Resonance Tube Apparatus :
This an apparatus used to determine velocity of sound in air experimentally and also to compare
frequencies of two tuning forks.Figure shows the setup of a resonance tube experiment. There is a
long tube T in which initially water is filled upto the top and the water level can be change by

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 49

moving a reservoir R up and down.A tuning fork of known frequency f is struck gently on a rubber
pad and brought near the open end of tube T due to which oscillations are transferred to the air
column in the tube above water level. Now we gradually decrease the water level in the tube. This
air column behaves like a closed organ pipe and the water level as closed end of pipe. As soon as
water level reaches a position where there is a node of corresponding stationary wave, in air
column, resonance takes place and maximum sound intensity is detected. Let at this position length
of air column be l1 . This corresponds to resonance of the tuning fork with first harmonic tone of
the column . If water level is further decreased, again maximum sound intensity is observed when
water level is at another node i.e. at a length l2 as shown in figure .This corresponds resonance of
the tuning fork with to third harmonic tone of the column .Taking end -correction into consider
ation , we get :

l1  e  (for first resonance , first harmonic)
4
3
l2  e  (for second resonance , third harmonic)
4

 l2 – l1 =
2

or   2 l2  l1 
Thus sound velocity in air can be given as
v  f  2 f l2  l1 
By measuring l1 and l2 , velocity of sound is determined .
Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal
My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 50

5.Energy of Medium Particles in a Stationary Wave on a string :

Consider a stationary wave on a stretched string on length L as shown in figure. The maximum
amplitude of medium particles in this stationary wave at antinodes is A0. Then the amplitude of
medium particles at a distance x from one end can be given as
R = A0 sin kx
Now consider an element of length dx at a distance x from one end as shown. If freqnecy of
oscillations of string is  then the total energy contained in this element of length dx can be given as
1
dE  dm 2 R 2
2
1
or dE  dx  2 A 02 sin 2 kx
2

Now total energy contained in the string can be string can be obtained by integrating the expres
sion in equation (i) for whole length of string as
L
1 2 2 2
E   dE    A0 sin kx dx
0
2
L
1  1  cos 2 kx 
  2 A    dx
2 0 
2 
L
1  sin 2kx 
or E   2 A 02  x  ... (i)
4  2k  0

n 2L 2 n
as L=   , and so , k = 
2 n  L
L
 2n 
 sin 2 kx  L
0   sin x  0
 L 0
1
Putting this value in equation (i) E   2 A02 L
4
Therefore the energy associated with the medium particles in a stationary wave is given by
1
E  2 A 02 L
4
(K) Formation of Beats :
When two sources of sound that have small frequency difference are sounded together, an inter-
esting phenomenon occurs. A sound with a frequency average of the two is heard and the loudness
of sound repeatedly grows and then decays, rather than being constant. Such a repreated variation
in amplitude of sound is called “beats”. The rate at which the amplitude varies is called beat fre

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 51

quency. As the frequencies of the two waves come close together, the beat frequency becomes
slower. A musician can tune a guitar to another source by listening for the beats while increasing or
decreasing the tension in each string, eventually the beat frequency becomes very low so that
effectively no beats are heard, and the two sources are then in tune.
We can also explain the phenomenon of beats mathematically. Let us consider the two superpos
ing waves have frequencies f1 and f2 then their respective equations of oscillation are
y1  A sin 2 f1t ... (i)
and y 2  A sin 2 f 2 t ... (ii)
On superposition at a point, the displacement of the medium particle is given as
y = y1 + y2

y  A sin 2 f1t  A sin 2 f 2 t

 f f  f f 
y  2A cos 2  1 2  t  sin 2  1 2  t ... (iii)
  2   2 

 f  f2 
y  R sin 2  1 t ... (iv)
 2 

There equation (iv) gives the displacement of medium particle where superposition takes place, it
f1  f 2
shows that the particle executes SHM with frequency , average of the two superposing
2
frequencies and with amplitude R which varies with time, given as
 f f 
y  2 A cos 2  1 2  t ... (v)
 2 
Here R becomes maximum when
 f f 
cos 2  1 2  t  1
 2 
 f  f2 
or 2  1  t  n [ n  1]
 2 
n
or t ... (vi)
f1  f 2

