Magnetic Moment Due To Nuclear Spin Another contribution to the total magnetic moment of the atom may rise form nuclear magnetic moment. It was found that nucleus also possesses spin motion. Due to this spin motion of the positively charge nucleus, a magnetic moment is produced according to Ampere’s theorem. By analogy with the Bohr Magneton, the Nuclear Magneton arises due to the spin of the nucleus, and is given by, __eh 4am, where m, is the mass of the proton. The value of wis 5.05 x 102” A-m’ TOTAL MAGNETIC MOMENT OF AN ATOM Hem M+ Ms + tly The total magnetic moment of an atom is the vector sum of the orbital magnetic moment 4, spin magnetic moment Hs and the nuclear magnetic moment lw. Now let us discuss to what extent these three factors contribute to the total magnetic moment of the atom. My 2 + The spatial quantization of the orbital angular momentum vector p) does not allow it to align in the direction of the applied field. Hence, the contribution of u,to the total magnetic moment, p of an atom is negligible. * Since the mass of the proton is much larger than that of an electron the value of nuclear Magneton, uy is so small. Hence, it provides no substantial contribution to the total magnetic moment of the atom. + Since the magnitude of the spin magnetic moment is always the same, the external field can only influence its direction. * If the electrons are not paired, then they are free to orient themselves in the direction of the external field. + If the electrons in an atom are all paired up, then the spin magnetic moment of each electron is cancelled by that of the other such that the total spin magnetic moment, [Js is zero. * Thus, if there exist any unpaired electrons in an atom, the resulting spin magnetic moment, us will be the vector sum of all those. + Hence, the total magnetic moment depends on us largely compared to mand pn. CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS Any substance when placed in a magnetic field, behaves in a particular way, which is not the same for all the substances. This behavior depends on the magnetic dipoles associated with an atom in that particular substance. Based on the permanent magnetic dipole moments, magnetic materials are classified into two broad groups. * Materials composed of atoms having zero magnetic moment, called diamagnetic, and + Materials composed of atoms having permanent magnetic moment. This class of materials is further classified into four types based on the interaction between the adjacent atoms. They are paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic.This classification can be schematically represented as follows. MAGNETIC MATERIALS a ZERO MAGNETIC MOMENT PERMANENT MAGNETIC MOMENT DIA PARA FERRO ANTI-FERRO FERRI DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS If in a material, the arrangement of the orbits and orientation is such that the vector sum of magnetic moment is zero, then the material is said to be a diamagnetic. The atoms in these materials do not possess permanent magnetic moment. When the material is placed in a magnetic field, the orbits of the electrons undergo a precessional motion. This is called Larmor’s precession. This precessional motion of charge produces a current, which induces a magnetic field inside the atom. This intrinsic magnetic field is opposite in direction to the external field. Thus, a diamagnetic material repels the external field. | OOo e 2 € oO = OOO OoO® PROPERTIES + No spin alignment is present + The magnetic susceptibility x is negative and small, + The relative permeability pi, is less than 1, but positive. This means lines of magnetic field become less dense in the material than in the air. * Temperature has no effect on the susceptibility of diamagnetic materials. * In general, the substances whose atoms possess paired electrons exhibit diamagnetism. There are some exceptions like Cu to this behavior. + It behaves like superconductors at low temperatures. + Examples of a diamagnetic substance are, bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), diamond, NaCl, water, nitrogen, hydrogen.If in a material, the arrangement of orbits and the orientation is such that the vector sum of magnetic moments is non-zero, but small, then such substance is called a paramagnetic substance. Paramagnetic materials are substances whose molecules possess a net permanent magnetic moment even in the absence of the field. These magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of the external field. Hence, the net magnetization of the material is zero. When the material is subjected to the influence of the magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles tend to align in the direction of the field, and the material becomes feebly magnetized. ee) @ eo 2 =) OO® O@® OO© H=0 Aa H=0 PROPERTIES + All spins or magnetic moments are randomly oriented * The magnetic susceptibility is small and positive ( 10° to 10°) + The relative permeability 11, is greater than 1 but small. This indicates that when @ paramagnetic substance is placed in a uniform magnetic field, the field in the material will be more than the applied field. * These substances have unpaired electrons in their valence orbit. + Temperature Dependence The thermal agitation tends to counteract the orientation of the dipoles. With an increase in t the temperature, the increase in the thermal agitation tends to randomize the dipole directions thus decreasing the magnetization. Thus, the magnetic susceptibility decreases with magnetization. 1% adinyeF mron-$This law is called Curie’s law, and C is called the Curie's constant. EX: Aluminum, magnesium, tungsten, platinum, oxides like Co O, Fe O and gases like oxygen, nitrogen FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS: If in a material the orbits are so oriented that the atom as a whole possesses a large magnetic moment, then the material is called a ferromagnetic material. The spin magnetic moments are greatly responsible for ferromagnetism. In definite conditions, the spin moments of electrons become aligned parallel to one another even in the absence of external magnetic field. Thus, ferromagnetic materials are those which possess a magnetization even in the absence of magnetic field. This is called the spontaneous magnetization. When placed in an external field, these substances get easily magnetized to a large value PROPERTIES * All spins or magnetic moments are orderly oriented * The susceptibility is very high and positive. ( 10? to 10° ) + The relative permeability is also very high. Lines of force are very dense in ferromagnetic substances f + Ferromagnetic substances exhibit hysteresis. 4 + Temperature Dependence The susceptibility is fairly high and constant up to certain temperature according to the equation, c Tt x This law is called Curie-Weiss law. ‘T’ is called the Curie temperature. When the temperature of the ferromagnetic substance is increased above a temperature called Curie temperature, thermal agitations dominate the existing interaction between the electron spins leading to randomization of the dipoles. Thus, the spontaneous magnetization is lost above T’ and the substance behaves as a paramagnetic material. + Examples ferromagnetic materials are, iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), Gadolinium (Gd).10 ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS This is the property of the substances whose spin moments of neighboring atoms are oriented in an anti-parallel order. i.e., the alternate atoms have spin moments parallel to each other but, the adjacent atoms have not. These crystals are composed of two interpenetrating sub-lattices A & B, one lattice consisting of atoms with moments in one direction and the other lattice consisting of atoms with moments in opposite direction. If no external field is applied, the net magnetization of an anti Ferro magnetic substance will be zero because; the moments exactly cancel when summed up over the entire crystal. If the field is applied, a small magnetization, in the direction of the field results. DOD COS oH Oe Se = ®®O OS@ o tN tetdtht “TS atttettet PROPERTIES Spin alignment is systematic, but in antiparallel The susceptibility of an anti ferro magnetic substance is small and positive, since the magnetization is small. Temperature Dependence The magnetization increases as the temperature t increases. Above a particular temperature called h Neel’s temperature, thermal agitations dominate % ; the orientation of the dipoles in the field direction. : The temperature dependence of the susceptibility ! for an antiferro magnetic material is given by the : c i T+TN relation, x = ™m This is called Curie-Weiss law for anti ferro magnetic materials where Ty is the Neel’s temperature. Hence, above Neel’s temperature, the magnetization decreases with increase in temperature and the specimen turns out to be a paramagnetic material. Few examples of anti ferro magnetic materials are salts of transition elements, MnO, MnS, MnTe, MnF;, FeCl, etc.uN This kind of materials is much similar to ferromagnetic materials in their macroscopic magnetic characteristics. The magnetic moments of the sub-lattices in this material are unequal spins and opposite in direction. C09 CSO OOS Ntatitit See GSO SOS ve | The adjacent atoms in ferri magnetic materials differ in the magnitude of the magnetic moments and their directions also. Thus, the net magnetization of a ferri magnetic material has a non-zero value. ie, they possess a small value of magnetization. Thus, ferri magnetism can also be referred to as uncompensated anti ferromagnetism. When placed in external magnetic field, they orient in the direction of the field. Due to the prevalence of spontaneous magnetization, they get easily magnetized. PROPERTIES The value of susceptibility, x is large and positive. Temperature Dependence The spontaneous f magnetization decreases with Vy the increase in temperature above a temperature called Neel’s temperature. i.e, above Ty it converts itself into a paramagnetic material. But in paramagnetic state, the K ™m™ T™ mH linear relation between ; & T is not maintained. The curvature in the plot of 1/ 1s. Tis a characteristic feature of a ferri magnetic substance. Ferrites like CuFe,0,, MnFe,04, ZnFe,0,, FeFe,0,, are examples of this kind.R HYSTERESIS CURVE Hysteresis means retardation or lagging of an effect behind the cause of the effect. When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, it is magnetized. However, the magnetization of the specimen does not vary linearly with the applied field. The magnetization M lags behind the field H. This lagging of magnetization behind magnetic field is known as hystere: Hysteresis loop of a specimen is thus, a curve showing the change in magnetic induction in it, when the applied field is varied from Hs to -Hs and back again. He | 7 — The above process is explained in the following steps + Initially the magnetization M is zero when there is no field. + When the external field H is gradually increased, M also increases gradually. * The M value reaches a maximum called saturation magnetization Ms shown by point P in the figure. + Saturation magnetization is defined as the maximum extent up to which a ferromagnetic substance can be magnetized. * When H is decreased back gradually, M does not retrace original path OP. Rather, it follows a new curve PQ. This indicates hysteresis is an irreversible process. + When the field is reduced completely to zero, (OQ) some magnetization is still retained. * This value of M is called residual magnetization or retentivity, or remanance. * In order to demagnetize the specimen completely, we need to apply a magnetic force in the reverse direction. * When a reverse field is applied, the magnetization M gradually reduces and become zero at a value H = - OR. The reverse field where the magnetization reduces to zero is called the coercive force or coercivity. * Further increase of the reverse field results in process similar to that in the Positive field and reaches saturation -M at the point S.13 + If the field is decreased, M begins to decrease from -M but, this doesn’t retrace old path RS, rather it proceeds along STW. * Hereafter, M increases with further increase in H in the positive direction and will reach Ms finally. + The closed loop PQRSTWP is known as hysteresis loop. IMPORTANCE OF HYSTERESIS LOOP Study of hysteresis loop in ferromagnetic materials is important because, it allows estimation of many magnetic properties and based on that we can judge whether a material is useful or not for a specified application. The significance of hysteresis loop is discussed below: * Area of the loop gives the energy loss per cycle per m? + Steepness of the curve indicates whether the magnetization is quick or not + Energy Product: the product of retentivity and coercivity is called the energy product of the specimen. Materials that are used as permanent magnets should have high energy product value. SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS Basing upon the ease of magnetization, the ferromagnetic materials are classified as, + Soft magnetic materials & * Hard magnetic materials. What a soft magnetic material? If the material is easy to magnetize and demagnetize, then such ferromagnetic material is called a soft magnetic material. The following characterize soft magnetic materials: «The area of the hysteresis curve in soft materials is less. Hence, they exhibit small hysteresis loss. * Coercivity and retentivity are small + These possess large values of permeability u and susceptibility x «Eddy current loss is small due to its higher resistivity + Used in electromagnets «Used in applications which require frequent reversal of direction of the magnetization such as cores of transformers, motors, inductors and generators What is a hard magnetic material? If the material cannot be easily magnetized and demagnetized then such kind of Ferro magnetic material is called hard magnetic material. Here a large amount of reverse field is required to demagnetize the specimen. The following are the features of a hard magnetic material: