Research Methods and Statistics Full Notes

MA(Psychology) 1 semester
MAPS503-Research Methods and Statistics
Unit 1
Scientific research
➢ Research - Nature and Types

➢ Purpose and Dimension of research
➢ Levels of measurement
➢ Research Problems
➢ Hypothesis
➢ Variables and their control
An Introduction
Meaning of research
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In
fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of
Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry
specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.” 1 Redman and Mory
define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” 2 Some people consider
research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage
of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown
confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller
understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the
method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be
termed as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
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determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the
Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” 3 Research is, thus, an
original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement.
NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Scientific research is a systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain

questions. The purpose of scientific research is to discover and develop an organized body of
knowledge. Therefore, scientific research may be defined as the systematic and empirical
analysis and recording of controlled observation, which may lead to the development of
theories, concepts, generalizations and principles, resulting in prediction and control of those
activities that may have some cause effect relationship, A similar definition has been given
by Kerlinger (1973:11): "Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation about propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
In order above views, some of the characteristics of systematic research are presented below.
1. Research is always directed towards the solution of a problem. In other words. research the
researcher always tries to answer a question or to relate two or more variables und study,
2 Research is always based upon empirical or observable evidence. The researcher reject
those principles or revelations, which are subjective and accepts only those revelations, be
principles, which can be objectively observed.
3. Research involves precise observation and accurate description. The researcher select
reliable and valid instruments to be used in the collection of data and uses some statistical
measures for accurate description of the results obtained.
4. Research gives emphasis to the development of theories, principles and generalizations

which are very helpful in accurate prediction regarding the variables under study On the basis
of the sample observed and studied, the researcher tries to make sound generalizations
regarding the whole population. Thus, research goes beyond immediate situations, objects or
groups being investigated by formulating a generalization or theory about these factors.
5. Research is characterized by systematic, objective and logical procedures. The researcher

tries to eliminate his bias and makes every possible effort to ensure objectivity in the methods
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employed, data collected and conclusion reached. He frames an objective and scientific
design for the smooth conduct of his research. He also makes a logical examination of the
procedures employed in conducting his research work so that he may be able to check the
validity of the conclusions drawn.
6. Research is marked by patience, courage and unhurried activities. Whenever the

researcher confronted with difficult questions, he must not answer them hurriedly. He must
have patience and courage to think over the problem and find out the correct solution.
7. Research requires that the researcher has full expertise of the problem being studied. He
must know all the relevant facts regarding the problem and must review the important
literature associated with the problem. He must also be aware of sophisticated statistical
methods of analyzing the obtained data.
8. Research is replicable. The designs, procedures and results of scientific research should be
replicable so that any person other than the researcher himself may assess their validity. Thus,
one researcher may use or transit the results obtained by another researcher. Thus, the
procedures and results of the research are replicable as well as transmittable.
9. Finally, research requires skill of writing and reproducing the report. The researcher must
know how to write the report of his research. He must write the problem in unambiguous
terms; he must define complex terminology, if any; he must formulate a clear-cut design and
procedures for conducting research; he must present the tabulation of the result in an
objective manner so also the summary and conclusion with scholarly caution.
SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR
As we know, the major difference between scientists and nonscientists lies in the way
scientists go about answering the questions they ask about nature. Scientists use scientific
methods. The scientific method consists of some assumptions, attitudes, goals and procedures
for creating and answering questions about nature..
Psychology is a science like physics, chemistry or biology because they all employ the
scientific method. Scientists employ a certain philosophy towards the entire issue of learning
about nature. In fact, this philosophy starts with the way scientists try to conceptualize nature.
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Types of research
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i)Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-

finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite
often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main
characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are
used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for
example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto
studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control
the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlation methods. In analytical research, on the other
hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii)Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, where as
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a
theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research.” 4Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human
behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also
examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution)
facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to
identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy
research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood)
or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the
central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
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(iii)Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of

quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This
type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research
is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors
which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike
a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in
4 Pauline V. Young, Scientific Social Surveys and Research, p. 30. practice is relatively a
difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.
(iv)Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher
must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He
then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up
experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned
so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one
of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments
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or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis.
(v)Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more
of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required
to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some
other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-
time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a
single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-
periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be
understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study methods or
in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the
causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing
data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The
objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing,
whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific
hypotheses to be tested.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-
oriented. While doing conclusion- oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-
oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is
not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an
example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive
departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.
Purpose and Dimension of research
Purpose of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered yet.
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Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings.
• To get introduced with a process for achieving new insights into the subject. Studies
with this purpose are known as exploratory or formulative research studies.
• To test a hypothesis for ascertaining causal relationship between two or more
variables. These studies are termed as hypothesis testing research.
• To find out the features of a particular individual situation or a group perfectly. The
studies with this type of purpose are known as descriptive research studies.
• To evaluate the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else. Thess type of studies with this purpose are known as
diagnostic research studies.
Purpose of Psychological Research
Psychological researchers want to know and understand human behaviour. It can be about
how people think, how they feel, how they behave or some combination of these issues.
Research and the understanding that follows, trickles down from the scientists and alters
society. More specifically, psychological research is used to measure, describe and categorise
human behaviour.
Dimensions of Research
The dimensions of research are vibrant, they can be classified or categorised on the basis of
purpose, context, use and time etc. The major dimensions of research are given below
On the Basis of Purpose
On the basis purpose of the study dimension of research can be categorised as
Exploration Research Exploratory research is often the first step in a sequence of studies
analysing a social phenomenon that is largely unknown. Exploratory research most often
addresses the 'what' question. Exploratory researchers frequently use qualitative techniques to
keenly observe and collect data for analysis.
Descriptive Research Descriptive research requires a more developed idea about a social
phenomenon. Here, researchers engage in clearly describing or detailing a social setting or
relationship. Descriptive research focuses on 'how' and 'who' questions.
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Explanation When researchers engage in explanation, they are actively attempting to explain
and answer the 'why' question. Thus, explanation builds on already existing knowledge
collected about a social phenomenon as a result of more basic exploratory and descriptive
studies.
On the Basis of Context
On the basis of context research can be categorised as
Idiographic 'Idio-' in this context means unique, separate, peculiar or distinct, as in the word
'idiosyncrasy'. When we have completed an idiographic explanation, we feel that we fully
understand the causes of what happened at a particular instance. At the same time our scope
of explanation is limited to the case at hand. While parts of the idiographic explanation might
apply to other situations also, our intention is to explain a complete case.
Nomothetic Seeks to explain a class of situations or events rather than a single one.
Moreover, it seeks to explain efficiently,' using only one or just a few explanatory factors.
Finally, it settles for partial rather than full explanation of a type of situation.
On the Basis of Use
Basic Research Basic research is mostly conducted to enhance knowledge. It covers

fundamental aspects of research. The main motivation of this research is knowledge
expansion. It is a non-commercial research and doesn't facilitate in creating or inventing
anything. For example- An experiment is a good example of basic research.
Applied Research Applied research focuses on analysing and solving real life problems. This
type of research refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using scientific
methods. This research plays an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-
being of humans. For example- Finding a specific cure for a disease.
Problem Oriented Research As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted

to understand the exact nature of the problem and to find out relevant solutions. The term
'problem' refers to having issues or two thoughts while making any decisions.
Problem-Solving Research This type of research is conducted by companies to understand

and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving research uses applied research to find
solutions to the existing problems.
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LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT (OR MEASUREMENT SCALES)
Before we go on to discuss the different levels of measurement scales, we must know

something about the different postulates of measurement. A postulate is defined as a sort of
assumption which stipulates the relationship between groups, objects or events being
measured. The postulates will help us to understand the different relationships among the
objects measured by the different levels of measurement scales. According to Guilford
(1954:11), there are nine basic postulates of measurement. These are briefly summarized
under the following three general headings.
1. Postulates relating to equalities or identities
2. Postulates relating to rank order
3. Postulates relating to additivity
Ordinarily, there are three variations in postulates relating to equalities or identities, two
variations in postulates relating to rank order and four variations in postulates relating to
additivity. Thus a total of nine postulates of measurement exist
The three variations in postulates relating to identities or equalities are as follows: not equal
1. Either a=b or a≠b. This means numbers are either equal (a - b) or they are (aw b) but not
both. This postulate is more essential for classification.
2. If a=b then b=a This means that the relation of equality among numbers is symmetrical,
and therefore, we can interchange a for b or b for a.
3. If a=b, b=c then a=c. This means that the objects which are equal to the same object The
two postulates relating to rank are: are also equal to one another.
4. If a> b then b> a This means that the relation between a and b is asymmetrical, that is,we
cannot reverse the relationship a> b or a <b interchanging a and b.
5. If a>b, b>c then a> c. This is a transitivity postulate and indicates a definite order in the
ranking. It is an important postulate upon which most measurements in psychology,
sociology and education are dependent.
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The four postulates relating to additivity are as follows:
6. If a=p and b>0 then a+b>p. This postulate indicates the summation process and also
demonstrates that when a zero is added, it produces no variability in the result.
7. a+b=b+a This postulate denotes that in the process of addition, the order of the numbers is
not important because ifa=4,b=2 then 4+ 2 is equal to 6, and 2 +.4 is also equal to 6.
8. If a=p and b= q then a+b=p+q. This postulate indicates that in the process of addition
identical numbers or objects may be substituted for one another without making any change
in the result.
9. (a+b)+c= a + (b + c) This postulate indicates that in the process of addition the order of
combinations of objects or numbers makes no difference.
As we know, measurement is the process of assigning numerals to the attributes of objects

according to some rules. Following Stevens (1951), there are at least four different ways of
assigning numerals to the attributes of the objects. Based upon these four ways, there are four
different levels of measurement (or scales). The first five postulates are enough to account for
the following four levels of measurement.
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio
Nominal
The lowest measurement level you can use, from a statistical point of view, is a
nominal scale.
A nominal scale, as the name implies, is simply some placing of data into categories,
without any order or structure.
A physical example of a nominal scale is the terms we use for colours. The underlying
spectrum is ordered but the names are nominal.
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In research activities a YES/NO scale is nominal. It has no order and there is no

distance between YES and NO.
and statistics
The statistics which can be used with nominal scales are in the non-parametric
group. The most likely ones would be:
mode
cross tabulation - with chi-square
There are also highly sophisticated modelling techniques available for nominal
data.
Ordinal
An ordinal scale is next up the list in terms of power of measurement.
The simplest ordinal scale is a ranking. When a market researcher asks you to rank 5
types of beer from most flavourful to least flavourful, he/she is asking you to create an
ordinal scale of preference.
There is no objective distance between any two points on your subjective scale. For
you the top beer may be far superior to the second prefered beer but, to another
respondant with the same top and second beer, the distance may be subjectively small.
An ordinal scale only lets you interpret gross order and not the relative positional
distances.
and statistics
Ordinal data would use non-parametric statistics. These would include:
Median and mode

rank order correlation
non-parametric analysis of variance
Modelling techniques can also be used with ordinal data.
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Interval
The standard survey rating scale is an interval scale.When you are asked to rate your
satisfaction with a piece of software on a 7 point scale, from Dissatisfied to Satisfied,
you are using an interval scale.
It is an interval scale because it is assumed to have equidistant points between each of

the scale elements. This means that we can interpret differences in the distance along
the scale. We contrast this to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about
differences in order, not differences in the degree of order.
Interval scales are also scales which are defined by metrics such as logarithms. In
these cases, the distances are note equal but they are strictly definable based on the
metric used.
and statistics
Interval scale data would use parametric statistical techniques:
Mean and standard deviation

Correlation - r
Regression
Analysis of variance
Factor analysis
Plus a whole range of advanced multivariate and modelling techniques
Remember that you can use non-parametric techniques with interval and
ratio data. But non-paramteric techniques are less powerful than the
parametric ones.
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Ratio
A ratio scale is the top level of measurement and is not often available in social
research. The factor which clearly defines a ratio scale is that it has a true zero point.
The simplest example of a ratio scale is the measurement of length (disregarding any
philosophical points about defining how we can identify zero length).
The best way to contrast interval and ratio scales is to look at temperature. The
Centigrade scale has a zero point but it is an arbitrary one. The Farenheit scale has its
equivalent point at -32o. (Physicists would probably argue that Absolute Zero is the
zero point for temperature but this is a theoretical concept.) So, even though
temperture looks as if it would be a ratio scale it is an interval scale. Currently, we
cannot talk about no temperature - and this would be needed if it were a ration scale.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROBLEM
Any scientific investigation starts when a person has collected many facts but all that can be
said on the basis of those facts is that there is something which we do not know. Here, a
problem originales. A problem is manifested results at least three ways.
First, when there is a clear gap in the of several investigations in the same field, a problem is
said to exist.
Second, when the results of several investigations disagree with each other, a problem is
manifested.
Third, where the facts in any field are found in terms of unexplained information, a problem
is said to exist. The statement of a research problem is often a difficult task for the researcher.
Sometimes he has only a diffused and even confused idea regarding the problem. Before
selecting and formulating problem he must know what is meant by a research problem or a
problem. A problem statement may be defined as an interrogative testable statement which
expresses the relationship between two or more than two variables. Analyzing this simple
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definition of a problem statement, it can be said that there are three important characteristics
of a problem statement: 1. A problem statement is written clearly and unambiguously, usually
in question form. A few examples of problems may be:
What is the relationship between IQ and classroom achievement?
What is the relationship between anxiety and intelligence among school children?
Do students learn more from a democratic teacher than from an authoritarian teacher?
All the above examples state a problem (to be investigated) in question form.
Research questions whether they are prespecified or developed during the research
work/project, are central and do serve the following functions:
(i) They organize the project and provide it certain direction and coherence (ii) They delimit
the project and display its boundaries.
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty. which a researcher experiences in

the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same. Conditions for declaring something as a research problem are
• There must be an individual or a group, which has some difficulty or the problem.
• There must be some objectives to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one can't have a
problem.
• There must be alternative means (or the course of action) for finding out the objectives one
wishes to attain.
There must be some doubt in mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives.
This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the
possible alternatives.
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Selecting the Problem
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task may be
difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. H Ip may be taken from a research guide in
this connection.
However, the following points may be observed by a researcher selecting a research problem
or subject for research.
• Subject which is overdone should not be normal, chosen, as it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
• Controversial subject should not become the choice of average researcher.
• Too narrow or too vague problem should be avoided.
• The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible, so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one's reach.
The importance of the subject, the qualifications and training of a researcher, the costs
involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered while selecting a
problem.
The selection of a problem must be preceded by preliminary study.
Techniques Involved in Defining a Problem
The usual approach is that the researcher should himself to pose a question (or in case
someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual,
organisation or any authority should pose the question researcher) and sort out techniques and
procedures for throwing light on the question concerned for formulating or defining the
research problem. But such an approach generally does not produce definitive results because
the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad general terms and as such may not
be in a form suitable for testing.
The following steps are followed in understanding problem
• Statement of the problem in a general way.
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Understanding the nature of the problem.
Surveying the available literature.
Developing the ideas through discussion.
Rephrasing the research problems.
The task of defining a research problem, very often, follow a sequential pattern-the problem
is stated in general way the ambiguities are resolved, thinking and rethinkim process results
in a more specific formulation of the problem, so that it may be a realistic one in terms of the
available data and resources and is also analytically meaningful. All this results in a well
defined research problem that is not only meaningful from an operational point of view, but
also equally capable of paving the way for the development of working hypothesis and for
means of solving the problem itself.
Research Biases
One of the challenges, while doing research is to remain free from biases. Most of your ideas
and beliefs are probably linked with certain biasness because they are influenced by your
opinions or values. A variety of biases. that have been found to distort people's impressions
of collected data, are as follows
External Influences Such as one's culture or the media can influence people to accept a
particular view.
Personal Bias It distorts estimating or evaluating processes as a result of personal beliefs,

attributes or past experiences.
Observer Bias It operates when some events are taken as meaningful by some and not taken
as meaningful by others. It must be kept in mind that researchers raised in certain cultures
and societies. They also might have been exposed to certain gender role expectations. These
background factors can affect the way that researchers observe and interpret events in their
lives.
Expectancy Bias It can affect observations of behaviour by encouraging reactions to the

events, being observed. Researchers sometimes expect to find specific outcomes, what they
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expect to see rather than remaining objective. Unfortunately, if one is not alert to the
possibility of expectancy bias, it may seem as though the observed events are being
'discovered' instead of created by the observer's expectations.
MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
In conducting research, the important consideration after the formulation of a research

problem is the construction of hypothesis. As you know, any scientific inquiry starts with the
statement of a solvable problem, when the problem has been stated, a tentative solution in the
form of testable proposition is offered by the researcher.
Hypothesis is often considered a tentative and testable statement of the possible relationship
between two or more events / variables under investigation.
According to Mcguigan (1990), ‘a testable statement of a potential relationship between two