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 52

1 2
or At times t  0, , .....
f1  f 2 f1  f 2
At all the above time instants the sound of maximum loudness is heard, similarly we can find the
time instants when the loudness of sound is minimum, it occurs when
 f  f2 
cos 2  1 t  0
 2 
 f  f2  
2  1  t  ( 2 n  1) [ n  1]
 2  2
2n  1
or t ... (vii)
2 f1  f 2 

1 3
or at time instants t , , .....
2 f1  f 2  2 f1  f 2 
Here we can see that these time instants are exactly lying in the middle of the instants when loudest
sound is heard. Thus on superposition of the above two frequencies at a medium particle, the
sound will be increasing, decreasing, again increasing and decreasing and so on. This effect is
called beats. Here the time between two successive maximum or minimum sounds is called beat
period, which is given as ,
TB = time between two successive maxima = time between two successive minima
1
TB  f  f ... (viii)
1 2

Thus beat frequency or number of beats heard per second can be given as
1
fB   f1  f 2 ... (ix)
TB
The superposition of two waves of slightly different frequencies is graphically shown in figure. The
resulting envelope of the wave formed after superposition is also shown in figure (b). Such a wave
when propagates, produces “beat” effect at the medium particles.
1
Note : Persitence of hearing of human ear is s , the effect of any sound we hear persists for
10
1
s , therfore ,we can not hear beats separately if the frequency difference between two sounds
10
is more than 10 Hz .

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 53

(M) Doppler’s Effect :

The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency of waves due to the relative motion between
the observer and source of waves is called Doppler Effect..
Doppler effect is symmetrical for light i.e. it does not matter which among the source and the
observer is moving. It depends only upon their relative motion. In case of sound Doppler Effect is
unsymmetrical i.e. it depends upon which among the source and the observer is moving and which
one is stationary. Let us discuss Doppler Effect for sound for different cases.
1.When the source is stationary and the observer is moving:
Consider a source of sound emmitting waves of frequency fo . Let the speed of sound is v. Con
sider an observer moving with a velocity vo towards the stationary source.

fo vo
v

vo
Vo
f 


If the observer is stationary then he will listen waves of frequency f o. That is in one second he
would receive fo number of waves had he been stationary. Because of his motion, he will move a
distance vo towards the source in one second. Due to this he will listen to an additional number of
waves in one second, these are those waves which will be confined in a distance vo. As one wave
is confined in a distance  , therefore the number of waves confined in a distance vo will be vo/  .
In this way the total number of waves that the observer will listen in one second i.e. the apparent
frequency heard by the observer will be
vo
f   fo 

v
Putting  = fo

vo  v 
we get f   fo  f o or f   f o 1  o 
v  v
When the same observer moves away from the source with velocity vo, in that case, the apparent
frequency heard by him will be
 v 
f   f o 1  o 
 v
Combinedly we can write
 v 
f   f o 1  o 
 v

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 54

Upper sign holds when the observers is approaching the source and the lower sign holds when the
observer is going away the source.
2. Observer is stationary and the source is moving:
Consider a source of sound emmitting waves of frequency fo . Let the speed of sound is v. Sup
pose the source is moving with a velocity vS towards the stationary observer.


