Introduction to Psychology | APY_1101 | Chapter 1 SYSTEMATIC STEPS IN PSYCHOLOGY:

1. Identification of the problem

THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
2. Formulation of hypothesis
3. Gathering of Data
PSYCHOLOGY
4. Analysis, conclusion, recommendations
- Scientific study of human behavior and mental
processes
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
- logos : study; psyche : mind / soul
• Understand behavior
• Explain behavior
ARISTOTLE
• Predict behavior
- Father of Psychology
• Control behavior – seek to understand the factors
- Major contributions to psychology
that influence behavior & apply this knowledge
- Collated studies
for the public good; ex. Help cope with depression

PSYCHOLOGY IS SCIENTIFIC BECAUSE IT IS:

METHODS USED IN PSYCHOLOGY
1. Systematic – follows certain steps /
1. Observation – clinical eye; scientific
procedures
2. Introspection – self-analysis; conscious
2. Empirical – based on truth or evidence /
3. Life History / Case Study
previous investigations; research
▪ Day book – day to day recording (journal)
3. Dependent upon measurements – uses
▪ Clinical method – conducted in a clinic
instruments that are reliable and valid such as
wherein the psychologist diagnose and
IQ & personality tests, and statistics
treat the patient
▪ Biographical method – life story of the
BEHAVIORS
patient
- Responses, reactions, or activities made by ▪ Survey / group method – questionnaires /
individuals in certain situations. interviews
▪ Experimental method - conducted in a
CLASSIFICATIONS OF BEHAVIOR psychological laboratory to study the
Overt Directly observable actions & behavior of the subject
responses ▪ Statistical method – uses statistics to
Covert Mental events (thinking, analyze data
dreaming, remembering)
Conscious Behavior that is completed BRANCHES (AREAS) IN PSYCHOLOGY
willingly with intent
Unconscious Repressed emotions 1. Developmental Psychology
Simple One specific & basic goal - Study of behavior in all aspects of human growth
Complex Achieves a goal that can be and development
decomposed into 2. Educational Psychology
(ex. Impulsive behavior) - Psychological aspects of teaching and of formal
Controlled Cognitive learning processes in schools
3. Experimental Psychology
Uncontrolled
- Investigation of different types of behavior
Rational Decision-making process that
through observation and experimentation in
results in the optimal level of
psychological laboratories
unity
Irrational Expressing emotions hysterically
4. Industrial Psychology FUNCTIONALISM (1890-1930)
- Investigates situations in business firms and • William James
industries to improve the efficiency of employees • Function of the mind
and workers • How experience helps us function more
5. Business Psychology adaptively
- Behavior of consumers to gain more customers • Influenced by Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
and impress prospective buyers • Habits: adaptive behavior patterns
6. Social Psychology
- People’s behavior in relation to their families, PSYCHOANALYSIS (1900-present)
groups, and communities • Sigmund Freud
7. Vocational Guidelines • Existence of unconscious mental processes which
- Scientific selection of a suitable employment or influences an individual’s behavior in various
vocation indirect ways.
8. Mental Hygiene • Much of our lives is governed by unconscious
- Systematic practice of measures of the prevention ideas and impulses that originated in our
of mental illness and preservation of mental childhood conflicts.
health • Repressed thoughts; may be revealed though
9. Counselling Psychology dreams, emotions, or slip of the tongue (Freudian
- Aimed at helping people with educational, job or slip).
career, and social adjustment
• First fully developed psychotherapy
10. Clinical Psychology
• Explores unconscious conflicts and emotional
- Diagnosis and evaluation of events in relation to
problems
the conditions of a person who has emotional
▪ Neo-Freudians – accept much of Freud’s
problems or abnormal behavior
theory but revise parts of it; place less
11. Abnormal Psychology
emphasis on sex and aggression, more on
- Study of the cause or etiology of mental and
social motives and relationships.
personality disorders
12. Legal Psychology
BEHAVIORISM (1913-present)
- Application of the principles of human behavior in
• John Watson
law / any legal proceedings
• Use objective methods (instruments)
13. Physiological Psychology
• Positive outcomes = reinforcement
- Study of functions of the different organs of the
• Observable behavior (blood pressure, brain
body, especially the nervous system and their
waves)
bearing on human behavior and mental processes
• Stimuli
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY • Conditioning – learned reaction to a particular
stimulus
STRUCTURALISM (1875-1930) ▪ Radical behaviorism – our actions are
• Wilhelm Wundt controlled by rewards / punishment
• Structure of the mind ▪ Cognitive behaviorism – cognition
• Elementary mental states (sensations, images, (thinking) + conditioning
feelings) form the structures of the consciousness
and are directly observable through introspection GESTALT (1912-1940)
• Break conscious experience into objective • Max Wetheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler
sensations • “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
• Subjective
• Our perceptions as wholes gives meanings to
parts
• Perception and how it influences our thinking and
behavior

HUMANISTIC (1950S-present)
• Abraham Maslow
• Unique qualities of humans and their potential for
personal growth
• “Invent ourselves”
• Intrapersonal
• Choosing ethical conduct
• Subjective human experience
▪ Free will – our ability to make voluntary
choices
• Psychological needs for love, self-esteem,
belonging, self-expression, creativity, spirituality

PURPOSIVISM (1950s-present)
• William McDougall
• Objects, movements, and behaviors have a
definite purpose

COGNITIVE (1950s-present)
• Jean Pigeat
• Thoughts and mental processes
• Ways we perceive and mentally represent the
world
Introduction to Psychology | APY_1101 | Chapter 2

GENES
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
- Basic carrier of hereditary traits
▪ Dominant – strong genes
DEVELOPMENT
▪ Recessive – weak genes
- Progressive series of changes of an orderly and
coherent type toward the goal of maturity
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
- Antonym: regression

STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
• Sigmund Freud
• Elizabeth B. Hurlock
• “The dynamic forces within the self are many and in
Prenatal Fertilization to birth
inevitable conflict. If unresolved, personality
Infancy Birth to 2 weeks
problems may arise.”
Babyhood 2 weeks to 2nd year ▪ ID – pleasure-seeking side, immature,
Early childhood 2 to 6 years impulsive, child-like, cannot delay gratification
Late childhood 6 to 10 or 12 years ▪ EGO – “I”; reality principle, controls the id, can
Puberty 10 or 12 to 14 years delay pleasure, can conform with existing
Adolescence 14 to 18 years societal consideration
Early adulthood 18 to 40 years ❖ Ego strength – ego’s ability to resolve
Middle 40 to 60 years conflict between the 3 structures
adulthood ▪ SUPEREGO – conscience and moral judgment;
Late adulthood / 60 to death guilt; perfection over pleasure
senescence
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT • Sigmund Freud
1. Heredity (nature) – biological process of • Each stage is associated with conflicts that must be
transmission of traits from parents to offspring resolves so that we can successfully forward to the
2. Environment (nurture) – factors which the next stage.
individual is exposed after conception to death; • Dissatisfaction of the needs or too little or too much
learning and experiences; diet, nutrition, diseases of gratification = fixation = negative effects on
personality
GENETIC / BIOLOGICAL ENGINEERING • For a person to progress normally, they must resolve
- Sex and other physical traits are determined by the their Oedipus / Electra complex.
combination of chromosomes and genes during
fertilization ORAL STAGE
▪ Fertilization – union of egg and sperm cell • From birth to the 1st year of life
• Pleasure from oral activities
CHROMOSOMES • Overindulgence > oral incorporative personality
• Thread-like tissues that carries the genes and are problems (overeating, smoking, alcoholism)
usually found in pairs • Dissatisfaction > oral aggressive personality problems
• There are 23 pairs of chromosomes (sarcasm, tactlessness)
▪ Autosomes – physical traits; carrier of genes;
22 pairs ANAL STAGE
▪ Gonosomes – sex chromosome; female XX, • 2nd year of life
male XY • Pleasure from the elimination of body wastes
• Fixation > anal retentive personality problems • The child will develop trust if properly cared for; if
(obsession with cleanliness) or anal expulsion not, mistrust is likely to develop.
personality problems (clumsiness and untidiness)
AUTONOMY VS SHAME & DOUBT
PHALLIC STAGE • 1 to 3 years old
• Around 3 to 6 years old ▪ Autonomy – independence of though and
• Pleasure from examining, fondling, or displaying their confidence to think and act for oneself
genitals • If children are allowed to explore, they will become
• Curiosity on the difference between man and woman more confident and secure in their own abilities. If