or more variables, i.e. advance as potential solution to the problem’. Kerlinger (1973) defined
‘a hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables’. In
order to be useful in any study, the hypothesis needs to be stated in such a way that it might
be subjected to empirical testing. The researcher is responsible to suggest or find some way to
check how the hypothesis stands against empirical data. When a hypothesis is formulated, the
investigator must determine usefulness of the formulated hypothesis. There are several
criteria or characteristics of a good research hypothesis. A good hypothesis is one which
meets such criteria to a large extent. Some of these characteristics are enumerated below:
1) Hypothesis should be conceptually clear;
2) Hypothesis must be testable;
3) Hypothesis should be related to the existing body or theory and impact;
4) Hypothesis should have logical unity and comprehensiveness;
5) Hypothesis should be capable of verification; and
6) Hypothesis should be operational.
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FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
Science proceeds with observation, hypothesis formulation and hypothesis testing. After
testing the hypothesis, through various statistical tests, researcher can accept or reject the
hypothesis. If the hypothesis is accepted then researcher can replicate the results, if
hypothesis is rejected then researcher can refined or modify the results. By stating a specific
hypothesis, the researcher narrows the focus of the data collection effort and is able to design
a data collection procedure which is aimed at testing the plausibility of the hypothesis as a
possible statement of the relationship between the terms of the research problem. It is,
therefore, always useful to have a clear idea and vision about the hypothesis. It is essential for
the research question as the researcher intents to verify, as it will direct and greatly help to
interpretation of the results.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
As explained earlier, any assumption that you seek to validate through investigation is called
hypotheses. Hence theoretically, there should be one type of hypotheses on the basis of the
investigation that is, research hypothesis. However, because of the conventions in scientific
enquiries and wording used in the constructions of the hypothesis, Hypotheses can be
classified into several types, like; universal hypotheses, existential hypotheses, conceptual
hypotheses etc. Broadly, there are two categories of the hypothesis:
i) Null hypothesis ii) Alternative hypothesis .
Null Hypothesis Null hypothesis is symbolised as Ho. Null hypothesis is useful tool in
testing the significance of difference. In its simplest form, this hypothesis asserts that there is
no true difference between two population means, and the difference found between sample
means is, accidental and unimportant, that is arising out of fluctuation of sampling and by
chance. Traditionally null hypothesis stated that there is zero relationship between terms of
the hypothesis. For example, (a) schizophrenics and normal do not differ with respect to digit
span memory (b) There is no relationship between intelligence and height. The null
hypothesis is an important component of the decision making methods of inferential
statistics. If the difference between the samples of means is found significant the researcher
can reject the null hypothesis. It indicates that the differences have statistically significant and
acceptance of null hypothesis indicates that the differences are due to chance. Null hypothesis
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should always be specific hypothesis i.e. it should not state about or approximately a certain
value. The null hypothesis is often stated in the following way:
Ho : μHV μLV
The alternative hypothesis is that the mean of population of those who have the vocabulary is
grater than the mean of those to lack the vocabulary. In this example the alternative
hypothesis is that the experimental population had higher mean than the controls. This is
called directional hypothesis because researcher predicted.
that the high vocabulary children would differ in one particular direction from the low
vocabulary children. Sometimes researcher predicts only that the two groups will differ from
each other but the researcher doesn’t know which group will be higher. This is non
directional hypothesis. The null and alternative hypothesis in this case would be stated as
follows:
Ho : μ1 = μ2 H1 : μ1 ? μ2
Thus, the null hypothesis is that mean of group 1 equals the mean of group 2, and the
alternative hypothesis is that the mean of group 1 does not equal the mean of group 2.
ERRORS IN TESTING A HYPOTHESIS
You have already learned that hypotheses are assumptions that may be prove to be either
correct or incorrect. It is possible to arrive at a incorrect conclusion about a hypothesis for the
various reasons if – • Sampling procedure adopted faulty • Data collection method inaccurate
• Study design selected is faulty • Inappropriate statistical methods used • Conclusions drawn
are incorrect Two common errors exist when testing a hypothesis. Type I error – Rejection of
a null hypothesis when it is true. Type II error - Acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is
false.
IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
Hypothesis is the basic function of the scientific research. If simple, brief and clear scientific
hypothesis has been formulated, there shall be no problem for the investigator to proceed in
the research field. Its utility or importance for and research may be studied as under.
Accordingly to Goode and Hatt (‘without’ hypothesis formulation the research is unfocussed,
a random empirical wandering. The results can not be studied as facts with clear meaning.
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Formulation of hypothesis links between theory and investigation which lead to discovery of
addition to knowledge.
MEANING OF VARIABLEs
A variable, as the name implies, is something that varies. This is the simplest way of defining
a variable. Webster says that a variable is “a thing that is changeable” or “a quantity that may
have a number of different values.” True, a variable is something that has at least two values:
however, it is also important that the values of the variable be observable. Thus, if what is
being studied is a variable, it has more than one value and each value can be observed. For
example, the outcome of throwing a dice is a variable. That variable has six possible values
(each side of the dice having one to six dots on it), each of which can be observed. However,
a behavioural scientist attempts to define a variable more precisely and specifically. Kerlinger
(1986) defined variable ‘a property that taken as different values’. According to D’Amato
(1970) variables may be defined as those attributes of objects, events, things and beings,
which can be measured. According to Postman and Egan (1949) a variable is a characteristic
or attribute that can take on a number of values, for example, number of items that an
individual solves on a particular test, the speed with which we respond to a signal, IQ, sex,
level of anxiety, and different degree of illumination are the examples of variables that are
commonly employed in psychological research.
Before discussing the types of variables, it is important to know how the variables of study
related to theoretical concepts. Because the variables exist in the world but the theory is an
idea, researcher makes certain assumption to relate the two. These assumptions are guide
ropes that tie a theory to the real world. The variables are tangible: duration, frequency, rate,
or intensity of bar presses; items checked on a questionnaire; murders committed; books
written. The theoretical concept is intangible: hunger, motivation, anxiety. The variables are
related to the theoretical concepts by means of the operational definitions used to measure the
concepts. Suppose a theory reveals that increasing anxiety will increase the affiliation motive.
To test out this theory, you may take the theoretical concepts of anxiety and affiliation motive
and relate them to variables by means of operational definitions. The theory is an abstract
statement. .For example, anxiety can be measured by the Anxiety Scale and affiliation by
how close people sit to each other in the experiment. These two measures constitute the
variables of the study. The scores on the variables of anxiety and distance apart are related to
20
one another as test of the hypothesis. The relationship between the variable is taken as
providing support for or against the particular theory that generated the experiment.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
Stimulus, Organism and Response Variables
Psychologists are interested in studying the behaviour or causes of behaviour as variables.

Many psychologists have adopted a theoretical viewpoint or model called the S-O-R model to
explain all behaviour. The symbols S, O, and R represent different categories of variables. S
is the symbol of stimuli, and the category may be referred to in general as stimulus variables.
A stimulus variable is some form of energy in the environment, such as light, to which the
organism is sensitive. O is the symbol for organism variables, that is the changeable
physiological and psychological characteristics of the organisms being observed. Examples
of such variables are anxiety level, age and heart rate etc. Finally, R is the symbol for
response and, in general, response variables, which refer to some behaviour or action of the
organism like pressing a lever, and reaction to any stimulus, are the examples of responses
variables. You can understand an application of S-O-R model through the following example
. Suppose that an experiment is conducted in which a rat is placed on a metal grid floor, the
grid is electrified, and the length of time it takes the rat to jump from the grid to a platform is
measured. Using the S-O-R model, the electrical shock would be called a stimulus variable.
The intensity of shock would be the value of the variable. The particular state of the
organisms would be measured by the organismic variables. For example, the skin resistant of
the rat at the time of shock was introduced would be an organismic variables. A response
variable would be the latency (i.e. the elapsed time between the onsets of the shock and when
the rat reaches the platform).
Independent and Dependent Variables
An independent variable or stimulus variable (as Underwood calls it) is that factor
manipulated or selected by the experimenter in his attempt to ascertain its relationship to an
observed phenomenon. Dependent upon the mode of manipulation, some experts have tried
to divide the independent variable into ‘Type E’ independent variable and ‘Type S’
independent variable (D’Amato, 1970). Type E independent variable is one of which is
directly or experimentally manipulated by the experimental and type S 37 Variables and
Constructs independent variable is one which is manipulated through the process of selection
21
only. For example the experimenter wants to study the effect of noise upon the task
performance in an industry. Here the IV (Independent Variable) is the noise and the
DV(Dependent Variable) is the task performance. He may manipulate the noise by dividing
into three categories — continuous noise, intermittent noise and no noise and examine its
effect upon the task performance. Here the noise is being directly manipulated by the
experimenter and hence, it constitutes the example of Type-E independent variable.
Suppose, for the time being, that the experimenter is interested in answering the question: Is
the rate of production dependent upon the age of the workers? Age is here the independent
variable. For investigating this problem, the experimenter will have to select groups of
workers on the basis of their age in a way by which he can get an appropriate representation
from different age groups ranging from say, 16 to 55 years. Subsequently, he will compare
the rate of production obtained by each age group and finally, conclude whether or not age is
a factor in enhancement of the performance.
Hence, this constitutes the examples of S-independent variables. A dependent variable is the
factor that appears, disappears, or varies as the experimenter introduces, removes or varies
the independent variable. (Townsend,1953). The dependent variable is a measure of the
behaviour of the subject. The dependent variable is the response that the person or animal
makes. This response is generally measured using at least one of several different dimensions
(Alberto & Troutman 2006). The dimensions are – (a) frequency – Number of times that a
particular behaviour occurs, ( b) duration - the amount of time that a behaviour lasts. (c)
latency –the amount of time between and when the behaviour is actually performed (d) force
– the intensity or strength of a behaviour. Here, you can examine the relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
The relationship is that of dependence. One variable depends upon the other. Suppose you
find a relationship between meaningfulness of the learning material and speed of learning.
Speed of learning then depends upon meaningfulness; the greater the meaningfulness, the
faster the learning. The speed of learning is, therefore, called dependent variable;
meaningfulness is independent variable. Similarly, rest between work periods is independent
variables; output of work is dependent variable. Sudden noise is independent variable; change
in breathing is dependent variable. In an experiment one discovers and confirms a
relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
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Extraneous and Confounded Variables
Any and all other variables that may ‘mask’ the relationship between independent variable
and dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. Extraneous variables may directly
affect the dependent variable or may combine with the independent variable to produce an
affect. Therefore, extraneous variables must be controlled so that the experimenter can
determine whether the dependent variable changes in relation to variation in the independent
variable. Several others factors operating in a real life situation may affect changes in the
dependent variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may increase or decrease the
magnitude or strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Extraneous variables are relevant in nature, and in experimental studies, they belong to three
major types i.e., organismic variables, situational variables and sequential variables. The
subject related variables include age, sex, intelligence, personality etc. are organismic
variables. The situational variables include environmental variables operating in the
experimental setting (e.g. noise, temperature, humidity) and variables related to the
experimental task. The sequence related variables deal with sequence effects.
They arise when participants in experiments are required to be tested in several conditions.
Exposure to many conditions may result in adaptation, fatigue or practice effects which, if
allowed to operate, may make the results difficult to interpret. Confounding variables is one
that varies with the independent variable. While doing a study if we are not careful then two
variables may get combined so that the effect of one cannot be separated from the effect of
other. This is known as confounding.
For instance, if you conducted a study of the effect of television viewing on perception of
violence and the experimental group contained only adolescents, whereas the control group
only adults, the age of participants would be confounded with the independent variable under
study. Confounding makes the conclusions of the study doubtful. It is ,therefore, necessary
that effort should be made to unconfound the variables. To explain these variables let us take
one example. Suppose you want to study the relationship between smoking and coronary
heart disease. You assume that affecting this relationship, such as a number of cigarettes or
the amount of tobacco smoked every day; the duration of smoking; the age of the smoker;
dietary habits; and the amount of exercise undertaken by the individuals.
23
All of these factors may affect the extent to which smoking might cause coronary heart
disease. These variables may either increase or decrease the magnitude of the relationship. In
this example, the extent of smoking is the independent variable, coronary heart disease is the
dependent variable and all the variables that might affect this relationship, either positively or
negatively, are extraneous variables.
Active and Attribute Variables
Any variable that is manipulated is called active variables. Examples of active variables are
reward, punishment, methods of teaching, creating anxiety through instructions and so on.
Attribute variable isthat variable which is not manipulated but measured by the experimenter.
Variables that are human characteristics like intelligence, Aptitudes, sex, socio economic
status, education, field dependence and need for achievement are the example of attributes
variables. The word ‘attribute’ is more accurate enough when used within animated objects or
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references. Organisations, institutions, groups, population and geographical areas Smoking

(Assumed cause) Independent variable Coronary Heart Disease (Assumed effect) Dependent
variable Affect the relationship • The age of the person • The extent of his/her smoking • The
duration of smoking • The extent of daily exercise etc. Extraneous variables 40 Introduction
to Research Methods in Psychology have attributes. Organisations are variably productive;
groups differ in cohesiveness; geographical areas vary widely in resources.
Quantitative and Categorical Variables
Quantitative variables is one that varies in amount whereas categorical variables varies in
kind. Speed of response, intensity of sound, level of Illumination, intelligence etc. are the
example of quantitative variables and gender, race, religion are the example of categorical
variables. Precise and accurate measurement are possible with the quantitative variables
because they can be easily ordered in terms of increasing and decreasing magnitude
categorical variables can be of three types: Constant, dichotomous and polytomous. When a
variable can have only one value or category, for example taxi, tree and water, it is known as
a constant variables. When a variable can have only two categories as in yes/no, good/bad
and rich/poor, it is known as dichotomous variables. When variables can be divided into more
than two categories, for example: religion (Christian, Muslim, Hindu); political parties
(Labor, Liberal, Democrat); and attitudes (strongly favorable, favorable, uncertain,
unfavorable, strongly unfavorable), it s called a polytomous variable.
Continuous Variables and Discrete Variables
Quantitative variables are further divided into two categories, namely, continuous variables
and discrete variables. A distinction between continuous and discrete variables is especially
useful in planning of research and analysis of data. A continuous variable is one which is
capable of being measured in any arbitrary degree of fineness or exactness. Age, height,
intelligence, reaction time, etc., are some of the examples of a continuous variable. The age
of the person can be measured in years, month and days. Thus, all such variables which can
be measured in the smallest degree of fineness are called continuous variable. The discrete
variables are those variables which are not capable of being measured in any arbitrary degree
of fineness or exactness because the variables contain a clear gap. For example, the number
of members in a family, no. of females in particular group, no of books in library and so on
constitutes the examples of a discrete variable.
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IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
Importance and relevance of psychological research is well recognised almost in every

sphere of human life. Notable progress has been reported in the field of organisational
behaviour, applied aspects of human being, medical sciences and education, through
application of psychological research findings. Empirical and theoretical researches in
psychology are taking place in various fields, such as learning, motivation, perception,
concept learning and memory and so on. In the quest of psychological facts, laws and
theories, psychologists have found research studies very helpful in gauging human and
animal behaviour. Practical gains of psychological research are many, yet include discoveries
such as improved methods of treating psychologically disordered people, better designs of
vehicles to make them easier and safe to use, and new ways of enhancing the performance
and happiness of workers. In psychological researches experimental methods are widely
used. Therefore, nature of majority of psychological researches is highly scientific.
Psychological researches have successfully led to control and manipulation of the variables
associated with widely used generic and comparative methods. Psychologists have developed
such effective experimental designs that that they have helped to isolate effect of other
variables from independent variables. In psychological researches, rigorous scientific norms
and statistical methods are applied in collection, organisation, description and analysis of the
data. By turning psychological facts into quantitative form, the nature of most of the
psychological researches remains method oriented (scientific.
26
Unit 2
Sampling- Nature, Basic Principles, Probability and Non -Probability Sampling

Techniques.Methods- Experimental, Observation, Interview, Case Study and
Survey
SAMPLING
Researchers usually can not make direct observation of every individual in the population
under study. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals- a sample – and use those
observations to make inferences about the entire population. Ideally, the sample corresponds
to the larger population on the characteristics of (s) of interest. In that case, the researcher’s
conclusions from the samples are properly applicable to the entire population. Sampling is the
process of selection of units (e.g. people, organisation) from a population of interest so that
by studying the sample may fairly generate results back to the population from which they
were chosen.
Definition of Sampling According to Young (1992) “A statistical sample is miniature picture

of cross selection of the entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken”.
According to Goode and Hatt(1981) “A sample, as the name implies, is a smaller
representative of a large whole”. According to Blalock (1960) “It is a small piece of the
population obtained by a probability process that mirrors with known precision, the various
patterns and sub-classes of population”.
Sampling Terminology Before we explain the purpose, uses and method of sampling, it will
be better to describe those fundamental terms which are concerned to sampling concepts and
principles. Population: Population is a well defined set up of all elements pertaining to a
given characteristic. It refers to the whole that include all observations or measurements of a
given characteristic. Population is also called universe or population. It may be defined as any
identifiable and well specified group of individual for example. All primary teachers, no
number of all college teachers and all university students are the example of population. A
population may be finite or infinite. A finite population is one where all the members can be
easily counted. An infinite population is one whose size is unlimited, and cannot count easily.
Population of college teachers is an example of finite population and production of wheat,
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and fishes in river are the example of infinite population. A measure based upon the entire
population is called a parameter.
Sample: A sample is any number of persons selected to represent the population according to
some rule of plan. Thus, a sample is a smaller representation of the population. A measure
based upon a sample is known as a statistic. Sample size: No. of selected individual for
example, no. of students, families from whom you obtain the require information is called the
sample size and usually denoted by the letter (n).
Sampling design or strategy: The way researcher selects the sample or students or families
etc. is called the sampling design and strategy. It refers to the techniques or procedures the
researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from which inferences about the
population are drawn. Sampling unit: Each individual or case that becomes the basis for
selecting a sample is called sampling unit or sampling elements. Sampling frame: The list of
people from which the sample is taken. It should be comprehensive, complete and up-to-date.
Examples of sampling frame: Electoral Register; Postcode Address File; telephone book.
Purpose of Sampling
The objective of sampling is to derive the desired information about the population at the
minimum cost or with the maximum reliability. Further, the aims in selecting a sample are to
achieve maximum precision in estimates within a given sample size and to avoid bias in the
selection of sample. Bias in the selection of sample can take place if: (a) the researcher
selects the sample by non random method and influenced by human choice. (b) The
researcher does not cover the sampling population accurately and completely (c) A section of
a sample population is impossible to find or refuses to cooperate.
SAMPLING METHODS
28
Blalock (1960) indicated that most sampling methods could be classified into two categories:
i) Non probability sampling methods ii) Probability sampling methods
1 Non Probability Sampling Methods Non probability sampling is one is which there is no
way of assessing the probability of the element or group of elements, of population being
included in the sample. In other words, non-probability sampling methods are those that
provide no basis for estimating how closely the characteristics of sample approximate the
parameters of population from which the sample had been obtained. This is because non
probability sample do not use the techniques of random sampling. Important techniques of
non probability sampling methods are:
i) Haphazard, Accidental, or Convenience Sampling Haphazard sampling can produce

ineffective, highly unrepresentative samples and is not recommended. When a researcher
haphazardly selects cases that are convenient, he or she can easily get a sample that seriously
misrepresents the population. Such samples are cheap and quick; however, the systematic
errors that easily occur make them worse than no sample at all. The person-on-thestreet
interview conducted by television programs is an example of a haphazard sample. Likewise,
television interviewers often select people who look “normal” to them and avoid people who
are unattractive, poor, very old, or inarticulate. Such haphazard samples may have
entertainment value, but they can give a distorted view and seriously misrepresent the
population. For example, an investigator may take student of class X into research plan
because the class teacher of the class happens to be his / her friend. This illustrates accidental
or convenience sampling
29
. ii) Quota Sampling Quota Sampling is an improvement over haphazard sampling. In quota
sampling, a researcher first identifies relevant categories of people (e.g., male and female; or
under age 30, ages 30 to 60, over age 60, etc.), then decides how many to get in each
category. Thus, the number of people in various categories of the sample is fixed. For
example, a researcher decides to select 5 males and 5 females under age 30, 10 males and 10
females aged 30 to 60, and 5 males and 5 females over age 60 for a 40-person sample. It is
difficult to represent all population characteristics accurately. Quota sampling ensures that
some differences are in the sample. In haphazard sampling, all those interviewed might be of
the same age, sex, or background. But, once the quota sampler fixes the categories and
number of cases in each category, he or she uses haphazard or convenience sampling.
Nothing prevents the researcher from selecting people who act friendly or who want to
interviewed. Quota sampling methods are not appropriate when the interviewers choose who
they like (within above criteria) and may therefore select those who are easiest to interview,
so, sampling bias can take place. Because not using the random method, it is impossible to
estimate the accuracy. Despite these limitations, quota sampling is a popular method among
non-probability methods of sampling, because it enables the researcher to introduce a few
controls into his research plan and this methods of sampling are more convenient and less
costly then many other methods of sampling.
iii) Purposive sampling Purposive sampling is a valuable kind of sampling for special
situations. It is used in exploratory research or in field research. It uses the judgment of an
expert in selecting cases or it selects cases with a specific purpose in mind. With purposive
sampling, he researcher never knows whether the cases selected represent the population.
Purposive sampling is appropriate to select unique cases that are especially informative. For
example, a researcher wants to study the temperamental attributes of certain problem
behaviour children. It is very difficult to list all certain problem behaviour children and
sample randomly from the list. The researcher uses many different.
methods to identity these cases and approach them to obtain the relevant information. The
primary consideration in purposes sampling is the judgment of researcher as to who can
provide the best information to achieve the objectives of the study. The researcher only goes
to those people who in his / her opinion are likely to have the required information and be
willing to share it. For studying attitude toward any national issue, a sample of journalists,
30
teacher and legislators may he taken as an example of purposive sampling because they can
more reasonably be expected to represent the correct attitude than other class of people
residing in country. Purposes sampling is some what less costly, more readily accessible,
more convenient and select only those individual that are relevant to research design. Despite
these advantages of purposes sampling, there is no way to ensure that the sample is truly
represent of the population and more emphasis is placed on the ability of researcher to assess
the elements of population.
iv) Snowball sampling Snowball sampling is also known as network, chain referral or
reputation sampling method. Snowball sampling which is a non probability sampling method
is basically sociometric. It begins by the collection of data on one or more contacts usually
known to the person collecting the data. At the end of the data collection process (e.g.,
questionnaire, survey, or interview), the data collector asks the respondent to provide contact
information for other potential respondents. These potential respondents are contacted and
provide more contacts. Snowball sampling is most useful when there are very few methods to
secure a list of the population or when the population is unknowable. Snowball sampling has
some advantages— 1) Snowball sampling, which is primarily a sociometric sampling
technique, has proved very important and is helpful in studying small informal social group
and its impact upon formal organisational structure, 2) Snowball sampling reveals
communication pattern in community organisation concepts like community power; and
decision-making can also be studied with he help of such sampling technique. Snowball
sampling has some limitations also— 1) Snowball sampling becomes cumbersome and
difficult when is large or say it exceeds 100, 2) This method of sampling does not allow the
researcher to use probability statistical methods. In fact, the elements included in sample are
not randomly drawn and they are dependent on the subjective choices of the originally
selected respondents. This introduces some bias in the sampling.
v) Systematic sampling Systematic sampling is another method of non-probability sampling

plan, though the label ‘systematic’ is somewhat misleading in the sense that all probability
sampling methods are also systematic sampling methods. Due to this, it often sounds that
systematic sampling should be included under one category of probability sampling, but in
reality this is not the case. Systematic sampling may be defined as drawing or selecting every
ninth person from a predetermined list of elements or individuals. Selecting every 5th roll
number in a class of 60 students will constitute systematic sampling. Likewise, drawing every
8th name from a telephone directory is an example of systematic sampling. If we pay
31
attention to systematic sampling plan, it become obvious that such a plan possesses certain
characteristics of randomness (first element selected is a random one) and at the same time,
possesses some non-probability traits such as excluding all persons between every ninth
element chosen. Systematic sampling is relatively quick method of obtaining a sample of
elements and it is very easy to check whether every ninth number or name has been selected.
Further Systematic sampling is easy to used. Despite these advantages, systematic sampling
ignores all persons between every ninth element chosen. Then it is not a probability sampling
plan. In Systematic sampling there is a chance to happen the sampling error if the list is
arranged in a particular order.
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling methods are those that clearly specify the probability or likelihood of
inclusion of each element or individual in the sample. Probability sampling is free of bias in
selecting sample units. They help in estimation of sampling errors and evaluate sample results
in terms of their precision, accuracy and efficiency and hence, the conclusions reached from
such samples are worth generalisation and comparable to similar population to which they
belong. Major probability sampling methods are: i) Simple random sampling A simple
random sample is a probability sample. A simple random sample requires (a) a complete
listing of all the elements (b) an equal chance for each elements to be selected (c) a selection
process whereby the selection of one element has no effect on the chance of selecting another
element. For example, if we are to select a sample of 10 students from the seventh grade
consisting of 40 students, we can write the names (or roll number) of each of the 40 students
on separate slips of paper – all equal in size and colour – and fold them in a similar way.
Subsequently, they may be placed in a box and reshuffled thoroughly. A blindfolded person,
then, may be asked to pick up one slip. Here, the probability of each slip being selected is 1-
40. Suppose that after selecting the slip and noting the name written on the slip, he again
returns it to the box. In this case, the probability of the second slip being selected is again
1/40. But if he does not return the first slip to the box, the probability of the second slip
becomes 1/39. When an element of the population is returned to the population after being
selected, it is called sampling with replacement and when it is not returned, it is called
sampling without replacement. Thus random sampling may be defined as one in which all
possible combinations of samples of fixed size have an equal probability of being selected.
32
Advantages of simple random sampling are: 1) Each person has equal chance as any other of
being selected in the sample. 2) Simple random sampling serves as a foundation against
which other methods are sometimes evaluated. 3) It is most suitable where population is
relatively small and where sampling frame is complete and up-to-date. 4) As the sample size
increases, it becomes more representative of universe. 5) This method is least costly and
easily assessable of accuracy. Despite these advantages, some of the disadvantages are: 1)
Complete and up-to-date catalogued universe is necessary. 2) Large sample size is required to
establish the reliability. 3) When the geographical dispersion is so wider therefore study of
sample item has larger cost and greater time. 4) Unskilled and untrained investigator may
cause wrong results.
ii) Stratified random sampling In stratified random sampling the population is divided into
two or more strata, which may be based upon a single criterion such as sex, yielding two
strata-male and female, or upon a combination of two or more criteria such as sex and
graduation, yielding four strata, namely, male undergraduates, male graduates, female
undergraduates and female graduates. These divided populations are called subpopulations,
which are non-overlapping and together constitute the whole population. Having divided the
population into two or more strata, which are considered to be homogeneous internally, a
simple random sample for the desired number is taken from each population stratum. Thus, in
stratified random sampling the stratification of population is the first requirement. There can
be many reasons for stratification in a population. Two of them are: 1) Stratification tends to
increases the precision in estimating the attributes of the whole population. 2) Stratification
gives some convenience in sampling. When the population is divided into several units, a
person or group of person may be deputed to supervise the sampling survey in each unit.
Advantages of stratified Random Sampling are: 1) Stratified sampling is more representative
of the population because formation of stratum and random selection of item from each
stratum make it hard to exclude in strata of the universe and increases the sample’s
representation to the population or universe.
2) It is more precise and avoids the bias to great extent. 3) It saves time and cost of data
collection since the sample size can be less in the method. Despite these advantages, some of
the disadvantages of stratified sampling are: 1) Improper stratification may cause wrong
results. 2) Greater geographical concentration may result in heavy cost and more time. 3)
Trained investigators are required for stratification. iii) Cluster sampling A type of random
sample that uses multiple stages and is often used to cover wide geographic areas in which
33
aggregated units are randomly selected and then sample are drawn from the sampled
aggregated units or cluster For example, if the investigator wanted to survey some aspect of
3rd grade elementary school going children. First, a random sample of number of states from
the country would be selected. Next, within each selected state, a random selection of certain
number of districts would be made. Then within district a random selection of certain number
of elementary schools would be made. Finally within each elementary school, a certain
number of children would be randomly selected. Because each level is randomly sampled, the
final sample becomes random. However, selection of samples is done to different stages. This
is also called multi stage sampling. This sampling method is more flexible than the other
methods. Sub-divisions at the second stage unit needs be carried out only those unit selected
in the first stage. Despite these merits, this sampling method is less accurate than a sample,
containing the same number of the units in single stage samples
IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING In research, sampling method has obtained great

importance. Sampling studies are becoming more and more popular in all type of studies. The
vastness of the population, the difficulties of contacting people, high refusal rate, difficulties
of ascertaining the universe make sampling the best alternative in case of social studies. The
census method is rarely, if ever tried in matters of social research. in Psychology Recent
developments in sampling technique have made this method more reliable and valid. The
results of sampling have attained a sufficiently high standard of accuracy. The three main
advantage of sampling are that cost in lowest, data collection is faster, and since the data set
is smaller, it is possible to ensure homogeneity and to improve the accuracy and quality of
data (Ader, Mellenbergh & Hard (2008) In research, sampling method has obtained great
importance. Sampling studies are becoming more and more popular in all type of studies. The
vastness of the population, the difficulties of contacting people, high refusal rate, difficulties
of ascertaining the universe make sampling the best alternative in case of social studies. The
census method is rarely, if ever tried in matters of social research. Recent developments in
sampling technique have made this method more reliable and valid. The results of sampling
have attained a sufficiently high standard of accuracy. The three main advantage of sampling
are that cost in lowest, data collection is faster, and since the data set is smaller, it is possible
to ensure homogeneity and to improve the accuracy and quality of data (Ader, Mellenbergh
& Hard (2008).
RESEARCH METHODS
34
Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques utilised in the collection of data
or evidence for analysing in order to uncover new information or create better understanding
of a topic. 'Research methods' is a broad term. While methods of data collection and data
analysis represent the core of research methods, you have a range of additional elements
within the scope of your research, which are discussed below
➢ Experimental
➢ Observation
➢ Interview
➢ Case study
➢ Survey
Every research requires the identification of the problem which itself is an important step in
any research work. In the following section we try to provide how a research problem is
identified and what is research especially experimental research etc.
Experimental Research
Experimental research is mainly used in science subjects such as physics, chemistry,

medicine, biology etc. Experiment requires two variables, one independent variable and the
other dependent variable. It is important that in experimental research the independent
variable is manipulated and the effect of manipulation is observed on the dependent variable.
All other extraneous factors are completely controlled within the laboratory. It is based on
research design which uses manipulation and controlled testing to understand the causal
processes. Generally, we can manipulate one or more variables to determine their effect on a
dependent variable. In other words it is a systematic and scientific approach to research in
which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures the other
variables.
Field Experiments
Field experiments on the other hand refer to experiments conducted in real life situations.
Here the control of extraneous factors is not possible as it is a natural setting and there is no
way to control any factor so absolutely as one does in the laboratory experiments. Hence in
field experiments we take two groups matched for a number of factors such as age, sex,
education, socio-economic status etc. Both these groups are in real life setting and thus are
subjected to similar extraneous variables and thus the experimenter can observe the effects of
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his manipulation on one group and compare with the other group which is not subjected to
any intervention. Take for example that the researcher wants to study the effects of different
methods of teaching (e.g. lecture vs. tutorial). The school is the natural setting from where the
researcher randomly selects 100 children from a particular standard (5th standard) and
randomly assign them to two groups, viz., experimental (50 children) and control group (50
children). To the experimental group children the researcher uses the lecture method and to
the control group tutorial method. Then the effects of the academic performance of these
children are compared before and after the introduction of the methods of teaching. If there is
a difference in the academic performance of children in regard to the two methods of
teaching, the experimenter can conclude that a particular method of teaching (e.g. tutorial) is
more effective than the other method (lecture).
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF FIELD EXPERIMENTS The advantages or the