'
vS

VT
S '    VST

If the source does not move the one wave emmitted by the source will spread upto a distance
v
= . Also, this is the distance travelled by the wave in a time eqaul to one complete time
fo
period T. As the source travels a distance vsT in this time, therefore, one wave will be cofined in
a distance   vST ahead of the source. As no disturbance is behind the source, therefore,   vST
becomes the apparent wavelength. Thus, the apparent wavelength ' because of motion of source
is given by
     vST

v , 1
writing v and T = f
  
f fo o

v v v
we get   S
f fo fo

v 1  v 
or  v  vS  f   fo 
or 
f  fo  v  vS 
Similarly when the source is moving away from the observer the apparent frequency will be
 v 
f   fo  
 v  vS 
Combindely we can write
 v 
f   fo  
 v  vS 
Upper sign holds when source is approaching the observer and the lower sign holds when the

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 55

source is going away from the observer.

3.Both the observer and the source are moving
Consider a source of sound emmitting waves of frequency fo . Let the speed of sound is v. Sup
pose both the source and observer are moving towards each other with velocity is vS and vo.

If we consider the observer stationary, he will listen to the waves coming from moving source with
frequency given by
 v 
f   fo   ... (i)
 v  vS 
When he starts moving, the above frequency f ' will appear to him changed because of his motion
in accordance with the following equation
 v 
f   f ' 1 o  ... (ii)
 v
Putting the value of f ' from equation (i) in equation (ii) we get the value of apparent frequency
because of the motion of both the source and the observer.
 v  vo 
f   f o  
 v  vS 
In case the observer and the source are receding away from each other the apparent frequency
will be
 v  vo 
f   f o  
 v  vS 

 v  vo 
Combindely we can write f   f o  
 v  vS 
Upper signs hold when the source or the obsrerver or both are approaching each other and lower
signs hold when the source or the observer or both are going away from each other.
Doppler Effect in Reflected Sound
Consider a car moving towards a stationary wall as shown in figure. When the car blows a horn,
sound travels towards the wall and is reflected from the wall. When the reflected wave is heard by
the driver, it appears to be of relatively high pitch. If we wish to measure the frequency of reflected
sound then the problem must be handled in two steps.

First we treat the stationary wall as a stationary observer and car as a moving source of sound of

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 56

frequency f0. In this case the frequency received by the wall is given as
 v 
f1  f 0  
 v  v C 

Now wall refectes this frequency and behaves like a stationary source of sound of frequency f1
and car (driver) behave like a moving observer with velocity vC. Here the apparent frequency
heard by the car dirver can be given as
 v  vC 
f ap  f1  
 v 

 v   v  vC 
or  f 0     
 v  vC   v 

 v  vC 
 f 0  
 v  v C 
Same problem can also be solved in a different manner by using method of sound images. In this
procedure we assume the image of the sound source behind the reflector. In previous example we
can explain this by situation shown in figure.

Here we assume that the sound which is reflected by the stationary wall is coming from the image
of car which is the back of it and coming toward it with velocity vC. Now the frequency of sound
heard by car driver can directly be given as
 v  vC 
f ap  f 0  
 v  vC 
This method of images for solving problems of Doppler effect is very convienient but is used only
for velocities of source and observer which are very small compared to the speed of sound and it
should not be used frequently when the reflector of sound is moving.
Doppler’s Effect for Accelerated Motion
For the case of a moving source and a moving observer, we know the apparent frequency observer
can be given as
 v  vO 
f ap  f 0   ... (i)
 v  v S 

Here v is the velocity of sound and v0 and vS are the velocity of observer and source respectively.
When a source or observer has acclerated or retarded motion then in equation (i) we use that
value of v0 at which observer recevies the sound and for source, we use that value of vS at which
it has emitted the wave. The alternative method of solving this case is by the traditional method of

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 57

compressing or expend ing wavelength of sound by motion of source and using relative motion of
sound with respect to observer.
Doppler’s Effect when Source and Observer are not in same line of
Motion :Consider the situation shown in figure. Two cars 1 and 2 are moving along perpendicu
lar roads at speeds v1 and v2.

When car -1 blows a horn of frequency f0 , it emits sound in all directions and say car-2 is at the
position, shown in figure when it receives the sound. In such cases we use velocity components of
the cars along the line joining the source and observer thus the apparent frequency of sound heard
by car-2 can be given as
 v  v 2 cos  2 
f ap  f 0  
 v  v1 cos 1 
Problem : A police van is approaching a wall with a speed of 10 m/s , it blows a siren sending sound
of frequency 132 Hz.Find the frequency of beats heard by the driver of the van . Speed of sound is
340 m/s.
Solution : Frequency of the reflected sound of siren will be :
 v  vC 
f ap  f 0  
 v  vC 
132340  10 
or f ap  Hz  140 Hz
340  10
Thus the driver will hear two sounds of frequencies 132 Hz and 140 Hz simultaneously . Therefore
the beats heard by him will be 8 beats per second .
Problem : A police car moving at 22 m/s, chases a motorcyclist. The police man sounds his horn at
176 Hz, while both of them move towards a stationary siren of frequency 165 Hz.

Calculate the speed of the motorcycle, if it is given that he does not observe any beat.Take speed of

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 58

sound equal to 330 m/s

Solution :The frequency of sound coming from police van as heard by the motorcyclist is :
176330  v 
f ap ,1  Hz
330  22
And the frequency of sound coming from the siren as heard by the motorcyclist is :
165330  v 
f ap , 2  Hz
330
As no beat is heard by him , therefore the above two frequencies must appear to him to be same
176330  v  165330  v 
Hz  Hz
330  22 330
Solving it , we get 15v  330m / s or v  22m / s
Problem : A stationary observer receives a sound of frequency f0 = 2000 Hz from a stationary
source of sound. The source then starts moving in such away that the apparent frequency f varies with
time as shown in figure. Speed of sound = 300 m/s. The source is designed to move at its maximum
possible speed whenever its speed becomes constant . Explain the motion of the source and find (a)
maximum speed of the source , (b) maximum frequency heard by the observer .

Solution : (i) From time t = 0 to T   , the apparent frequency is constant and more than 2000 Hz
,therefore we conclude that the source is moving towards the observer with a constant speed (say v)
which is its maximum speed . (ii) From time T   to T , frequency is continuously decreasing untill it
becomes 2000 Hz .This shows that the source is retarding its motion untill it stops at time T .
(iii) From time T to T   , the frequency continuously decreases below 2000 Hz untill it becomes
constant equal to 1800 Hz . This means , after time T , the source is receding away from the observer
with increasing speed untill its receding speed becomes constant (and maximum ) beyond time T   .
(a) Calculation of the maximum speed of the source :
For times beyond T   , using Doppler’s effect of receding away source
2000  300
1800 Hz  Hz , giving
300  v 
1800  6v  2000
100
or v m / s  33.3m / s
3
(b) Calculation of the maximum frequency heard by observer :

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 59

2000  300 2000  300

fm  Hz  Hz
300  v   100 
 300  
 3 

2000  900
 Hz  2250 Hz
800
Problem : Two trains A and B are moving with speeds 20 m/s and 30 m/s respectively in the same
direction on the same straight track, with B ahead of A. The engines are at the front ends. The engine
of train A blows a long whistle. Assume that the sound of the whistle is composed of components
varying in frequency from f1 = 800 Hz to f2 = 1120 Hz, as shown in the figure.

The spread in the frequency (highest frequency - lowest frequency) is thus 320 Hz. The speed of
sound in still air is 340 m/s.Answer following three questions :
(1) The speed of sound of the whistle is
(a) 340 m/s for passengers in A and 310 m/s for passengers in B
(b) 360 m/s for passengers in A and 310 m/s for passengers in B
(c) 310 m/s for passengers in A and 360 m/s for passengers in B
(d) 340 m/s for passengers in both the trains
(2) The distribution of the sound intensity of the whistle as observed by the passengers in
train A is best represented by

(3) The spread of frequency as observed by the passengers in train B is

(a) 310 Hz (b) 330 Hz (c) 350 Hz (d) 290 Hz

Solution : 1.(Ans -b) As the air is moving backwards as compared to a passenger in a train ,
therefore ,for the passengers of train A both the sound and wind velocity are in same direction , so :
vsound , A  vsound in air  vair  340  20 m / s  360m / s
And , for the passengers of train B the sound and wind velocity are in opposite direction , so :
vsound , B  vsound in air  vair  340  30 m / s  310m / s .
2.(Ans-a) As the passangers of A are moving with same velocity as that of the source of sound , they
will observe no Doppler effect , therefore , the sound spectrum observed by them will be same as that
emitted.

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 60

800  340  30 
3. (Ans-a) f1'  Hz  775 Hz
340  20
1120  340  30 
and f 2'  Hz  1085 Hz
340  20
 Frequency spread is f 2'  f1'  1085  775Hz  310 Hz
Problem : A whistle emitting sound of frequency 440Hz is tied to a 1.5 m long string and rotated with
an angular speed of 20 rad/s in horizontal circle about another end of the string.Calculate the range of
frequencies heard by an observer stationed at a large distance from the whistle .Take velocity of
sound 330 m/s .
Solution : The observer will hear maximun frequency when the tangential velocity of the whistle is
towards him and she observer will hear minimun frequency when the tangential velocity of the whistle
is away from him , as shown below

 v 
 for maximum frequency using f  f o 
'
 , and taking vs   r  30ms
1

 v  v S

330
We get , f max  440 Hz  484 Hz
330  30
 v 
And , for minimum frequency using f '  f o  
 v  vS 
330
We get , f min  440 Hz  403.3Hz
330  30
 Frequency range heard by her is 403.3 Hz to 484 Hz.
Problem : A sound source is moving along a circular orbit of radius 3m with an angular velocity of
10 rad/s , and emitts sound of frequency 340 Hz. A sound detector located far away from the circle
is executing S.H.M alon the line BD ,with amplitude BC = CD = 6m and frequency 5 /  per second.
Source is at point A when the detector is at point B.Find the range of frequencies recorded by the
detector .(Take speed of sound 330 m/s)

Solution : As , the angular frequency of detector   2 5 /  rad / s  10rad / s is same as that of

the angular speed of sound source  both are moving with same time period .Cleraly when the
detector is moving from C to D , the source is moving away from the dectector at the upper most

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 61

point of the circle and detector is also moving away from the source as shown in the following figure

Velocity of receding away of both the source and obsever will be maximum and hence the freuency
recorded will be minimum , given by :
 v  vo 
f min  f o  
 v  vS 
Taking vo   A  60m / s and vs   r  30m / s , we get

f min  340
330  60 Hz  340 270  Hz  255Hz
 
330  30  360 
And , when the detector is moving from C to B , the source is moving towards the dectector at the
lower most point of the circle and detector is also moving towards the source as shown below :

At this time Velocity of approach of both the source and obsever will be maximum and hence the
freuency recorded will also be maximum , given by :
 v  vo 
f max  f o  
 v  vS 

f max  340
330  60 Hz  340 390  Hz  442 Hz
or ,  
330  30  300 
Thus , the frequency range recorded is 255 Hz to 442Hz .
Important Notes : (i) When the velocity of both the source and the observer is same along the line
v v 
joining the two then f app  f 0  sound motion   f 0
 vsound  vmotion 
(ii) Doppler’s effect for light in vacuume is symmetrical , i.e. it does not matter whether the source is
moving or the observer is moving , the apparent frequency is
cv
f app  f 0 , where v = relative velocity between the source and
cv
observer .Upper signs hold when they approach each other and lower signs when they recede away.
When v  c , then using binomial approximation we get
 v f app  f 0 f v
f app  f 0 1   , giving  
 c f0 f0 c

f
or , v  c .The shift in frequency f is called Doppler’s shift (Red shift if source recedes away)
f0

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal