My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 1

WAVE MOTION AND SOUND

(A) Meaning of a Wave and Wave Function
Meaning of a Wave : If there exists a physical quantity (say , y ) which is function of
space co-ordinates and , (i) any disturbance or variation of y with time requires or possesses
energy (ii) the disturbance or variation of y with time at one point in space is capable of
producing the disturbance of y at the neighboring points , then :
the distubance or time variation in the value of this physical quantity y and hence the
energy related to the disturbance of y starts spreading in space from one point to the
other and this method of propagation of energy is called a Wave .
Classification of Waves :Waves are classified into different categories described as under
(1) Based upon the type of time varying physical quantity : It gives two types of waves
(a) Mechanical wave : If the disturbed physical quantity y is the actual displacement or the
position of the particles of a material medium, the wave is called Mechanical Wave. Sound waves,
ultrasonics are examples of mechanical waves.For spreading the disturbance of position of the
particles of material medium from one point to the other , the particles must be connected togather
due to the elastic nature of the medium and the particles must possess the property of inertia too.
(b) Electromagnetic wave : If the disturbed physical quantity y is the electric or magnetic field
in space, the wave is called electromagnetic wave, it requires no material medium for its propagation.
Light is an electromagnetic wave.
(2) Based upon the direction of variation of the time varying physical quantity :
(a) Longitudinal wave : If the direction of oscillation of the time varying physical quantity is
parallel to the direction of propagation of wave energy, the wave is called longitudinal wave.
Sound Waves and other mechanical waves through fluids are longitudinal in nature.
(b)Transverse wave : If the direction of oscillation of the time varying physical quantity is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave energy, the wave is called transverse wave.
Electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave.
(3) Based upon the nature of time dependence of the disturbed physical quantity :
(a) Wave pulse : If the time variation of the disturbed quantity y lasts for a small time at each point
of space wherever the wave reaches , the wave is called a wave pulse .
(b) Continuous Wave : If the time variation of the disturbed quantity y is a continuous variation
with respect to time , that is , a periodic or oscillatory variation at each point of space wherever the
wave reaches , the wave is called a continuous wave . Continuous Wave is further classified as :
(i) Simple Harmonic Wave (ii) Non-Simple Harmonic Wave
If the oscillation of disturbed physical quantity is simple harmonic in nature the wave is called
simple harmonic wave.And ,if the oscillation of the disturbed physical quantity is non-simple harmonic
in nature the wave is called non-simple harmonic wave. As any general non-simple harmonic wave
can be understood in terms of the combination of many simple harmonic waves of different
frequencies, the study of simple harmonic waves serves as key to understand all types of waves.
(4) Based upon the dimensions of spread of the time varying physical quantity : A wave
can be (a) Plane wave, (b) Spherical wave or (c) Cylidrical wave, based upon how does wave
energy spread in space. If a wave propagates strictly along one direction with constant amplitude,
it is called one dimensional plane wave. If it spreads its energy in all directions starting from a point
source, it is called a spherical or three-dimensional wave. The amplitude of the spherical wave
varies inversly as distance from the wave source. Lastly, if the source of wave disturbance is a line
source, wave energy spreads symmetrically around it in a cylindral region, such a wave is called
cylindrical wave.

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 2

Formulating a Wave Function and Wave Equation :

1. A General wave Function and Wave Equation :
Consider a wave of the disturbance of the physical quantity y . Let it is capable of spreading along
x-direction with constant speed v . Arival of wave at a new point in space means begining of the
variations or disturbance of y at that point. It means :
(i) If at some time the wave has arrived at a point of position x , after a time t the wave will reach
a new point of position x + vt . It further means ,
if y  f  x, t  is the value of y at a point of position co-ordinate x at a time t ,
then it will be same as it had been at a position x  x  vt , at a time t before that (at zero time)
That is y  f x, t   f  x,0  f  x  vt 

Similarly , if the disturbance of the values of y is spreading towards negative x- direction ,then using
the above reasoning , we conclude that the value of y will depend upon the x-cordinate and time t
as : y  f  x, t   f x  vt 
Thus , for a wave of disturbance of y spreading along  x - direction , the value of y will be a
function of x co-ordinate and time t in the manner that ,
y  f  x, t   f x  vt  .
This function of space co-ordinates and time which gives the value of y at any position and
at any time is called a wave function.
Thus a general wave function for a wave of y travelling along x-direction will be function of linear
combination of x and t , that is , a general wave function is y  f ax  bt 
(ii) y  f ax  bt  will represent a wave function or general equation of a wave provided :
(a) y is finite at all times and at all positions co-ordinates .
dx
(b) = v = wave speed = constant
dt
(iii) Taking partial derivatives of y w.r.t x and t
y y x x dx
 but  v
t x t t dt
y y
 v , again taking partial derivatives of it w.r.t x and t
t x
2 y  2 y x
 v
t 2 x 2 t
2y 2y
or =v 2
.......... (1)
t 2 x 2

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 3

The above equation is called the differential equation of the wave of a physical quantity y , travelling
along x direction with constant speed v.
As the wave function of y is in the form y = f (ax + bt) , its second-order partial derivative comes
 2 y b2  2y
out to be = 2 , comparing it with eqn (1) , it gives
t 2 a x 2
b coefficient of t
v (velocity of wave) = 
a coefficient of x
Thus , y = f (x, t) is a general wave equation : if
(i) y  f ax  bt 
(ii) y is finite at all values of x and at all times t.
2y 2y
(iii) The differential equation =v2
is satisfied
t 2 x 2
(iv) If the coefficients of x and t have opposite signs the wave is spreading along positive x-
direction , and , if they have same sign the wave is spreading along negative x-direction .

5
Problem : y  x, t   , represents a wave pulse along x-direction where x and y are
1   x  2t 
2

in centimetres and t is in seconds.Find , (i)The direction of wave propagation (ii) The wave speed
(iii) Pulse amplitude (iv) Plot of wave function at times (a) t = 0 s , (b) 2.5 s and , (c) 5.0 s .
Solution : (i) As the signs of coefficients of x and t are opposite , the pulse is travelling along
positive x-direction .

b coefficient of t 2
(ii) v (velocity of wave) =   cm / s
a coefficient of x 1

(iii) Clearly y will be maximum when  x  2t   0 , therefore ,

5cm
ymax  A   5cm
1  0 
2

(iv) At the given times the wave function of pulse becomes

5 5 5
(a) y  x,0   , (b) y  x,2.5s   , (c) y  x,5s  
1  x  5 1   x  10 
2 2
1  x2

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 4

The wave function y  x,0 has its amplitude at x = 0 , the pulse is symmetrically centred about

x = 0 . The wave function y  x,2.5s  has its amplitude at x = 5cm showing that the pulse has
moved 5cm in 2.5 s , the pulse is symmetrically centred about x = 5cm . The wave function
y x,5s  has its amplitude at x = 10cm , showing that the pulse has moved 10cm in 5 s ,the pulse
is symmetrically centred about x = 10cm.
2. Wave Equation of a Plane Simple-Harmonic Wave :
If the time variations of the physical quantity ‘y’ (whose disturbance cause the wave) are simple
harmonic, and the oscillatory disturbance of y spreads along a straight line with constant amplitude,
the wave is called a simple harmonic plane wave. In that case y will be a simple -harmonic function
i.e.,sinusoidal function of linear combination of x and t , that is , y = f (ax + bt)  A sinax  bt  .

Let us obtain it independently .Consider such a wave of oscillatory ‘y’ is travelling along positive x-
direction with constant speed v and constant amplitude A. Let T is the time period of oscillation
2 1
of y and  = be its angular frequency and  = is its frequency..
T T
To find a wave equation for such a wave means to find y as a function of x (position) and t (time)
in such a way that the value of the oscillatory physical quantity ‘y’ can be obtained from such
function at any time ‘t’ and at any position ‘x’. As y is a simple-harmonically oscillating quantity
with constant amplitude A, its value at any time and at any position must be given by
y = A sin  or y = A cos  .............(i)
where  be the phase of oscillatory y (called phase of wave) at any given time and at any given
position. As it is the value of  which will make y to be a simple harmonically oscillating quantity
at all psotions ‘x’ where the wave has reached,  must possess space periodicity alongwith time
periodicity. Here the word ‘periodicity of phase’ means a change of phase by an amount 2  . Too
make it more clear,  must be such a function of time and position that after a definite amount of
time and after a definite repeating distance it again gets a change by an amount 2  . Let us
formulate  as such a function of x and t.
As far as time is concerned, it is already known that y completes its one full oscillation in its time
period T i.e. after every periodic time T, the phase  undergoes an increment of 2  . Which
2
further implies that  will increase by an amount t =  t in a time t. The event of arival of the
T
wave disturbance at a new position x can be rightly supposed to be the event of begining of the
oscillations of y at that position. Further, when the oscillations of y just begin at a new position
for the first time, we say the value of the phase  has started increasing from its value ‘zero’ to
onwards; getting an increment of 2  after every time period T. As the speed of wave is v, after
every unit time the wave will reach a fresh point in positive x direction distance v ahead, making
there the phase  to start increasing from zero to onwards. In this way , as the wave proceeds
further, y starts oscillating at more and more new points , and , the points left behind go-on getting
more and more increment of  at a rate of 2  /T..
Suppose at some time t the wave has just reached a point of position X o and the phase  of y

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 5

srarts increasing there from zero to onwards. After a time T, the phase of y at Xo will become 2 
and the wave will reach a fresh point at position Xo + vt setting the start of the oscillations of y
there. This is shown in the following figure :

It is clear from the above figure and discussion that, in the direction of propagation of wave , phase
will decrease by an amount 2  after every periodic distance of vt. Thus, we can say, the phase
repeats in space after every vt distance. This space periodicity of phase is called wavelength and
it is denoted by  . Thus, the wavelength  = vT is that length or distance in the direction of wave-
motion in which phase decreases by an amount 2  (i.e. that minimum distance in which phase
repeats).
2
It is quite clear that the phase will decrease by an amount x with a distance x in the direction

of motion of wave.
Now consider a general point at position x. Suppose at time t = 0, the phase of wave i.e. the phase
of y at x = 0 (origin of position) is  . According to above discussion, the phase of wave at
2 2
position x at this time must by  – x. As the phase increases with time at a rate of = ,
 T
it will increase by an amount ( 2 /T) t = t in a time t, and therefore, at a general time t, the
phase of y or that ot wave will be :
2
(i) phase at origin =  + t, and
T
2 2
(ii) phase at position x =  – x + t
 T

Thus, we see the phase  of oscillating physical quantity y (or the phase of wave) at any general

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 6

time t and at any position x is

 2 2 
 =  t x  
 T  
(Where  , called initial phase, is the value of phase at t = 0 and x = 0. Depending upon choice of
initial time and origin its value can be arbitrarily chosen to be zero or to be any other value) Putting
the above value of  in equation (i), the value of oscillating physical quantity ‘y’ at any position x
and at any time t is given by :
 2 2 
y = A sin  t  x   ..............(ii)
 T  
or y = A sin (  t – kx +  ) ..............(iii)

The equation (ii) or (iii) represent the wave equations of a simple harmonic plane wave.
Clearly in the wave equation
 2 2 
y = A sin  t  x  
 T  
2 2
The phase  = t– x+ 
T 
has both time periodicity (T) and space periodicity (  ) of phase.
Wavelength , Frequency ,Velocity and Propagation Constant of aWave
 2 2 
In the wave equation , y = A sin  t  x  
 T  
or y = A sin (  t – kx +  )
 = vT is called wavelength
1
giving v=  
T
1
but = frequency of oscillation of y, called frequency (f) of wave,
T

we get v = f . ..............(i)

As  = vT is called wavelength, it is considered to be a distance in which one-wave is confined.

1
Therefore, one may count number of waves in a unit distance to be . It is called wave number..

1
Thus, wave number = ...........(ii)

2
and hence , = k , is called Angular wave number or Propagation constant.

2 2 
Further, from vT =  , We get : v = or vk   or v 
 T k

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 7

Another form of simple Harmonic Wave-Equation :

The simple harmonic wave equation is
y = A sin (  t – kx) (taking  = 0)
 
or y = A sin k  t  x 
k 
2 
writing k= & = v , we get
 k
2
y = A sin (vt – x)

2
Thus , y = A sin (vt – x)

is another form of wave equation of a plane progressive simple harmonic wave of amplitude A,
velocity v and wavelength  , travelling along positive x-direction.
Wave Equation of aWave Travelling along negative x- direction :
2
In that case phase will decrease with distance x by an amount x in negative x-direction. Therefore

2
in positive x-durection, the phase will increase by an amount x with a distance x.

 Wave equation becomes :
2
y = A sin (vt + x) or y = A sin (  t + kx)

Some Important points for Wave-Motion :
1.The general expression of a plane progressive harmonic wave is
y = A sin (kx  t   ) or y = A cos (kx  t   )
Here  represents the intial phase.
2. It must be noted that y = A sin (kx – t ) or y = A sin ( t – kx)

Both the equations represent a travelling wave travelling in positive x-direction with speed v  .
k
It hardly matters whether we write the first or the second. The difference between them is that
they are out of phase, i.e., phase difference between them is  . It means, if a particle at position
x = 0 and at time t = 0 is at its mean position and moving upwards (represented by first wave) then
the same particle will be at its mean position but moving downwards (represented by the second
wave). Similarly the waves,
y = A cos (kx – t ) and y = – A cos ( t – kx) , both are travelling along positive x- direction and
they are also  out of phase.
3. Similarly the waves y = A sin (kx + t ) or y = – A sin ( t + kx) both are travelling along
negative x- direction and they are also  out of phase.
4. Particle velocity (vp) and acceleration (ap) in a sinusoidal wave :
In Plane prograssive harmonic wave particles of the medium oscillate simple harmonically about
their mean position. Therefore, all the properties of SHM apply to the particles here also. For
example,the particle velocity oscillates simple harmonically between + A and – A , maximum

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 8

particle velocity is A at mean position and it is zero at extreme positions . ( The particle velocity
is different from the wave velocity which depends on certain characteristics of the medium and
remains constant in a given medium ) . Similarly maximum particle acceleration is  2 A at extreme
positions and zero at mean position. Suppose the wave function is,
y = A sin (kx – t ) ... (i)
Let us differentiate this function partially with respect to t and x.
y
  A  cos kx   t  ... (ii)
t
y
 Ak cos kx   t  ... (iii)
x
y    y
Now, these can be written as,   
t  k  x
y 
Here,  vP , particle velocity : and , = v ,wave velocity
t k
 y
and = slope of the plot of wave-function with x
 x
Thus, vp = – v × slope of the wave-function ... (iv)

i.e., particle velocity at a given position and time is equal to negative of the product of wave
velocity with slope of the wave-function at that point at that instant.
The acceleration of the particle is the second partial derivative of y (x, t) with respect to t,
2y
 ap =    2 A sin( kx   t )    2 y
t 2
ap = –  2 (displacement) ... (v)
which is the result we obtain in any S.H.M
Figure shows the velocity (vp) and acceleration (ap) given by Eqs. (iv) and (v) for two points 1 and
2 on a string as a sinusoidal wave is travelling in it along positive x-direction.

At point 1 : Slope of the curve is positive. Hence from Eq. (iv) particle velocity (vp) is negative or
downwards. Similarly displacement of the particle is positive, so from eq. (v) acceleration will be
negative or downwards.
At point 2 : Slope is negative while displacement is positive. Hence vp will be positive (upwards)
and ap is negative (downwards).
Note: The direction of vp will change if wave travels along negative x-direction.

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 9

Problem : A transverse sinusoidal wave moves along a string in the positive x-direction at
a speed of 10 cm/s. The wavelength of the wave is 0.5 m and its amplitude is 10 cm. At a particular
time t, the snap-shot of the wave is shown in figure. Find the velocity of a point P whoose displace-
ment is 5 cm .

Solution : The equation of this wave is written as,

2
y  0.1sin 0.1t  x  .....(i)
0 .5
At the position of given point P , y = 5 cm = 0.05 m
2
 0.05  0.1sin 0.1t  x 
0. 5
2
 sin 0.1t  x   1 , or , 2 0.1t  x   
0 .5 2 0 .5 6
y 2 2
Differentiating eqn (i)  cos 0.1t  x 
x 5 0 .5

 y  2  2 3
At point P ,    cos  
 x  At P 5 6 10

 y 
But the particle velocity , vP  v 
 x  At P

1 2 3  3
 vP   m/s  m/s
10 10 50

 3 ˆ
As it is along y- direction ,  vP  j m/ s
50
(B) Velocity of Mechanical Waves in Different Media
Mechanical waves propagate through a material medium by virtue of the elasticity and inertia of
the material medium. One can very easily visualise that greater the elasticity and lesser the inertia,
the faster will be mechanical wave. If we measure elasticity by a proper modulus of elasticity and
inertia by density of matter, we can safely assume
v  Ea
and v  b
or v = (const) Ea  b

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 10

where E = modulus of elasticity

and  = density of matter
solving dimensionally, it is found
1 1
a= and b = –
2 2

E
giving v=

the constant of proportionality is found to be 1.
1. Velocity of Sound/Longitudinal Waves in Solids
Consider a section AB of medium as shown in figure of cross-sectional area S. Let A and B be two
cross section as shown. Let in this medium sound propagation is from left to right. If wave source
is at origin O and when it oscillates, the oscillations at that point propagate along the rod.

a A B
Undisturbed
Medium
o x dx
y+dy Wave Direction
y
A' B' Disturbed
Medium

x+y
x+dx+y+dy

Here we say an elastic wave has propagated along the rod with a velocity determined by the
physical properties of the medium. Due to oscillations say a force F is developed at every point of
medium which produces a stress in rod and is the cause of strain or propagation of disturbance
along the rod. This stress at any cross-sectional area can be given as
F
Stress 1 = .. (i)
a
If we consider the section AB of medium at a general instant of time t, the end A is at a distance x
from O and B is at a distance x + dx from O. Let in time dt due to oscillations, medium particles at
A are displaced along the length of medium by y and those at B by y + dy. The resulting positions
of section are A’ and B’ shown in above firgure. Here we can say that the section AB is deformed
(elongated) by a length dy. Thus strain produced in it is
dy
Strain in section AB  ... (ii)
dx
If Young’s modulus of the material of medium is Y, we have

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 11

Stress 1
Young’s Modul;us Y= 
Strain 
F /a
From equation (i) and (ii), we have Y=
dy / dx
dy
or F = Ya ... (iii)
dx
If net force acting of section AB is dF then it is given as
dF = dm (acceleration) ... (iv)
Where dm is the mass of section AB, which can be given as for a medium of density  .
d2y
dm =  adx , and , acceleration =
dt 2
d2y
From equation (iv), we hve dF =  adx
dt 2
dF d2y
or  a 2 ... (v)
dx dt
From equation (iii) on differentiating w.r. to x, we can write
dF d2y
 Ya 2 ... (vi)
dx dx
From equation (v) and (vi) we get
d2y Y  d2y
 
dt 2    dx 2
... (vii)

Comparing it with the differential equation of a wave

2 y 2  y
2
 v
t 2 x 2
we get the wave velocity in the medium can ge given as
Y
v ... (viii)

2. Wave Velocity of Longitudinal Waves in Fluid/Gas
Similar to the case of a solid in fluid, instead of Young’s Modulus we use Bulk modulus of the
medium hence the velocity of longitudinal waves in a fluid medium is given as
B
v , Where B is the Bulk modulus of medium.

For a gaseous medium bulk modulus is defined as
dP dP
B or B  V
 dV / V  dV
3. Speed of a Transverse wave on a string
Consider a stretched string lying along x-direction and having stretching Tension.

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My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 12

Under equilibrium conditions a string subject to a tension T is straight. Suppose that we now
displace the string sidewise, or perpendicular to its length, by a small amount as shown in figure.
Consider a small section AB of the string of length dx, that has been displaced a distance y from
the equilibrium position. On each end a tangential force T is acting. Due to the curvature of the
string, the two forces are not directly opposed but make angles  and  ' with the x-axis. The
resultant upward force on the section AB of the string is,
Fy  Ty'  Ty .... (i)
Under the action of this force, the section AB of the string moves up and down.
Rewriting Eq. (i) we have, Fy = T (sin  ' – sin  )
Since  and  ' are almost equal, we may write
Fy = Td (sin  )
If the curvature of the string is not very large, the angle  and  ' are small, and the sines can be
replaced by their tangents. So the upward force is,
d 
Fy = Td (tan  ) = T .  tan   . dx
 dx 
dy
But tan  is the slope of the curve adopted by the string, which is equal to . Hence
dx

 d  dy   d2 y 
Fy = T    dx  T 2 dx
 dx  dx   dx 

d2y
This force must be equal to the mass of the section AB multiplied by its upward acceleration .
dt 2
If µ is the linear density of the string, the mass of the section AB is µdx. We use the relation F = ma
and write the equation of motion of this section of the string as,
2
 d2 y 
dx  d 
y
T  2 dx
dt 2  dx 

d2 y T d2 y
or  . , comparing this with the differential wave equation,
dt 2  dx 2

2y 2  y
2
T
 v , the wave speed is : v 
t 2 x 2 

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 13

Alternate Method
Consider a pulse travelling along a string with a speed v to the right. If the amplitude of the pulse is
small compared to the length of the string, the tension T will be approximately constant along the
string. In the reference frame moving with speed v to the right, the pulse in stationary andf the string
moves with a speed v to the left. Figure shows a small segment of the string of length l . This
segment forms part of a circular arc of radius R. Instantenously the segment is moving wigh speed
v2
v in a circular path, so it has a centripetal acceleration .
R

The forces acting on the segment are the tension T at each end. The horizontal components of
these forces are euqal and opposite and thus cancel. The vertical components of these forces point
radially inward toward the centre of the circular arc. These radial forces provide the centripetal
acceleration. Let the angle subtended by the segment at centre be 2 . The net radial force acting
on the segment is  Fr  2T sin   2T
Where we have used the approximation sin    for small  .
If µ is the mass per unit length of the string, the mass of the segment of length l is
m = µ l = 2µR  (as l = 2R  )
mv 2
From Newton’s second law  Fr  ma =
R

 v2  T
or 2T = (2µR  )    v
R 
Problem : A uniform rope of length 12 m and mass 6 kg hangs vertically from a rigid support. A
block of mass 2 kg is attached to the free end of the rope. A transverse pulse of wavelength 0.06
m is produced at the lower and of the rope. What is the wavelength of the pulse when it reaches
the tope of the rope?
Solution :

As the rope is heavy, its tension will be different at different points. The tension at the free end will

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 14

be 2g and that at the upper end it will be 8 g.

We have, v  f

T
or  f


T
or f 

The frequency of the wave pulse will be the same everywhere on the rope as it depends only on
the frequency of the source. The mass per unit length is also the same throughout the rope as it is
T
uniform thus, we have is constant, therefore , we have

2g 8g

0.06m 1
Solving we get 1 = 0.12 m
Where 1 is the wavelength at the top of the rope.
Problem : A heavy but uniform rope of length L is suspended from a ceiling. (a) Write the velocity
of a transverse wave travelling on the string as a function of the distance from the lower end. (b) If
the rope is given a sudden sideways jerk at the bottom, how long will it take for the pulse to reach
the ceiling? (c) A particle is dropped from the ceiling at the instant the bottom end is given the jerk.
Where will the particle meet the pulse?
M
Solution : Let m be the mass of hanging rope, then its linear mass density will be  
L

(a) At a distance x above the lower end if we consider a cross section A then tenstion at point A will
be due to the weight of the lower part and it is given as
M
Tenstion at A is, T xg
L
Now velocity of transverse waves at point A is given as

M
xg
T L ... (i)
v   xg
 M /L
(b) If a jerk is given at the lower end of rope, it propagates in upward direction and its velovity at
a distance x from lower end is given by equation (i). We can find the time taken by pulse of jerk to
reach the top by integration expression in equation (i) as

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 15

dx
 xg
dt
dx
or  g dt
x
Integrating this expression in proper limits we get
L t
dx

0 x 0
 g dt

or 2 x  L
0  g t

L
or t2
g
(c) When a particle is dropped from the top it falls by a distance (L - x) in time t. When it will meet
the pulse and if pulse has travelled a distance x, Thus time taken by pulse to travel a distance x
from bottom is
x
t2
g
In this time the distance fallen by particle in its free fall motion is

L  x   1 gt 2
2
2
1  x
or L  x  g  2 
2  g 

L
or L - x = 2x or x=
3
L
Thus particle and the pulse meet at a distance from the bottom.
3
4.Velocity of sound in Air or Gases
Sound passes through air or any other gas as longitudinal wave in which bulk modulus of the
medium plays the role of elasticity. Velocity of sound in air /gas is
B
v=

B = Bulk Modulus of Gas
 = density of gas
Calculation of Bulk Modulus of a Gas :
(i) Isothermal Bulk Modulus :
Using isothermal equation of state , PV = const.
dP
differentiating w.r.t volume V +P=0
dV

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 16

dP
 Bisotherm = – V =P
dV
(ii) Adiabatic Bulk Modulus :
Using adiabatic equation of state PV  = const.
dP
differentiating w.r.t volume  PV  –1 + V  =0
dV
dP
 Bulk Modulus Badia = – V = P
dV
Thus (i) Isothermal Bulk Modulus of elasticity of a gas, Bisotherm = P
(ii) Adiabatic Bulk Modulus of elasticity of the gas , Badiabatic =  P..
Newton’s Formula of velocity of sound in Air/Gas :Newton suggested the pressure and volume
changes to be isothermal changes when sound passes through a gas.
Therefore, he took B = Bisothermal = P.
 For Velocity of sound in Air/Gas , Newton’s Formula is
P
v=

At STP : density of air air = 1.293 kg m–3 and pressure of air Pair = 1.01  105 pa
 Velocity of sound in air (at STP) = 280 m/s (Newton’s calculation)
This value is far from its measured value 332 m/s. And hence, there is something wrong in Newtons
Formula.
Laplace Correction :When sound passes through a gas, the changes of pressure and volume are
so fast and frequent that no exchange of heat between different sections of gas can take place. It
is due to this fact that Laplace suggested to take Bulk Modulus to be adiabatic Bulk Modulus of
gas when sound passes through it
That is, B = Badiabatic =  P for propagation of sound through a gas. Therefore, Newton’s formula,
when corrected according to Laplace’s suggestion, turns into :

P
Laplace Formula : vsound = (in a gas)


Putting,  air = 1.4, Pair = 1.01  105 Pa and air = 1.293 kg in–3 (at STP)
The velocity of sound in air comes out to be : vsound in air = 332 m/s
which resembles measured value
P
Thus , Speed of sound in a gas , v =

Effect of Pressure, Temperature, Humidity & Wind Velocity on the speed of sound in Air
nRT nRT RT
(1) Effect of Pressure : For an ideal gas , P   
V mass mass
 n

P RT
  where , M = Molar mass of gas
 M

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 17

P
This shows that, as far as the temperature of a gas remains constant , remains constant i.e.,

increase of pressure produces increase in density in same proportion.
P  RT
 vsound = = ...(i)
 M
That is why, the change in pressure of a gas does not produce change in the speed of sound
through the gas provided temperature remains constant.
 RT
(2) Effect of Temperature : From equation (i) v 
M
i.e. v T
at 273 Kelvin ( i.e. at0o C ), putting T = 273 K in equation (i)
 R273K 
v0  ............(ii)
M
v T
Dividing (i) by (ii) v0 = ............(iii)
273
putting T = 273 + t , where t is temperature on Celcius degrees
1/ 2
v T 273  t  t 
we get , v0 = = = 1  
273 273  273 

t v  1  t 
when << 1 , ~ 1    
273 v0  2  273  
 t 
or v = v0 1   = v0 [1 + 0.00183t]
 546 
or vin air = 332 m/s + (0.6076 m/s/0c) t
Thus, velocity of sound in air increases by an approximate amount of 0.61 m/s per degree Celsius
rise in temperature. This is called temperature coefficient of velocity of sound in air.
(3) Effect of Humidity : The molecules of water (molecular weight = 18) are lighter that the air
molecules (average molecular weight ~ 25). Therefore, at same pressure, the density of water
vapours in lesser than the density of dry air. As a result, the density of moist (or humid) air is lesser
than the density of dry air. It makes the speed of sound in humid air to be more than the speed of
sound in dry air.
(4) Effect of Wind Velocity : The velocity of sound as discussed above is actually its velocity
w.r.t. air. In still air it is equal to velocity of sound w.r.t ground. When wind is moving with velocity
w and velocity of sound in air is v , then the velocity of sound w.r.t. ground is obtained according
to the following law of relative velocities
Vsound, air = V sound, ground – V air
If we put , Vsound, ground = V '
then , V = V' – w

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 18

 V ' (velocity of sound w.r.t. ground) = V + w

If  = angle between V and w , then
(i)  = 0 , w in the direction of v , then v ' = v + w
(ii)  =  , w is opposite to v , then , v' = v – w
4. Relationship between rms speed of Gas molecules and speed of sound in a gas :
 P
vsound = 
1
as P=  vrms2
3
P 1
 
= vrms2
3
 
 vsound = v rms2 = .v
3 3 rms
5. Dependence of speed of sound in a Gas on the molar mass of Gas :
 RT 1
As , vsound =  vsound 
M M

Problem : Find the ratio of speed of sound in Hydrogen to that in oxygen, both filled at same
temperature.
 RT
Solution : Speed of sound in a gas is v=
M
vH2 32
 vO2 = =4
2

Problem : Find at what temperature the speed of sound in air is double its speed at 0o C.

v T
Solution : We have, v0 = , here v = 2v0
T0

T
 2= or T = 4To = 4  273 = 1092o K = 819o C.
T0
Problem : One gram of hydrogen is sealed in a tube of volume 10–3 m3 at 27o C. Calculat the
velocity of sound in the sealed tube. (  for hydrogen 1.4)
Solution : We have PV = nRT
1 1
Here , n =  P  10–3 =  8.31  300 = 4.155  3  105 Nm–2
2 2
10 3
= = 1 kg m–3
10 3

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 19

P
 v= = 1.4  4.155  3 105 = 1321 ms .
–1


Problem : The velocity of sound in hydrogen at 0oC is 1284 ms–1. What is the root mean square
velocity of hydrogen at 0oC ? (  for hydrogen = 1.41)s
 
Solution : We know , vsound = v 2 = .v
3 rms 3 rms

3 3
 vrms = v =  1284 = 1.87  103 ms–1
  sound 1.41
Problem :(a) Two friends A and B are standing a distance x apart in an open field and wind
is blowing from A to B . A beats a drum and B hears sound t1 time later. A and B interchange
their positions and the experiment is repeated .This time B hears the sound t 2 time later.Calculate
the velocity of sound in still air and velocity of wind .
(b) If B changes his position such that the line AB becomes perpendicular to wind velocity
keeping the distance AB equal to x , after how much time he will hear the drum beat?
Solution : (a) Consider the velocity of sound in still air equal to u and wind speed w ,therefore
in first case the velocity of sound w.r.t. ground is v  u  w , and so,
x
 u  w  ...... (i)
t1
in second case the velocity of sound w.r.t. ground is v  u  w , and so,
x
 u  w ...... (ii)
t2

x1 1  x1 1 
solving eqns (i) & (ii) , we get u     and w    
2  t1 t 2  2  t1 t2 

(b) In this case velocity of sound w.r.t. ground which is reaching towards B is v  u 2  w2

x
The above figure makes it clear . Therefore , t 
u 2  w2

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 20

(C) Displacement Wave and Pressure Wave

and Sound as Pressure Wave :
A longitudinal wave in a fluid (liquid or gas) can be described either in terms of the longitudinal
displacement suffered by the particles of the medium or in terms of the excess pressure generated
due to the compression or rarefaction. Let us see how the two representations are related to each
other.
Consider a wave going in the x-direction in a fluid. Suppose that at a time t, the particle at the
undisturbed position x suffers a longitudinal displacement y in the x-direction. Suppose an element
of the material of cross-sectional area a which is contained within x and x + dx in the undisturbed
state. The volume of the element in the undisturbed state is V = a dx and its mass is  a dx. As
the wave passes, the ends at x and x + dx are displaced by amounts y and y + dy .

a v = adx
Undisturbed
Medium
o x dx
y+dy
y
1
Disturbed
v Medium

x+y
x+dx+y+dy

The new volume of the disturbed element is V' = a(dx  dy)

The increase in volume of this element at time t is V  a dy
V ady dy
   ......(i)
V adx dx
The change in volume makes the fluid pressure change from its normal value according to the law
of elasticity , this change in pressure from its normal value is called excess pressure , given by
V
P   B ......(ii)
V
dy
From eqns (i) and (ii) , P   B
dx
y
or P   B ........(iii)
x
The above eqn shows that the excess pressure P is positive , i.e., compression is there at a
place where the slope of the plot of wave function is negative.

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 21

Now consider the longitudinal displacement wave is a simple-harmonic wave , given by :

y  A sin(t  kx ) .........(iv)
Where , A = displacement amplitude of wave ,  = angular frequency , k = propagation constant
&  /k = v , wave velocity . Let us take its partial derivative w.r.t. x
y
  kA cos(  t  kx ) ........(v)
x
y
Putting the value of from eqn (v) into eqn (iii) , we get
x
P  BAk cos( t  kx )
or  P   P0 cos  t  kx  ........(vi)
y
Thus , P   B  P0 cost  kx  ........(vii)
x
From equation (vi) or (vii) , we can see that a wave of excess pressure is created because of
longitudinal displacement wave. This wave is called pressure wave . The amplitude of this pressure
wave is
P0  BAk

as v= B B=v 
2
 

Therefore , P0  BAk  V 2 kA  V A  ........(viii)


Also, we see from (iv) and (vi) that the pressure wave differs in phase byfrom the displacement
2
wave. The pressure maxima (maximum excess pressure) occur where the displacement is zero
and displacement maxima occur where the pressure is at its normal level (excess pressure is zero).
The fact that, displacement is zero where the pressure-change is maximum and vice versa, puts the
two descriptions on different footings. The human ear or an electronic detector responds to the
change in pressure and not to the displacement in a straight forward way. Suppose two audio
speakers are driven by the same amplifier and are placed facing each other in given figure. A
detector is placed midway between them.

The displacement of the air particles near the detector will be zero as the two sources drive these
particles in opposite directions. However, both send compression waves and rarefaction waves
together. As a result, pressure increases at the detector simultaneously due to both the sources.
Accordingly , the pressure amplitude will be doubled, although the displacement remains zero
here. A detector detects maximum intensity in such a condition. Thus, the description in terms of
pressure wave is more appropriate than the description in terms of the displacement wave as far
as sound properties are concerned. In this way we conclude that Sound Wave should be
treated as Pressure Wave.

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 22

Problem : Following figure represents the plot of wave function y of a longitudinal wave travelling
in positive x-direction ,with respect to the x co-ordinate. Find which part of the wavefunction
represents compression and which part represents rarefaction ?

dy
Solution : As , P   B , therefore, the part having negative slope will represent positive
dx
excess pressure (compression) , and ,the part having positive slope will represent negative
excess pressure (rarefaction) . Therefore , part AB represents rarefaction , part BCD repre-
sents compression , and part DE represents rerafaction
(D). Energy Transported by Sinusoidal Mechanical Waves :
As a wave propagates through a medium, it transports energy. Consider a sinusoidal wave traveling
on a string or a longitudinal wave through a medium from left to right.

a a a

dx
The source of the energy is an external agent at the left end of the string or medium, which does
work in producing the train of wave pulses. Let us focus on an element of the string or medium of
length dx and mass dm. Each such segment moves with simple harmonic motion. Furthermore, all
segments have the same angular frequency,  , and the same amplitude, A. As we know the total
1 1
energy E associated with a particle moving with simple harmonic motion is kA2 = m  2 A2,
2 2
where k is the force constant of the restoring force. If we apply this to the element of length dx, we
1
see that the total energy of this element is , dE = (dm)  2 A2
2

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 23

If  is the mass per unit length of the string or medium, then    a , where  is the density of
the medium and a is the area of crossection of the string or an element of the medium. Therefore
the element of length dx has mass dm =  dx =  a dx. Hence, we can express the energy dE
as
1 1
dE   dx  2 A 2   adx  2 A 2 ........ (i)
2 2
If the wave travels from left to right and travel a distance dx in time dt the energy d E is transported
by the wave in time dt. Therefore, the rate at which energy is transmitted along the wave, in other
words, the power is dE/dt and it is given by
dE 1  dx  2 2 1 dx 2 2
Power = =    A   a  A
dt 2  dt  2 dt
since dx/dt is equal to the wave speed, v, we have :
For a transverse wave in a string
1
Power =   2A2 v .... (ii)
2
And , a longitudinal wave through a fluid
1
Power   a 2 A 2 v ..... (iii)
2
From these expressions we can say the power transmitted by any sinusoidal wave is proportional
to the square of the frequency and to the square of the amplitude.
More useful information is obtained from the intensity of the wave, which is the power supplied by
the wave per unit area of cross section.
Power
Intensity = Area of Cross Section

For a transverse wave in a string total energy crossing per second through every cross-section,
that is, power of the wave is the only useful quantity , intesity has no useful meaning .However we
can write for the intensity of a transverse wave in a string from eqn (ii) as
1   2 A2 v
I .... (iv)
2 a
For a longitudinal wave through a fluid , like sound in air , it is the intensity of the wave energy
which is more useful for the observer , and from equation (iii) it is :
1
I   v 2 A 2 ...... (v)
2
As we know that   vk and  2  v 2 k 2 , and , P0  VA

1 V 2 2 A2  2 1 VA  1 P0 
2 2

therefore I  
2 V 2 V 2 V

Thus, intensity of a longitudinal wave or Sound is :