strength of field experiments are given below: 1) It is useful to behavioural and social
scientists such as the social psychologists, sociologists and educationists. 2) It is an
appropriate method for studying complex social influences, processes, and changes in life
like setting. The dynamics and small groups have been fruitfully studied by this method. 3) It
is most suited method to the testing of theory and to the solution of practical problems. 4) It is
suited to testing broad hypotheses. 5. Flexibility and applicability to a wide variety of
problems are also possible by this method. Weaknesses or limitations of field experiments are
as given below: 1) The chances of extraneous variables confounding the research findings are
more in field experiments due to the uncontrolled extraneous variables. 2) One of the
problems is the negative attitude of researcher. 3) Consent and cooperation of concerned
subjects and the institutional authorities, (the institution where the research is to be
conducted) is required for the field experiment. 4) This type of research faces lack of
precision problem.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
The pure experimental research is not always possible in behavioural and social sciences due
to the difficulty in controlling all the variables and influences from outside of and inside the
individuals which is possible only within a laboratory situation. The experimental situations
in which experimenter can manipulate the independent variables and has liberty to assign
subjects randomly to the treatment groups and the control groups may not be that possible or
accurate. Also the control of the extraneous variables is not possible and children in a
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classroom keep getting stimulation from various sources. Hence one has to take such designs
in which to the extent possible randomisation and control of variances are possible. To
conduct the field experiments there are experimental designs available and these are being
discussed below. Let us consider the different types of designs:
1 Single Case Experimental Design The single case experiment is useful in clinical research
especially in the area of behaviour modification. This design provides us the detailed
information of human behaviour which is not possible in the group designs. Repeated
measurements are also possible and we can note subtle changes in the subjects’ behaviour.
The design however is not very suitable for generalising the findings to the larger population
as it is based on a small number of subjects and who have not been randomly selected.
2 Quasi-Experimental Design All experimental situations in which the researcher /

experimenter does not have full control over the assignment of experimental units randomly
to the treatment conditions or the treatment cannot be manipulated, are collectively called
quasiexperimental designs. There are the various experimental situations in which the
experimenter does not have full control over the situations. The plan of such experiments
constitutes the quasiexperimental design. Though, quasi-experimental investigations have
limitations, nevertheless these have advantages in certain respects. It is possible to select
subjects randomly as pointed out earlier in the case of selecting students from class 5 of a
school and randomly assign them to the experimental and control groups respectively. We
conduct the experiment in natural and real life setting and so it has certain amount of realism
and the information so gathered can also be to quite an extent generalised. It can provide
answers to several kinds of problems about past situations and those situations which cannot
be handled by employing pure experimental research design.
3 Experimental Design
This type of design is generally conducted in the laboratory with complete control over all
variables and all subjects. In this type of research design one can assign subjects randomly to
the treatment groups and one can manipulate the independent variable and study the pure
effects of the manipulation on the dependent variable. Also, in such experiments, the
experimenter has complete control over the scheduling of independent variables. In such
experiments one can use high level advanced statistical methods got analyse the data. For
example, the F test, Correlation and regression and multiple regression analysis, partial
correlation etc. There are also three types of designs that we can use within the experimental
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design and these are (i) Between subjects design (ii) Within subject design and (iii) Mixed
design (iv) classical pre test post test design (v) Solomon four groups design (vi) Factorial
design.
sychology relies heavily on quantitative based data analysis but benefits from incorporating
the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies into one cohesive
framework. Mixed methods ideally includes the benefit of both methods: Quantitative
analysis and Qualitative Analysis. Qualitative analysis produce expressive data that provide
descriptive details (often in narrative form) to examine the study's research objectives. While,
quantitative data may be collected through measures such as self-reports and physiological
tests, qualitative data are collected through focus groups, structured or semistructured
interviews and other forms.
Observation method
Observation method consists of collecting facts, which are in the direct knowledge of the
investigator. Observation is the perception with the purpose and can also be called as
regulated perception.
Pauline Young, has described it as 'Deliberate study through the eyes'.
For observation method to become scientific, the observation must be precise, accurate and
systematic.
The qualities of good observer are as follows •
Efficient sense organ.
Ability to estimate rapidly and accurately.
Must possess sufficient alertness to observe several details simultaneously.
Qualities of Good Observer
. A visiting stranger
Eager learner
Attentive listener
Participant observer
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Planning an Effective Observation
Measures for effective observation are .
Sample selected should truly represent population.
• Behaviour observed should be clearly defined.
• Units of behaviour to be observed should be simple and so should be the methods of

recording these units.
• Detailed instruction should be given to the observers, so that consistency can be obtained in
their observation.
• Too many variables shouldn't be simultaneously observed.
• Excessively long process of observation without being interspread with rest period shouldn't
be allowed.
Observers should be well trained, well equipped and the number of observers should be
adequate.
Condition of observation should remain constant.
Interpretation should be objectively made.
Length of observation period, number of observation period and the number and duration of
interval period should be clearly stated.
Objectifying Observation
Ways to objectifying observation are
The perceptive powers of the observers should be sharpened by regular practice and by
teaching them superior methods of observation.
Selecting individuals with higher emotional stability as observers as they are likely to carry
out an unbiased observation.
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By training the observers in writing, the researcher reports and trains them in the
interpretation of the information.
By increasing the richness and accuracy of individual observation by guarding against the
errors of perception.
By equipping the observation with mechanical devices. and tools that will allow them to
record all the facts under investigation.
Types of Observation
Observation can be categorised into two types based on participation of respondants, which
are given below,
Naturalistic or Non-Participant Observation
Observing events that occur naturally. It is used where artificial probes or manipulation might
destroy all or basic character of the event or phenomenon being studied and where there is no
possibility to carry out controlled observation. In naturalistic observation, obtrusive
observation procedures are used. These observations are also carried out at places where
ethical consideration prevents the researcher from deliberately creating phenomena.
Naturalistic observation have been popularised by ethologists, who study animal behaviour in
its natural habitats. Some popular ethologists, who have carried out naturalistic observations
are Hess, Harlow, Tinbergen, Lorenz. The key requirement in naturalistic observation is to
avoid intrusion. Intrusion occurs when the subject comes to know that they are being
observed and the observation is being made in the environment, which the participant regards
as research setting. In naturalistic observation, since the observer does not get involved with
the subject under study, it can also be called as non-participation of observation.
Participant Observation
In participant observation, the investigators have interface with the subjects.
Participant observation are of two types which are as follows
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(i) Undisguised Participant Observation (UPO) The individual being observed knows the
observers who responderits. has the intension to collect the information about the social
aspect of their behaviour.
(ii) Disguised Participant Observation (DPO) In disguised participant observation, the

researcher pretend to be members of the social group they are observing and conceal their
true identity as researchers.
Use of Observation Method in Psychology
Observation could seem to be an obvious method of carrying out research in psychology.

Controlled observation in likely to be carried out in a psychology laboratory. Naturalistic
observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other so technique
involves observing, studying the spontaneous behaviour of participants in natural
surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can. With
regard to human subjects, Margaret Mead used this method to research the way of life of
different tribes living on islands in the South Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at
play by observing their behaviour in a playground in Oxfordshire.
Survey Method
The term 'survey can be defined as a process which involve an investigation/examination or

assessment in the form of a short paper-and-pencil form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth
interview. With the help of the questionnaire or other statistical tools, the method ties
together data about people, their thoughts and behaviours. may
In a survey research, the researcher collects data with the help of standardised questionnaires
or interviews, which is administered on a sample of respondents from a population. The
method of survey research is one of the techniques of applied social research, which can be
helpful in collection of data both through direct and indirect observation.
Interview
Interview is a kind of face to face interaction which helps in providing more honest answers
and responses from the sample, as the interviewer works directly with the respondent or the
interviewee. Unlike questionnaires, the interviewer has an opportunity to ask follow-up
questions.
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These are the best suitable methods for those questions or impressions which require opinions
from the respondants.
Interview can be of different types as given below
Structured Interview Structured interviews are those interviews in which the questions that
are to be asked from the respondents, are prepared and preplanned in advance by the
researcher. The researcher puts forth those prepared questions to the respondents serialwise
and notes down the answers given by them.
Unstructured Interview Interviews are said to be unstructured when the researcher

conducts an interaction with the respondent in an informal atmosphere. Nothing is preplanned
in advance. The response of the sample gives a clue to the researcher to ask the next question.
Telephonic Interview In order to save time and money, the researcher may call the subjects
through telephone and ask them questions to collect data. This method helps in saving time
and energy, but the interview population gets who have the facility of telephones at their
residence or offices.
Questionnaire
The second element required for a survey is an instrument to collect data. A questionnaire, is
a basic tool of survey research, because it can be tailored to meet the needs of almost any
inquiry.
At its simplest, a questionnaire is a list of questions. However, to reduce the possibility of

misunderstandings to a minimum and to enable data to be compared, the are normally
presented in a very structured way. A notable feature of survey research is that, unlike An
experiment or interview, there is usually only one opportunity to collect data from each
informant. It is therefore important to make the questionnaire as clear and effective as
possible.
Merits of Questionnaire
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most

extensively employed in various economic and business surveys.
The merits of this method are as follows
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This is low cost method.
.It is free from the bias of the interviewer, answers are in respondents own words.
Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
Large samples can be used and thus, the results can be made more dependable and reliable
Demerits of Questionnaire
The main demerits of this method are as follows
It can be used only when the respondents are educated and cooperative
The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
There is an inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach Once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
Question Formulation and Wording
With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that each question
must be very clear, any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey. not to
give a biased picture of the true state of affairs.
In general, all questions should meet the following standards
It should be easily understood.
It should be simple i.e. should convey only one thought at a time.
It should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent's way of
thinking. For instance, instead of asking 'How many razor blades did you use annually?' The
more realistic question would be to ask, 'How many razor blades did you use last week??
Main Aspects of Questionnaire
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Quite often the questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation. Hence, it
should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set-up, then the survey is bound to
fail.
The general form of a questionnaire can be either structured or unstructured questionnaire.

Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires, in which there are definite, concrete and
pre-determined questions. The form of the questions may be either closed or open, but should
be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning.
Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions, in which responses of
the informants are limited. When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it
can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire.
Uses of Survey Method in Psychology
Surveys are commonly used in psychology research to collect self-report data from
participants. A survey may focus on factual information about individuals or it might aim to
obtain the opinions of the survey takers.
A survey can be used to investigate the characteristics, behaviours or opinions of a group of

people. These research tools can be used to ask questions about demographic information
about characteristics such as sex, religion, ethnicity and income. They can also collect
information on experiences, opinions and even hypothetical scenarios. For example,
researchers might present people with a possible scenario and then ask them how they might
respond in that situation.
Case Study
The case study is not itself a research method. Instead, it constitutes an approach to the study
of singular entities, which may involve the use of a wide range of diverse methods of data
collection and analysis. The case study is, therefore, not characterised by the methods used to
collect and analyse data, but rather by its focus upon a particular unit of analysis.
The case study involves an in-depth, intensive and sharply focused exploration of an event.
Case studies have a long and varied history. They have been used in many different
discipline, including sociology, political theory, history, social anthropology, education and
psychoanalysis. Case studies can make use of both qualitative and quantitative research
methods.
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Characteristics of Case Study
Major characteristics of case study are
An Idiographic Perspective Here, researchers are concerned with the particular rather than
the general. The aim is to understand an individual case, in its particularity. This can be
contrasted with a nomothetic approach, which aims to identify general laws of human
behaviour by averaging out individual variation.
Attention to Contextual Data Study research takes a holistic approach, in which it

considers the case within its context. This means that the researcher pays attention to the
ways in which the various dimensions of the case relate to or interact with its environment.
Thus, while particular cases need to be identified as the focus of the study, they cannot be
considered in isolation.
Triangulation Triangulation enriches case study research because it allows the researcher to
approach the case from number of different perspective. This, in turn, facilitates an
appreciation of the various dimensions of the case as well as its embeddedness within its
various contexts.
A Temporal Element Case studies involve the investigation of occurrences over a period of
time According to Yin, "establishing the how and why of a complex human situation is a
classic example of the use of case studies." Case studies are concerned with processes that
take place over time. This means that a focus on change and development is an important
feature of case studies.
A Concern with Theory Case studies facilitate theory generation. The detailed exploration
of a particular case can generate insights into social or psychological processes, which in
turn, can give rise to theoretical formulations and hypothesis. Freud's psychoanalytic case
studies constitute a clear example of the relationship between case studies and theory
development. In addition, case studies can also be used to test existing theories or to clarify or
extend such theories by looking at deviant or extreme cases.
Research Methods for Psychological Case Study
Many methods can be used in case study research. Some of them are well-known qualitative
techniques, such as semi-structured interviewing, participant observation and diaries. Data for
case studies can also be generated on the basis of personal or official documents. The data
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can be analysed in a number of different ways, including grounded theory and interpretative
phenomenological analysis.
Smith identifies two further methods, the twenty statements test and Repertory Grids, as
suitable analytic techniques for case study research.
Twenty Statements Test (Gordon)
Here, the participant is asked to give 20 answers to the question, about "who or what are
you?" Each answer begins with the words 'I am..... and the participants response can be
explored in terms of content or sequence. In addition, the test can be repeated at different
points in time to identify self-perception.
Repertory Grids (Kelly)
In this grid, the participant is asked to generate about 10 elements, which he or she then
compares with one another e.g. if the elements are 'self as friend', 'self as lover', 'self as
parent', 'self as worker' and so on, the participant would be asked in what way any two of
them are similar and how they are different from a third (e.g. 'self as friend' and 'self as lover'
may be described as 'warm' and 'contrasted' when 'self as worker', which is described as
'business-like').
Each comparison generates a construct, that is the terms of reference that the person uses to
think about his or her social roles.
This process of comparison continues until the participant finds it difficult to generate new
constructs. Finally, the participant rates each element in relation to each construct when the
grid is complete, it provides a visual display of patterns and associations between elements
and constructs This, in turn, provides insight into the ways in which the participant constructs
personal meanings to make sense the social world.
Although, these methods can be used qualitatively, they do not constitute what has been
referred to as 'big Q methodology. This is because they work with preconceived categories,
which are then filled with content specific to the case under investigation. However, they are
idiographic, they focus upon the individual case without reference to a comparison group.
Advantages of Case Study Method
Advantages of case study method are as follows
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Case study allows a lot of detail to be collected that would not normally be easily obtained
by other research designs. The data collected is normally a greater depth than can be found
through other experimental design.
Within the case study, scientific experiments can be conducted.
Case studies can help experimenters adopt ideas and produce novel hypothesis, which can be
used for later testing.
Developed research questions for future research could then be generalised.
Disadvantages of Case Study Method
• One of main criticisms is that, the data collected can't necessarily be generalised to the
wider population. This leads to data being collected over longitudinal case studies not always
being relevant or particularly useful.
• Case studies are generally on one person, but there also tends to be only one experimenter
collecting data. This can lead to bias in data collection, which may further influence results.
• It is very difficult to draw a definite cause/effect from the case study.
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Unit 3
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability • Normal Probability Curve -
Nature, Characteristics, and Applications • Correlation - Pearson’s Product
Moment, Spearman Rank Order, Kendall Rank Correlation and Bi -serial
Correlation
Measures of central tendency
Questions such as: “how many calories do I eat per day?” or “how much time do I spend talking per
day?” can be hard to answer because the answer will vary from day to day. It’s sometimes more
sensible to ask “how many calories do I consume on a typical day?” or “on average, how much time
do I spend talking per day?”. In this section we will study three ways of measuring central tendency
in data, the mean, the median and the mode. Each measure give us a single value? that might be
considered typical. Each measure has its own strengths and weaknesses.
A population of books, cars, people, polar bears, all games played by Babe Ruth throughout
his career etc.... is the entire collection of those objects. For any given variable under
consideration, each member of the population has a particular value of the variable associated
to them, for example the number of home runs scored by Babe Ruth for each game played by
him during his career. These values are called data and we can apply our measures of central
tendency to the entire population, to get a single value (maybe more than one for the mode)
measuring central tendency for the entire population; or we can apply our measures to a
subset or sample of the population, to get an estimate of the central tendency for the
population.
A sample is a subset of the population, for example, we might collect data on the number of
home runs hit by Miguel Cabrera in a random sample of 20 games. If we calculate the mean,
median and mode using the data from a sample, the results are called the sample mean,
sample median and sample mode. Sometimes we can look at the entire population, not just a
subset. For example, since Babe Ruth has now retired, so we might collect data on the
number of home runs he hit in his career. If we calculate the mean, median and mode using
the data collected from the entire population, the results are called the population mean,
population median and population mode.
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Mean
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Median
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Mode
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Normal Probability Curve

The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is
symmetrical on both sides of the mean, so the right side of the center is a
mirror image of the left side.
The area under the normal distribution curve represents probability and the
total area under the curve sums to one.
Most of the continuous data values in a normal distribution tend to cluster

around the mean, and the further a value is from the mean, the less likely it is
to occur. The tails are asymptotic, which means that they approach but never
quite meet the horizon (i.e. x-axis).
For a perfectly normal distribution the mean, median and mode will be the
same value, visually represented by the peak of the curve.
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The normal distribution is often called the bell curve because the graph of its
probability density looks like a bell. It is also known as called Gaussian
distribution, after the German mathematician Carl Gauss who first described
it.
What is the difference between a normal distribution and

a standard normal distribution?
A normal distribution is determined by two parameters the mean and the
variance. A normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1
is called a standard normal distribution.
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The bell-shaped curve is a common feature of nature and psychology

The normal distribution is the most important probability distribution in
statistics because many continuous data in nature and psychology displays this
bell-shaped curve when compiled and graphed.
For example, if we randomly sampled 100 individuals we would expect to see a

normal distribution frequency curve for many continuous variables, such as IQ,
height, weight and blood pressure.
Parametric significance tests require a normal distribution of the samples' data

points
The most powerful (parametric) statistical tests used by psychologists require
data to be normally distributed. If the data does not resemble a bell curve
researchers may have to use a less powerful type of statistical test, called non-
parametric statistics.
Converting the raw scores of a normal distribution to z-scores

We can standardized the values (raw scores) of a normal distribution by
converting them into z-scores.
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This procedure allows researchers to determine the proportion of the values

that fall within a specified number of standard deviations from the mean (i.e.
calculate the empirical rule).
In statistics it is important because: (а) It is the distribution of many naturally

occurring variables, such as intelligence of 8th grade students, height of the
10th grade students etc. (b) The distribution of the means of samples drawn
from most parent populations is normal or approximately so when the
samples are sufficiently large. Therefore normal curve has great significance in
social sciences and behavioural sciences. In behavioural measurement most of
the aspects approximates to the normal distribution.
Correlation and regression
The word correlation is used in everyday life to denote some form of

association. We might say that we have noticed a correlation between foggy
days and attacks of wheeziness. However, in statistical terms we use
correlation to denote association between two quantitative variables. We also
assume that the association is linear, that one variable increases or decreases a
fixed amount for a unit increase or decrease in the other. The other technique
that is often used in these circumstances is regression, which involves
estimating the best straight line to summarise the association.
Correlation coefficient
The degree of association is measured by a correlation coefficient, denoted by

r. It is sometimes called Pearson’s correlation coefficient after its originator
and is a measure of linear association. If a curved line is needed to express the
relationship, other and more complicated measures of the correlation must be
used. The correlation coefficient is measured on a scale that varies from + 1
through 0 to – 1. Complete correlation between two variables is expressed by
either + 1 or -1. When one variable increases as the other increases the
correlation is positive; when one decreases as the other increases it is negative.
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Complete absence of correlation is represented by 0. Figure 11.1 gives some

graphical representations of correlation.
Figure 11.1 Correlation illustrated. Looking at data: scatter diagrams When an