• Fixation > abnormal sex behavior not, they may become overly dependent and feel a
sense of shame in their own abilities.
LATENCY STAGE
• 7 to 12 years old INITIATIVE VS GUILT
• Sexual energy is repressed because children become • 3 to 5 years old
busy in school • Developing a sense of responsibility among children
develops initiative. If made irresponsible, the child
GENITAL STAGE might develop guilt feelings.
• Adolescence to adulthood
• Pleasure is derived from the genital area INDSUTRY VS INFERIORITY
• Individuals seek to satisfy their sexual drives from • Elementary school
sexual relationship • When encouraged in their efforts, they will develop
• Sexual problems > inappropriate sex behaviors sense of industry. But if they receive little to no
encouragement from parents/teachers, they will
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT double their own abilities and likely develop
• Erik Erikson inferiority.
• Adolescent stage is a period of identity development.
• Identity formation is a process that requires IDENTITY FORMATION VS IDENTITY CONFUSION
adolescents to distance themselves from the strong • Adolescence stage
expectations and definitions imposed by parents and • If parents provide proper support, adolescents will
other family members. develop positive identity. If not, they will feel insecure
• To achieve individual identity, one musty create a and identity confusion will likely develop.
vision of the self that is authentic, that is, a sense of
having hold of one’s destiny to reach goals that are INITIMACY VS ISOLATION
personally meaningful. • Early adulthood
• Some adolescents try to establish their own identity • Its vital that people develop intimate relationship to
by status symbols. form stable and successful relationships. If not, this
▪ The ego is the positive force that contributes to will lead to mistrust and isolation.
identify formation and lay foundation for
certain strengths and virtues in life (hope, will, GENERATIVITY VS STAGNATION
purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, • Middle adulthood
wisdom). ▪ Generativity – a person’s desire to contribute
to the world by teaching, leading, and guiding
TRUST VS MISTRUST the next generation and doing activities that
• 1st year of life will benefit the community.
• Those who fail to attain this will feel worthless.
INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
• During old age • Conformity to social norms is right; otherwise, it is
• Reflection of life wrong.
• If they are satisfied, they will feel a sense of integrity. • Rules and authority
If not, they will experience regret and despair. • Pleasing others by acting as good members of the
society.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Jean Pigeat POST-CONVENTIONALY MORALITY
• People use moral principles which are seen as
SENSORIMOTOR broader than those of any particular society.
• Birth to 2 y/o
• Babies use their senses and motor behaviors rather
than their thinking to learn about their world.
▪ Object permanence – realization that an object
(or person) continues to be present even if it is
already absent

PRE-EMOTIONAL
• 2 to 7 y/o
• Symbols represent people and objects
• Imitate actions and learn how to do numbers and
understand relationships between 2 events.
• Egocentric; doesn’t consider other’s point of view

CONCRETE OPERATION
• 7 to 12 y/o
• Empathy; moral judgment; logic
▪ Concept of conservation – the ability to
recognize that substance can be conserved at
different dimensions of times

FORMAL OPERATION
• 12 y/o to older
• Solve problems through logical reasoning, even
theoretically and abstractly
• Consider available data before concluding

MORAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

• Lawrence Kohlberg

PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
• Consequences determine morality
• Rewarded = right; punished = wrong
• Effort is made to secure reward