1 (P0 ) 2
I ...... (vi)
2 v

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 24

Thus, we see that a wave travelling through a medium corresponds to energy transport through
the medium, with no net transfer of matter. An oscillating source provides the energy and produces
a sinusoidal disturbance in the medium. The disturbance is able to propagate through the medium
as the result of the interaction between adjacent particles which in turn is possible due to elasticity
of the medium.
Relationship between Energy Density and Intensity of a Wave
1
As we know that the intensity of wave is given by I   v 2 A 2
2
and the energy of a vibrating segement of unit volume , called Energy Density is
1
u   2A2
2
Therefore , I  uv
Problem :A taut string having mass per unit length of  = 5.00  10–2 kg/m is under a tension of
80.0 N.How much power must be supplied to the rope to generate sinusoidal waves at a frequencyof
60.0 Hz and an amplutude of 6.00 cm ?
Solution : The wave speed on the string is
1/ 2
T  80.0 N 
v= =   = 40.0 m/s
  5 . 00  10 2
kg / m 
Since f = 60.0 Hz, the angular frequency  of the sinusoidal wave on the string has the value
 = 2  f = 120  Hz
Using these values in (ii) for the power, with A = 6.00  10–2 m, gives
1
Power =   2 A2 v
2
1
= (5.00  10–2 ) (120  )2  (6.00  10–2)2 (40.0 )W = 518 W
2
Problem : The maximum pressure variation that the ear can tolerate is about 28 Nm–2. Find the
maximum displacement for a sound wave in air having a frequency of 1000 Hz. (Density of air
1.293 kg m–3 and velocity of sound in air 332 ms–1)
Solution : As we know that,
 P0 p 0
 P0 = v  A   A = v = 2 f v

28
or A= = 1.037  10–5 m.
2 1000  332 1.293

Problem :A sound wave of wavelength12 cm travels in air, If the difference between the maximum
and minimum pressures at a given point is 1.12  10–3 N/m , find the amplitude of vibration of the
particles of the medium. The bulk modulus of air is 1.4  105 N/m .
Solution :The pressure amplitude is
1.12 103 N / m2
 P0   0.56 103 N / m2
2
The displacement amplitude A0 is given by
 P0 = BAk
Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal
My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 25

P0 P0 
or, A= = 2 B
Bk
56 105 N / m 2  (12 10 2 m) –10
= = 2.4  10 m.
2 1.4 10 N / m
5 2

Loudness of Sound : The human is an extremely sensitive detector, capable of

hearing sounds over an extremely large range of intensities. For a frequency of 1000 Hz, the

intensity of minimum audible sound ( I 0 ) is just 10–12 watt per m2 , whereas the intensity of just

painfully loud sound is 1 watt per m2. Various sounds from different sources have their intensities

ranging from 10–12 W/m2 to 1 W/m2. Any linear scale comparing the loudness level of different

sounds meaningful for human ear will be too large to deal with. Therefore a logrithmic scale is built

to express or compare the loudness level of different sounds. Taking the zero loudness level for the

just audiable sound of intensity I 0 = 10–12 W/m2. We can compare the loudness L of a sound of

intensity I with the loudness Lo (zero of loudness ) of a sound of intensity on logrithemic scale as

under.

I
L = L  L0  k log10
Io

When Io = 10–12 W/m2 (called threshold of hearing), Lo is taken zero. Here k is a suitable constant.

If the value of k is taken 1 the loudness L is measured in Bells (a unit named in honor of Alexander

Graham Ball). If k is taken 10 the loudness L is measured in deciBells.Therefore on the deciBell

scale the loudness of a sound of intensity I is given as

I
L  L  L0  10 log 10
Io

Taking , Lo = 0, and Io = 10–12 W/m2 , the loudness level of just painfully loud sound of intensity
I = 1 W/m2 obtained as under
1
L  0  10 log10  120 dB
10 12
Loudness level of different sounds is given in the following table :

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal

My Notes on Physics / dk jindal 26

Sound source Loudness in dB

Threshold of hearing 0
Whisper 15-20
Normal conversation 60-65
Heavy traffic 70-80
Roaring of lion (at a distance of 6m) 90
Thunder 100-110
Painful sounds 120 and above

Problem :A dog while barking delivers about 1 mW of power. If this power is uniformly distrib
uted over a hemisphereical area, what is the sound level at a distance of 5 m? What would the
sound level be if instead of 1 dog, 5 dog start barking at the same time delivering 1mW of power?
Solution :As power is distributed uniformly in a hemisphere, intensity at a distance of 5 m from the
source will be
P P 10 3
I=    6.37  W / m 2
S (1 / 2)4 r 2
2  5 2

I 6.37  10 6
Thus loudness level is L1 = 10 log I  10 log
0 (10 12 )
or L1 = 10 [log 6.37 + 6 log 10] = 10 [0.80 + 6] = 68 dB
If there are 5 dogs barking at the same time and same level, I2 = 5I1. So
I2 5I
L 2  L1  10 log  10 log 1
I1 I1
or L2 = L1 + 10 log 5 = 68 + 10 × 0.7 = 75 dB
Problem :The sound level at a point is increased by 40 dB. By what factor is pressure amplitude
increased?
 I
Solution : The sound level in dB is L = 10 log10  
 I0 
If L1 and L2 are the sound level and I1 and I2 are the corresponding intensities in the two cases,
  I2   I1  
L2 – L1 = 10 log10  I   log10  I  
  0  0 

 I2  I2
or, 40 = 10 log10    I = 104
 I1  1

As the intensity is proportional to the square of the pressure amplitude, thus we have
p2 I
 2  10000  100
p1 I1

Wave Motion and Sound - by Dinesh K.Jindal