investigator has collected two series of observations and wishes to see whether
there is a relationship between them, he or she should first construct a scatter
diagram. The vertical scale represents one set of measurements and the
horizontal scale the other. If one set of observations consists of experimental
results and the other consists of a time scale or observed classification of some
kind, it is usual to put the experimental results on the vertical axis. These
represent what is called the “dependent variable”. The “independent variable”,
such as time or height or some other observed classification, is measured
along the horizontal axis, or baseline. The words “independent” and
“dependent” could puzzle the beginner because it is sometimes not clear what
is dependent on what. This confusion is a triumph of common sense over
misleading terminology, because often each variable is dependent on some
third variable, which may or may not be mentioned. It is reasonable, for
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instance, to think of the height of children as dependent on age rather than the
converse but consider a positive correlation between mean tar yield and
nicotine yield of certain brands of cigarette.’ The nicotine liberated is unlikely
to have its origin in the tar: both vary in parallel with some other factor or
factors in the composition of the cigarettes. The yield of the one does not seem
to be “dependent” on the other in the sense that, on average, the height of a
child depends on his age. In such cases it often does not matter which scale is
put on which axis of the scatter diagram. However, if the intention is to make
inferences about one variable from the other, the observations from which the
inferences are to be made are usually put on the baseline. As a further
example, a plot of monthly deaths from heart disease against monthly sales of
ice cream would show a negative association. However, it is hardly likely that
eating ice cream protects from heart disease! It is simply that the mortality
rate from heart disease is inversely related – and ice cream consumption
positively related – to a third factor, namely environmental temperature.
Calculation of the correlation coefficient
A paediatric registrar has measured the pulmonary anatomical dead space (in
ml) and height (in cm) of 15 children. The data are given in table 11.1 and the
scatter diagram shown in figure 11.2 Each dot represents one child, and it is
placed at the point corresponding to the measurement of the height
(horizontal axis) and the dead space (vertical axis). The registrar now inspects
the pattern to see whether it seems likely that the area covered by the dots
centres on a straight line or whether a curved line is needed. In this case the
paediatrician decides that a straight line can adequately describe the general
trend of the dots. His next step will therefore be to calculate the correlation
coefficient.
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Unit-4
Parametric is a test in which parameters are assumed and the population distribution is
always known. To calculate the central tendency, a mean value is used. These tests are
common, and this makes performing research pretty straightforward without
consuming much time. No assumptions are made in the Non-parametric test and it
measures with the help of the median value. A few instances of Non-parametric tests
are Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney, and so forth. In this article, you will be learning
what is parametric and non-parametric tests, the advantages and disadvantages of
parametric and nan-parametric tests, parametric and non-parametric statistics and the
difference between parametric and non-parametric tests.
What is a Parametric Test?
In Statistics, the generalizations for creating records about the mean of the original
population is given by the parametric test. This test is also a kind of hypothesis test. A
t-test is performed and this depends on the t-test of students, which is regularly used in
this value. This is known as a parametric test.
The t-measurement test hangs on the underlying statement that there is the ordinary
distribution of a variable. Here, the value of mean is known, or it is assumed or taken
to be known. The population variance is determined in order to find the sample from
the population. The population is estimated with the help of an interval scale and the
variables of concern are hypothesized.
What is a Non-Parametric Test?
There is no requirement for any distribution of the population in the non-parametric

test. Also, the non-parametric test is a type hypothesis test that is not dependent on
any underlying hypothesis. In the non-parametric test, the test depends on the value of
the median. This method of testing is also known as distribution-free testing. Test
values are found based on the ordinal or the nominal level. The parametric test is
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usually performed when the independent variables are non-metric. This is known as a
non-parametric test.
Differences Between The Parametric Test and The Non-Parametric Test
Properties Parametric Test Non-Parametric Test
Assumptions Yes, assumptions are made No, assumptions are not made
Value for central The mean value is the The median value is the
tendency central tendency central tendency
Correlation Pearson Correlation Spearman Correlation
Probabilistic Normal probabilistic Arbitrary probabilistic

Distribution distribution distribution
Population Population knowledge is Population knowledge is not

Knowledge required required
Used for Used for finding interval data Used for finding nominal data
Applicable to variables and

Application Applicable to variables
attributes
Mann-Whitney, Kruskal-
Examples T-test, z-test
Wallis
Advantages and Disadvantages of Parametric and Nonparametric Tests
A lot of individuals accept that the choice between using parametric or nonparametric
tests relies upon whether your information is normally distributed. The distribution
can act as a deciding factor in case the data set is relatively small. Although, in a lot of
cases, this issue isn't a critical issue because of the following reasons:
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• Parametric tests help in analyzing non normal appropriations for a lot of

datasets.
• Nonparametric tests when analyzed have other firm conclusions that are harder
to achieve.
The appropriate response is usually dependent upon whether the mean or median is
chosen to be a better measure of central tendency for the distribution of the data.
• A parametric test is considered when you have the mean value as your central
value and the size of your data set is comparatively large. This test helps in
making powerful and effective decisions.
• A non-parametric test is considered regardless of the size of the data set if the
median value is better when compared to the mean value.
Ultimately, if your sample size is small, you may be compelled to use a nonparametric
test. As the table shows, the example size prerequisites aren't excessively huge. On the
off chance that you have a little example and need to utilize a less powerful
nonparametric analysis, it doubly brings down the chances of recognizing an impact.
The non-parametric test acts as the shadow world of the parametric test. In the table
that is given below, you will understand the linked pairs involved in the statistical
hypothesis tests.
65
Related Pairs of Parametric Test and Non-Parametric Tests
Non-Parametric Test for

Parametric Tests for Means
Medians
1 - sample Wilcoxon, 1 - sample

1 - sample t - test
sign
2 - sample t - test Mann - Whitney Test
Kruskal- Wallis, Mood’s median

One - way ANOVA
test
With a factor and a blocking variable - Factorial

Friedman Test
DOE
Classification Of Parametric Test and Non-Parametric Test

There are different kinds of parametric tests and non-parametric tests to check the
data. Let us discuss them one by one.
Types Of Parametric Test
• Student's T-Test:- This test is used when the samples are small and population
variances are unknown. The test is used to do a comparison between two means
and proportions of small independent samples and between the population
mean and sample mean.
• 1 Sample T-Test:- Through this test, the comparison between the specified
value and meaning of a single group of observations is done.
• Unpaired 2 Sample T-Test:- The test is performed to compare the two means
of two independent samples. These samples came from the normal populations
having the same or unknown variances.
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• Paired 2 Sample T-Test:- In the case of paired data of observations from a

single sample, the paired 2 sample t-test is used.
• ANOVA:- Analysis of variance is used when the difference in the mean values
of more than two groups is given.
• One Way ANOVA:- This test is useful when different testing groups differ by
only one factor.
• Two Way ANOVA:- When various testing groups differ by two or more
factors, then a two way ANOVA test is used.
• Pearson's Correlation Coefficient:- This coefficient is the estimation of the

strength between two variables. The test is used in finding the relationship
between two continuous and quantitative variables.
• Z - Test:- The test helps measure the difference between two means.
• Z - Proportionality Test:- It is used in calculating the difference between two

proportions.
Types Of Non-Parametric Test

• 1 Sample Sign Test:- In this test, the median of a population is calculated and
is compared to the target value or reference value.
• 1 Sample Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test:- Through this test also, the population
median is calculated and compared with the target value but the data used is
extracted from the symmetric distribution.
• Friedman Test:- The difference of the groups having ordinal dependent

variables is calculated. This test is used for continuous data.
• Goodman Kruska's Gamma:- It is a group test used for ranked variables.
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• Kruskal-Wallis Test:- This test is used when two or more medians are
different. For the calculations in this test, ranks of the data points are used.
• The Mann-Kendall Trend Test:- The test helps in finding the trends in time-
series data.
• Mann-Whitney Test:- To compare differences between two independent

groups, this test is used. The condition used in this test is that the dependent
values must be continuous or ordinal.
• Mood's Median Test:- This test is used when there are two independent
samples.
• Spearman Rank Correlation:- This technique is used to estimate the relation

between two sets of data.
Applications Of Parametric Tests

• This test is used when the given data is quantitative and continuous.
• When the data is of normal distribution then this test is used.
• The parametric tests are helpful when the data is estimated on the approximate
ratio or interval scales of measurement.
Applications Of Non-Parametric Tests

• These tests are used in the case of solid mixing to study the sampling results.
• The tests are helpful when the data is estimated with different kinds of
measurement scales.
• The non-parametric tests are used when the distribution of the population is
unknown.
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MA(Psychology) 1 semester

MAPS503-Research Methods and Statistics

➢ Research - Nature and Types

NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Scientific research is a systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain

4. Research gives emphasis to the development of theories, principles and generalizations

5. Research is characterized by systematic, objective and logical procedures. The researcher

6. Research is marked by patience, courage and unhurried activities. Whenever the

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR

The basic types of research are as follows:

(i)Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-

(iii)Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of

Purpose and Dimension of research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

Purpose of Psychological Research

On the Basis of Purpose

On the basis purpose of the study dimension of research can be categorised as

On the Basis of Context

On the basis of context research can be categorised as

On the Basis of Use

Basic Research Basic research is mostly conducted to enhance knowledge. It covers

Problem Oriented Research As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted

Problem-Solving Research This type of research is conducted by companies to understand

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT (OR MEASUREMENT SCALES)

Before we go on to discuss the different levels of measurement scales, we must know

1. Postulates relating to equalities or identities

2. Postulates relating to rank order

3. Postulates relating to additivity

The four postulates relating to additivity are as follows:

As we know, measurement is the process of assigning numerals to the attributes of objects

In research activities a YES/NO scale is nominal. It has no order and there is no

An ordinal scale is next up the list in terms of power of measurement.

Ordinal data would use non-parametric statistics. These would include:

Median and mode

It is an interval scale because it is assumed to have equidistant points between each of

Interval scale data would use parametric statistical techniques:

Mean and standard deviation

MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROBLEM

What is the relationship between IQ and classroom achievement?

work/project, are central and do serve the following functions:

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty. which a researcher experiences in

Selecting the Problem

• Controversial subject should not become the choice of average researcher.

• Too narrow or too vague problem should be avoided.

The selection of a problem must be preceded by preliminary study.

Techniques Involved in Defining a Problem

The following steps are followed in understanding problem

• Statement of the problem in a general way.

Understanding the nature of the problem.

Surveying the available literature.

Developing the ideas through discussion.

Rephrasing the research problems.

Personal Bias It distorts estimating or evaluating processes as a result of personal beliefs,

Expectancy Bias It can affect observations of behaviour by encouraging reactions to the

MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

In conducting research, the important consideration after the formulation of a research

According to Mcguigan (1990), ‘a testable statement of a potential relationship between two

1) Hypothesis should be conceptually clear;

2) Hypothesis must be testable;